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{ "title": [ "Kurt Agricola", "Operation Daybreak", "Hitler's Madman", "Operation Anthropoid", "HHhH (film)", "Themes in Nazi propaganda", "King Rat (film)", "SS and police leader", "Fritz Todt", "HHhH" ], "text": [ "Kurt Wilhelm Albert Karl Agricola (15 August 1889 – 27 December 1955) was a general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II who held senior level occupational rear-security commands in the occupied Soviet Union. A native of Saxony, Agricola entered army service in 1908 and served during World War I. During the interwar era, he held staff assignments and continued to rise through the army's ranks in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany. His career ended stalled in January 1939, when he was sent into retirement on political grounds because of his marriage to Martha born Hahn, a Jewish woman. Reactivated again upon the start of World War II, Agricola received exclusively positions behind the front line. As rear area commander of the 2nd Army in the occupied Soviet union during 1941–43, Agricola brought changes in the Wehrmacht's harsh occupation policies and was successful in maintaining control of his area of occupied territory from Soviet partisans. Shortly after the war's end, he was arrested by Soviet authorities, convicted of war crimes and remained in captivity for a decade. One of the last German prisoners in the Soviet Union, he was released in October 1955 and died shortly thereafter in West Germany.\n\n\n== Early life and World War I ==\n\nKurt Agricola was born in Döbeln, then in the Kingdom of Saxony, on 15 August 1889, into an Saxon family that traced its roots back in the 16th century. He was the second and youngest son of Rudolf Agricola (3 October 1860 – 29 July 1914), an officer of the Royal Saxon Army served of the Garrison Administration of Dresden, and Elisabeth, née Drenkmann (14 May 1865 – 23 October 1937). He had an older brother, Werner Agricola (19 August 1887 – 29 June 1962).Following his father's career, 18-year–old Agricola entered army service on 1 April 1908 as officer candidate in the 12th Royal Saxon Infantry Regiment No. 177 in Dresden. He was commissioned a Leutnant (Second Lieutenant) on 19 August 1909. The following years, he served primarily as Adjutant, a function that was given to capable officers and gave an early advancement potential within the army. It was obvious that Agricola pursued a distinguished career as staff officer, and (typically for officers with his aims, who participated in specialized courses) attended a weapon repairs course in late 1913.When World War I broke out, Agricola was mobilized along with his regiment, just a few days after the death of his father. Agricola served mostly at the Western front, and although he never received a troop command throughout the war (only staff assignments), this indicated that he was destined for a more ambitious career than most of his fellow troop officers; he became Adjutant of a battalion in his regiment on 2 August 1914, participated in the battle of the Marne in September and was promoted to Oberleutnant (First Lieutenant) in December. In early January 1915 he served as the regimental Adjutant of his pre–war regiment until August 1916, when he was temporarily elevated to Brigade Adjutant. In that capacity, he saw action at the Battle of the Somme, where he distinguished himself numerous times. On 9 January 1917 he was transferred to the staff of the 219th (10th Royal Saxon) Infantry Division, occupying a relatively quiet sector of the front line in Lorraine. A few weeks later, on 27 January, he was promoted to Hauptmann (Captain) and four days later, the last King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus III, bestowed him with one of Saxony's highest decorations, the Military Order of St. Henry, in recognition of his conduct during the battle of Somme the previous year. He received his last wartime assignment on 25 May 1917, when he was transferred to the staff of the XII (1st Royal Saxon) Corps.Becoming a staff officer — a group considered the élite of the German Army — required a three–year course at the War Academy in Berlin after some years of active service. Agricola's ambition to become a staff officer, however, was thwarted by the war, as the War Academy closed upon its outbreak. Apart from his relevant staff appointments, he had the chance to participate in a special staff officers course from January to February 1918. During the course of war, he was decorated with numerous awards, including both classes of the Iron Cross and other awards from his native Saxony.\n\n\n== Interwar period ==\n\nFollowing the end of World War I in November 1918, Agricola was retained in the Reichswehr holding a variety of staff roles. He was promoted to Major in 1928. From 1927 to 1930, he commanded a company of the 10th Infantry Regiment. In February 1930 he returned to the staff of Gruppenkommando 1 and in 1931 to that of the 4th Division, where, as an Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant Colonel) from 1932, he saw the rise of the Nazi regime in 1933. Soon thereafter, in July 1934, he received his promotion to Oberst (Colonel), and after a two-month transfer in the Command of the Wehrkreis (Military District) IV (Dresden) he was named commander of the Infantry Regiment Breslau in 1934 and retained his command after it was redesignated as the 49th Infantry Regiment on 15 October 1935.Arguably, Agricola could hope, at the time, that he would have a successful career in the ongoing re–organization of the new armed forces of Germany — the Wehrmacht. Besides his tenure of multiple staff positions, Agricola also received very positive reports from his superiors; he was praised as \"very talented\", and described as an \"especially reliable staff officer\", \"an excellent regimental commander\", while it was noted in most of his assignments that he performed brilliantly at his position. Nonetheless, his hopeful career soon started to fade away. On 12 October 1937, he was named commander of Heeresdienststelle 3, a rather obscure unit tasked with guarding the eastern borders of the Third Reich; during this time, his superiors observed that \"sometimes he underestimated his great concern for the troops\", an indication of his caring leadership style. On 1 January 1938 he was promoted to Generalmajor (Major General), but no higher commands awaited him: on 10 October 1938 he was named Landwehr Commander in Oppeln (present-day Opole in Poland) and simultaneously given the command over the fortifications of the city. In his function as Landwehr commander, he had attend to the organization and the training of older reservists (35–45 years of age), some of them veterans of World War I. This was a backwater post for an officer such as Agricola, whose once–promising career came finally to an abrupt end on 31 January 1939, when he, 49 years old at the time, retired from the army and was simultaneously given the honorary rank (Charakter) of a Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General).The reason for Agricola's retirement was never officially disclosed and remained a puzzling question, until his chief of staff testified in 1967 that the ground was that Agricola's wife was Jewish. For a staunchly antisemitic regime such as the Nazi one, and with the implementation of racial laws, marriage with a Jewish woman could be a threat to an officer's career as well as life. His personal papers indirectly reveal that Agricola had been put on watchlist for racial reasons. Soon, his own ancestry came under official, if indirect, investigation. Initially, Agricola was asked to prove (and was able to do so) his \"Aryan\" ancestry (up until his great–grandfathers) in 1937. As the effect of the Nazi racial policies became more dangerous to the life of his wife and the couple's children — naturally classified as Mischlinge — Agricola was forced to divorce his wife Martha, who afterwards fled with her son Wilhelm to Brazil. Agricola also sent their other children to the Bethel Institution in Bielefeld for their own protection.In 1939, Agricola also published the book Der rote Marschall. Tuchatschewskis Aufstieg und Fall (The Red Marshal. Tukhachevsky's Rise and Fall), an account of the career of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge in 1937. This publication revealed, among others, that Agricola was a convinced Anti-bolshevist.\n\n\n== World War II ==\nAgricola's retirement was short-lived, as on 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, marking the start of World War II in Europe, and Agricola was reactivated and appointed as commander of the city of Oppeln. There he spent the following two years on an inactive front, witnessing the Invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941.\n\n\n=== Rear security operations in the Soviet Union (1941–1943) ===\n\nWith the Battle of Moscow and the Soviet counter-offensive of the winter of 1941/42, the rear security of the occupied territory was considered by the German High Command of paramount importance, given how stretched the Wehrmacht's supply lines were. The resistance movement and the Soviet partisans, reinforced by Red Army soldiers who had evaded capture when their units were destroyed during the initial stages of the invasion, posed the most essential threat to the control of the areas behind the front. The main formations tasked with the protection of the supply lines and the destruction of the partisans were the Korücks (acronym for Kommandant rückwärtiges Armeegebiet, Commander of the Rear Area Army Territory).Agricola was appointed Korück 580, in the rear area of the 2nd Army, with headquarters in Kromy on 19 December 1941, with the battle for Moscow in full swing, succeeding the 64-year old Generalleutnant Ludwig Müller (who had requested his relief because of a heart ailment). Besides holding a command that lacked probability of advancement or distinction — being far behind the front — Agricola had to deal with immense problems as soon as he took over the appointment. Korück 580 was the sole formation responsible for the protection of approximately 37,000 km2 of occupied territory, 800 km of railway (including the vital Kursk–Oryol line), 500 km of roads and 320 bridges. The forces at the Korück's disposal were insufficient for such a task, merely 800 men of questionable fighting value who had to operate in difficult winter conditions. Opposing Agricola's forces were 2,000 to 2,500 armed partisans.\n\nAgricola, finally given a chance to prove himself as commander, addressed the problems energetically. He quickly came to the conclusion that major anti–partisan actions were impossible to conduct due to the extreme conditions and the lack of forces, so he opted to concentrate and fortify his available forces in key positions. It was due to his persistence that the 2nd Army yielded to his requests and reinforced him with over 10,000 Hungarian troops until May 1942. During these months, Agricola's units battled fiercely with partisans, succeeding in killing over 7,200, according to official reports. German historian Christian Hartmann argued that the relatively heavy casualties of the Korück's troops — 1161 dead, wounded and missing — and the number of captured enemy weapons indicated that Agricola, in contrast with the typical occupation policy of the time, was not focused (at least exclusively) in reprisals against the civilian population, in the hope of terrorizing and weakening the partisan movement. Korück 580 was ultimately successful in eliminating the local partisan threat until the summer of 1942. Agricola also supported the utilization of Soviet volunteers in anti–partisan warfare. In his area of responsibility, in May–June 1942, a battalion formed of Turkestani volunteers, the Turkestanisches Infanteriebataillon 450 (Turkestani Infantry Battalion 450) took part in operations. On 30 June 1942, Agricola praised the commander of the unit, Andreas Mayer–Mader, for his effective leadership style.Noting the increasing influence Soviet propaganda had on the population, Agricola called for more humane treatment, so that the population would not be an impediment in the exploitation of the occupied territory for the war effort. For this, he restrained the indiscriminate executions of civilians, though the figures of those executed remained high: he reported that until June 1942, his units had executed 1,600 out of 6,000 civilians suspected of a wide range of punishable actions (the Kommissarbefehl was also implemented) and released unharmed most of the remaining 4,400. Mass starvation, primarily due to the reckless exploitation of resources by the Wehrmacht was common in other occupied Soviet territories, and the situation in the Korück's territories was not very different. In February 1942, Agricola wrote that the food rations for the civilians were lower than those issued by the pre–war Soviet regime and felt that given the situation, it would be impossible to cultivate positive feelings towards the German troops, thus calling for a change.\n\nAmong his first acts of assuming the position of the Korück was to revoke the order of the 2nd Army for the immediate liquidation of POWs by the SS, after the dissolution of four POW camps in the area, despite that ultimately their execution was not averted. Agricola considered the improvement of the conditions in the POW camps vital for \"economic, simply humanitarian and propagandistic reasons\", an extremely rare declaration for a rear area commander. After he was informed of the appalling conditions and the high mortality rates in the POW camps in January 1942, he issued orders prohibiting the maltreatment of prisoners, as well as the reduction of food rations, and sought the establishment of a minimum of medical care, ostensibly for the protection of his own troops from typhus.In addition, the troops of the Korück 580 were confronted with the Holocaust and the massive extermination of the Jews in its territory, though most Jews had been already exterminated a few months after Agricola's appointment as Korück. It has been speculated that Agricola, perhaps owing to the fact that his own wife was Jewish, distanced himself from the responsible units of the police and the SS. No written evidence exists to support that Agricola was actively trying to stop some of the killings, but his former chief of staff stated after the war that he did so, and furthermore that Agricola was \"very outraged\" at the massacres. On an instance, in 1943, upon learning that SD troops were murdering Jews near his headquarters, he intervened and prohibited further executions. He intervened numerous times to bring the subject to the attention of his superiors and made sure that no Jewish POW was handed over for execution.In conclusion, Kurt Agricola was one of the very few commanders who tried to change the occupation policies that were the norm in Nazi–occupied territories and opted to minimize resistance by treating the population humanely instead of terrorizing it. According to historian Christian Hartmann, \"it is difficult to say\" if Agricola's stance stemmed from ethical values or from political necessity. Agricola's former chief of staff supported the former view, describing Agricola as a \"very humane, highly educated and extraordinarily capable man\". Agricola's actions ultimately found recognition by his superiors, reflected by his decoration with the German Cross in Gold on 15 December 1943, a highly unusual award for rear area commanders, as the German Cross in Gold was typically awarded to commanders at the front (rear area personnel could receive, by contrast, the German Cross in Silver).\n\n\n=== Later career (1943–1945) ===\nAgricola was finally promoted to Generalleutnant (Lieutenant General) z. V. (zur Verfügung, \"for duties\") on 1 August 1943 and also served briefly as commander of Kursk during that year. In 1944, he also commanded \"Gruppe Aricola\" (Group Agricola), a formation consisting of Korpsabteilung E and a cavalry brigade, which fought against the Red Army mainly in the central section of the eastern front. Agricola remained Korück 580 until 18 April 1945, whereupon he was placed in the Führerreserve.\n\n\n== Captivity and later life ==\n\nOn 9 May 1945, one day after the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, Agricola was captured by Soviet troops in Teplice–Šanov in Czechoslovakia (present-day Teplice in the Czech Republic), and was subsequently transported to the Soviet Union, where he was imprisoned in the camps No. 27, 62, 362, 476 and 48. Afterwards, he was transported to the Prison No. 1 in Kiev, in order to be tried for war crimes. A military tribunal of the Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs in Kiev Oblast found him guilty under the Article 1 of the Ukaz 43 (19 April 1943) and sentenced him to 25 years of hard labor on 16 November 1948. He served his sentence in the labor camps of Karaganda in Kazakhstan and Vorkuta in the Komi Republic. Later, he was held at the Voikovo prison camp near Ivanovo, which was designated by the Soviet authorities for high-ranking Wehrmacht personnel.In early October 1955, following the negotiations between the West German and the Soviet governments, Agricola was repatriated to the German Democratic Republic along with 31 fellow officers (mostly generals, including Dietrich von Saucken). On 9 October 1955, the transport reached the West German town of Herleshausen, a few kilometers west of the borders with East Germany.After his repatriation, Agricola was reunited with his family and remarried his former wife, who had in the meanwhile returned from Brazil where she had fled the Nazis in the late 1930s. On 27 December 1955, two months after he was released, Kurt Agricola died in Bad Godesberg near Bonn.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nGerman Cross in Gold on 15 December 1943 as Generalleutnant and commander rückwärtiges Armeegebiet (rear army area) 580\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===", "Operation Daybreak (also known as The Price of Freedom in the U.S.) is a 1975 World War II film based on the true story of Operation Anthropoid, the assassination of SS general Reinhard Heydrich in Prague. Starring Anthony Andrews, Timothy Bottoms and Martin Shaw, the film was directed by Lewis Gilbert and shot mostly on location in Prague. It is adapted from the book Seven Men at Daybreak by Alan Burgess.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Music ==\nThe credits show that the music was played on an ARP synthesizer.\n\n\n== See also ==\nDramatic portrayals of Reinhard Heydrich\nList of American films of 1975\nHangmen Also Die! (1943)\nHitler's Madman (1943)\nThe Silent Village (1943)\nAtentát (1964)\nAnthropoid (2016)\nThe Man with the Iron Heart (2016)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOperation Daybreak at IMDb\nOperation Daybreak at the TCM Movie Database\nOperation Daybreak at AllMovie \nOperation Daybreak at the British Film Institute \nOperation Daybreak at the British Board of Film Classification", "Hitler's Madman is a 1943 World War II drama directed by Douglas Sirk. It is a highly fictionalized account of the 1942 assassination of Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich and the resulting Lidice massacre, which the Germans committed as revenge. The film stars Patricia Morison and Alan Curtis and features John Carradine as Reinhard Heydrich.\n\n\n== Plot summary ==\nLidice, Czechoslovakia, 1942 – The opening verses of Edna St. Vincent Millay’s poem The Murder of Lidice are recited over images of the bucolic Czech village. \nVillager Jan Hanka watches a British plane fly overhead, carrying Karel Vavra, a Czech paratrooper being dropped over his hometown to form resistance cells. Karel goes to the Hanka house, in search of daughter Jarmilla, his girlfriend since childhood. Mrs. Hanka asks Karel to take refuge in the forest. Jarmilla finds him there later. They profess their undying love and she sends him to a cave, where he discovers local vagabond, Nepomuk, who agrees to help.\nNepomuk gathers villagers at the cave. Karel asks them to sabotage the German war effort. Jan, the most respected villager, warns them it’s too dangerous. They sheepishly depart. \nIn Prague, the fearsome SS Reichsprotektor Reinhard Heydrich decides to start executing intellectuals, who he believes organize the resistance. He interrupts a university class attended by villager Klara and arrests the teacher and students. The male students are sent as cannon fodder on the Russian Front. The women are inspected for use as sex slaves in brothels for German soldiers. Klara throws herself from a window to her death, to avoid this fate.\nHaving lost his daughter Klara, Villager Janek dynamites the coal mine, to deny its product to the Germans. Jan catches his daughter teaching children the Czech national anthem, even though teaching is forbidden by the Germans. Jan argues she needs to be more careful. She calls him a coward.\nThe next day, Heydrich happens to drive through Lidice during the annual harvest blessing parade. Angered to find the road blocked, he plows through the parade and shoots the town priest, Father Cemlanek, horrifying the townsfolk. \nLidice Mayor Bauer, a German Nazi true-believer, prepares with his wife for the arrival of their two sons, on leave from the Russian Front. Heydrich’s adjutant tells Bauer the Reichsprotektor was displeased by the parade blocking his route and expects no impediments when he drives through the next morning. A telegram arrives, telling the Bauers their boys are both dead. Bauer accepts it as the price the Führer demands, but Mrs, Bauer is sickened and blames Hitler for their death. She goes to the church and sees Jan. Disgusted with the Nazis, Frau Bauer tells Jan what time Heydrich will drive through town tomorrow. \nJan, Karel, Jarmilla and Nepomuk ambush Heydrich’s limousine the next morning, as it approaches the town. Jarmilla creates a distraction, as the men fire machine guns and throw a grenade. They leave thinking they killed him, but they’ve only gravely wounded him. Jan sends Karel and Jarmilla off to hide in the forest, blessing their future marriage. \nThe Nazi authorities in Prague, desperate to find Heydrich’s assailants, decide to take hostages among local villagers. Jan Hanka gets locked up in the town jail as a hostage. The SS arrests Mayor Bauer for failing to stop the ambush on Heydrich. Bauer protests as they drag him off that he’s a loyal Nazi. Jarmilla and Karel are chased by Germans in the forest. Jarmilla gets shot and dies in Karel’s arms.\nIn Prague, Heydrich lies near death. His superior, Heinrich Himmler arrives from Berlin and watches Heydrich die, in agony, saying he won’t die for Hitler and that the war is lost, unless everyone gets as tough as he is. After he dies, Himmler gets a call from Hitler and tells him Heydrich died praising him and saying Germany would win the war. Himmler orders the village of Lidice eradicated for its role in Heydrich’s death. \nThe Germans march into Lidice and herd the inhabitants into the square. They force the men into the churchyard and take the women and children off in trucks, to concentration camps. As the Germans line machine guns in front of the men, the villagers all start singing the Czech national anthem before the Germans shoot them all. Jan, forgotten in his jail cell, watches as the Germans set fire to the town., then fire artillery onto it, burying Jan within the rubble. \nIn a postscript, the ghostly citizens of Lidice walk toward the camera, obscured by a wall of flames, reciting the final verses of Millay’s poem.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nPatricia Morison as Jarmilla Hanka\nJohn Carradine as Reinhard Heydrich\nAlan Curtis as Karel Vavra\nHoward Freeman as Heinrich Himmler\nRalph Morgan as Jan Hanka\nEdgar Kennedy as Nepomuk\nLudwig Stössel as Herman Bauer\nAl Shean as Father Cemlanek\nElizabeth Russell as Maria Bartonek\nJimmy Conlin as Dvorak\nLouis V. Arco (uncredited) as German Sergeant\nRichard Ryen (uncredited) as Gestapo\nAva Gardner (uncredited) as Franciska Pritric\nLester Dorr (uncredited) as Sergeant\n\n\n== Background ==\nHitler's Madman was director Douglas Sirk's first American production after fleeing Nazi Germany and abandoning his German name of Detlef Sierck. The screenplay was written Peretz Hirschbein, Melvin Levy, and Doris Malloy, \"suggested by\" a story by Bart Lytton, with some sources claiming uncredited contributions by Edgar G. Ulmer.\n\n\n== Production ==\nThe film was produced independently by Seymour Nebenzal under the auspices of the Producers Releasing Corporation, a \"Poverty Row\" studio, and filmed in one week in November 1942, under the title of Hitler's Hangman. The title was changed to HItler's Madman to avoid confusion with Fritz Lang's similarly themed Hangmen Also Die!.Sirk hired German cinematographer Eugen Schüfftan to shoot the film, but because Schüfftan was not allowed to work in the United States at the time, the cinematography credit was given to Jack Greenhalgh and Schüfftan was credited as \"Technical Director.\" The film opens and closes with Edna St. Vincent Millay's 1942 poem, The Murder of Lidice.The film was originally set to be released through Republic Pictures. However, when it was completed, Nebenzal arranged a screening for MGM chief Louis B. Mayer, who bought it, making it one of the few, and possibly the first, film to be distributed by MGM even though it was originally produced by another company. Sirk directed reshoots at MGM's own studios in May 1943, consisting of the inspection of the female university students and Klara's resulting suicide (during which an uncredited Ava Gardner appears), Heydrich's death scenes, and the shooting of the male residents of Lidice.\n\n\n== See also ==\nDramatic portrayals of Reinhard Heydrich\nList of American films of 1943Other films on the same subject:\n\nHangmen Also Die! (1943)\nThe Silent Village (1943)\nAtentát (1964)\nOperation Daybreak (1975)\nLidice (2011) (aka Fall of the Innocent in the UK; aka Butcher of Prague in US)\nAnthropoid (2016)\nThe Man with the Iron Heart (2016)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHitler's Madman at IMDb\nHitler's Madman at the TCM Movie Database\nHitler's Madman at AllMovie\nHitler's Madman at the American Film Institute Catalog", "Operation Anthropoid was the code name for the assassination of Schutzstaffel (SS)-\"Obergruppenführer\" and \"General der Polizei\" Reinhard Heydrich, head of the \"Reichssicherheitshauptamt\" (Reich Main Security Office, RSHA), the combined security services of Nazi Germany, and acting \"Reichsprotektor\" of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The operation was carried out in Prague on 27 May 1942 after having been prepared by the British Special Operations Executive with the approval of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile. Wounded in the attack, Heydrich died of his injuries on 4 June 1942. His death led to a wave of merciless reprisals by German SS troops, including the destruction of villages and the killing of civilians. Anthropoid was the only successful assassination of a senior Nazi leader during World War II.", "HHhH (in some markets titled The Man with the Iron Heart) is a French biographical war thriller drama film directed by Cédric Jimenez and written by David Farr, Audrey Diwan, and Jimenez. It is based on French writer Laurent Binet's novel \"HHhH\", and focuses on \"Operation Anthropoid\", the assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich in Prague during World War II.", "The propaganda of the Nazi regime that governed Germany from 1933 to 1945 promoted Nazi ideology by demonizing the enemies of the Nazi Party, notably Jews and communists, but also capitalists and intellectuals. It promoted the values asserted by the Nazis, including heroic death, Führerprinzip (leader principle), Volksgemeinschaft (people's community), Blut und Boden (blood and soil) and pride in the Germanic Herrenvolk (master race). Propaganda was also used to maintain the cult of personality around Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, and to promote campaigns for eugenics and the annexation of German-speaking areas. After the outbreak of World War II, Nazi propaganda vilified Germany's enemies, notably the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States, and in 1943 exhorted the population to total war.\n\n\n== Enemies ==\n\n\n=== Jews ===\nAntisemitic propaganda was a common theme in Nazi propaganda. However, it was occasionally reduced for tactical reasons, such as for the 1936 Olympic Games. It was a recurring topic in Hitler's book Mein Kampf (1925–26), which was a key component of Nazi ideology.\nEarly in his membership in the Nazi Party, Hitler presented the Jews as behind all of Germany's moral and economic problems, as featuring in both Bolshevism and international capitalism. He blamed \"money-grubbing Jews\" for all of Weimar Germany's economic problems. He also drew upon the antisemitic elements of the stab-in-the-back legend to explain the defeat in World War I and to justify Nazi views as self-defense. In one speech, when Hitler asked who was behind Germany's failed war efforts, the audience erupted with \"The Jews\".After the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, he moderated his tone for the trial, centering his defense on his selfless devotion to the good of the Volk and the need for bold action to save them; though his references to the Jews were not eliminated (speaking, for instance, of \"racial tuberculosis\" in \"German lungs\"), they were decreased to win support. Some Nazis feared their movement lost its antisemitic edge, and Hitler privately assured them that he regarded his previous views as mild. Hitler in Mein Kampf describes Jews as \"a dangerous bacillus\".\n\nAfterwards, Hitler publicly muted his antisemitism; speeches would contain references to Jews, but ceased to be purely antisemitic fulminations, unless such language would appeal to the audience. Some speeches contained no references to Jews at all, leading many to believe that his antisemitism had been an earlier stage.Still, the antisemitic planks remained in the Nazi Party platform. Even before they ascended to power, Nazi essays and slogans would call for boycotts of Jews. Jews were associated with money-lenders, usury and banks, and were portrayed as the enemy of small shopkeepers, small farmers and artisans. Jews were blamed for the League of Nations, for pacifism, for Marxism, for international capitalism, for homosexuality, for prostitution, and for the cultural changes of the 1920s.In 1933, Hitler's speeches spoke of serving Germany and defending it from its foes: hostile countries, Communism, liberals, and culture decay, but not Jews. Seizure of power after the Reichstag fire inaugurated April 1 as the day for a boycott of Jewish stores, and Hitler, on the radio, and newspapers fervently called for it. A propaganda poster supporting the boycott declared that \"in Paris, London, and New York German businesses were destroyed by the Jews, German men and women were attacked in the streets and beaten, German children were tortured and defiled by Jewish sadists\", and called on Germans to \"do to the Jews in Germany what they are doing to Germans abroad.\" The actual effect, of apathy outside Nazi strongholds, caused Nazis to turn to more incremental and subtle effects.In 1935 the first set of antisemitic laws went into effect in Nazi Germany; the Nuremberg Laws forbid the Jews and political opponents from civil service. They classified people with four German grandparents as \"German or kindred blood\", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or four Jewish grandparents. A person with one or two Jewish grandparents was a Mischling, a crossbreed, of \"mixed blood\". These laws deprived Jews of German citizenship and prohibited marriage between Jews and other Germans. The Nuremberg Laws forbid any sexual relations between Aryans and non-Aryans who were along with the Jews, for example the \"Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastard offspring\".The Aryan Paragraph, which excluded Jews and other \"non-Aryans\" from many jobs and public offices, was officially justified with overt antisemitism, depicting Jews as have undue representation in the professions. Anti-Jewish measures were presented as defensive. Nazi speakers were instructed to say that Jews were being treated gently. Stock answers to counter-arguments were provided for them. Jews were attacked as the embodiment of capitalism. After six issues devoted to ethnic pride, Neues Volk featured an article on the types of the \"Criminal Jew\"; in later issues, it urged no sympathy for victims of the Nuremberg laws, while arguing that its reader could see Jewish life going on about them, unpersecuted. Goebbels defended Nazi racial policies, even claiming that the bad publicity was a mistake for Jews, because it brought forward the topic for discussion.At the 1935 Nazi party congress rally at Nuremberg, Goebbels declared that \"Bolshevism is the declaration of war by Jewish-led international subhumans against culture itself.\"The Nazis described the Jews as Untermenschen (subhumans), this term was utilized repeatedly in writings and speeches directed against them, the most notorious example being a 1942 SS publication with the title \"Der Untermensch\" which contains an antisemitic tirade. In the pamphlet \"The SS as an Anti-bolshevist Fighting Organization\", Himmler wrote in 1936: \"We shall take care that never again in Germany, the heart of Europe, will the Jewish-Bolshevistic revolution of subhumans be able to be kindled either from within or through emissaries from without.\"\nBy the mid-1930s, textbooks with more antisemitic content were used in the class room. (This sometimes backfired, with antisemitic caricatures being so crude that the children were unable to recognize their Jewish classmates in them.) \"The Jewish Question in Education\" assured teachers that children were not only capable of understanding it, but that their sound racial instincts were better than their parents', as witness that the children would run and hide when a Jewish cattle dealer came to deal with their parents.Biology classes were to emphasize the division of species in nature, to lead children to the analogy:\n\nWhen migratory birds leave for the south in the fall, starlings fly with starlings, storks with storks, swallows with swallows. Although they are all birds, each holds strictly to its kind. A herd of chamois is never led by a deer or a herd of wild horses by a wild boar. Each kind sticks with its own, and seeks a leader of the same species. That is the way of nature. When these facts are explained in school, the time has to come when a boy or a girl stands up and says: \"If that is the way it is in nature, it has to be the same with people. But our German people once allowed itself to be led by those of foreign race, the Jews.\" To older students, one can explain that a male starling mates only with a female starling. They build a nest, lay eggs, care for the chicks. Young starlings come from that nest. Like is drawn to like, and produces its own kind. That is the way nature is! Only where humanity intervenes do artificial cross-breeds result, the mixed race, the bastard. People cross a horse and a donkey to produce a mule. The mule is an example of a bastard. Nature does not want it to reproduce.\nWith this, teachers were informed, the logic of the Nuremberg Laws will be easy to explain.This time also saw a vast increase in antisemitic popular culture; not bearing the overt stamp of Nazi approval, it was regarded as more objective than Ministry of Propaganda information. Even children's books such as Der Giftpilz promoted antisemitism. Academics, in view of increasing Nazi pressure, produced reams of \"racial science\" to demonstrate the differences between Jews and Germans, frequently ignoring all other races. In books, the measures were presented as reasonable and even self-defense. Das Schwarze Korps increased the harshness of its tone toward Jews, in order to prepare the SS for racial war. This element could also appear in other propaganda in which it was not the centerpiece. The villains of Hans Westmar were not only Communists but Jews as well.This, however, did not reach the pitch of later propaganda, after the war. Goebbels, despite his personal racism, approved only two comedies and one historical drama with overt antisemitism. Newsreels contained no references to Jews. Propaganda aimed at women as bulwarks against racial degeneration lay heavy emphasis on their role in protecting racial purity without indulging in the antisemitism of Mein Kampf or Der Stürmer. Gerhard Wagner, at the 1936 Nuremberg Rally, discussed the racial law more in terms of the pure and growing race than the evil of the Jews. A 1938 pamphlet urging support for Hitler in the referendum detailed Nazi accomplishments with no mention of antisemitism. This reflected a desire to subtly present their racial doctrines, as apparently objective science. The ground was laid for later antisemitic works by heavy emphasis on the ethnic chauvinism. Hitler made only three overtly antisemitic speeches between seizing power and the war, but included various cryptic comments about Jews that the hardcode Nazis knew meant he had not abandoned the beliefs. Antisemitic propaganda was in particularly suppressed during the Olympics, when Der Stürmer was not allowed to be sold on the streets.In 1939, Hitler's January 30 speech opened with praise for the flowering of the German people, but went on to declare that whatever was detrimental to the people could not be ethical, and to threaten Jews as the authors of any coming war. In 1942, newspapers quoted Hitler as saying that his \"prediction\" was being realized.\n\n\n==== The Holocaust ====\n\nIn 1941, when Jews were forced to wear the Star of David, Nazi pamphlets instructed people to remember antisemitic arguments at the sight of it, particularly Kaufman's Germany Must Perish!. This book was also heavily relied on for the pamphlet \"The War Goal of World Plutocracy\".The Holocaust was not a topic even for discussion in ministerial meetings; the one time the question was raised it was dismissed as being of no use in propaganda. Even officials in the Propaganda Ministry were told atrocities against Jews were enemy propaganda. But with the Holocaust, aggressive antisemitic propaganda was therefore implemented. Goebbels's articles in Das Reich included vitriolic antisemitism. The alleged documentary The Eternal Jew purported to show the wretched lives and destruction wrought by Jews, who were lower than vermin, and the historical drama Jud Süß depicted a Jew as gaining power over the Duke by lending him money and using the power to oppress his subjects and enable himself to rape a pure German woman, by having her husband arrested and tortured. Wartime posters frequently described the Jews as responsible for the war, and being behind the Allies. Fervently antisemitic pamphlets were published, including alleged citations from Jewish writing, which were generally poor translations, out of context, or invented. An attack on \"Americanism\" asserted that the Jews were behind it.The difficulty of simultaneously maintaining anti-Communist propaganda, and propaganda against Great Britain as a plutocracy also led to increased emphasis on antisemitism, describing Jews as being behind both.Instructions for propaganda speakers in 1943 directed them to claim that antisemitism was rising throughout the world, quoting an alleged British sailor as wishing Hitler would kill five million Jews, one of the clearest reference to extermination in Nazi propaganda.\n\n\n==== Outside Germany ====\nAntisemitic propaganda was also spread outside Germany. Ukrainians were told that they had acted against Jews many times in the past for their \"high-handedness\" and would now demand full payment for all injuries. Reports indicated that although the high percentage of Jews in the Communist party had its effect, the Ukrainians viewed it as a religious matter, and not a racial one.\n\n\n==== In Der Stürmer ====\nThe propaganda periodical Der Stürmer always made antisemitic material a mainstay, throughout its run before and during Nazi power. It exemplified the crude antisemitism that Hitler concealed to win popular and foreign support, but its circulation increased throughout the Nazi regime. Even after Streicher was under house arrest for gross misuse of office, Hitler provided him with resources to continue his propaganda.Salacious accounts of sexual offenses featured in nearly every issue. The Reichstag fire was attributed to a Jewish conspiracy. It supported an early plan to transport all Jews to Madagascar, but this prospect was dropped as soon as it became an actual possibility. Later, taking Theodore N. Kaufman with the importance that the Nazis generally attributed to him, urged that Jews intended to exterminate Germany, and urged that only with the destruction of Jews would Germany be safe.Its \"Letter Box\" encouraged the reporting of Jewish acts; the unofficial style helped prevent suspicion of propaganda, and lent it authenticity.A textbook written by Elvira Bauer in 1936, entitled Trust no Fox on the Green Heath and No Jew Upon his Oath, was designed to show Germans that the Jews could not be trusted. It portrayed the Jews as inferior, untrustworthy and parasitic. A further antisemitic children's book entitled The Poisonous Mushroom, written by Ernst Hiemer, was handed out in 1938. Again it portrayed the Jews as worthless subhumans and through a text containing seventeen short stories, as the antithesis of Aryan humanity. The Jew was dehumanized and was seen as a poisonous mushroom. The book included encompassed strands of both religious and racial antisemitism towards the Jews. The contents of this book were following themes \"How to Tell a Jew\", \"How Jewish Traders Cheat\", \"How Jews Torment Animals\", \"Are there Decent Jews?\" and finally \"Without Solving the Jewish Question, No Salvation for Mankind\".Two years later by the same author another textbook which attacked the Jews through racial antisemitism and decrying the evils of racial miscegenation. In this text, Jews were portrayed as bloodsuckers. He claimed Jews were equal to tapeworms, claiming that \"Tapeworm and Jew are parasites of the worst kind. We want their elimination. We want to become healthy and strong again. Then only one thing will help: Their extermination.\" The aim of such texts was to try and justify the Nazis racial policy on Jews. Der Stürmer was frequently used in schools as part of Nazi \"education\" to the German youth. Despite its overly antisemitic status, the paper published letters from teachers and children approving of it.Roughly 100,000 copies were printed of the book. The title comes from a phrase by Martin Luther, whose anti-Jewish remarks the Nazis were happy to use.\n\n\n=== Communists ===\nAdolf Hitler's anti-communism was already a central feature of his book Mein Kampf. Nazi propaganda depicted Communism as an enemy both within Germany and all of Europe. Communists were the first group attacked as enemies of the state when Nazis ascended to power. According to Hitler, the Jews were the archetypal enemies of the German Volk, and no Communism or Bolshevism existed outside Jewry.In a speech in 1927 to the Bavarian regional parliament the Nazi propagandist Julius Streicher, publisher of Der Stürmer, used the term \"Untermensch\" referring to the communists of the German Bavarian Soviet Republic: \"It happened at the time of the [Bavarian] Soviet Republic: When the unleashed subhumans rambled murdering through the streets, the deputies hid behind a chimney in the Bavarian parliament.\"Prior to their seizure of powers, conflicts with Communists, and attempts to win them over, featured frequently in Nazi propaganda. Newspaper articles presented Nazis as innocent victims of Communist assaults. An election flyer aimed at converting Communists. Articles advising Nazi propagandist discussed winning over the workers from the Marxists. Election slogans urged that if you wanted Bolshevism, to vote Communist, but to remain free Germans, to vote Nazi.Goebbels, aware of the value of publicity (both positive and negative), deliberately provoked beer-hall battles and street brawls, including violent attacks on the Communist Party of Germany. He used the death of Horst Wessel who was killed in 1930 by two members of the Communist Party of Germany as a propaganda tool against \"Communist subhumans\".\n\nThe spectre of Communism was used to win dictatorial powers. The Reichstag fire was presented by Nazi newspaper as the first step in a Communist seizure of power. Hitler made use of it to portray Nazis as the only alternative to the Communists, fears of which he whipped up. This propaganda resulted in an acceptance of anti-Communist violence at the time, though antisemitic violence was less approved of.When the Pope attacked the errors of Nazism, the government's official response was a note accusing the Pope of endangering the defense against world Bolshevism.After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Communists were among the first people that were sent to concentration camps. They were sent because of their ties with the Soviet Union and because Nazism greatly opposed Communism.The Spanish Civil War began the propaganda of portraying Germany as a protector against \"Jewish Bolshevism\", making heavy use of atrocity stories.Before the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, from 1936-8, substantial anti-Bolshevist campaigns were conducted. In 1937 the Reichspropagandaleitung had an anti-Bolshevist exhibit travel to major cities. In film, Russian Communists were depicted as ruthless murderers. In Flüchtlinge, only a heroic German leader saves Volga Germans from Bolshevik persecution on the Sino-Russian border in Manchuria. Frisians in Peril depicts a village of Volga Germans being ruthlessly persecuted in the Soviet Union. Goebbels addressed the 1935 annual congress of the Nazi Party with an anti-Communist speech.The first declaration of the Pact presented it as a genuine change, but this was unpalatable to the Nazi faithful and the line was soon watered down even before its violation. News reports were to be neutral on the Russian army and carefully expurgated of \"typical Bolshevist phrases\". Still, anti-Communist films were withdrawn.After the invasion of the Soviet Union, propaganda resumed, quickly linking the attack with British forces, which simplified the task of attacking both Communism and \"plutocracy\" at once. Within two weeks of the invasion, Goebbels proclaimed the attack the preservation of European civilization from Communism. A weekly propaganda poster declared that the soldiers would liberate Europe from Bolshevism. Anti-Communist films were re-issued, and new films such as The Red Terror were issued. Guidelines issued to the army described the Soviet commissars as inhuman and hate-filled. They were also told that the Soviets took no prisoners.This also allowed Goebbels to make use of anti-Communist propaganda to the occupied nations, portraying a Utopia protected by German versus a slave camp under Communism. The term Iron Curtain was invented to describe this state. This propaganda asserted, with blatant falsity, that Germany wanted to protect European rather than German culture, from the threat. A rare Ukrainian poster from 1941 shows people looking through a wall and telling the Ukrainians that the Soviets had built a wall around them to keep their misery invisible.In 1942, a \"Soviet Paradise\" exhibit was opened to depict the Soviet Union as having been found a place of filth and poverty. This was supplemented with a pamphlet and \"documentary film\" of the same title.Also in 1942, the Nazi government believed Churchill's fall was possible, which Goebbels chose to spin as England surrendering Europe to Bolshevism. This received continuing plan and was a major element in the Sportpalast speech.Preparations were made, in anticipation of victory in Russia, to present this as the triumph over Communism.In 1943, the defeat at Stalingrad led to a serious Anti-Bolshevist campaign in view of the possibility of defeat. The Katyn massacre was exploited in 1943 to drive a wedge between Poland, Western Allies, and the Soviet Union, and reinforce the Nazi propaganda line about the horrors of Bolshevism and American and British subservience to it. Pamphlets were released to whip up fear of Communism. The negative impact of Soviet policies implemented in the 1930s were still fresh in the memory of Ukrainians. These included the Holodomor of 1933, the Great Terror, the persecution of intellectuals during the Great Purge of 1937-38, the massacre of Ukrainian intellectuals after the annexation of Western Ukraine from Poland in 1939, the introduction and implementation of Collectivisation. As a result, the population of whole towns, cities and villages, greeted the Germans as liberators which helps explain the unprecedented rapid progress of the German forces in the occupation of Ukraine. The Ukrainians at first had been told it was being freed from Communism; this had quickly given way to exploitation, where even celebrating Kiev's \"liberation\" was forbidden, but the failure at Stalingrad brought propaganda into play.Films such as Hans Westmar and Hitler Youth Quex depicted the deaths of their heroes as martyrs killed by Communism; in both films, the movement appears as an overall threat, with some ruthless villains as leaders, but with some misguided Communists who could be inspired by the heroes—as, indeed, potential Nazis. Literature, too, depicted heroic German workers who were taken in by international Marxism, but whose Aryan nature revolted on learning more of it. Der Giftpilz had a man tell Hitler Youth members that once he had been a Communist, but he had realized that they were led by Jews who were trying to sacrifice Germany for Russia's benefit.From very early on after the invasion of the Soviet Union, permission was given to eliminate all communists:\n\nIt is necessary to eliminate the red sub-humans, along with their Kremlin dictators. German people will have a great task to perform the most in its history, and the world will hear more about that this task will be completed till the end.\n\n\n=== Capitalists ===\nCapitalism was also attacked as morally inferior to German values and as failing to provide for the German people. Great Britain was attacked as a plutocracy. A few months after the invasion of Poland, Goebbels released his \"England’s Guilt\" speech that blamed the war on Imperial Britain's \"capitalist democracy\" and warmongers, denouncing England for having the richest men on earth while their people get little of this wealth. In that speech, Goebbels claimed that \"English capitalists want to destroy Hitlerism\" in order to retain its imperial status and harmful economic policies.\nThis was portrayed as Jewish, so as to attack both Communism and plutocracy, describing Jews as being behind both. Anti-capitalist propaganda, attacking \"interest slavery\", used the association of Jews with money-lenders.Nazi propaganda and officials such as Robert Ley describe Germany as a \"proletarian nation\" as opposed to the plutocratic England, a political divide that Goebbels described as \"England is a capitalist democracy\" and \"Germany is a socialist people's state.\"Initially the Nazis wanted to have alliance with United Kingdom, however after the war started they were denounced as \"the Jew among the Aryan peoples\" and as plutocrats, fighting for money. Another major theme was the difference between British \"plutocracy\" and Nazi Germany. German newspapers and newsreels often pictured photos and footage of British unemployed and slums together with unfavorable commentary about the differences in living standards of the working class of Nazi Germany vs that of the working class living under British \"plutocracy\". Simultaneously, propaganda presented them as tools of the Communists. A German parody stamp, of one depicting King George and Queen Elizabeth, replaced the queen with Stalin and added a hammer and sickle, and stars of David. The Parole der Woche's weekly wall newspaper declared that the United States and Britain had agreed to let Stalin take Europe. Using propaganda to present the Jews as being behind both helped juggle the issues of opposing \"plutocracy\" and Communism at once.After the invasion of the Soviet Union, propaganda resumed, quickly linking the attack with British forces, which simplified the task of attacking both Communism and \"plutocracy\" at once.\n\n\n=== Intellectuals ===\nThe Nazi movement was overtly anti-rationalist, favoring appeals to emotion and cultural myths. It preferred such \"non-intellectual\" virtues as loyalty, patriotism, duty, purity, and blood, and allegedly produced a pervasive contempt for intellectuals. Both overt statements and propaganda in books favored sincere feeling over thought, because such feelings, stemming from nature, would be simple and direct. In Mein Kampf, Hitler complained of biased over-education, brainwashing, and a lack of instinct and will and in many other passages made his anti-intellectual bent clear. Intellectuals were frequently the butts of Hitler's jokes. Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls were overtly instructed to aim for character-building rather than education. The theory offered for Nazism was developed only after practice, which had denigrated expert thinking, only to seek out intellectuals who could be brought to support it.Sturmabteilung speakers were used, though their reliance sometimes offended well-educated audiences, but their blunt and folksy manner often had their own appeal. One popular Munich speaker, declaring biological research boring, called instead on racial emotions; their \"healthy ethnic instincts\" would reveal the quality of the Aryan type.A 1937 essay aimed at propagandists \"Heart or Reason? What We don't Want from Our Speakers\", explicitly complained that speakers should aim for the heart, not the understanding, and many of them failed to try this. This included an unrelentingly optimistic view. Pure reason was attacked as a colorless thing, cut off from blood. Education Minister Rust ordered teachers training colleges to relocate from \"too intellectual\" university centers to the countryside, where they could be more readily indoctrinated and would also benefit from contact with the pure German peasantry.An SS paper declared that IQ varied inversely with male infertility, and medical papers declared that the spread of educational pursuits had brought down the birth rate.This frequently related to the blood and soil doctrines and an organic view of the German people. \"Blood and soil\" plays, for instance, depicted a woman rejecting her bookish fiancé in order to marry an estate owner.It also related to antisemitism, as Jews were often accused of being intellectual and having a destructive \"critical spirit\". The book burnings were hailed by Goebbels as ending \"the age of extreme Jewish intellectualism.\"This view affected the creation of propaganda as well. Goebbels, who never tired of railing against intellectuals, told propagandists to aim their work toward the woodcutter in Bad Aibling.Overall, these themes reflected Nazi Germany's split between myth and modernity.\n\n\n=== Russians ===\n\nRussia was the primary target of Hitler's expansionist foreign policy. In his book, Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler dedicated a chapter to Eastern policy and detailed his plans for gaining \"living space\" (Lebensraum) in the East. He called on the German people to \"secure its rightful land on this earth,\" and announced:\n\nWe National Socialists consciously draw a line under the direction of our foreign policy war. We begin where we ended six centuries ago. We stop the perpetual Germanic march towards the south and west of Europe, and have the view on the country in the east. We finally put the colonial and commercial policy of the pre-war and go over to the territorial policy of the future. But if we speak today in Europe of new land, we can primarily only to Russia and the border states subjects him think.\"\nBecause the Russian people were Slavic, not Germanic, the Soviet Union was also attacked on racial grounds for \"living space\" as Nazi ideology believed that only the Nordic people (referred to as the Germanic people) represented the Herrenvolk (master race) which was to expand to the East (Drang nach Osten). To Hitler, Operation Barbarossa was a \"war of annihilation\", being both an ideological war between German Nazism and Jewish Bolshevism and a racial war between the Germans and the Bolshevik, Jewish, Gypsies and Slavic Untermenschen (Generalplan Ost).Influenced by the guidelines, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated:\n\nThe war against Russia is an important chapter in the German nation's struggle for existence. It is the old battle of the Germanic against the Slavic people, of the defence of European culture against Muscovite-Asiatic inundation and of the repulse of Jewish Bolshevism. The objective of this battle must be the demolition of present-day Russia and must therefore be conducted with unprecedented severity. Every military action must be guided in planning and execution by an iron resolution to exterminate the enemy remorselessly and totally. In particular, no adherents of the contemporary Russian Bolshevik system are to be spared.\nHeinrich Himmler in a speech to the Eastern Front Battle Group \"Nord\" declared:\n\nIt is a war of ideologies and struggle races. On one side stands National Socialism: ideology, founded on the values of our Germanic, Nordic blood. It is worth the world as we want to see: beautiful, orderly, fair, socially, a world that may be, still suffers some flaws, but overall a happy, beautiful world filled with culture, which is precisely Germany. On the other side stands the 180 millionth people, a mixture of races and peoples, whose names are unpronounceable, and whose physical nature is such that the only thing that they can do - is to shoot without pity or mercy. These animals, which are subjected to torture and ill-treatment of each prisoner from our side, which do not have medical care they captured our wounded, as do the decent men, you will see them for yourself. These people have joined a Jewish religion, one ideology, called Bolshevism, with the task of: having now Russian, half [located] in Asia, parts of Europe, crush Germany and the world. When you, my friends, are fighting in the East, you keep that same fight against the same subhumans, against the same inferior races that once appeared under the name of Huns, and later - 1,000 years ago during the time of King Henry and Otto I, - the name of the Hungarians, and later under the name of Tatars, and then they came again under the name of Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Today they are called Russian under the political banner of Bolshevism.\nDuring the war, Himmler published the pamphlet \"Der Untermensch\" (The Subhuman) which featured photographs of ideal Aryans contrasted with photographs of the ravages of barbarian races (Jews) from the days of Attila and Genghis Khan to massacres in the Jewish-dominated Soviet Union.Hitler believed that after the invasion of the Soviet Union, the war in the East was to destroy Bolshevism, as well as aiming to ruin the Great Russian Empire, and a war for German expansion and economic exploitation.Goebbels, in Das Reich, explained Russian resistance in terms of a stubborn but bestial soul. Russians were termed \"Asiatic\" and the Red Army as \"Asiatic Hordes\".The troops were told that in World War I, the Russian troops had often feigned death or surrender, or donned German uniforms, in order to kill German soldiers.Until early 1942 the following slogan was in use \"the Russian is a beast, he must croak\" (der Russe sei eine Bestie, er muesse verrecken) but the need for Russian manpower in the German labor force led to its demise.Events such as the Nemmersdorf massacre and Metgethen massacre were also used by German propaganda to strengthen the fighting spirit on the eastern front towards the end of the war.\n\n\n=== Czechs and Slovaks ===\nUntil the end of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, that state was a major target of abuse. Czechoslovakia was represented as an \"abomination\" created by the Treaty of Versailles, an artificial state that should never had been created. Moreover, Czechoslovakia was frequently accused of engaging in some sort of genocide against the ethnic Germans of the Sudetenland with German media making recurrent and false claims of massacres of Sudetenlanders. In addition, the Czechoslovak-Soviet treaty of 1935 was represented as an aggressive move aimed at Germany. A particular favourite claim was that Czechoslovakia was a \"Soviet air-craft carrier\" in Central Europe, namely that were secret Red Air Force bases in Czechoslovakia that would allow the Soviets to bomb and destroy German cities. The high-point of anti-Czechoslovak propaganda was in 1938 with the crisis that ended in the Munich Agreement.\n\n\n=== Poles ===\nAt first, Hitler and the Nazis saw Poland as a potential ally against the Soviet Union, Hitler repeatedly suggested a German-Polish alliance against the Soviet Union, but Piłsudski declined, instead seeking precious time to prepare for potential war with Germany or with the Soviet Union. Eventually in January 1934 the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact was signed and all attacks against Poland ceased. A sign of the change occurred in 1933 when a German professor published a book that was given much media attention calling for German-Polish friendship, and praised the \"particularly close political and cultural relationship\" between Germany and Poland that was said to be 1,000 years old.\n\nFor many years, it was forbidden to discuss the German minority in Poland, and this continued through into early 1939, even while newspapers were asked to press the matter of Danzig. The reasons for this lay with the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact of 1934, an attempt on the part of Germany to split the Cordon sanitaire as the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was known. Propaganda attacks on Poland would inspire the Poles to doubt the sincerity of Germany's policy of rapprochement with Poland. In 1935, when two secretaries at the German War Ministry were caught providing state secrets to their lover, a Polish diplomat, the two women were beheaded for high treason while the diplomat was declared persona non grata. Through the two women were widely vilified in the German press for engaging in espionage on behalf of a \"foreign power\", the name of the \"foreign power\" was never mentioned in order to maintain good relations with Poland. At the same time, the loss of territory to Poland under the Treaty of Versailles was widely resented in Germany, and under the Weimar Republic, no German government had willing to recognize the frontiers with Poland, with many Germans being unwilling to accept legitimacy of Poland at all. In inter-war Germany, anti-Polish feelings ran high. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg observed that for many Germans in the Weimar Republic, Poland was an abomination, whose people were seen as \"an East European species of cockroach\". Poland was usually described as a Saisonstaat (a state for a season). In inter-war Germany, the phrase polnische Wirtschaft (Polish economy) was the expression Germans used to describe any situation that was a hopeless muddle. Weinberg noted that in the 1920s, every leading German politician refused to accept Poland as a legitimate nation, and hoped instead to partition Poland with the Soviet Union. The Nazis were not prepared to be seen as less tough with Poland than the Weimar Republic, so until 1939 the topic of Poland was simply avoided.Nazi propaganda demanded that Danzig should be returned to Germany. Since the Treaty of Versailles separated Danzig (Polish: Gdańsk) from Germany and it became part of the semi-autonomous city-state Free City of Danzig. The population rose from 357,000 (1919) to 408,000 in 1929, according to the official census 95% of whom were Germans. Germans who favored reincorporation into Germany received political and financial support from the Nazi regime. Nazi Germany officially demanded the return of Danzig to Germany along with an extraterritorial (meaning under German jurisdiction) highway through the area of the Polish Corridor for land-based access between those parts of Germany. There was a lot of German pro-Nazi supporters in Danzig, in the early 1930s the local Nazi Party capitalized on pro-German sentiments and in 1933 garnered 50% of vote in the parliament. Hitler used the issue of the status of the city as a pretext for attacking Poland and on May 1939, during a high-level meeting of German military officials explained to them: It is not Danzig that is at stake. For us it is a matter of expanding our Lebensraum in the east, adding that there will be no repeat of the Czech situation, and Germany will attack Poland at first opportunity, after isolating the country from its Western Allies. As the Nazi demands increased, German-Polish relations rapidly deteriorated.\nIn the spring of 1939, just before the invasion of Poland, a major anti-Polish campaign was launched, asserting such claims as forced labor of ethnic Germans, persecution of them, Polish disorder, Poles provoking border incidents, and aggressive intentions from its government. Newspapers wrote copiously on the issue. In such films as Heimkehr, depicted Polish ethnic Germans as deeply persecuted—often with recognizable Nazi tactics—and the invasion as necessary to protect them.In attempts to try and justify the Nazis invasion of Poland, Goebbels produced photographs and other evidence for allegations that ethnic Germans had been massacred by Poles. Bloody Sunday was presented in the manner most favorable to Nazi propaganda. The nazis used the Gleiwitz incident to justify their invasion of Poland, although the incident was set up by Himmler and Heydrich using concentration camp inmates dressed in Polish uniforms' It was alleged that the Poles had attacked a German radio station using the prisoners, who were all murdered at the scene.\n\nGermany invaded Poland on September 1 after having signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union in late August. The German attack began in Danzig, with a bombardment of Polish positions at Westerplatte by the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein, and the landing of German infantry on the peninsula. Outnumbered Polish defenders at Westerplatte resisted for seven days before running out of ammunition. Meanwhile, after a fierce day-long fight (1 September 1939), defenders of the Polish Post office were tried and executed then buried on the spot in the Danzig quarter of Zaspa in October 1939. In 1998 a German court overturned their conviction and sentence. The city was officially annexed by Nazi Germany and incorporated into the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia.\nThe death of some Polish cavalry soldiers, caused by tanks, created a myth that they had attacked the tanks, which German propaganda used to promote German superiority.Nazi propaganda in October 1939 told Germans to view all ethnic Poles, Gypsies (Romani) and Jews on the same level as Untermenschen.To prevent such anti-Polish stigma, when Polish children were kidnapped for Germanization, official orders forbade making the term \"Germanizable Polish children\" known to the public. They were referred to as \"Polonized German children\" or \"Children of German descent\" or even \"German orphans\". Germans were informed that the children's birth certificates had been falsified, to show them as Poles and rob them of their German heritage.\n\n\n=== The British ===\n\nThe position of Nazi propaganda towards the United Kingdom changed over time in keeping with Anglo-German relations. Prior to 1938, as the Nazi regime attempted to court the British into an alliance, Nazi propaganda praised the \"Aryan\" character of the British people and the British Empire. However, as Anglo-German relations deteriorated and the Second World War broke out, Nazi propaganda vilified the British as oppressive, German-hating plutocrats. During the war, it accused \"perfidious Albion\" of war crimes, and sought to drive a wedge between Britain and France.\n\n\n=== Americans ===\n\nAnti-American propaganda dealt heavily with a lack of \"ethnic unity\" in the United States. The Land Without A Heart portrayed it as a racial mishmash where good people were destroyed. American culture was portrayed as childish, and Americans as unable to appreciate European culture. An article \"America as a Perversion of European Culture\", itself classified, was provided for use by propagandists. This drew on a long tradition, from the time of German Romanticism, that America was kulturlose Gesellschaft, a society incapable of culture.Goebbels gave a speech on American negative reactions to anti-Jewish campaigns in 1938, to call for their stopping their criticism.Hitler declared America as a \"mongrel nation\", grown too rich too soon and governed by a capitalist elite with strong ties to the Jews and the Americans were a \"mongrel people\" incapable of higher culture or great creative achievements.Newspapers were warned, soon after war broke out, to avoid portraying news in a manner that would embarrass American isolationists, and that the United States was considerably more hostile than it had been before World War I. Efforts were made to minimize the future shock of America's joining the war, which had produced a great impact in 1918, and were generally successful. As with the British, the claim was made that the war had been forced on Germany by America.In 1943 the Katyn massacre was used to portray American and British governments as subservient to Communism.Theodore N. Kaufman's 1941 book Germany Must Perish was used to portray America as seeking to destroy Germany.\n\n\n== Values ==\nIn May 1938, Life observed that more than 99% of German and Austrian voters had supported the Anschluss. Although there had been irregularities, the magazine acknowledged that the results were \"largely honest\". It then discussed \"the real effectiveness of Nazi demagogy\" in obtaining such results:\n\nIts secret is to deal with the people not as individuals but as crowds. The message to the crowd is a series of simple, basic, memorable words — nation, people, blood, family, comrade, friend, home, soil, bread, work, strength, hope, life, fight, victory, birth, death, honor, beauty. The Party is set up as having a monopoly on giving the people these virtues and good things. To a people whose immediate past has been hard, muddled and apparently irremediable, simple emotional words have an immense, reverberating authority. But most of all the little man who is lost and friendless in a complex, lonely modern society is treated as important, if only in the mass.\n\n\n=== Action ===\n\nAs a counterpoint to their anti-intellectualism, the Nazis heavily favored action. Manuals for school teachers, under \"Literature\", instructed that since only the vigorous were educationally valuable, anything that discouraged manliness was to be avoided.William Shakespeare's Hamlet, while not actually forbidden, was denounced for \"flabbiness of soul\".Leni Riefenstahl's Der Sieg des Glaubens glorified the mass adulation of Adolf Hitler at the Nuremberg rally of 1933, although the propaganda film was later deleted and banned following the murder of Roehm in the Night of the Long Knives. She also produced Triumph of the Will, her film of the 1934 rally, which gave greater prominence to the SS.\nWomen, too, were expected to be strong, healthy, and vital, despite being primarily mothers; a photograph subtitled \"Future Mothers\" showed teenaged girls dressed for sport and bearing javelins. A sturdy peasant woman, who worked the land and bore strong children, was an ideal, contributing to praise for athletic women tanned by outdoor work. Das deutsche Mädel was less adventure-oriented than the boy's Der Pimpf, but far more emphasis was laid on strong and active German women than in NS-Frauen-Warte.\n\n\n=== Death and sacrifice ===\nHeroic death was often portrayed in Nazi propaganda as glorious. It was glorified in such films as Flüchtlinge, Hans Westmar, and Kolberg. Wunschkonzert, though chiefly about the homefront, features one character who dies playing the organ in a church in order to guide his comrades, though he knows the enemy forces will also find him. The dead of World War I were also portrayed as heroic; in a film of Operation Michael, the general tells a major that they will be measured by the greatness of their sacrifice, not by that of their victory, and in Leave on Parole, the people are portrayed as being corrupted by pacifist slogans while soldiers stand their ground unflinching. Even the film Morgenrot, predating the Nazi seizure of power and containing such un-Nazi matters as a woman refusing to rejoice because of the sufferings on the other side, praised such deaths and found favor among Nazi officials for it. Karl Ritter's films, aimed on youth, were \"military education\" and glorified death in battle.Propaganda about the Volk depicted it as a greater entity to which the individual belonged, and one worth dying for. The effect was such that a Jewish woman, reflecting on her longing to join the League of German Girls, concluded that it had been the admonition for self-sacrifice that had drawn her most. This call for self-sacrifice and not individuality was praised by many Germans.Several dead stormtroopers were singled out for glorification by Goebbels, especially Horst Wessel. His posthumous fame stemmed from his \"martyr's death\" and Goebbel's selection of him to glorify among the many Storm-Troppers who died. While the film Hans Westmar had to be fictionalized to omit details not palatable with the Nazis in power, it was among the first films to depict dying for Hitler as dying for Germany and glorious. His decision to go to the streets is presented as fighting \"the real battle\". The films Hitler Youth Quex and S.A.-Mann Brand also glorified those had died in the struggle to seize power; Quex was based on a novel that sold over 200,000 copies over two years. Soldiers and street fighters were the heroes of the Nazi movement—those who had died or might die. Even the 1936 anthem for \"Olympic youth\" celebrated not sports but sacrificial death.\n\nThis continued in the war. In 1942-3, the Winter Relief booklets recounted the stories of 20 decorated war heroes.The dead of the Battle of Stalingrad were portrayed as heroes of Valhalla, not as having failed but as having held back Russian regiments. A 1944 Mother's Day Card, particularly intended for the wives and mothers of the war dead, presented a mystical view that, although there was no afterlife, the dead continued in the life that followed them. Similarly, Die grosse Liebe depicted its self-centered heroine learning to bravely send the air force lieutenant she loves back to his squadron. The battle was seen by others outside Germany as the turning point in the defeat of Hitler.\nGoebbels attempted to contrast German heroism with Douglas MacArthur's flight, accusing him of cowardice—somewhat ineffectually, as the Germans knew he had been ordered to leave.The creation of the Volkssturm had propagandists make full use of themes of death, transcendence, and commemoration to encourage the fight.While men were the ones depicted as dying for Germany, women were also presented as needing to sacrifice. Exercise was praised as making young women strong, able to do hard physical labor for their country at need, particularly in agriculture, where the blood and soil ideology glamorized hard labor at the farm. This was not, however, translated in strong propaganda for women to join the workforce during the war; NS-Frauenschaft, in its magazine NS-Frauen-Warte and the speeches of Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, urged such behavior, and collections of essays praised heroic German women of the past, but the propaganda was weak and not widespread or repeated. Part of the problem may have been that the German government had called for sacrifice incessantly since 1931, and could bring no new appeal to it with the outbreak of war.Women, and other civilians, were also called on by Goebbels to reduce their standard of living to that of soldiers and civilians living in bombed areas, so as to sacrifice that material for total mobilization.Teachers' guidelines instructed that since people with hereditary weaknesses were personally innocent, their voluntary submission to sterilization was a great sacrifice for the good of the people, and they should not be treated with contempt.\n\n\n=== Führerprinzip ===\nMany propaganda films developed the importance of the Führerprinzip or leader principle. Flüchtlinge depicted Volga German refugees were saved from persecution by a leader, who demands their unquestioning obedience. Der Herrscher altered its source material to depict its hero, Clausen, as the unwavering leader of his munitions firm, who, faced with his children's machinations, disowns them and bestows the firm on the state, confident that a worker will arise capable of continuing his work and, as a true leader, needing no instruction.In schools, adolescent boys were presented with Nordic sagas as the illustration of Führerprinzip, which was developed with such heroes as Frederick the Great and Otto von Bismarck. Hitler Youth in particular indoctrinated for blind obedience and \"Führer worship\".This combined with the glorification of the one, central Führer. At the time of the Beer Hall Putsch, he used his trial to present himself, claiming it had been his sole responsibility and inspiring the title Fuhrer. During the Night of Long Knives, his decisive action saved Germany, though it meant (in Goebbels's description) suffering \"tragic loneliness\" from being a Siegfried forced to shed blood to preserve Germany. A speech explicitly proclaims, \"The Führer is always right\". Booklets given out for the Winter Relief donations included The Führer Makes History, a collection of Hitler photographs, and The Führer’s Battle in the East 2. Films such as The March to the Führer and Triumph of the Will glorified him.Carl Schmitt, drawn to the Nazi party by his admiration for a decisive leader, praised him in his pamphlet State, Volk and Movement because only the ruthless will of such a leader could save Germany and its people from the \"asphalt culture\" of modernity, to bring about unity and authenticity.\n\n\n=== Volksgemeinschaft ===\n\nThe Volksgemeinschaft or people's community received a great deal of propaganda support, a principle that the Nazis continually reiterated. The Volk were not just a people; a mystical soul united them, and propaganda continually portrayed individuals as part of a great whole, worth dying for. This was portrayed as overcoming distinctions of party and social class. A common Nazi mantra declared they must put \"collective need ahead of individual greed\"—a widespread sentiment in this era. The commonality this created across classes was among the great appeals of Nazism.After the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, Hitler, on the trial, omitted his usual pre-putsch antisemitism and centered his defense on his selfless devotion to the good of the Volk and the need for bold action to save them. The Versailles settlement had betrayed Germany, which they had tried to save. Thereafter, his speeches concentrated on his boundless devotion to the Volk, though not entirely eliminating the antisemitism. Even once in power, his immediate speeches spoke of serving Germany.The Volksgemeinschaft was also used for war support. Film on the home-front during World War II, depicted the war uniting all levels of society, as in the two most popular films of the Nazi era, Die grosse Liebe and Wunschkonzert. Failure to support the war was an anti-social act; this propaganda managed to bring arms production to a peak in 1944.\n\n\n=== Blood and soil ===\nClosely related to the community was the notion of blood and soil, a mystical bond between the German people and Germanic lands. A true Volkish life was rural and agrarian, rather than urban, a theme predating the Nazis but heavily used by them. It was foundational to the concept of Lebensraum. Prior to their ascension to power, Nazis called for a movement back to the rural areas, from the cities (which conflicted with the rearmament and its need for urbanization). \"Blood and soil\" novels and theater celebrated the farmer's life and human fertility, often mystically linking them.\n\nNeues Volk displayed demographic charts to deplore the destruction of the generous Aryan families' farmland and how the Jews were eradicating traditional German peasantry. Posters for school depicted and deplored the flight of people from the countryside to the city. Der Giftpilz, a children's book, included an account of a Jewish financier forcing a German to sell his farm.Carl Schmitt argued that a people would develop laws appropriate to its \"blood and soil\" because authenticity required loyalty to the Volk over abstract universals.The charge laid against degenerate art was that it had been cut off from blood and soil. Landscape paintings were featured most heavily in the Greater German Art Exhibitions, to depict the German people's Lebensraum. Peasants were also popular images, promoting a simple life in harmony with nature.Blut und Boden films likewise stressed the commonality of Germaness and the countryside. Die goldene Stadt has the heroine running away to the city; after becoming pregnant, she drowns herself. Her last words beg her father to forgive her for not loving the countryside as he did.The Rhineland Bastards, children of German mothers and black fathers from French occupying troops, received so much propaganda attention as diluting German blood prior to the Nazi seizure of power that a census finding only 145 seemed an embarrassment.\nAnti-American propaganda dealt heavily with a lack of \"ethnic unity\" in the United States.\n\n\n=== Racial pride ===\n\nThe Nazis went to great extents on teaching the German youth to be proud of their race through biology teaching, the National Socialist Teachers League (NSLB) in particular taught in schools that they should be proud of their race and not to race mix. Race biology was meant to encourage the Germans to maintain their racial purity, the NSLB stressed that as early as primary schools Germans have to work on only the Nordic racial element of the German Volk (people) again and again and have to contrast this with the racial differences that foreign peoples such as the Jews represent. This could be done without necessarily being antisemitic. Nazi racial policy did not always include in degrading Jews but had to always maintain the importance of German blood and the Aryan race. This was often connected to the blood and soil ideology. Whilst the young Germans were being taught about the importance of one's blood, at the same time they were being taught about the dangers that the Jews represent in Germany and the necessary living space in the East, in particular Russia. Novels portrayed the Germans as uniquely endowed and possessors of a unique destiny. The segregation of races was said to be natural, just as separate species did not come together in nature. Racial biology was often emphasizing on the \"Jewish Question\" by showing children how species did not cohabit. Children in schools through textbooks, posters and films the differences between Germans and Jews, it showed the Germans being the Aryan master race and the Jews were simply untrustworthy, parasitic and inferior subhumans (Untermenschen). Although the propaganda aimed at racial preservation was aimed at the youth, adults also were subject since the mid-1930s, to the belief that Jews (including women and children) were not only dangerous to Germany but also subhuman. In 1935 after the induction of the Nuremberg Laws, any sexual relations between Aryans and non-Aryans became a criminalized offence. Aryans that were found guilty under the laws and charged with Rassenschande (\"racial shame\") faced the possibility of incarceration in a concentration camp, while non-Aryans could possibly face the death penalty. In 1922, German race researcher and eugenicist of the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich era, Hans Günther published a book titled Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (Racial Science of the German People). In the book, Günther recognizes the Germans as being composed of five different Aryan racial subtypes: Nordic, Mediterranean, Alpine, East Baltic, and Dinaric, he viewed the Nordic Germans as being at the top of the racial hierarchy. The book provided photographs of Germans defined as Nordic in areas such as Salzburg and Bedan; and provided photographs of Germans identified as Alpine and Mediterranean types, especially in Vorarlberg and Bavaria. The book strongly influenced the racial policy of Nazi Party; Adolf Hitler was so impressed by the work, that he made it the basis of his eugenics policy.\n\nThe Nazis often described the Germans as being the Ubermenschen (superhumans) Aryan master race. This also created their idea of the Untermenschen (subhumans), in particular this was aimed at Jews and Roma (Gypsies). The Nazis encouraged the Germans not to race mix and that only racially pure Aryans should be allowed to breed. As soon as the Nazis came to power in 1933 they introduced \"racial hygienist\" policies such as the July 1933 \"Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring\" which made sterilisation compulsory to the people who were said to have a range of conditions that were said to be hereditary. This later developed the Nazi regimes euthanasia program in 1939 known as the Action T4 program, the main purpose of this program was to improve the Aryan race through racial hygiene and eugenics and get rid of the \"hereditarily ill\". The German youth learned that the blond, tall, slender, and straight figures (Nordic) was the more \"pure\" and the ideal Aryan type that they were supposed to be and that dark, small, thick, and bent bodies of the inferior races (Jews) were people they should not race mix with. They were taught to have nothing to do with them and view them as subhumans. Although the physical ideal for the Nazis was the Nordic-Aryan, contrary to popular belief they did not discriminate against individuals who did not have these features (light hair and light eyes), as long as the individual could prove their ancestry to be Aryan in accordance to the Nuremberg Laws.On trial after the Beer Hall Putsch, foregoing his usual antisemitic speeches, Hitler presented his involvement as a springing from a deep love of the Volk. His speeches centered the glorification of the German people and their virtue. Though lowering or even omitting entirely references to Jews, this laid the ground for later antisemitic propaganda by emphasizing the need to protect the people against all foes.This continued after the seizure of power. One popular Munich speaker, declaring biological research boring, called instead on racial emotions; their \"healthy ethnic instincts\" would reveal the quality of the Aryan type. Propaganda aimed at women as particular bulwarks against racial degeneration included not their selections of husbands (which lay far more emphasis on racial purity than antisemitic propaganda), but their making a German home, cooking German food, singing German songs, and thereby installing in children a love of Germany. Articles discussed the architecture of a German home, and its interior decoration and the holidays celebrated in it.The overturning of the rule of law was justified on the grounds that law stemmed from the \"right to life of the people\".Walter Gross, as head of the National Socialist Office for Enlightenment on Population Policy and Racial Welfare, oversaw a massive propaganda effort to increase ethnic consciousness; this was termed \"enlightenment\" rather than \"propaganda\" by Nazi authorities, because it was not a call for immediate action but a long-term change in attitude. Gross described the view to be undermined as people thinking of themselves as individuals rather than single links in the great chain of life. The first six issues presented solely ethnic pride, before bringing in any matter of \"undesirables\".Bernhard Rust informed teachers that their task was to educate ethnically aware Germans. His ministry prescribed that no child was to graduate without knowledge of race and inheritance, and what obligations this prescribed for him. Many teachers minimized the teachings about Jews and emphasized those of the Volk, producing an effect more insidious than the less palatable lessons.Many Nazi speakers muted antisemitic themes for general audiences, to instead dwell on the ethnic excellence of the Germans. Gerhard Wagner, at the 1936 Nuremberg Rally, discussed the racial law more in terms of the pure and growing race than the evil of the Jews.The immensely popular \"Red Indian\" stories by Karl May were permitted despite the heroic treatment of the hero Winnetou and \"colored\" races; instead, the argument was made that the stories demonstrated the fall of the Red Indians was caused by a lack of racial consciousness, to encourage it in the Germans.In 1939, Hitler's January 30 speech, which threatened to destroy Jews as the authors of any coming war, opened with praise for the flowering of the German people, and declare that whatever was detrimental to the people could not be ethical.Goebbels's 1941 Christmas speech was devoted to the greatness of Germans and their certain victory rather than the war. One attack on the United States was that their childish and shallow culture meant they could not fathom the value of the European culture that Germany protected. Goebbels indeed urged Germans to not let their refined sense of justice be exploited by the enemy. He also used the opening of the German Art Exhibition during the war to argue for Germany's culture and the barbarianism of their foes.\n\n\n=== Children ===\n\nNazi propaganda emphasized that the Aryan race could only continue through the children for the future generations. Children were taught that they were biologically superior and were the Übermensch (superhuman) master race. \"Blood and soil\" was said to be part of nature. Textbooks discussed how the prolific Slav nations would cause the German people to be overrun. A woman was taught through education that she should bear as many children as possible for the next future generation's master race.A pamphlet \"You and Your People\", given to children at fourteen, when they left school, urged on them their unity with the Volk, their ancestry, and the vital importance of their marrying within their own race and having many children. Similarly, \"The Educational Principles of the New Germany\", an article published in a magazine for women, discussed the importance of youth for the future, and how they must learn of the importance of their people and fatherland. Propaganda presented that great men were one of many siblings, or had many children. Kindersegen, blessed with children, was widely used while desiring no or few children was denounced as stemming from \"an asphalt civilization. August 12th was set aside to honor mothers, particularly those with many children. Neues Volk ridiculed childless couples.The claimed causes for this low birthrate were not always the same; the Völkischer Beobachter featured a minor controversy, about whether it stemmed from the economic situation, such that women who wanted children were denied them, or from the corrupting effects of liberalism and Marxism, which stripped men and women of a desire for children and could only be countered with spiritual renewal. In either case, Nazism was presented as the cure, restoring the economy of Germany, or engaging in a spiritual renewal.As the theory called only for parents of good blood, propaganda attempts were made to destigmatize illegitimate births, although the Lebensborn homes were presented to the public as places for married women.This, of course, applied only to those who selected proper partners as the parents of their children. In the movie Friesennot, depicting ethnic Germans persecuted in the Soviet Union, a half-Friesan woman is murdered for her association with a Russian man, as her German blood outweighs her Russian blood. Her murder is presented as in accordance with ancient Germanic custom for \"race pollution\". Similarly, when the Sudeten German heroine of Die goldene Stadt allows herself to be seduced and impregnated by a Czech, she drowns herself. Even fairy tales were put to use for this purpose, with Cinderella being presented as a tale of how the prince's racial instincts lead him to reject the stepmother's alien blood for the racially pure maiden. This propaganda showed its effects in the marriage advertisements, which decreased money considerations for eugenic ones, with the advertisers representing themselves as and asking for \"Nordic\" or \"Aryan\".In wartime, the NS-Frauen-Warte urged women to nevertheless have children to maintain their race. Propaganda urging that SS members leave an \"heir\" behind, without regards to whether they were married to the mother, raised a furor, but despite backpedaling, produced a surge in illegitimate births. This, of course, still applied only to children of German parents; repeated efforts were made to propagate Volksturm, racial consciousness, to prevent sexual relations between Germans and foreign slave workers. Pamphlets, for instance, enjoined all German women to avoid sexual relations with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood. The League of German Girls was particularly regarded as instructing girls to avoid Rassenschande or racial defilement, which was treated with particular importance for young females.\n\n\n=== Motherhood ===\n\nDuring the era of the Nazi Party in Germany, policies and propaganda encouraged German women to contribute to the Third Reich through motherhood. To build the Third Reich, the Nazis believed that a strong German people, who acted as a foundation, was essential to the success of Nazi Germany. Motherhood propaganda was implemented by the Nazis to build the German nation. Within this propaganda there were three main arguments that were used.\nThe first argument that was used in Nazi motherhood propaganda was that German mothers were expected to produce as many children as possible. The mother of Nazi Germany was glorified in visual propaganda. 'Marriage loans' were also created and promoted through propaganda, and these were for recently married couples to fund a baby. These loans were to be used as \"vouchers for furniture and other household goods, provided, of course, that the women gave up work on marriage and devoted herself to motherhood\". In order to ensure the success of these marriage loans, there were increased taxes for single people and couples without children.\nAnother use of Nazi propaganda was that they wanted women to have as many Aryan children that they could bear to make a future for the next generations master race. The encouragement of by the Nazis came to its peak in 1939 with the introducing of \"The Honor Cross of the German Mother\" which went to mothers who provided an \"important service\" for the German nation. The cross was put into three different categories (bronze, silver, gold), a mother who had four or five children earned her bronze cross, whilst a mother who had six or seven children earned her silver cross and the mother who had eight or more children earned her gold cross. Mother's Day in May 1939 saw three million German mothers be honored the Mutterkreuz (Mother's Cross) whilst their husbands were preparing for the war.The ideology of a \"good mother\" in Nazi Germany is described by Rupp \"As a mother of her family, she meets the demands of the nation, as a housewife she acts according to the laws of the nation’s economic order, as employed woman she joins in the overall plan of the national household…But her life, like that of the man, is in its major outlines determined by the binding law that everything must be subordinated to the profit of the people\". This illustrates how the Third Reich used motherhood propaganda to build up the German nation.\n\nThe second argument within German propaganda is that racially desirable German women were supported in their effort to have children; however undesirable mothers, such as Jews and gypsies, were discouraged from having more children. This was because Nazi Germany wanted to eradicate ‘undesirable’ populations from the Third Reich. If women did not produce desirable children, they were subject to shaven heads, pillorying, public humiliation and execution. Some women were even used a propaganda themselves, and were forced to wear signs in public that said \"I have committed racial treason\" or \"I fornicate with Jews.\" Great importance was placed on the women's ability to choose desirable mates and have many desirable children.The third argument used in Nazi motherhood propaganda created an ideal Nazi woman, which implicitly encouraged women to always be mothers in one way or another.\nThe first way that this ideal was created was through the construction of spiritual motherhood in Nazi propaganda. German women who were not able to have children were encouraged, through propaganda, to participate in spiritual, rather than physical, maternity by doing womanly work. Their contributions to the war came in the form of mothering German society. Spiritual maternity allowed all women to fulfill their most important duty as caregivers.The next way that motherhood towards Germany was created through Nazi propaganda was through the ideal German woman. This ideal was portrayed by women contained in the propaganda who were \"broad-hipped women, unencumbered by corsets, who could easily bear children.\" Because of this ideal Nazi women was fit and strong, they were typically shown in the propaganda \"working in the fields, doing calisthenics, and practicing trades, as well as caring for children, cooking, and working at other more typical ‘womanly’ tasks.\"These propaganda appeals effectively persuaded German women because it contained the right mixture of traditional ideas, myths of the past, and the acceptance of the needs of a modern economy and lifestyle. Women, while not regarded as equals in Nazi Germany, were noted for their ability to help create and shape a strong Third Reich, and this is portrayed in the motherhood propaganda used by the Nazi government.\n\n\n== Policies ==\n\n\n=== Heim ins Reich ===\n\nPropaganda was also directed to Germans outside the Third Reich, to return as regions, or as individuals from other regions. Hitler hoped to make full use of the \"German Diaspora\".Prior to Anschluss, a powerful transmitter in Munich bombarded Austria with propaganda of what Hitler had done for Germany, and what he could do for Austria.\nThe annexation of Austria was presented as \"enter[ing] German land as representatives of a general German will to unity, to establish brotherhood with the German people and soldiers there.\" Similarly, the last chapter of Eugen Hadamovsky's World History on the March glorifies Hitler's obtaining Memel from Lithuania as the latest stage in the progress of history.In the Baltic States, after an agreement with Stalin, who suspected they would be loyal to Nazis, the Nazis set out to encourage the departure of \"ethnic Germans\" by the use of propaganda. This included using scare tactics about the Soviet Union, and led to tens of thousands leaving. Those who left were not referred to as \"refugees\", but were rather described as \"answering the call of the Fuhrer\".As part of an effort to lure ethnic Germans back to Germany, folksy Heimatbriefe or \"letters from the homeland\" were sent to German immigrants to the United States. The reaction to these was on the whole negative, particularly as they picked up. Goebbels also hoped to use German-Americans to keep America neutral during the war, but the effect actually produced was great hostility to Nazi propagandists.Radio propaganda to Russia included the threat that if the Volga Germans were persecuted, the Jews would have to pay for it, many times over.Newspapers in the occupied Ukraine printed articles about antecedents of German rule over the Ukraine, such as Catherine the Great and the Goths.\n\n\n=== Anti-smoking ===\n\nNazi Germany conducted propaganda against smoking and had arguably the most powerful anti-tobacco movement in the world. Anti-tobacco research received a strong backing from the government, and German scientists proved that cigarette smoke could cause cancer. German pioneering research on experimental epidemiology led to the 1939 paper by Franz H. Müller, and the 1943 paper by Eberhard Schairer and Erich Schöniger which convincingly demonstrated that tobacco smoking was a main culprit in lung cancer. The government urged German doctors to counsel patients against tobacco use.Tobacco and pollutants in the workplace were viewed as a threat to the German race, so for partly ideological reasons the Nazi government chose to conduct propaganda against them, as one of many preventative steps.\n\n\n=== Eugenics ===\n\nAlthough the child was \"the most important treasure of the people\", this did not apply to all children, even German ones, only those with no hereditary weaknesses.Propaganda for the Nazi eugenics program began with propaganda for eugenic sterilization. Articles in Neues Volk described the pathetic appearance of the mentally ill and the importance of preventing such births. Photographs of mentally incapacitated children were juxtaposed with those of healthy children. The film Das Erbe showed conflict in nature in order to legitimate the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring by sterilization.\nBiology textbooks were among the most propagandistic in the Third Reich, owing to their content of eugenic principles and racial theories, including explanations of the Nuremberg Laws, which were claimed to allow the German and Jewish peoples to co-exist without the danger of mixing. Despite their many photographs glamorizing the \"Nordic\" type, the texts also claimed that visual inspection was insufficient, and genealogical analysis was required to determine their types, and report any hereditary problems; this resulted in children being used by racial agencies to obtain information about their families.\nTeachers' guidelines instructed teachers to ensure that the children thought sterilization \"fulfills the command for loving one's neighbor, and is consistent with God-given natural laws.\" School poster depicted the costs of caring for the handicapped and what could have been bought for healthy families at the same price.\n\n\n==== Pro-euthanasia ====\nDuring the euthanasia program, the film Ich klage an was created to depict a woman being mercifully killed by her husband to escape her fatal illness, and his trial afterwards to stage pro-euthanasia arguments. It culminates in the husband's declaration that he is accusing them of cruelty for trying to prevent such deaths.This situation presented the matter in the most favorable light, far from the solitary, involuntary deaths of those killed by the program under a very broad definition of \"incurably ill\".\n\n\n== War ==\n\n\n=== Stab-in-the-back legend ===\nThe Stab-in-the-back myth, asserting that Germany had not really been defeated in World War I but instead betrayed, was integral to affirming the excellence of Germany. The November Revolution and the \"November Germany\" resulting were objects of loathing; the hero of the movie Flüchtlinge turns his back on \"November Germany\", with its whining and sycophancy, to devote himself to true Germany. All movies depicting the era of defeat do so from the war veterans' point of view: in D III 38, a pilot refused to go on fighting on hearing of revolution, since they were \"behaving like pigs\" and would laugh at his sacrifice if he died; in Pour le Mérite (Film), a war veteran scorns Weimar and declares he will disrupt it whenever he can; and in Leave on Parole, the people are portrayed as being corrupted by pacifist slogans while soldiers unflinching stood their ground.The humiliation of Germany at Versailles was of good use to Hitler, both inside Germany and outside, where many onlookers were sympathetic.\n\n\n=== Destruction of Germany ===\nA common wartime motif was that the Allies intended to destroy this country for its excellence. Goebbels presented it as the stakes of the war. He had the Allied demand for unconditional surrender plastered on the walls of cities. The Parole der Woche's weekly wall newspaper repeatedly claimed quotations showed that the intent of the Allies was to destroy Germany as a strong, united, and armed country. The effect of this was to convince many soldiers that the demoralizing effect of atrocities had to be fought off, because they were fighting for their people's existence.By the end of the war, total war propaganda argued that death would be better than the destruction the Allies intended to inflict, which would nevertheless end in death.The propaganda claim was made from 1933 that Germany was under threat and attack and in need of defense.\n\n\n=== In occupied countries ===\nThis line of propaganda presented obvious difficulties in occupied nations. Propaganda directed at these countries asserted, with blatant falsity, of wanting to protect European rather than German culture, particularly from the threat of Communism. At the same time that posters urged the French population to trust German soldiers, other posters urged German soldiers to show no friendship toward prisoners of war. Similarly, German soldiers in the Ukraine were told to steel their hearts against starving women and children, because every bit of food given to them was stolen from the German people, endangering their nourishment.When propaganda had to be visible to both native and foreign populations, a balance had to be struck. Pamphlets urging German women to protect the purity of their blood from foreign slave workers also asserted that this was not a manifestation of contempt for other nations.German Institutes in occupied countries, particularly France, attempted to demonstrate Germanic cultural superiority through cultural programs, which also softened the effects of occupation, and distracted from Nazi plans. According to historian Allan Mitchell, Hitler could not come to a conclusion about where the French and their racial purity belonged in his race hierarchy as in Hitler's mind \"the French were neither subhuman nor Aryan.\"The Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories contained a Main Department for Politics, which dealt with propaganda in the battle against the Soviet Union.\n\n\n=== Total war ===\n\nEarly success led many in Germany to believe that the war could be won with ease. Setbacks caused Goebbels to call for propaganda to toughen up the German people and not make victory look easy. As early as the opening of the Battle of Britain, he urged caution in predicting victory. His Das Reich article called for people to fight rather than wonder how long the war would last. This process culminated in his Sportpalast speech, calling for total war. The audience was carefully selected for their reactions, to maximize impace of its radio broadcast. Attempts were also made to stir the civilian population into taking jobs in war production. An article appearing for Hitler's birthday urged women to greater efforts as birthday present. Goebbels used the assassination attempt on Hitler to urge utmost exertions.The film Kolberg depicted title town in stubborn resistance to the French forces of the Napoleonic wars in order to stir resistance in the German people. Goebbels explicitly ordered the use of the historical events for a film, which he regarded as highly suitable for the circumstances Germany faced. The film itself can be taken as evidence that hope was lost for the German cause; It glorified resistance to the death, and only through an invented military miracle was the town saved in the film.The fall of Italy was not well prepared for and had a deep impact; a leaflet even circulated drawing analogies between the German and Italian situations. A counter leaflet was spread to accentuate the difference.By the end of the war, propaganda took the only possible tack: declaring death better than defeat. Theodore Kaufman's 1941 book Germany Must Perish was treated as significant depiction of American thought, and it was claimed that the Allies planned to dismember and fragment Germany, take away its industry, and turn 10 million Germans into slavery. Propagandists depicted the Volkssturm as an outburst of enthusiasm and will to resist. Das Reich depicted Berlin as fighting to the last, with no promises of miracle weapons that would save the day, as was done earlier.\n\nThe demand for Unconditional surrender was used by Goebbels to strengthen German resistance by pointing to the grim fate that awaited them.The in late 1944 approved and signed version of the Morgenthau plan for the coming occupation of Germany concluded: \"is looking forward to converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character.\" News of the plan were leaked to the press. Joseph Goebbels said that \"The Jew Morgenthau\" wanted to make Germany into a giant potato patch. Goebbels used the Morgenthau Plan for his propaganda machine extensively. The headline of the Völkischer Beobachter stated, \"ROOSEVELT AND CHURCHILL AGREE TO JEWISH MURDER PLAN!\"Lt. Colonel John Boettiger said that the American troops that had had to fight for five weeks against fierce German resistance to capture the city of Aachen had complained to him that the Morgenthau Plan was \"worth thirty divisions to the Germans.\"On December 11, 1944 OSS operative William Donovan sent Roosevelt a telegraph message from Bern, warning him of the consequences that the knowledge of the Morgenthau plan had had on German resistance. The telegraph message from Donovan was a translation of a recent article in the Neue Zürcher Zeitung.\n\nSo far, the Allies have not offered the opposition any serious encouragement. On the contrary, they have again and again welded together the people and the Nazis by statements published, either out of indifference or with a purpose. To take a recent example, the Morgenthau plan gave Dr. Goebbels the best possible chance. He was able to prove to his countrymen, in black and white, that the enemy planned the enslavement of Germany.\n...The conviction that Germany had nothing to expect from defeat but oppression and exploitation still prevails, and that accounts for the fact that the Germans continue to fight. It is not a question of a regime, but of the homeland itself, and to save that, every German is bound to obey the call, whether he be Nazi or member of the opposition.\n\n\n=== Careless talk ===\nThe slogan \"The Enemy is Listening\" was deployed to discourage talk of sensitive information; a slogan say \"Talk is treachery\" was not approved for fear that people would apply it to propaganda. The press had to be warned against creating the impression that spies were everywhere.\n\n\n== Middle Ages ==\nAnother major theme within the context of Nazi propaganda was the coupling of mediaeval imagery with contemporary Nazi aesthetics. Many of the propaganda posters used at the time displayed a mediaeval knight, with a shield clad in Swastika.\nThat was not particular just to the Nazis, as many other European countries and even the Imperial German government used some forms of mediaeval imagery, but it was the Nazi regime that actually implemented mediaeval imagery in a fashion that equated themselves to their post-classical predecessors.\nOne of the most famous examples of this was Hubert Lanzinger's 1935 Hitler portrait entitled Der Bannertrager (\"The Standard Bearer\"). Hitler is clad in it in the armor of a knight, riding a war horse, and carrying with him the seastika flag. That is exactly the kind of synthesis between contemporary and mediaeval imagery that the Nazis used time and again. That way, the Nazis looked to paint themselves as the return of the heroes of German folklore.\nThe vast majority of the pieces did not involve any specific Nazi leaders, however, and simply placed the imagery of the current era with that of the mediaeval period. Another striking example is the 1936 celebration of the farmers, which shows a giant knight defending a small farm from a hammer and sickle. Images like that one were used during the prewar period typically to inspire the German people to believe in the regine's programs and policies of the Third Reich. In that period of turmoil, such images were designed to encourage support among average people by the association with popular and culturally-significant imagery.\nMost such images reflected the more militant aspects of the Middle Ages. When the war itself was underway, the Nazis attempted to reach out to more than just the Germans by including feelings of cultural pride toward other Nordic peoples. The Nazis created images that pertained specifically to the Norse Viking heritage in the recruitment of soldiers from Scandinavians.\nJust as they had in Germany made an appeal to people's heritage, they attempted to create the image that the Nazi's were the embodiment of the Germanic and Nordic past and that anyone who wanted to preserve their cultural heritage should join them.\nAs the war proceeded, propaganda became more pointedly directed at recruiting and used less and less mediaeval imagery, but it was used heavily in the lead-up and consolidation of power by the Nazis in the prewar period. It still being but slightly less often during the war itself. To an extent, as the war turned against Germany, the harsh realities of defeat meant that the average German citizen would be less inclined to support some fanciful depiction of a knight and more inclined to support a realistic depiction of a German soldier.\n\n\n== See also ==\nJulius Streicher\nRommel myth\nWehrmachtbericht\n\n\n== References ==", "King Rat is a 1965 American war film written and directed by Bryan Forbes and starring George Segal and James Fox. They play Corporal King and Marlowe, respectively, two World War II prisoners of war in a squalid camp near Singapore. Among the supporting cast are John Mills and Tom Courtenay. The film was adapted from James Clavell's novel King Rat (1962), which in turn is partly based on Clavell's experiences as an Australian POW at Changi Prison in Malaya in the latter part of the Second World War.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nCorporal King is an anomaly in the Japanese prison camp. One of only a handful of Americans amongst the British and Australian inmates, he thrives through his conniving and black market enterprises, while others, nearly all of higher rank, struggle to survive sickness and starvation while trying to retain their civilized standards. King recruits upper class British RAF officer Flight Lieutenant Peter Marlowe to act as a translator. As they become acquainted, Marlowe comes to like the man and appreciate his cunning. King respects Marlowe, but his attitude is otherwise ambiguous; when Marlowe is injured, King obtains expensive medicines to save Marlowe's gangrenous arm from amputation, but, despite the fact he stays by the sick man's bedside, it is unclear whether he does so out of friendship or because Marlowe is the only one who knows where the proceeds from King's latest and most profitable venture are hidden.\nHowever, lower class, seemingly incorruptible British Provost, First Lieutenant Grey has only contempt for the American and does his best to bring him down. Then Grey has to deal with an unrelated dilemma when he accidentally discovers that the high-ranking officer in charge of the meagre food rations has been stealing. He rejects a bribe and zealously takes the matter to Colonel George Smedley-Taylor. To his dismay, Smedley-Taylor tells him the corrupt officer and his assistant have merely been relieved of their duties and orders him to forget all about it. Grey accuses Smedley-Taylor of being in on the scheme, but the tampered weight he presented to the colonel as evidence has been replaced, so he no longer has proof of the crime. Smedley-Taylor offers to promote him to acting captain. When a troubled Grey does not respond, Smedley-Taylor takes his silence as consent.\nKing starts breeding rats and selling the meat to British officers, telling them it is mouse-deer. When a pet dog is put down for killing a chicken, King has it cooked, and he and his friends secretly eat it. Although King's friends protest when they discover the origin of the meat, they ultimately relish it. The stakes are raised when they get a diamond to sell.\nThen the Japanese commander reads a scroll while a junior officer translates for the senior British officers, informing them that the Japanese have surrendered and the war is over. The prisoners celebrate – all except King. He realizes he is no longer the unquestioned, if unofficial, ruler of the camp. \nWeaver, a lone British paratrooper appears from seemingly nowhere, walks up to the prison gates and fires a revolver in the air. The guards surrender. King manages to squelch a premature attempt by resentful underling First Sergeant Max to reassert his rank and authority, but that only delays the inevitable. When Marlowe speaks to him before King's departure from the camp, King belittles their friendship, saying \"you worked for me, and I paid you\". The Americans are put on a truck. Marlowe rushes to say goodbye to King, but is too late, and the truck drives off.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nRichard Dawson appears near the end of the film as Captain Weaver, a paratrooper who is sent ahead to claim the prison from the Japanese, as the war has ended. An American sergeant (Mickey Simpson) rounds up the Americans to send them home.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nBurnett Guffey was nominated for Academy Awards for Cinematography, and Robert Emmet Smith and Frank Tuttle for Art Direction.\n\n\n== Reception ==\nThe film has been praised for its realism and cinematography. Moreover, Segal's performance has been cited as one of the strongest of his career. However, Clavell later said \"my feeling is the film failed because Forbes took away the story thread and made it a composite of character studies\".\n\n\n== Inaccuracy ==\nGeorge Segal's character, U.S. Army Corporal King, wears the shoulder patch of the American 34th Infantry Division. That division fought in North Africa and Italy, not in the Asian or Pacific areas of operation.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of American films of 1965\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nKing Rat at IMDb\nKing Rat at AllMovie\nKing Rat at the TCM Movie Database\nKing Rat at the American Film Institute Catalog\nKing Rat at Rotten Tomatoes", "The title of SS and police leader (SS- und Polizeiführer) was used to designate a senior Nazi Party official who commanded large units of the SS, Gestapo and the German uniformed police (Ordnungspolizei), prior to and during World War II. \nThree levels of subordination were established for bearers of this title:\n\nSS and Police Leader (SS- und Polizeiführer), SSPF\nHigher SS and Police Leader (Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer, HSSPF, HSS-PF, HSSuPF)\nSupreme SS and Police Leader (Höchster SS- und Polizeiführer, HöSSPF)\n\n\n== History ==\nThe first Higher SS and Police Leaders were appointed in 1937 from the existing SS-Oberabschnitt Führer (leaders of the main districts). The purpose of the Higher SS and Police Leader was to be a direct command authority for every SS and police unit in a given geographical region with such authority answering only to Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler and Adolf Hitler. They were to act as the highest liaison under Himmler and \"unifier\" for command of the SS and police in a region.Inside the Reich, the man referred to as HSSPF was usually also SS-Oberabschnitt Führer for that region. In the occupied territories, there was no Oberabschnitt, so the HSSPF existed on their own. However, they had something the Reich HSSPFs did not – several SS- und Polizeiführer (SSPF) reporting to them. There were two Höchster SS- und Polizeiführer (Supreme SS and Police Leader) posts; these were Italien (1943–1945) and Ukraine (1943–1944), both of which had various HSSPF and SSPF reporting to them.The SS and police leaders directly commanded a headquarters staff with representatives from almost every branch of the SS and the uniformed police. This typically included the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo; regular police), Gestapo (secret police), Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV; Nazi concentration camps), SD (intelligence service), and certain units of the Waffen-SS (combat units). Most of these SS and Police Leaders normally held the rank of SS-Gruppenführer or above and answered directly to Himmler in all matters pertaining to the SS within their area of responsibility. Their role was to be part of the SS control mechanism within the state policing the German population and overseeing the activities of the SS men within each respective district. The men in these positions could bypass the main chain of command of the administrative offices in their district for the SS, SD, SiPo, SS-TV and Orpo under the \"guise of an emergency situation\" thereby gaining direct operational control of these groups.Himmler authorized SS and Police Bases (SS- und Polizeistützpunkte) to be established in occupied Poland and occupied areas of the Soviet Union. They were to be \"armed industrialized agricultural complexes\". They would also maintain order in the areas they were established. They did not go beyond the planning stage.In 1944 and 1945, many HSSPF were promoted to general's rank in the Waffen-SS by Himmler. This was apparently an attempt to provide potential protection under the Hague Convention rules of warfare.\n\n\n== Crimes against humanity ==\n\nThe SS and Police Leaders served as commanding SS generals for any Einsatzgruppen (death squads) operating in their area. This entailed ordering the deaths of tens of thousands of persons and, following the end of World War II, most SS and Police Leaders who had served in Poland and the Soviet Union were charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity.The SS and Police Leaders were the overseeing authority of the Jewish ghettos in Poland and, as such, directly coordinated deportations to Nazi extermination camps with the administrative help of the RSHA. They had direct command over Order Police battalions and SD regiments that were assigned to guard the ghettos.\n\n\n== List of SS and police leaders ==\n\nNote – Men were often transferred and promoted as the war went on. The HSSPF areas themselves might change, be absorbed, cease to exist, etc. This list is by no means exhaustive.HöSSPF\n\nKarl Wolff – \"Italien\"\nHans-Adolf Prützmann – \"Ukraine\"HSSPF\n\nAugust Meyszner – Serbia and Montenegro\nHermann Behrends – Serbia and Montenegro\nUdo von Woyrsch – \"Elbe\"\nCarl Oberg – France\nErnst Kaltenbrunner – Donau\nKarl Hermann Frank – Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia\nFriedrich Jeckeln – Northern Russia\nRichard Hildebrandt – Black Sea\nErwin Rösener – Alpenland\nOdilo \"Globus\" Globocnik – Adriatic Coast\nHanns Albin Rauter – Netherlands\nErich von dem Bach – Central Russia\nWilhelm Rediess – Norway\nGünther Pancke – Denmark\nJürgen Stroop, then Walter Schimana, then Hermann Franz – Greece\nFriedrich-Wilhelm Krüger, then Wilhelm Koppe – General Government (Poland)\nKarl von Eberstein – Munich area of Germany\nFranz Walter Stahlecker – Reichskommissariat Ostland (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus)SSPF\n\nJürgen Stroop – Warsaw\nFranz Kutschera – Mogilev & Warsaw\nJulian Scherner – Kraków\nOdilo \"Globus\" Globocnik – Lublin\n\n\n== See also ==\nGlossary of Nazi Germany\nList of Nazi Party leaders and officials\nList of SS personnel\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nKoehl, Robert (2004). The SS: A History 1919–45. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-75242-559-7.\nMcNab, Chris (2009). The SS: 1923–1945. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-906626-49-5.\nYerger, Mark C. (1997). Allgemeine-SS: The Commands, Units and Leaders of the General SS. Schiffer Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7643-0145-4.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nHöhne, Heinz (2001) [1969]. The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14139-012-3.", "Fritz Todt (4 September 1891 – 8 February 1942) was a German construction engineer and senior Nazi who rose from the position of Inspector General for German Roadways, in which he directed the construction of the German autobahns (Reichsautobahnen), to become the Reich Minister for Armaments and Ammunition. From that position, he directed the entire German wartime military economy.\nBefore the beginning of World War II, he initiated what Hitler called Organisation Todt, a military-engineering company that supplied industry with forced labour and administered construction of the Nazi concentration camps in the late phase of Nazi Germany.\nTodt died in an aircraft crash in 1942.\n\n\n== Early life and education ==\nTodt was born in Pforzheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden (now in Baden-Württemberg) to Emil Todt (1861–1909) and his wife, Elise, née Unterecker (1869–1935). His father owned a small ring factory.\nIn 1910, he volunteered for one-year military service. From 1911 to 1914, Todt studied engineering at Technical Hochschule of Munich and Karlsruhe, graduating with a Diplom degree in construction engineering from the latter.During World War I, he served initially with the infantry and then as front line reconnaissance observer within the Luftstreitkräfte (the German Air Forces – DLSK), winning the Iron Cross. After the war he resumed his studies and graduated in 1920.\n\n\n== Career ==\nIn 1921, he initially worked on waterpower stations for the Grün & Bilfinger AG, Mannheim company and the same year for the civil engineering company Sager & Woerner where he worked until 1933. In January 1922, he joined the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), or Nazi Party. In 1931, he joined the Sturmabteilung (SA), which was then commanded by Ernst Röhm. He rose steadily through its ranks, attaining the rank of SA-Obergruppenführer in September 1938. In 1932, Todt completed his thesis at Technical Hochschule of Munich Fehlerquellen beim Bau von Landstraßendecken aus Teer und Asphalt (\"Sources of defects in the construction of tarmac and asphalt road surfaces\") and became a Doctor of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.).\n\nOn 5 July 1933, five months after Adolf Hitler became Reichskanzler, Todt was appointed Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen (Inspector General for German Roadways). In November, this public authority was raised to the status of a \"Supreme Reich Authority\" (Oberste Reichsbehörde) outside the hierarchy of Reich Ministries; Todt was subordinated directly to Hitler. Alan S. Milward characterized this phase as follows:\n\"His personal views on business questions and, what was more important, the success of the motorway project kept Todt in the inner circle of the Führer. At the same time, his deliberate pose as a technical expert, as a man without interest in internal power struggles, saved him from the adversaries of the more important party leaders for a long time\".: 44 \nHe was given the task of organizing a new construction company for the motorways (Reichsautobahnen). He edited the journal Die Strasse, which was a publication of his agency from 1934 to 1942. \nFor his work on the autobahnen, Todt was recognized with the German National Prize for Art and Science by Hitler, next to Ernst Heinkel, Ferdinand Porsche and Willy Messerschmitt. Hitler donated the award during 1937, devised as a replacement for the Nobel Prize, which Hitler forbade Germans from accepting starting during 1936.In December 1936, he became Leiter des Hauptamts für Technik in der Reichsleitung der NSDAP (Director of the Head Office for Engineering in the National Directorate of the NSDAP) and, in December 1938, Generalbevollmächtigter für die Regelung der Bauwirtschaft (General Plenipotentiary for the Regulation of the Construction Industry) in the Four Year Plan. At the beginning of World War II in Europe, he was also appointed to the rank of Generalmajor of the Luftwaffe. In May 1938, he initiated the Organisation Todt (OT), joining government firms, private companies and the Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service). OT used up to 800,000 forced labourers (Zwangsarbeiter) from countries that Germany occupied during World War II. Todt was responsible for the construction of the \"West Wall\" (commonly named the \"Siegfried Line\" in English-speaking countries) to defend the Reich territory.\n\nOn 17 March 1940, Todt was appointed Reichsminister für Bewaffnung und Munition (Minister for Armaments and Munitions) which meant he managed the entire military economy.After the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, Todt was appointed to manage the restoration of the infrastructure there. In late July 1941, he was named Generalinspekteur für Wasser und Energie (Inspector General for Water and Energy). During that year, he became increasingly distant from the commanders of the Wehrmacht, in particular from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe (Commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe). After an inspection tour of the Eastern Front, Todt complained to Hitler that without better equipment and supplies for the armed forces, it would be better to end the war against the Soviet Union. Hitler rejected such an assessment and continued the offensive against the Soviets.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nTodt was married and had three daughters and one son.\nOn the occasion of his 50th birthday in 1941, he founded the Dr. Fritz Todt Foundation. The goal of the organisation was to promote young talents of technicians, especially young people from poor families by a training subsidy.\n\n\n== Death ==\nOn 8 February 1942, soon after takeoff from the Wolfsschanze (\"Wolf's Lair\") airfield near Rastenburg, in East Prussia, Todt's aircraft crashed. He was buried in the Invalids' Cemetery in the Scharnhorst-Strasse in Berlin. Posthumously, he became the first recipient of the newly created Deutscher Orden (\"German Order\"), the highest award that the Nazi Party could bestow on a person for \"duties of the highest order to the state and party\".It has been suggested that Todt had been the victim of an assassination orchestrated by Hitler, but that has never been confirmed. A motivation for killing Todt was because he had flown to the Wolf's Lair to recommend Hitler sue for peace with Russia; Todt's production figures did not suggest the German economy could prevail against Russia, and by February it was apparent Hitler's plan to rapidly subdue Russia in a Blitzkrieg was not working.Todt's successor as Reichsminister was Albert Speer, whom Hitler awarded an Org.Todt ring during May 1943. Speer mentioned the Reich Air Ministry inquiry into the airplane accident, which he said ended with the sentence: \"The possibility of sabotage is ruled out. Further measures are therefore neither requisite nor intended\". Speer, who was present and had declined to ride on the same flight (due to being kept up late the night before, talking with Hitler), thought that the wording was \"curious\".: 279 \n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nOn 8 February 1944, the second anniversary of Todt's death, Hitler awarded the Dr.-Fritz-Todt-Preis as a Badge of Honor of the Nazi Party for \"Innovative accomplishments, which are of great importance for the Volk community because of the improvement of their weapons, ammunition and military equipment, and the saving of labor, raw materials and energy\". The Badge of Honor came with a material prize and a certificate, was awarded as a medal made of gold, silver, or steel. The Golden Award of Honor was presented by Hitler in person upon proposal by the responsible Gauleiter, upon the joint proposal of Robert Ley, the director of the corresponding Deutsche Arbeitsfront and NSDAP leaders, and the director of the \"Main office for Technology in the NSDAP\", Albert Speer.\n\n\n== Major awards ==\n1918 Iron Cross\n1937 Werner-von-Siemens-Ring\n1938 Deutscher Nationalpreis für Kunst und Wissenschaft\n1939 Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy\n1942 Deutscher Orden.\n\n\n== See also ==\nEconomy of Nazi Germany\nForced labour under German rule during World War II\nNazi architecture\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nKroener, Bernhard R., Rolf-Dieter Muller, and Hans Umbreit, eds. Germany and the Second World War: Volume 5: Organization and Mobilization of the German Sphere of Power. Part I: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources, 1939-1941 Oxford University Press, (2000)\nOvery, Richard J. (1988). \"Mobilization for Total War in Germany 1939-1941.\"\". English Historical Review. 103 (408): 613–639. doi:10.1093/ehr/CIII.CCCCVIII.613. JSTOR 572694.\nTaylor, Blaine. Hitler's Engineers: Fritz Todt and Albert Speer-Master Builders of the Third Reich (Casemate Publishers, 2010)\nBusch, Andreas: Die Geschichte des Autobahnbaus in Deutschland bis 1945. Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza 2002, ISBN 3-936030-40-5.\nMiller, Michael D.; Schulz, Andreas (2017). Leaders of the Storm Troops. 2. Solihull, England: Helion & Company. ISBN 978-1-910777-84-8.\nSchönleben, Eduard: Fritz Todt, der Mensch, der Ingenieur, der Nationalsozialist. Ein Bericht über Leben und Werk. Gerhard Stalling, Oldenburg 1943.\nSchütz, Erhard, Eckhard Gruber: Mythos Reichsautobahn. 2. Auflage. Links, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-86153-117-8.\nFranz W. Seidler: Fritz Todt. Baumeister des Dritten Reiches. Ullstein, Frankfurt am Main/Berlin 1988, ISBN 3-548-33095-9.419 pp.\nAdam Tooze: Ökonomie der Zerstörung. Die Geschichte der Wirtschaft im Nationalsozialismus. Siedler, München 2006 (German 2007), ISBN 978-3-88680-857-1. New edition: Schriftenreihe der Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, vol. 663, ISBN 978-3-89331-822-3. Wieder: Pantheon, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-570-55056-4.\n\n\n== External links ==\nTribute to Fritz Todt. Story RG-60.3910, Film ID: 2691. Deutsche Wochenschau, February 1942 (in German). Duration 8:35 min. Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive, USHMM. Funeral of Fritz Todt at 01:05:12.\nNewspaper clippings about Fritz Todt in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW", "HHhH is the debut novel of French author Laurent Binet, published in 2010 by Grasset & Fasquelle. The book recounts Operation Anthropoid, the assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich in Prague during World War II. The novel was awarded the 2010 Prix Goncourt du Premier Roman.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nThe novel follows the history of the operation and the lives of its protagonists—Reinhard Heydrich and his assassins Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. It is interlaced with the author's account of the process of researching and writing the book, his commentary about other literary and media treatments of the subject, and reflections about the extent to which the behavior of real people may of necessity be fictionalised in a historical novel.\n\n\n== Title ==\nThe title is an initialism for Himmlers Hirn heißt Heydrich (\"Himmler's brain is called Heydrich\"), a quip about Heydrich in SS circles. The title was suggested by Binet's publisher, Grasset, instead of the \"too sci-fi\" working title Opération Anthropoïde. The editor also requested the cut of about twenty pages criticizing Jonathan Littell's Les Bienveillantes, another novel about the SS in World War II that was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 2006. The Millions published the \"missing pages\" in 2012.\n\n\n== Translations ==\nHHhH has been translated into more than twenty languages. The English translation by Sam Taylor was published in the US by Farrar, Straus and Giroux on 24 April 2012 and in the UK by Harvill Secker on 3 May 2012.\n\n\n== Film adaptation ==\n\nCédric Jimenez directed a film adaptation of the novel, also known as The Man with the Iron Heart. It starred Jason Clarke, Rosamund Pike, Mia Wasikowska, Jack O'Connell and Jack Reynor.\n\n\n== Awards and honours ==\n2010 Prix Goncourt du Premier Roman\n2011 Europese Literatuurprijs, shortlist\n2012 National Book Critics Circle Award, finalist\n2012 New York Times Notable Book of the Year\n\n\n== References ==" ] }

{ "title": [ "Carson Entertainment", "Joan Embery", "Al Jean", "Tommy Newsom", "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", "Johnny's Theme", "Carnac the Magnificent", "Teen Angel (1997 TV series)", "Daniel Rosen", "John Twomey (musician)" ], "text": [ "Carson Entertainment Group (formerly Carson Productions and Carson Productions Group) is a television production company established by Johnny Carson in 1980. The company primarily produced The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from 1980 to 1992 and Late Night with David Letterman from 1982 to 1993.\nIn addition, Carson Productions also produced many specials with Carson among other TV shows, including Teachers Only from 1982 to 1983, Partners in Crime from 1984 to 1985, Amen from 1986 to 1991 and TV's Bloopers & Practical Jokes (co-produced with Dick Clark Productions) from 1984 to 1993.\nIt also produced the films The Big Chill (1983) and Desert Bloom (1986).\nIn the years since Carson's retirement from television (and following his death in 2005), the company's primary function has been to maintain Carson's legacy and license clips (including the sale of commercial DVDs to retail and mail order consumers) of his time hosting The Tonight Show. At the start of 2016, entire episodes were licensed by Carson Entertainment to the digital multicast network Antenna TV for nightly reruns. Johnny Carson's nephew, Jeff Sotzing, currently manages Carson Entertainment Group content.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCarson Productions at IMDb\nOfficial site", "Joan Marie Embery (born June 1, 1949 in San Diego, California, United States) is an American animal and environmental advocate. She was a Trustee of the Morris Animal Foundation, a professional Fellow of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, a member of the Advisory Board of the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine's Wildlife Health Center, and a founding member the American Association of Zoo Keepers. The goodwill ambassador to the San Diego Zoo's Zoological Society of San Diego for 32 years, she has hosted educational series \"Animal Express\", \"Animals of Africa\", \"Baby Panda\" and \"Challenge to Wildlife Specials for Public Broadcasting\". She has raised awareness of animals and wildlife conservation through her books, tours, projects, and appearances on television shows, including talk shows.\nIn addition to being an environmental advocate, Embery is a skilled horsewoman who has won many awards.Embery studied zoology and telecommunications at San Diego State University before earning a bachelor of arts degree in communication at Eastern Illinois University. She lived with her husband Duane Pillsbury on Pillsbury Ranch, a 50-acre (20 ha) ranch in Lakeside, California, home to show horses, wildlife ambassadors, native wildlife, and personal pets. Joan's husband and partner of 41 years, Duane Pillsbury, died 16 September 2020.\n\n\n== Television appearances ==\nEmbery appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Good Morning America, CBS This Morning, Live with Regis and Kathie Lee, Entertainment Tonight, ALF, The Phil Donahue Show, Newhart, Hollywood Squares, Win, Lose or Draw, The Larry Sanders Show, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, Xuxa, Leeza, Kidsongs and PM Magazine.\n\n\n== Honors ==\nEmbery was nominated and inducted into the San Diego County Women's Hall of Fame in 2007 by Women's Museum of California, Commission on the Status of Women, University of California, San Diego Women's Center, and San Diego State University Women's Studies.Outstanding Celebrity Philanthropist – Rotary International, San Diego Chapter\nHeadliner of the Year Award – San Diego Press Club\nPaul Harris Award - Rotary International\nHonorary Lifetime Member – AAZK (American Association of Zookeepers)\nOutstanding Documentary Personality – ON CABLE Award 1983\nExcellence in Informational Programming – Cable ACE Award 1983\nLiving Legacy Award – Women's International 1994\nHonorary Doctorate of Public Service – Eastern Illinois University 1994\nDistinguished Alumna Award – Eastern Illinois University 1998\nSoroptimist Honoree of Distinction 2001\nStyle Award – Fashion Group International, San Diego Chapter 2002\nTracks in the Sand Conservation Award – The Living Desert 2004\nCommunications and Leadership Award – Toastmasters International 2005\nAmbassador for Wildlife Award – Miami Metro Zoo 2005\nLife Time Achievement Award – PAWS San Diego County, 2006\nLegacy Award – Nonprofit Management Solutions 2006\nAlumni Award – San Diego City Schools 2006\nSan Diego County Women’s Hall of Fame – Spirit of the Hall of Fame 2007\nOutstanding Celebrity Volunteer – American Federation of Philanthropists - 2010\nConservation Medal-Zoological Society of San Diego -2011\nWomen of Distinction Salvation Army 2011\nCool Women – Girl Scouts of San Diego 2012\nWomen Who Mean Business Community Service Award – 2015\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial site\nJoan Embery at IMDb\nQuestions & Answers: Joan Embery, interview with Michele Clock of The San Diego Union-Tribune\nWomen's Museum of California", "Alfred Ernest Jean III (born January 9, 1961) is an American writer, animator, and producer. Jean is well known for his work on The Simpsons. He was born and raised near Detroit, Michigan, and graduated from Harvard University in 1981. Jean began his writing career in the 1980s with fellow Harvard alum Mike Reiss. Together, they worked as writers and producers on television shows such as The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, ALF and It's Garry Shandling's Show.\nJean was offered a job as a writer on the animated sitcom The Simpsons in 1989, alongside Reiss, and together they became the first members of the original writing staff of the show. They served as showrunners during the show's third (1991–92) and fourth (1992–93) seasons, though they left The Simpsons after season four to create The Critic, an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman. It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 (then aired its second season on Fox in March 1995) and was well received by critics, but did not catch on with viewers and only lasted for two seasons.\nIn 1994, Jean and Reiss signed a three-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce other television shows for ABC, and the duo created and executive-produced Teen Angel, which was canceled in its first season. Jean returned full-time to The Simpsons during the tenth season (1998–99). He became showrunner again with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001, without Reiss, and has held that position since. Jean was also one of the writers and producers who worked on The Simpsons Movie, a feature-length film based on the series, released in 2007.\n\n\n== Early life ==\n\nJean was born Alfred Ernest Jean III on January 9, 1961. He was born and raised in Farmington Hills, Michigan, graduated from Farmington Hills Harrison High School, and is of Irish ancestry. After working at his father's hardware store, Jean arrived at Harvard University when he was sixteen years old and graduated in 1981 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics. Daryl Libow, one of Jean's freshman roommates, said he was a \"math whiz\" when he arrived at Harvard but \"soon blossomed and found his comedic feet.\" In Holworthy Hall at Harvard, Jean met fellow freshman Mike Reiss; they befriended one another and collaborated in their writing efforts for the humor publication Harvard Lampoon. Jeff Martin, another writer for the Lampoon, said \"they definitely loomed large around the magazine. They were very funny guys and unusually polished comedy writers for that age. We were never surprised that they went on to success.\" Jean has also stated that the duo spent most of their time at the Lampoon, adding that \"it was practically my second dorm room.\" He eventually became vice-president of the publication.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Early career and The Simpsons ===\nThe humor magazine National Lampoon hired Jean and Reiss after they graduated in 1981. During the 1980s, the duo began collaborating on various television material. During this period, they worked as writers and producers on television shows such as The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, ALF, Sledge Hammer! and It's Garry Shandling's Show. In 1989, Jean was offered a job as a writer on the animated sitcom The Simpsons, a show created by Matt Groening, James L. Brooks and Sam Simon that continues to air today. Many of Jean's friends were not interested in working on The Simpsons because it was a cartoon and they did not think it would last long. Jean, however, was a fan of the work of Groening, Brooks and Simon, and therefore took the job together with Reiss.The duo became the first members of the original Simpsons writing staff and worked on the thirteen episodes of the series' first season (1989–90). While watching the first episode of the show, \"Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire\", premiering on television in December 1989, Jean opined to himself that the series was the greatest project he had been involved with and desired to continue working on it for the rest of his professional career. What he enjoyed most about The Simpsons at the time was something he recognized from Brooks' previous work: although the show was largely based on humor, it had depth and warmth.\n\nAlthough Jean has been credited as the sole writer of several episodes, he considers the process to be mainly collaborative: \"the principal writer [of an episode] has, at most, written 40% of the script. It's a real team effort.\" The writer credited in the episode's opening credits is the person that came up with the idea for the episode and wrote the first draft, even if he or she only contributed to a small part of the final script. Jean has stated that Lisa Simpson is one of his favorite characters to write for. She is the character he relates to the most because of their similar childhoods and the fact that he has a daughter.Jean became showrunner of The Simpsons at the start of the third season (1991–92) together with Reiss. A showrunner has the ultimate responsibility of all the processes that an episode goes through before completion, including the writing, the animation, the voice acting and the music. When Jean began his tenure as showrunner, the only thing he thought to himself every day was \"Don't blow it and screw up this thing everyone loves.\" The first episode Jean and Reiss ran was \"Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington\" (aired September 26, 1991), and they felt pressured to make it good, so much so that they did six to seven rewrites of the script in order to improve its humor. Jean said he \"kept thinking 'It's not good enough. It's not good enough.'\" Reiss added that \"we were definitely scared. We had never run anything before, and they dumped us on this.\"Jean and Reiss served as showrunners until the end of the fourth season in 1993. Since the show had already established itself in the first two seasons, they were able to give it more depth during their tenure. Jean believes this is one of the reasons that many fans and critics regard season three and four as the best seasons of The Simpsons. Bill Oakley, another Simpsons writer, has commented that \"Mike and Al are responsible for the best thing that ever appeared on television, which was the third season of The Simpsons.\" Comedy writer Jay Kogen has said that \"those years with Al Jean and Mike Reiss running it were pretty darn good. And then the ones after that maybe not so much. Some people ran it better than others.\"\n\n\n=== The Critic and Disney ===\n\nJean and Reiss left The Simpsons after its fourth season in order to create The Critic, an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman (voiced by Jon Lovitz); the show was executive produced by Brooks. It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 and was well received by critics, but did not catch on with viewers and was put on hiatus after six weeks. It returned in June 1994 and completed airing its initial production run. The Critic was moved to the Fox network for its second season. Since The Simpsons also aired on that network, Brooks was able to create a crossover between it and The Critic.Said crossover occurred through the Simpsons episode \"A Star Is Burns\" (1995). Groening was not fond of the crossover, publicly citing it as a thirty-minute advertisement for The Critic. Brooks said, \"for years, Al and Mike were two guys who worked their hearts out on this show, staying up until 4 in the morning to get it right. The point is, Matt's name has been on Mike's and Al's scripts and he has taken plenty of credit for a lot of their great work. In fact, he is the direct beneficiary of their work. The Critic is their shot and he should be giving them his support.\" Reiss stated that he was a \"little upset\" by Groening's actions and that \"this taints everything at the last minute. [...] This episode doesn't say 'Watch The Critic' all over it.\" Jean added \"What bothers me about all of this, is that now people may get the impression that this Simpsons episode is less than good. It stands on its own even if The Critic never existed.\" On Fox, The Critic was again short-lived, broadcasting ten episodes before its cancellation. A total of only 23 episodes were produced, and it returned briefly in 2000 with a series of ten Internet broadcast webisodes. The series has since developed a cult following thanks to reruns on Comedy Central and its complete series release on DVD.In 1994, Jean and Reiss signed a three-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce other television shows for ABC. The duo created and executive produced Teen Angel, which was canceled in its first season. Reiss said \"It was so compromised and overworked. I had 11 executives full-time telling me how to do my job.\" The pair periodically returned to work on The Simpsons— for example, while under contract at Disney they were allowed to write and produce four episodes of the show, including season eight's \"Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala(Annoyed Grunt)cious\" (1997).\n\n\n=== Further work on The Simpsons ===\n\nJean returned full-time to The Simpsons during the tenth season (1998–99). He once again became showrunner with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001, this time without Reiss. Jean called it \"a great job with a lot of responsibility,\" and cited \"the fact that people love it so much\" as \"great.\" He adds, however, that \"the hardest thing at this point is just thinking of fresh ideas. People are so on top of things that we've done before, so the challenge now is to think of an idea that's good, but hasn't been seen.\" Jean's return was initially welcomed, with MSNBC's Jon Bonné stating: \"Jean, who took the show's helm from executive producer Mike Scully in 2001, has guided the show away from its gag-heavy, Homer-centric incarnation...these are certainly brighter days for the show's long-time fans.\" However, some critics have argued that the show's quality has continued to decline in recent years during Jean's tenure. Jean has responded to this criticism by saying: \"Well, it's possible that we've declined. But honestly, I've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying, 'It's gone downhill.' If we'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13. I'm glad we didn't.\"Jean was one of the writers and producers who worked on The Simpsons Movie, a feature-length film released in 2007. The show's voice cast was signed on to do the film in 2001, and work then began on the script. The Simpsons producers were initially worried that creating a film would have a negative effect on the show, as they did not have enough crew to focus their attention on both projects. As the show progressed, additional writers and animators were hired so that both the show and the film could be produced at the same time. Groening and Brooks were therefore able to invite Jean (who continued to work as show runner on the television show) to produce the film with them.Jean frequently appears on the Simpsons DVD audio commentaries for episodes which he has collaborated on. He told IGN that he enjoys doing them because he has not seen some of the episodes in ten to fifteen years, and \"it's kind of like a reunion to see some of the people that I worked with before, so it's a really pleasant experience.\"As of 2020 he is joint show runner with Matt Selman.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nJean has received nine Emmy Awards and a Peabody Award for his work on The Simpsons. In 1997, he and Reiss won an Annie Award in the \"Best Producing in a TV Production\" category for the Simpsons episode \"The Springfield Files\". In 1991 they shared the Writing A Comedy Series CableAce Award for the It's Garry Shandling's Show Episode \"My Mother The Wife\". In 2006, the duo was given the Animation Writers Caucus Animation Award which is given by the Writers Guild of America to writers that \"advanced the literature of animation in film and/or television through the years and who has made outstanding contributions to the profession of the animation writer.\"\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nAs of 2005, Jean lives in Los Angeles, California, with his wife, television writer Stephanie Gillis. Jean also has two daughters.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAl Jean at IMDb\nAl Jean at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television", "Thomas Penn Newsom (February 25, 1929 – April 28, 2007) was a saxophone player in the NBC Orchestra on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, for which he later became assistant director. Newsom was frequently the band's substitute director, whenever music director Doc Severinsen was away from the show or filling in for announcer Ed McMahon. Nicknamed \"Mr. Excitement\" by Johnny Carson as an ironic take on his low-keyed, reserved persona, he was often a foil for Carson's humor. His conservative brown or blue suits were a marked contrast to Severinsen's flashy stage clothing.\n\n\n== Biography ==\nNewsom was born in Portsmouth, Virginia. He earned degrees from the Norfolk Division of the College of William & Mary (now Old Dominion University), the Peabody Conservatory of Music, and Columbia University. He served in the United States Air Force where he played in the band, and later toured with the Benny Goodman Orchestra and performed with Vincent Lopez in New York. Newsom joined the Tonight Show Band in 1962, and left it when Carson retired in 1992. In addition to Carson's orchestra, Newsom performed with the orchestra for The Merv Griffin Show.\nNewsom was as well known within the music industry as an arranger as well as a performer. He arranged for groups as varied as the Tonight Show ensemble and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra, and musicians Skitch Henderson, Woody Herman, Kenny Rogers, Charlie Byrd, John Denver, and opera star Beverly Sills.\nNewsom won two Emmy Awards as a music director: in 1982 with Night of 100 Stars, and in 1986 for the broadcast of the 40th Annual Tony Awards. He also recorded several albums as a bandleader.On April 28, 2007, Newsom died of bladder and liver cancer at his home in Portsmouth. He was 78 years old. Newsom had been married to his wife Patricia for 49 years. They had a daughter, Candy, and a son, Mark, who died in 2003.\n\n\n== Quotes ==\nNewsom and Carson used audiences' low expectations for Newsom to good advantage:\n\nOne night Carson turned to Newsom during his monologue and asked why he always had his hands clasped together behind his back. Newsom replied, \"vapor lock!\" bringing down the house with laughter. Carson quipped, \"I'm out here busting my buns to get a laugh, with one joke after another, and you just say 'vapor lock' and crack us all up!\" (Carson made similar \"complaints\" on multiple episodes)\nDuring one episode Newsom appeared in a sport coat similar to Carson's own. Noticing the similarity, Carson asked Newsom where he got his; he responded simply, \"It was in my closet at home, John\".\nAnother time, Carson, who had just returned from vacation, said, \"I really missed you guys.\" Newsom: \"Why didn't you write?\"\nOne night, Newsom wore a very bold (for him) yellow suit. Carson commented, \"Look at that big, dumb canary.\" Newsom's response: \"You’ll know what kind of bird I am when I fly over you.\"\nDuring a March 1991 episode, Johnny asked Newsom where bandleader Doc Severinsen was. Newsom replied that Severinsen went with his wife to Florida. Then Tommy followed up seconds later saying \"He was going to Tampa (tamper) with her.\" Later in the show, Johnny asked drummer Ed Shaughnessy, who was going to perform in Illinois, if he was going to do a clinic in addition to performing a concert; Shaughnessy replied he was doing just a concert. When Johnny asked Tommy if he ever did clinics, Tommy replied \"I go to clinics\", which yet again brought down the house. Johnny temporarily walked offstage in mock offense.\nOne night Johnny asked Tommy if he wore designer underwear. Tommy: \"I put my own designs in them.\"\n\n\n== Discography ==\nLive from Beautiful Downtown Burbank (Direct Disc Labs, 1978)\nTommy Newsom & His TV Jazz Stars (1990)\nI Remember You, Johnny (1996)\nThe Feeling of Jazz with Ken Peplowski (Arbors, 1999)\nTommy Newsom is Afraid of Bees (2000)\nFriendly Fire (Arbors, 2001)\n\n\n=== As sideman ===\nWith Buck Clayton and Tommy Gwaltney's Kansas City 9\n\nGoin' to Kansas City (1960, Riverside)With Rosemary Clooney\n\nDedicated to Nelson (1996, Concord)With J. J. Johnson\n\nThe Total J.J. Johnson (RCA Victor, 1967)\n\n\n=== As arranger ===\nWith Maurice Hines\n\nTo Nat \"King\" Cole With Love (Arbors)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nInterview with Newsom by his nephew, Jim Newsom\nTommy Newsom at AllMusic\nTommy Newsom discography at Discogs \nTommy Newsom at IMDb\nTommy Newsom at Find a Grave", "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson is an American late-night talk show hosted by Johnny Carson under the Tonight Show franchise that aired on NBC from October 1, 1962, to May 22, 1992.It originally aired during late-night. For its first decade, Johnny Carson's The Tonight Show was based at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York City, with some episodes recorded at NBC's West Coast studios in Burbank, California; on May 1, 1972, the show moved to Burbank as its main venue and remained there exclusively after May 1973 until Carson's retirement. In 2002, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson was ranked No. 12 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and in 2013 it was ranked No. 22 on their list of 60 Best Series.\n\n\n== Format ==\nJohnny Carson's Tonight Show established the modern format of the late-night talk show: a monologue sprinkled with a rapid-fire series of 16 to 22 one-liners (Carson had a rule of no more than three on the same subject) was followed by sketch comedy, then moving on to guest interviews and performances by musicians and stand-up comedians. During the early years of Carson's tenure, his guests included politicians such as former U.S. Vice President (and future U.S. President) Richard M. Nixon, former U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and Vice President Hubert Humphrey, but by 1970, Carson primarily interviewed as guests people who had a book, movie, television show, or stage performance to promote. Other regulars were selected for their entertainment or information value, in contrast to those who offered more cerebral conversation; Carson refused to discuss politics on The Tonight Show out of concern it might alienate his audience.His preference for access to Hollywood stars caused the show's move to the West Coast on May 1, 1972; The Tonight Show would not return to New York until 2014 when Jimmy Fallon took the hosting reins. When asked about intellectual conversation on The Tonight Show, Carson and his staff invariably cited \"Carl Sagan, Paul Ehrlich, Margaret Mead, Gore Vidal, Shana Alexander, Madalyn Murray O'Hair\" as guests; one television critic stated, however, \"he always presented them as if they were spinach for your diet when he did [feature such names].\" Family therapist Carlfred Broderick appeared on the show ten times, and psychologist Joyce Brothers was one of Carson's most frequent guests. Carson, in general, did not feature prop comedy acts (Carson was not averse to using prop comedy himself); such acts, with Gallagher being a prominent example, more commonly appeared when guest hosts helmed the program.Carson almost never socialized with guests before or after the show; frequent interviewee Orson Welles recalled that Tonight Show employees were astonished when Carson visited Welles's dressing room to say hello before a show. Unlike his avuncular counterparts Merv Griffin, Mike Douglas, and Dick Cavett, Carson was a comparatively \"cool\" host who only laughed when genuinely amused and abruptly cut short monotonous or embarrassingly inept interviewees. Mort Sahl recalled, \"The producer crouches just off camera and holds up a card that says, 'Go to commercial.' So Carson goes to a commercial and the whole team rushes up to his desk to discuss what had gone wrong, like a pit stop at Le Mans.\" Actor Robert Blake once compared being interviewed by Carson to \"facing the death squad\" or \"Broadway on opening night.\" The publicity value of appearing on The Tonight Show was so great, however, that most guests were willing to subject themselves to the risk.\n\n\n== Show regulars ==\n\n\n=== Ed McMahon ===\nThe series' announcer and Carson's sidekick was Ed McMahon, who from the first show would introduce Carson with a drawn-out \"Heeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeere's Johnny!\" (something McMahon was inspired to do by the overemphasized way he had introduced reporter Robert Pierpoint on the NBC Radio Network program Monitor). The catchphrase was heard nightly for 30 years, and ranked top of the TV Land poll of U.S. TV catchphrases and quotes in 2006; it has been referenced in all media going from The Shining to Johnny Bravo to a \"Weird Al\" Yankovic album cut; it was even used for the character Johnny Cage in the video game series Mortal Kombat.\nMcMahon, who held the same role in Carson's ABC game show Who Do You Trust? for five years previously, would remain standing to the side as Carson did his monologue, laughing (sometimes obsequiously) at his jokes, then join him at the guest chair when Carson moved to his desk. The two would usually interact in a comic spot for a short while before the first guest was introduced.\nMcMahon stated in a 1978 profile of Carson in The New Yorker that \"the 'Tonight Show' is my staple diet, my meat and potatoes—I'm realistic enough to know that everything else stems from that.\" After a 1965 incident in which he ruined Carson's joke on the air McMahon was careful to, as he said, \"never to go where [Carson]'s going.\" He wrote in his 1998 autobiography:\n\nMy role on the show never was strictly defined. I did what had to be done when it had to be done. I was there when he needed me, and when he didn't I moved down the couch and kept quiet. ... I did the audience warm-up, I did commercials, for a brief period I co-hosted the first fifteen minutes of the show..., and I performed in many sketches. On our thirteenth-anniversary show Johnny and I were talking at his desk and he said, \"Thirteen years is a long time.\" He paused long enough for me to recognize my cue, so I asked, \"How long is it?\" \"That's why you're here,\" he said, probably summing up my primary role on the show perfectly... I had to support him, I had to help him get to the punch line, but while doing it I had to make it look as if I wasn't doing anything at all. The better I did it, the less it appeared as if I was doing it....If I was going to play second fiddle, I wanted to be the Heifetz of second fiddlers....The most difficult thing for me to learn how to do was just sit there with my mouth closed. Many nights I'd be listening to Johnny and in my mind I'd reach the same ad lib just as he said it. I'd have to bite my tongue not to say it out loud. I had to make sure I wasn't too funny—although critics who saw some of my other performances will claim I needn't have worried. If I got too many laughs, I wasn't doing my job; my job was to be part of a team that generated the laughs.\n\n\n=== Bandleaders and others ===\n\nThe Tonight Show had a live big band for nearly all of its existence. The NBC Orchestra during Carson's reign was originally led by Skitch Henderson (who had previously led the band during Tonight Starring Steve Allen), followed briefly by Milton DeLugg. Starting in 1967 and continuing until Jay Leno took over, the band was led by Doc Severinsen, with Tommy Newsom filling in for him when he was absent or filling in for McMahon as the announcer (this usually happened when a guest host substituted for Carson, which generally gave McMahon the night off as well). The series' instrumental theme music, \"Johnny's Theme,\" was a re-arrangement of the Paul Anka composition \"Toot Sweet,\" which Anka and Annette Funicello had separately recorded, with lyrics, as \"It's Really Love.\" During shows when Newsom filled in for Severinsen, the band played a slightly truncated version of the theme that transitioned from the bridge to the closing phrase without reprising the first few notes of the main melody. The NBC Orchestra was the last in-house studio orchestra to perform on American television.\nBehind the scenes, motion picture director/producer Fred de Cordova joined The Tonight Show in 1970 as producer, graduating to executive producer in 1984. Unlike many people of his position, de Cordova often appeared on the show, bantering with Carson from his chair off-camera (though occasionally a camera would be pointed in his direction).\n\n\n== Recurring segments and skits ==\n\n\n=== Characters ===\nCarnac the Magnificent, in which Carson played a psychic who clairvoyantly divined the answer to a question contained in a sealed envelope. This was to some degree a variation on Steve Allen's recurring \"The Question Man\" sketch. The answer was always an outrageous pun. \"Carnac\" examples:\n\"Debate\" ... \"What do you use to catch de fish?\"\n\"Baja\" ... \"What sound does a sheep make when it laughs?\"\n\"Ben-Gay\" ... \"Why didn't Mrs. Franklin have any kids?\"\n\"A loaf of bread, a jug of wine, and thou\" ... \"Name three things that have yeast.\"\n\"Three Dog Night\" ... \"What's a bad night for a tree?\"\n\"Mount Baldy\" ... \"What did Yul Brynner's wife do on their wedding night?\"\n\"Sis boom bah\" ... \"Describe the sound made when a sheep explodes.\" (Ed McMahon's personal favorite)If the laughter fell short when a line bombed (as it often did), \"Carnac\" would face the audience with mock seriousness and bestow a comic curse: \"May a diseased yak befriend your sister!\" or \"May a rabid holy man bless your nether regions with a power tool!\"\n\n\"Floyd R. Turbo,\" a dimwitted yokel responding to a TV station editorial. Floyd always spoke haltingly, as though reading from cue cards, and railed against some newsworthy topic, like Secretaries' Day: \"This raises the question: Kiss my Dictaphone!\"\n\"Art Fern,\" the fast-talking host of a \"Tea Time Movie\" program, who advertised inane products, assisted by the attractive Matinee Lady, played by Paula Prentiss (late 1960s), Carol Wayne (the most familiar Matinee Lady, 1971–81, 1984), Danuta Wesley (1982), and Teresa Ganzel (1984–92). The fake movies Art would introduce usually had eclectic casts (\"Ben Blue, Red Buttons, Jesse White, and Karen Black\") and nonsensical titles (\"Rin-Tin-Tin Gets Fixed Fixed Fixed\"). This would be followed by a four-second stock film clip before coming back for another commercial, usually catching Art and the Matinee Lady in a very compromising position. On giving directions to a fake store he was touting, Fern would show a spaghetti-like road map, sometimes with a literal \"fork in the road,\" other times making the joke, \"Go to the Slauson Cutoff...,\" and the audience would recite with him, \"...cut off your Slauson!\" The character was previously named \"Honest Bernie Schlock\" and then \"Ralph Willie\" when the Tea Time sketches first aired in the mid-to-late 1960s. At least one surviving pre-1972 Art Fern sketch that originated from New York had its movie show title as \"The Big Flick,\" an amalgam of two movie show titles in use at the time by New York station WOR-TV, The Big Preview and The Flick. On that sketch Lee Meredith was the Matinee Lady. Carson's Comedy Classics features an episode where Juliet Prowse is in the role of Matinee Lady, from 20 August 1971.\n\"Aunt Blabby,\" an old woman whose appearance and speech pattern bore more than a passing resemblance to comedian Jonathan Winters' character \"Maude Frickert.\" A frequent theme would be McMahon happening to mention a word or phrase that could suggest death, as in \"What tourist attractions did you check out?,\" to which Aunt Blabby would respond, \"Never say check out to an old person!\"\n\"El Mouldo,\" mysterious mentalist. He would announce some mind-over-matter feat and always fail, although triumphantly shouting \"El Mouldo has done it again!\" Ed McMahon would take exception, noting El Mouldo's failure. \"Did I fail before?\" asked El Mouldo. \"Yes!,\" replied McMahon, to which El Mouldo said, \"Well, I've done it again!\" El Mouldo was in large part a continuation of Carson's mentalist character Dillinger, which he had performed on The Johnny Carson Show in 1955 on CBS-TV; Dillinger was an obvious spoof of Dunninger, leading to complaints and threats of lawsuits against Carson and CBS.\n\"David Howitzer, Consumer Supporter,\" a thinly veiled satire of consumer reporter David Horowitz. Howitzer's segments (in a rare example of prop comedy for the show) usually featured purported counterfeit consumer goods (usually gag props) that unscrupulous mail-order companies had sent his unsuspecting viewers (for example, a woman who spent thousands of dollars on an oriental rug instead received a cheap toupee made in Taiwan).\n\"Ronald Reagan.\" During President Reagan's term in office, Carson developed an impersonation of the president that was featured regularly in a Mighty Carson Art Players segment. Carson also did a less memorable impersonation of Jimmy Carter during his term as President.\n\n\n=== Bits ===\n\"Stump the Band,\" where studio audience members ask the band to try to play obscure songs given only the title. Unlike when this routine was done during the Jack Paar years with the Jose Melis band, Severinsen's band almost never knew the song, but that did not stop them from inventing one on the spot. Example:Guest's request: \"My Dead Dog Rover\"\nDoc Severinsen, singing: \"My dead dog Rover / lay under the sun / and stayed there all summer / until he was done!\"\nDavid Letterman revived this bit later, along with the CBS Orchestra on his Late Show.\"The Mighty Carson Art Players,\" (depending on one's point of view, the name was an obvious tribute to or ripoff of radio legend Fred Allen's Mighty Allen Art Players). While Carson's show was primarily a talk show, with performances by guests, periodically Carson and a group of stock performers would perform skits that spoofed news, movies, television shows, commercials, and past events. A Mighty Carson Art Players appearance would usually be announced along with that night's guests during McMahon's introduction.Example: Johnny, dressed as a doctor, starting to talk about some intimate topic (just as in the real ad) and then being hit by cream pies from several directions at once.\"The Edge of Wetness,\" in which Johnny would read humorous plot summaries of a fictional soap opera (such as The Edge of Night) while the camera randomly chose an unsuspecting audience member whom Carson claimed was, for example, the butler from the soap.\n\"Headlines,\" developed by Jay Leno, and seen only during nights when he guest-hosted beginning in 1986, featured humorous stories and typos from newspaper clippings. This carried over when Leno became permanent host in 1992.\n\"How ___ was it?\" a recurring call-and-response during Carson's monologues. Carson would set up the joke with a passing comment about, for instance, the weather with the phrase \"It was so hot...\" prompting the audience to respond \"HOW HOT WAS IT?\" Carson would then follow with several punch lines (e.g. \"I heard Burger King singing, 'If you want it made your way, cook it yourself!'\"). Carson would occasionally throw the audience off with an anti-joke (such as \"it was worth the trip in, wasn't it?\").\n\n\n== Programming history ==\n\nOctober 1, 1962 – December 30, 1966: Monday–Friday 11:15 p.m.–1:00 a.m.Jack Paar's last appearance was on March 29, 1962, and due to Carson's commitment to the ABC game show Who Do You Trust?, he could not take over until October 1 (the day his ABC contract expired). His first guests were Rudy Vallée, Tony Bennett, Mel Brooks, and Joan Crawford. Carson inherited from Paar a show that was 1 3/4 hours (105 minutes) long. The show broadcast two openings, one starting at 11:15 p.m. and including the monologue, the other that listed the guests and re-announced the host, starting at 11:30. The two openings gave affiliates the option of screening either a fifteen-minute or thirty-minute local newscast preceding Carson. Since 1959, the show had been videotaped earlier the same broadcast day.\nAs more affiliates introduced thirty minutes of local news, Carson's monologue was being seen by fewer people. To rectify this situation, Ed McMahon and Skitch Henderson co-hosted the first fifteen minutes of the show between February 1965 and December 1966 without Carson, who then took over at 11:30. Finally, because he wanted the show to start when he came on, at the beginning of January 1967 Carson insisted the 11:15 segment be eliminated (which, he claimed in a monologue at the time, \"no one actually watched except the Armed Forces and four Navajos in Gallup, New Mexico\").\nJanuary 1965 – September 1966: Saturday or Sunday 11:15–1:00 a.m. (reruns, initially billed as The Saturday Tonight Show)\nSeptember 1966 – September 1975: Saturday or Sunday 11:30–1:00 a.m. (reruns, now identified as The Saturday/Sunday Tonight Show; The Weekend Tonight Show by 1973)\nJanuary 2, 1967 – September 12, 1980: Monday–Friday 11:30 p.m.–1:00 a.m.\nBy the mid-1970s Tonight was the most profitable show on television, making NBC $50 to $60 million ($200 to $240 million in 2020) each year. Carson influenced the scheduling of reruns (which typically aired under the title The Best of Carson) in the mid-1970s and, in 1980, the length of each evening's broadcast, by threatening NBC with, in the first case, moving to another network, and in the latter, retiring altogether.\nIn order to work fewer days each week, Carson began to petition network executives in 1974 that reruns on the weekends be discontinued, in favor of showing them on one or more nights during the week. In response to his demands, NBC created a new comedy/variety series to feed to affiliates on Saturday nights that debuted in October 1975, Saturday Night Live.\nIn 1980, Carson renewed his contract with the stipulation that the show lose its last half-hour. On the last 90-minute show (September 12, 1980), Carson explained that by going to an hour, the show would feel more fast-paced, and have a greater selection of guests.\nFor a year, Tom Snyder's existing talk show, Tomorrow, was expanded to 90 minutes and forced to change its format, adding gossip reporter Rona Barrett as a co-host and taking on the name Tomorrow Coast to Coast. This was short-lived as a year and a half later, Snyder had quit and Tomorrow Coast to Coast had been canceled. Carson was given authority to fill the vacant time slot and used it to create Late Night with David Letterman (1982–1993). Today, The Tonight Show remains one hour in length and is still followed by Late Night, currently under the title Late Night with Seth Meyers (2014–).\n\nSeptember 15, 1980 – August 30, 1991: Monday–Friday 11:30 p.m.–12:30 a.m.\nSeptember 2, 1991 – May 22, 1992: Monday–Friday 11:35 p.m.–12:35 a.m.In May 1991, following positive viewer reception during tests in St. Louis (KSDK) and Dallas–Fort Worth (KXAS), NBC reached an agreement with Carson Productions to delay the show's start time by five minutes beginning September 2, allowing its stations to include more commercials during their local newscasts. (The timeshift would also affect Late Night, Later with Bob Costas, and station-programmed overnight syndicated shows.) NBC executives had been proposing the five-minute delay idea to Carson since 1988, only to be repeatedly rebuffed, amid concerns that some of its affiliates—particularly those that had unsuccessfully sought permission to delay the Tonight Show by a half-hour—would begin preempting the program entirely and replace it with syndicated reruns to generate extra revenue from local advertising.In an onscreen eulogy to Carson in 2005, David Letterman said that every talk show host owes his livelihood to Johnny Carson during his Tonight Show run.\n\n\n=== 1979–1980 contract battle ===\n\nIn 1979, when Fred Silverman was the head of NBC, Carson took the network to court, claiming that he had been a free-agent since April of that year because his most recent contract had been signed in 1972. Carson cited a California law barring certain contracts from lasting more than seven years. NBC claimed that it had signed three agreements since then and Carson was bound to the network until April 1981. While the case was settled out of court, the friction between Carson and the network remained and Carson was actively courted by rival network ABC, which was willing to double Carson's salary and offer him a lighter work schedule and ownership of the show. NBC, in turn, was ready to offer The Tonight Show to Carson's most frequent guest host at the time, Richard Dawson.Eventually, Carson reached an agreement that paid $25 million a year while reducing his workload from 90 to 60 minutes, with new shows airing only three nights a week 37 weeks a year (a guest host would appear Monday nights and for most of Carson's 15 weeks of vacation and \"Best of Carson\" reruns would air Tuesdays) and also give him ownership of the show, as well as its back catalog, and of the time slot following the Tonight Show which became Late Night with David Letterman produced by Carson Productions. In September 1980, Carson's eponymous production company gained ownership of the show after owning it from 1969 to the early 1970s.\n\n\n=== Archives ===\n\nOnly 33 complete episodes of Johnny Carson's Tonight Show that had originally aired prior to May 1, 1972 are known to exist. All other shows during this period, including Carson's debut as host, are now considered lost because of wiping. Following the standard procedure for most television production companies of that era, NBC reused The Tonight Show videotapes for recording other programs. Carson himself encouraged the erasure of his archives, once humorously quipping that NBC should \"make guitar picks\" out of them, and did not believe they were of any value. It was rumored that many other episodes were lost in a fire, but NBC has denied this.Other surviving material from the era has been found on kinescopes held in the archives of the Armed Forces Radio and Television Service, or in the personal collections of guests of the program, while a few moments such as Tiny Tim's wedding, were preserved. New York meteorologist Dr. Frank Field, an occasional guest during the years he was weather forecaster for WNBC-TV, showed several clips of his appearances with Carson in a 2002 career retrospective on WWOR-TV; Field had maintained the clips in his own personal archives. There are also two appearances by Judy Garland in 1968 that still survive. John Lennon and Paul McCartney's joint appearance on the May 14, 1968 episode guest-hosted by Joe Garagiola, with a guest appearance by Tallulah Bankhead (one of her last), was preserved on poor-quality home kinescope and audiotape in separate recordings by Beatles fans.The program archive is virtually complete from 1973 to 1992. Carson Productions has also made clips available on YouTube and Antenna TV.Although no footage is known to remain of Carson's first broadcast as host of The Tonight Show on October 1, 1962, photographs taken that night survive, including Carson being introduced by Groucho Marx, as does an audio recording of Marx's introduction and Carson's first monologue. One of his first jokes upon starting the show (after receiving a few words of encouragement from Marx, one of which was, \"Don't go to Hollywood!\") was to pretend to panic and say, \"I want my nana!\" (This recording was played at the start of Carson's final broadcast on May 22, 1992.) The oldest surviving video recording of the show is dated November 1962, while the oldest surviving color recording is from April 1964, when Carson interviewed Jake Ehrlich, Sr., as his guest.The 30-minute audio recordings of many of the \"missing\" episodes are contained in the Library of Congress in the Armed Forces Radio collection. Many 1970s-era episodes have been licensed to distributors that advertise mail-order offers on late-night TV. The later shows that exist in full were stored by Carson in a bomb-proof underground salt mine outside Hutchinson, Kansas.The non-tape archives pertaining to Carson's show are held by the Elkhorn Valley Museum in Carson's hometown of Norfolk, Nebraska. Beginning in 2020, the museum began working with the National Comedy Center to preserve the archive.\n\n\n=== Rebroadcasts and Streaming Availability ===\nA large amount of material from Carson's first two decades of The Tonight Show (1962–1982), much of it not seen since it had first aired, appeared in a half hour \"clip/compilation\" syndicated program known as Carson's Comedy Classics that aired in 1983. Audio clips from the show were featured nightly on WHO-AM in Des Moines, Iowa in the mid-2000s. In 2014, Turner Classic Movies would begin rerunning select interviews from the program for a new series called \"Carson on TCM\" presented by Conan O'Brien, who himself hosted The Tonight Show briefly.The digital multicast network Antenna TV acquired rerun rights to whole episodes of the series in August 2015. Unlike the previous clip shows, Antenna TV's airings feature full broadcasts as they were originally seen, with the only edits being removal of The Tonight Show name, with the show being renamed simply as Johnny Carson (as of January 2018, the broadcasts air opposite the current edition of The Tonight Show in much of the United States, and NBC still owns the trademark on that name), and with bumpers, walk-on music and the closing theme being replaced by generic music cues from the Warner/Chappell Production Music library. Most musical guest segments are also removed. Antenna TV began airing the show seven days a week beginning January 1, 2016. Currently, sixty-minute episodes (from September 1980-May 1992) air Monday through Friday nights, and ninety-minute episodes (from 1972-September 12, 1980) Saturday and Sunday nights.Selected episodes of Carson's show are available on the streaming service Peacock. Shout! Factory launched a 24/7 streaming channel devoted to the series in August 2020, which is distributed through free over-the-top platforms including Stirr, Xumo and Pluto TV.\n\n\n== Guest hosts ==\nJack Paar had often asked Carson to guest-host Tonight in its earliest years and repeatedly claimed he had been responsible for NBC's selection of Carson in 1962 as his replacement. Steve Allen also utilized guest hosts, including Carson and Ernie Kovacs, particularly after he began hosting The Steve Allen Show in prime time in 1956 and needed to reduce his workload on Tonight.The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson had guest hosts for entire weeks during Carson's vacations and other nights he had off. Many guest hosts were already large names in their own right, among them Frank Sinatra, Burt Reynolds and Don Rickles. Comedian Woody Allen guest hosted three times between 1966 to 1971. The following is a list of those who guest-hosted at least fifty times during the first 21 years of the show's run:\n\nJoey Bishop (177 times, mostly in the 1960s)\nJoan Rivers (93, during the 1970s and 1980s)\nJohn Davidson (87)\nBob Newhart (87)\nDavid Brenner (70)\nMcLean Stevenson (58)\nJerry Lewis (52, mostly in the 1960s)\nDavid Letterman (51, mostly between 1980 and 1981)Sammy Davis Jr. guest hosted in April 1965, becoming the first African-American to host a talk show. Harry Belafonte guest hosted for a week in February 1968, and among Belafonte's guests were Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr., just months before both men were assassinated (King in April, Kennedy in June).\nOn April 2, 1979, Kermit the Frog was guest host. In addition, many other Muppets appeared for skits and regular segments: Frank Oz voiced Fozzie Bear and Animal, while Jerry Nelson performed Uncle Deadly, a Vincent Price-inspired Muppet during a segment with the real Price. Richard Dawson guest hosted 14 times during 1979 and 1980, and was being considered as a full-time replacement should Carson have retired during his 1980 contract dispute with NBC.Carson's contract, that took effect in 1981, reduced his work schedule to three nights a week, 37 weeks a year. \"Best of Carson\" reruns aired on Tuesdays in the weeks that Carson was hosting new shows. Monday night shows and shows for most of the 15 weeks that Carson had off were hosted by guest hosts. Due to the frequent need for substitutes, starting in 1983 permanent guest hosts were hired in order to give the program more stability. The permanent guest hosts were Joan Rivers (1983–1986), then, after about a year where a wide range of guest hosts were used, Garry Shandling alternating with Jay Leno (1987–1988) and finally Leno alone (1988–1992) after Shandling left to focus on his Showtime series It's Garry Shandling's Show. Leno, who first guest hosted in 1986, would do so 333 times before becoming the next Tonight Show host in 1992. Though the concept of using \"permanent\" guest hosts was fairly strictly adhered to, occasionally illness or some other situation necessitated a substitute guest host, as when David Brenner filled in for Joan Rivers on October 31 and November 1, 1985, when Rivers's husband was briefly hospitalized.\nDuring the show's run, its cast and crew collaborated with a number of NBC sitcoms to produce spoof episodes of the Tonight Show. These spoofs typically ran in the sitcom's usual spot on the broadcast schedule and featured one of the sitcom's main characters as the guest host.\n\n\n=== Joan Rivers ===\n\nIn September 1983, Joan Rivers was designated Carson's permanent guest host, a role she had been essentially filling for the previous year. In 1986, after years as a guest and 190 total appearances as guest host, she left the program for her own show on the then-new Fox Network. According to Carson, Rivers never personally informed him of the existence of her show. Rivers, on the other hand, disagreed. Nevertheless, Rivers' new show was quickly canceled, and she never again appeared on The Tonight Show with Carson. Nor did she appear on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, a ban maintained by Leno out of respect for Carson. She also never appeared during Conan O'Brien's seven-month run. After Carson's death in 2005, Rivers told CNN that Carson never forgave her for leaving, and never spoke to her again, even after she wrote him a note following the accidental death of Carson's son Ricky in June 1991. On February 17, 2014, Rivers returned to the Tonight Show as part of a skit in which numerous celebrities paid new host, Jimmy Fallon, after having lost the bet that he would never become the host of the program. Rivers appeared for a full-length interview segment on March 27, 2014.The program of July 26, 1984, with guest host Joan Rivers, was the first MTS stereo broadcast in U.S. television history, though not the first television broadcast with stereophonic sound. Only NBC's flagship local station in New York City, WNBC, had stereo broadcast capability at that time. NBC transmitted The Tonight Show in stereo sporadically through 1984 and on a regular basis beginning in 1985.\n\n\n== Consequential appearances ==\nAccording to Skeptical activist James Randi, Carson invited Uri Geller, who claimed paranormal powers, onto the Tonight Show specifically to disprove the Israeli performer's claims. Randi later wrote, \"that Johnny had been a magician himself\", so prior to the date of taping, Randi was asked \"to help prevent any trickery.\" Per Randi's advice, the show prepared their own props without informing Geller, and did not let Geller or his staff \"anywhere near them.\" When Geller joined Carson on stage, he appeared surprised that he was not going to be interviewed, but instead was expected to display his abilities using the provided articles. Geller said \"This scares me.\" and \"I'm surprised because before this program your producer came and he read me at least 40 questions you were going to ask me.\" Geller was unable to display any paranormal abilities, saying \"I don't feel strong\" and he expressed his displeasure at feeling like he was being \"pressed\" to perform by Carson.: 8:10  According to Adam Higginbotham's Nov. 7, 2014 article in the New York Times: The result was a legendary immolation, in which Geller offered up flustered excuses to his host as his abilities failed him again and again. \"I sat there for 22 minutes, humiliated,\" Geller told me, when I spoke to him in September. \"I went back to my hotel, devastated. I was about to pack up the next day and go back to Tel Aviv. I thought, That's it — I'm destroyed.\"\nHowever, this appearance on The Tonight Show, which Carson and Randi had orchestrated to debunk Geller's claimed abilities, backfired. According to Higginbotham, \n\nTo Geller's astonishment, he was immediately booked on The Merv Griffin Show. He was on his way to becoming a paranormal superstar. \"That Johnny Carson show made Uri Geller,\" Geller said. To an enthusiastically trusting public, his failure only made his gifts seem more real: If he were performing magic tricks, they would surely work every time.\n\n\n== Carson's last shows ==\nAs his retirement approached, Carson tried to avoid sentimentality but would periodically show clips of some of his favorite moments and again invited some of his favorite guests. He told his crew, \"Everything comes to an end; nothing lasts forever. Thirty years is enough. It's time to get out while you're still working on top of your game, while you're still working well.\"Carson hosted his penultimate show, featuring guests Robin Williams and Bette Midler, on May 21, 1992. The last of Carson's monologues was delivered on this episode and was written by Jim Mulholland, Steven Kunes and Rift Fournier. Once underway, the atmosphere was electric and Carson was greeted with a sustained, two-minute intense standing ovation. Williams was especially uninhibited with his trademark manic energy and stream-of-consciousness lunacy. Midler was more emotional. When the conversation turned to Johnny's favorite songs, \"I'll Be Seeing You\" and \"Here's That Rainy Day,\" Midler mentioned that she knew a chorus of the latter. She began singing the song, and after the first line, Carson joined in and turned it into an impromptu duet. Midler finished her appearance from center stage, where she slowly sang the pop standard \"One for My Baby (and One More for the Road).\" Carson became unexpectedly tearful, and a shot of the two of them was captured by a camera angle from across the set that had never before been used on the show. The audience became tearful as well and called the three performers out for a second bow after the taping was completed. This show was immediately recognized as a television classic that Midler considered one of the most emotional moments of her life and eventually won an Emmy for her role in it.Carson had no guests on his final episode of The Tonight Show on May 22, 1992, which was instead a retrospective show taped before an invitation-only studio audience of family, friends, and crew. More than fifty million people tuned in for this finale, which ended with Carson sitting on a stool alone at center stage, similar to Jack Paar's last show. He said these final words in conclusion:\n\nAnd so it has come to this: I, uh... am one of the lucky people in the world; I found something I always wanted to do and I have enjoyed every single minute of it. I want to thank the gentlemen who've shared this stage with me for thirty years. Mr. Ed McMahon, Mr. Doc Severinsen, and you people watching. I can only tell you that it has been an honor and a privilege to come into your homes all these years and entertain you. And I hope when I find something that I want to do and I think you would like and come back, that you'll be as gracious in inviting me into your home as you have been. I bid you a very heartfelt good night.\nA few weeks after the final show aired, it was announced that NBC and Carson had struck a deal to develop a new series. Ultimately, however, Carson chose not to return to television. He gave only two major interviews after his retirement: one to The Washington Post in 1993, and the other to Esquire magazine in 2002. Carson hinted in his 1993 interview that he did not think he could top what he had already accomplished. He rarely appeared elsewhere after retiring, providing only a guest voice on an episode of The Simpsons, which included him performing feats of strength and featured Bette Midler as well, and a cameo on the May 13, 1994, Late Show with David Letterman where he delivered a Top 10 List and sat in Dave's chair for a minute.\nIn 2005, after Carson's death, it was revealed that he had made a habit of sending jokes to Dave Letterman via fax machine which Letterman would then sometimes incorporate into his monologues. The January 31, 2005, episode of the Late Show with David Letterman, which featured a tribute to Carson, began with a monologue by Letterman composed entirely of jokes written by Carson himself after his retirement.In 2011, the last Carson Tonight show was ranked No. 10 on the TV Guide Network special, TV's Most Unforgettable Finales.\n\n\n== See also ==\nThere's... Johnny!\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson at IMDb\nThe Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television", "\"Johnny's Theme\" is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992. The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson, based on a previous composition by Anka. It was performed by The Tonight Show Band, which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award-winning debut album. The single release also earned a Grammy nomination.\n\"Johnny's Theme\" has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums. It has appeared in several films, and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians, including Doc Severinsen's Big Band.\n\n\n== Development and evolution ==\n\n\n=== 1959: Two songs ===\n\"Johnny's Theme\" began life as \"Toot Sweet\", a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti's Trumpets. It was released on Disney's Buena Vista label as the B-side to The Camarata Strings' single \"Lost In a Fog\".\"Tutti\" Camarata, who was Annette Funicello's producer at the time, asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club. Anka added lyrics to \"Toot Sweet\" and published them under the title \"It's Really Love\", and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka. He recorded his own version of \"It's Really Love\" that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes; it was released on seven-inch EPs in France, Italy and Spain.\n\n\n=== 1962: Johnny Carson ===\nWhen Johnny Carson, a fan of jazz music, was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962, he recognized that he would need a theme song. Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961; when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year, Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme.Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for \"It's Really Love\" and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon, who were in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, making preparations for the show. McMahon said \"it was the first time either one of us heard [the song]—and magic.\"\n\n\n=== 1962–92: The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ===\nShortly after sending the demo, Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by a \"20-year-old kid\". Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter's credit, along with half of the royalties every time the song was played, which would earn each man an average of about US$200,000 per year. Orange Coast estimated in 1999 that \"Johnny's Theme\" had been played more than 1,400,000 times.The song was retired along with Carson in 1992; his iteration of The Tonight Show was called \"the last widely public big-band forum\". Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more \"funky\" theme for successor Jay Leno because \"a swing tune doesn't reflect Jay at all [and] jazz doesn't come to mind either.\"\n\n\n== Releases ==\nHenry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2:44 arrangement of \"Johnny's Theme\" in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra. A version also appeared as part of Mancini's 2010 compilation Big Screen, Little Screen. Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973. Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia's Theme.Doc Severinsen and the band recorded \"Johnny's Theme\" and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band, released in 1986. Amherst Records also released the track as a single, titled \"Johnny's Theme (The Tonight Show Theme)\", which debuted at #27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart. The song has been released on compilations of television themes, the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music, and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen (1998).\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\"Johnny's Theme\" earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, losing to \"Top Gun Anthem\" at the awards presentation in 1987. The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nIn 2005, Doc Severinsen, Carson's bandleader starting in 1967, said the song worked so well because it was \"accessible. People could understand what it was, and it was associated with Johnny.\" Larry King called it \"one of the most familiar themes in American television history.\" Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night, \"but everybody knows it. Simplicity is indeed royal.\"The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia, though they \"used to abound\", with or without lyrics. For example, \"Anka's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson.\"\"Johnny's Theme\" has been included in numerous films, including This Is My Life, Isn't She Great and Talk to Me. The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels, from student to professional. Iowa State Cyclones men's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played \"Johnny's Theme\" before games at the Hilton Coliseum. Orr's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994.Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour. His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety, \"just to let you know who we are.\" Severinsen and The Roots played \"Johnny's Theme\" during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nCox, Stephen (2002). Here's Johnny! Thirty Years of America's Favorite Late-Night Entertainer (paperback ed.). Cumberland House Publishing. ISBN 978-1581822656. Cited as Cox 2002.\nKerley, Gary Lee (2013). Sickels, Robert C. (ed.). 100 Entertainers Who Changed America: An Encyclopedia of Pop Culture Luminaries. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598848311. Cited as Kerley 2013.", "Carnac the Magnificent was a recurring comedic role played by Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. One of Carson's most well-known characters, Carnac was a \"mystic from the East\" who could psychically \"divine\" unknown answers to unseen questions.\nThe character was introduced in 1964. As Carnac, Carson wore a large feathered turban and a cape. The character would emerge from behind the show's curtain accompanied by Indian music, and make his way towards the desk, where he would invariably stumble on the step in front of the desk and lose his balance. On one occasion frequently rebroadcast on anniversary shows, Carson's desk was replaced with a lightweight balsa-wood version; this allowed Carson to trip and smash through it.\nThe character was taken from Steve Allen's essentially identical \"Answer Man\" segment, which Allen performed during his tenure as host of The Tonight Show in the 1950s. As Allen acknowledged in his book The Question Man, this bit had been created in Kansas City in 1951 by Bob Arbogast and used on The Tom Poston Show in New York where it eventually ended up on The Steve Allen Show, much to the surprise of both Arbogast and Allen. The Carnac character and routine also closely resemble Ernie Kovacs' \"Mr. Question Man\". As a more serious device, the concept had served as the basis for several game shows including the CBS Television Quiz, That's the Question and the still-running Jeopardy!, which aired on NBC for much of Carson's run on Tonight.\n\n\n== Act ==\nLongtime sidekick Ed McMahon ritualistically and bombastically introduced the Carnac routines. The announcement implied Carnac was responsible for some scandal or disaster currently in the news, as \"And now, the great seer, soothsayer, and sage, Carnac the Magnificent.\" After Carnac entered and stumbled, Ed would continue as follows:\n\n\"I hold in my hand the envelopes. As a child of four can plainly see, these envelopes have been hermetically sealed. They've been kept in a mayonnaise jar on Funk and Wagnalls' porch since noon today. NO ONE [at this shout, Carnac always acts startled] knows the contents of these envelopes – but you, in your mystical and borderline divine way, will ascertain the answers having never before heard the questions.\"\nThe act involved a variation of the magician's billet reading trick: divining the answer to a question written on a card sealed inside one of the envelopes, announcing it to the audience, then tearing open the envelope to reveal the question. The comedy came from an unexpected question following a seemingly straightforward answer. The resulting jokes often involved puns or wordplay; for example, \"The La Brea Tar Pits\" was the answer to \"What do you have left after eating the La Brea Tar Peaches?\", and \"9W\" was the answer to \"Mr. Wagner, do you spell your name with a V?\" Jokes would also be topical; for instance, \"Over 105 in Los Angeles\" (presumably referring to the temperature) instead led to \"Under the Reagan plan, how old would you have to be to collect Social Security?\" The longest laugh ever recorded was given to \"Sis Boom Bah,\" which was the answer to \"Describe the sound made when a sheep explodes\" and resulted in both Carson and McMahon breaking character to laugh as well.\nThe segment included several running gags. After Carnac said an answer, McMahon would frequently repeat it in a booming voice – ostensibly as a help to the audience – setting up a sneer, putdown, or some other comic reaction from Carson. Carnac held each envelope to his forehead while \"divining\" the answer, then tore open the end of the envelope and loudly blew into it before removing the index card with the question. Pretending to psychically concentrate, Carnac periodically asked for \"complete silence\" from the audience, and McMahon would retort that he often got it.Audience reaction played a major role in the skit. Positive reaction would prompt disbelief from Carnac, stating the ease at which he could make people laugh, such as \"This audience would laugh at Dinah Shore backing into a meat thermometer.\" If a joke (often a very bad pun) generated a negative response, Carnac would give a disapproving look, then cast a comedic \"Middle Eastern curse\" upon the audience (such as \"May your favorite daughter be featured in NFL Films' Sack of the Week\", \"May a bloated yak change the temperature of your jacuzzi\", \"May you walk a mile under a diseased camel\", \"May the fleas of a thousand camels infest the crotch of the person seated next to me, and may his arms be too short to scratch\" or \"May your proctologist be a frustrated concert trombonist\"). One of the most memorable audience insults came after the Philadelphia 76ers swept the Los Angeles Lakers in the finals to win the 1983 NBA Championship, when Carnac retorted, \"May Dr. J slam dunk your cat.\" McMahon's closing announcement \"I hold in my hand the last envelope\" was always met with a loud cheer, prompting one final \"curse\".\nThe curse concept was created by \"Tonight Show\" head writer and Woody Allen collaborator Marshall Brickman. He dubbed it the \"Carnac Saver\" and said in a 2009 interview, \"I'll go to my grave having to apologize for having invented the Carnac Saver.\" Songwriter Neal Merritt used the Carnac Saver as his primary inspiration for a song with a similar insult as a title, \"May the Bird of Paradise Fly Up Your Nose,\" a hit for Little Jimmy Dickens.\n\n\n== References ==", "Teen Angel is an American fantasy sitcom that aired as part of ABC's TGIF Friday night lineup from September 26, 1997 to February 13, 1998. It stars Corbin Allred as a high school student whose recently deceased best friend, played by Mike Damus, returns to earth as his guardian angel. The series was created by Al Jean and Mike Reiss.\n\n\n== Synopsis ==\nTeen Angel follows a high school boy, Steve Beauchamp (Corbin Allred), and his recently deceased best friend, Marty DePolo (Mike Damus), who dies from eating a six-month-old hamburger from under Steve's bed on a dare and is then sent back to Earth as Steve's guardian angel. Marty's guide is a large disembodied head named Rod (Ron Glass), who identifies as God's cousin (a running gag throughout the series is that Rod is mistaken for God himself). Maureen McCormick, who played Steve's mother, Judy, left the series halfway through its run.\nMarty, as a supernatural being, would frequently break the fourth wall; for instance, prior to the opening credits of the episode \"Grumpy Young Men\", Marty explained the absence of Steve's mother and the return of his father to the viewers.\n\n\n== Reception and cancellation ==\nThe series was created and placed in the TGIF lineup by ABC in an attempt to capitalize on the success of another ABC supernatural series, Sabrina the Teenage Witch. Along with Sabrina and the also-new You Wish, Teen Angel was one of three supernatural-themed sitcoms on the TGIF block that season.\nAt the time of the series airing, TGIF had already begun to decline (as a result of direct competition against the CBS Block Party during that season and the new Disney ownership). You Wish was canceled after only twelve episodes, and while Teen Angel lasted more or less a full season, it was also canceled after 17 episodes.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\nMike Damus as Marty DePolo\nCorbin Allred as Steve Beauchamp\nRon Glass as Rod, God's Cousin\nMaureen McCormick as Judy Beauchamp\nTommy Hinkley as Casey Beauchamp\nKatie Volding as Katie Beauchamp\nJordan Brower as Jorden Lubell\nConchata Ferrell as Aunt Pam\nJerry Van Dyke as Grandpa Jerry Beauchamp\n\n\n== Episodes ==\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nOut of the Blue (1979 TV series) – one of many spin-off sitcoms connected to the sitcom Happy Days.\nTeen Angel (1989 TV series) – teen drama, aired by The Disney Channel.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nTeen Angel at IMDb\nTeen Angel at epguides.com", "Daniel Rosen is an American comedian, juggler, game show announcer and business executive.\nAt the age of 10, Daniel was obsessed by juggling. It's all he would do, 24/7. This skill came in handy for Daniel at age 13, when he ran away from home and found himself homeless and alone in Los Angeles. Daniel quickly found a way to earn the money to eat, by juggling on street corners. He spent long days practicing and honing his skills and eventually worked his way into becoming a world champion Juggler. Johnny Carson discovered Rosen when he was a teen and made him a regular guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. This exposure and Carson's endorsement led him to be the announcer and writer on The Late Show, a talk show on Fox.Rosen's comedy has taken him on the road with Robin Williams, Billy Crystal, Roseanne Barr, and Bette Midler. He also played the role of Eddie Greene on Nash Bridges and served as the musical director and announcer on David Strassman's eponymous UK talk show Strassman.\nThe producers of The Price Is Right asked Rosen to be one of several announcers on the show after the death of Rod Roddy in 2003. In addition, Rosen is one of the three announcers for The Price Is Right Live!, a live stage show based on the television game show and held at Harrah's casinos.\nOne day, a bank error devastated Daniel's credit, causing his bills to shoot up overnight. As a result, he almost lost his home and nearly went bankrupt. Unsure of where to turn or what to do, Daniel painstakingly found his own way through the difficult task of fixing his own credit.\nWhile obsessing about credit and the law, Daniel began to see how unfair and hurtful the credit system was, and how so many people fall victim to it. He was determined to make credit repair available to hardworking people who found themselves in his same situation. Daniel reverse engineered credit repair by following the processes of the most successful credit repair businesses in America. Seeing a way to simplify the process, Daniel set out to create the world’s first credit repair software, a tiny download called \"Credit-Aid.\" The limitations and obstacles Daniel encountered while trying to repair his own credit became the birthplace for his software journey.\nIn 2013, Daniel launched Credit Repair Cloud., a software for the credit repair industry. The company grew to process over $100MM for 14,500 software users in its first 5 years and made it onto the Inc 5000 list of fastest growing companies in America.\nRosen is currently the Founder and CEO of the software company Credit Repair Cloud.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nDaniel Rosen at Internet Movie Database\nDaniel Rosen Site\nCredit Repair Cloud Software", "John Twomey is a manualist who appeared on NBC's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in 1972 and 1974. He is credited with bringing manualism to the public stage, as his performance of \"Stars and Stripes Forever\" was seen by millions of people and was included in the Best of Johnny Carson collection. Twomey also coined the term \"manualism,\" as he introduced himself as a \"manualist\" in the show. Twomey was a regular guest of Johnny's after that first appearance all the way until Johnny retired from The Tonight Show.\nJohn Twomey, also a professional attorney and father of 7, appeared on several other programs including The Mike Douglas Show where he performed the \"Colonel Bogey March,\" made famous in the film The Bridge Over the River Kwai, and The Merv Griffin Show where he performed \"When the Saints Go Marching In.\" Twomey's name appeared in the credits of a 1970s Barney Miller episode in which he provided off-camera manualism for a scene in which a man was arrested for disturbing the peace by \"playing\" his hands.\nJohn Twomey's last public performance was on November 21, 1998 on the radio show A Prairie Home Companion with Garrison Keillor, where he performed \"Stardust.\"\nAlthough John had suffered a heart attack that forced him to stop practicing law and performing his unique style of music, after ten years he has recovered and is back to performing his musical talents!\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nChicago Tribune\nSchenectady Gazette\nAnchorage Daily News\n\n\n== See also ==\nManualism (hand music)" ] }

{ "title": [ "Cyperus odoratus", "Cyperus", "Cyperus giganteus", "Cyperus elegans", "Achene", "Binomial nomenclature", "Dryopteris cristata", "List of Tulostoma species", "Abortifacient", "Dryopteris", "Dryopteris crassirhizoma", "Cyperus pseudothyrsiflorus", "Arabian Peninsula", "Cyperus alternifolius", "Agaricaceae" ], "text": [ "Cyperus odoratus is a species of sedge known by the common names fragrant flatsedge and rusty flatsedge. This plant can be found in much of the tropical and warm temperate world, including South, Central, and North America, Southeast Asia, some Pacific Islands, Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, and central Africa. It is a plant of wet, muddy areas, including disturbed and altered sites. This species is quite variable and may in fact be more than one species included under one name. In general this is an annual plant approaching half a meter in height on average but known to grow much taller. It usually has some long, thin leaves around the base. The inflorescence is made up of one to several cylindrical spikes attached at a common point. Each of the spikes bears a large number of flat, oval-shaped spikelets. Each spikelet is usually light brown to reddish-brown and has a few to over 20 flowers. Each flower is covered by a tough, flat bract with a visible midvein. The fruit is a flat achene less than two millimeters long.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nUSDA Plants Profile\nPhoto gallery", "Cyperus is a large genus of about 700 species of sedges, distributed throughout all continents in both tropical and temperate regions.\n\n\n== Description ==\nThey are annual or perennial plants, mostly aquatic and growing in still or slow-moving water up to 0.5 m deep. The species vary greatly in size, with small species only 5 cm tall, while others can reach 5 m in height. Common names include papyrus sedges, flatsedges, nutsedges, umbrella-sedges and galingales. The stems are circular in cross-section in some, triangular in others, usually leafless for most of their length, with the slender grass-like leaves at the base of the plant, and in a whorl at the apex of the flowering stems. The flowers are greenish and wind-pollinated; they are produced in clusters among the apical leaves. The seed is a small nutlet.\n\n\n== Ecology ==\nCyperus species are eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including Chedra microstigma. They also provide an alternative food source for Bicyclus anynana larvae. The seeds and tubers are an important food for many small birds and mammals.\nCyperus microcristatus (from Cameroon) and C. multifolius (native to Panama and Ecuador) are possibly extinct; the former was only found once, in 1995, and the latter has not been seen in the last 200 years. The \"true\" papyrus sedge of Ancient Egypt, C. papyrus subsp. hadidii, is also very rare today due to draining of its wetland habitat; feared extinct in the mid-20th century, it is still found at a few sites in the Wadi El Natrun region and northern Sudan.\nSome tuber-bearing species on the other hand, most significantly the purple nutsedge, C. rotundus, are considered invasive weeds in much of the world.\n\n\n== Diversity ==\n\nAround 700 species are currently recognised in the genus Cyperus.\n\n\n== Fossil record ==\nMany fossil fruits of a Cyperus species have been described from middle Miocene strata of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in Central Jutland, Denmark. Several fossil fruits of †Cyperus distachyoformis have been extracted from borehole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.\n\n\n== Use by humans ==\nPapyrus sedge (C. papyrus) of Africa was of major historical importance in providing papyrus. C. giganteus, locally known as cañita, is used by the Yokot'an Maya of Tabasco, Mexico, for weaving petates (sleeping mats) and sombreros. C. textilis and C. pangorei are traditionally used to produce the typical mats of Palakkad in India, and the makaloa mats of Niihau were made from C. laevigatus.\nThe chufa flatsedge (C. esculentus) has edible tubers and is grown commercially for these; they are eaten as vegetables, made into sweets, or used to produce the horchata of the Valencia region. Several other species – e.g. Australian bush onion (C. bulbosus) – are eaten to a smaller extent. For some Northern Paiutes, Cyperus tubers were a mainstay food, to the extent that they were known as tövusi-dökadö (\"nutsedge tuber eaters\")Priprioca (C. articulatus) is one of the traditional spices of the Amazon region and its reddish essential oil is used commercially both by the cosmetic industry, and increasingly as a flavoring for food. Interest is increasing in the larger, fast-growing species as crops for paper and biofuel production.\nSome species are grown as ornamental or pot plants, notably:\n\nCyperus alternifolius (umbrella papyrus)\nCyperus albostriatus (dwarf umbrella sedge), formerly called C. diffusus)\nCyperus involucratus (umbrella plant)\nCyperus papyrus (papyrus)Some Cyperus species are used in folk medicine. Roots of Near East species were a component of kyphi, a medical incense of Ancient Egypt. Tubers of C. rotundus (purple nut-sedge) tubers are used in kampō.\nAn unspecified Cyperus is mentioned as an abortifacient in the 11th-century poem De viribus herbarum.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAmphoe Nong Prue, a district in Thailand. The name of its capital Nong Prue (หนองปรือ) literally means \"Cyperus swamp\".\nThe sedge Carex pseudocyperus is a related plant convergent in appearance to Cyperus.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCYPERUS interactive identification key by D. M. Ferguson @ LSU Herbarium\nCYPERACEAE interactive identification keys @ LSU Herbarium\nFlora of China Vol. 23 Page 219, 莎草属 suo cao shu, Cyperus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 44. 1753.\nFlora of Pakistan, V. 206 Page 89, Cyperus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 44. 1753; Gen. Pl., ed. 5: 26. 1754; Boiss., Fl. Or. 5: 363. 1882; C.B.Clarke in Hook.f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 597. 1893; R. R. Stewart, l.c. 86. 1972; Kukkonen in Rech.f., Fl. Iranica 173: 85. 1998.\nCords and a fishnet from Cyperus & Scirpus", "Cyperus giganteus (also known as piripiri) is a perennial herbaceous plant. It belongs to the genus Cyperus. Its native range extends from Jalisco in west-central Mexico as far south as Uruguay, and also grows on some islands in the Caribbean (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Trinidad). The species is sparingly naturalized in eastern Texas and southern Louisiana.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\"Cyperus giganteus\". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).", "Cyperus elegans, the royal flatsedge, is a sedge species in the genus Cyperus from Central and South America.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of flora of the Sonoran Desert Region by common name\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==", "An achene (; Greek ἀ, a, privative + χαίνειν, chainein, to gape; also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp) is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not open at maturity). Achenes contain a single seed that nearly fills the pericarp, but does not adhere to it. In many species, what is called the \"seed\" is an achene, a fruit containing the seed. The seed-like appearance is owed to the hardening of the fruit wall (pericarp), which encloses the solitary seed so closely as to seem like a seed coat.\n\n\n== Examples ==\n\nThe fruits of buttercup, buckwheat, caraway, quinoa, amaranth, and cannabis are typical achenes.\nThe achenes of the strawberry are sometimes mistaken for seeds. The strawberry is an accessory fruit with an aggregate of achenes on its outer surface, and what is eaten is accessory tissue.\n\nA rose produces an aggregate of achene fruits that are encompassed within an expanded hypanthium (aka floral tube), which is a structure where basal portions of the calyx, the corolla, and the stamens unite with the receptacle to form a cup-shaped tube.\n\n\n== Variations ==\nA winged achene, as in maple, is called a samara.\nSome achenes have accessory hair-like structures that cause them to tumble in the wind in a manner similar to a tumbleweed. This type sometimes is called a tumble fruit or diaspore. An example is Anemone virginiana.\nA caryopsis or grain is a type of fruit that closely resembles an achene, but differs in that the pericarp is fused to the thin seed coat in the grain.\nAn utricle is like an achene, but the fruit is bladder-like or inflated.Fruits of sedges are sometimes considered achenes although their one-locule ovary is a compound ovary.\nThe fruit of the family Asteraceae is also so similar to an achene that it is often considered to be one, although it derives from a compound inferior ovary (with one locule). A special term for the Asteraceae fruit is cypsela (plural cypselae or cypselas). For example, the white-gray husks of a sunflower \"seed\" are the walls of the cypsela fruit. Many cypselas (e.g. dandelion) have calyx tissue attached that functions in biological dispersal of the seed.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== External links ==\nBotanical Glossary", "In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature (\"two-term naming system\"), also called binominal nomenclature (\"two-name naming system\") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name (which may be shortened to just \"binomial\"), a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name; more informally it is also called a Latin name.\nThe first part of the name – the generic name – identifies the genus to which the species belongs, whereas the second part – the specific name or specific epithet – distinguishes the species within the genus. For example, modern humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. Tyrannosaurus rex is probably the most widely known binomial. The formal introduction of this system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus, effectively beginning with his work Species Plantarum in 1753. But as early as 1622, Gaspard Bauhin introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici (English, Illustrated exposition of plants) many names of genera that were later adopted by Linnaeus.The application of binomial nomenclature is now governed by various internationally agreed codes of rules, of which the two most important are the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) for animals and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp). Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are some differences, both in terminology they use and in their particular rules.\nIn modern usage, the first letter of the generic name is always capitalized in writing, while that of the specific epithet is not, even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Similarly, both parts are italicized in normal text (or underlined in handwriting). Thus the binomial name of the annual phlox (named after botanist Thomas Drummond) is now written as Phlox drummondii. Often, after a species name is introduced in a text, the generic name is abbreviated to the first letter in subsequent mentions (e. g., P. drummondii).\nIn scientific works, the authority for a binomial name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned, and the year of publication may be specified.\n\nIn zoology\n\"Patella vulgata Linnaeus, 1758\". The name \"Linnaeus\" tells the reader who published the name and description for this species of limpet; 1758 is the year the name and original description was published (in this case, in the 10th edition of the book Systema Naturae).\n\"Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)\". The original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; the parentheses indicate that the species is now placed in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, although nomenclatorial catalogs usually include such information.\nIn botany\n\"Amaranthus retroflexus L.\" – \"L.\" is the standard abbreviation used for \"Linnaeus\".\n\"Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm.\" – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica; Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides; the ICNafp does not require that the dates of either publication be specified.\n\n\n== Origin ==\nThe name is composed of two word-forming elements: bi- (Latin prefix meaning 'two') and nomial (literally 'name'). In Medieval Latin, the related word binomium was used to signify one term in a binomial expression in mathematics. The word nomen (plural nomina) means 'name' in Latin.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nPrior to the adoption of the modern binomial system of naming species, a scientific name consisted of a generic name combined with a specific name that was from one to several words long. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature. These names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description; however these two goals were eventually found to be incompatible. In a simple genus, containing only two species, it was easy to tell them apart with a one-word genus and a one-word specific name; but as more species were discovered, the names necessarily became longer and unwieldy, for instance, Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatus pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti (\"plantain with pubescent ovate-lanceolate leaves, a cylindric spike and a terete scape\"), which we know today as Plantago media.\nSuch \"polynomial names\" may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerard's herbal (as amended by Johnson) describes various kinds of spiderwort: \"The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort; the second, Phalangium non ramosum, Unbranched Spiderwort. The other ... is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia\". The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels.\nThe Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624), took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of strictly binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). It was in Linnaeus's 1753 Species Plantarum that he began consistently using a one-word \"trivial name\" (nomen triviale) after a generic name (genus name) in a system of binomial nomenclature. Trivial names had already appeared in his Critica Botanica (1737) and Philosophia Botanica (1751). This trivial name is what is now known as a specific epithet (ICNafp) or specific name (ICZN). The Bauhins' genus names were retained in many of these, but the descriptive part was reduced to a single word.\nLinnaeus's trivial names introduced an important new idea, namely that the function of a name could simply be to give a species a unique label. This meant that the name no longer need be descriptive; for example both parts could be derived from the names of people. Thus Gerard's Phalangium ephemerum virginianum became Tradescantia virginiana, where the genus name honoured John Tradescant the Younger, an English botanist and gardener. A bird in the parrot family was named Psittacus alexandri, meaning \"Alexander's parrot\", after Alexander the Great, whose armies introduced eastern parakeets to Greece. Linnaeus's trivial names were much easier to remember and use than the parallel polynomial names and eventually replaced them.\n\n\n== Value ==\n\nThe value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the uniqueness and stability of names that the Codes of Zoological and Botanical, Bacterial and Viral Nomenclature provide:\n\nEconomy. Compared to the polynomial system which it replaced, a binomial name is shorter and easier to remember. It corresponds to the widespread system of family name plus given name(s) used to name people in many cultures.\nWidespread use. The binomial system of nomenclature is governed by international codes and is used by biologists worldwide. A few binomials have also entered common speech, such as Homo sapiens, E. coli, Boa constrictor, and Tyrannosaurus rex.\nUniqueness. Provided that taxonomists agree as to the limits of a species, it can have only one name that is correct under the appropriate nomenclature code, generally the earliest published if two or more names are accidentally assigned to a species. However, establishing that two names actually refer to the same species and then determining which has priority can be difficult, particularly if the species was named by biologists from different countries. Therefore, a species may have more than one regularly used name; all but one of these names are \"synonyms\". Furthermore, within zoology or botany, each species name applies to only one species. If a name is used more than once, it is called a homonym. \nStability. Although stability is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing binomial names, such as the principle of priority, tend to favor stability. For example, when species are transferred between genera (as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge), the second part of the binomial is kept the same (unless it becomes a homonym). Thus there is disagreement among botanists as to whether the genera Chionodoxa and Scilla are sufficiently different for them to be kept separate. Those who keep them separate give the plant commonly grown in gardens in Europe the name Chionodoxa siehei; those who do not give it the name Scilla siehei. The siehei element is constant. Similarly if what were previously thought to be two distinct species are demoted to a lower rank, such as subspecies, the second part of the binomial name is retained as a trinomen (the third part of the new name). Thus the Tenerife robin may be treated as a different species from the European robin, in which case its name is Erithacus superbus, or as only a subspecies, in which case its name is Erithacus rubecula superbus. The superbus element of the name is constant, as is its authorship and year of publication.\n\n\n== Problems ==\nBinomial nomenclature for species has the effect that when a species is moved from one genus to another, sometimes the specific name or epithet must be changed as well. This may happen because the specific name is already used in the new genus, or to agree in gender with the new genus if the specific epithet is an adjective modifying the genus name. Some biologists have argued for the combination of the genus name and specific epithet into a single unambiguous name, or for the use of uninomials (as used in nomenclature of ranks above species).Because genus names are unique only within a nomenclature code, it is possible for two or more species to share the same genus name and even the same binomial if they occur in different kingdoms. At least 1,240 instances of genus name duplication occur (mainly between zoology and botany).\n\n\n== Relationship to classification and taxonomy ==\nNomenclature (including binomial nomenclature) is not the same as classification, although the two are related. Classification is the ordering of items into groups based on similarities or differences; in biological classification, species are one of the kinds of item to be classified. In principle, the names given to species could be completely independent of their classification. This is not the case for binomial names, since the first part of a binomial is the name of the genus into which the species is placed. Above the rank of genus, binomial nomenclature and classification are partly independent; for example, a species retains its binomial name if it is moved from one family to another or from one order to another, unless it better fits a different genus in the same or different family, or it is split from its old genus and placed in a newly created genus. The independence is only partial since the names of families and other higher taxa are usually based on genera.Taxonomy includes both nomenclature and classification. Its first stages (sometimes called \"alpha taxonomy\") are concerned with finding, describing and naming species of living or fossil organisms. Binomial nomenclature is thus an important part of taxonomy as it is the system by which species are named. Taxonomists are also concerned with classification, including its principles, procedures and rules.\n\n\n== Derivation of binomial names ==\n\nA complete binomial name is always treated grammatically as if it were a phrase in the Latin language (hence the common use of the term \"Latin name\" for a binomial name). However, the two parts of a binomial name can each be derived from a number of sources, of which Latin is only one. These include:\n\nLatin, either classical or medieval. Thus, both parts of the binomial name Homo sapiens are Latin words, meaning \"wise\" (sapiens) \"human/man\" (Homo).\nClassical Greek. The genus Rhododendron was named by Linnaeus from the Greek word ῥοδόδενδρον, itself derived from rhodon, \"rose\", and dendron, \"tree\". Greek words are often converted to a Latinized form. Thus coca (the plant from which cocaine is obtained) has the name Erythroxylum coca. Erythroxylum is derived from the Greek words erythros, red, and xylon, wood. The Greek neuter ending -ον (-on) is often converted to the Latin neuter ending -um.\nOther languages. The second part of the name Erythroxylum coca is derived from kuka, the name of the plant in Aymara and Quechua. Since many dinosaur fossils were found in Mongolia, their names often use Mongolian words, e.g. Tarchia from tarkhi, meaning \"brain\", or Saichania meaning \"beautiful one\".\nNames of people (often naturalists or biologists). The name Magnolia campbellii commemorates two people: Pierre Magnol, a French botanist, and Archibald Campbell, a doctor in British India.\nNames of places. The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, is widespread in the United States.\nOther sources. Some binominal names have been constructed from taxonomic anagrams or other re-orderings of existing names. Thus the name of the genus Muilla is derived by reversing the name Allium. Names may also be derived from jokes or puns. For example, Ratcliffe described a number of species of rhinoceros beetle, including Cyclocephala nodanotherwon.The first part of the name, which identifies the genus, must be a word which can be treated as a Latin singular noun in the nominative case. It must be unique within the purview of each nomenclatural code, but can be repeated between them. Thus Huia recurvata is an extinct species of plant, found as fossils in Yunnan, China, whereas Huia masonii is a species of frog found in Java, Indonesia.The second part of the name, which identifies the species within the genus, is also treated grammatically as a Latin word. It can have one of a number of forms:\n\nThe second part of a binomial may be an adjective. The adjective must agree with the genus name in gender. Latin has three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, shown by varying endings to nouns and adjectives. The house sparrow has the binomial name Passer domesticus. Here domesticus (\"domestic\") simply means \"associated with the house\". The sacred bamboo is Nandina domestica rather than Nandina domesticus, since Nandina is feminine whereas Passer is masculine. The tropical fruit langsat is a product of the plant Lansium parasiticum, since Lansium is neuter. Some common endings for Latin adjectives in the three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) are -us, -a, -um (as in the previous example of domesticus); -is, -is, -e (e.g. tristis, meaning \"sad\"); and -or, -or, -us (e.g. minor, meaning \"smaller\"). For further information, see Latin declension: Adjectives.\nThe second part of a binomial may be a noun in the nominative case. An example is the binomial name of the lion, which is Panthera leo. Grammatically the noun is said to be in apposition to the genus name and the two nouns do not have to agree in gender; in this case, Panthera is feminine and leo is masculine.\nThe second part of a binomial may be a noun in the genitive (possessive) case. The genitive case is constructed in a number of ways in Latin, depending on the declension of the noun. Common endings for masculine and neuter nouns are -ii or -i in the singular and -orum in the plural, and for feminine nouns -ae in the singular and -arum in the plural. The noun may be part of a person's name, often the surname, as in the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), the shrub Magnolia hodgsonii, or the olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni). The meaning is \"of the person named\", so that Magnolia hodgsonii means \"Hodgson's magnolia\". The -ii or -i endings show that in each case Hodgson was a man (not the same one); had Hodgson been a woman, hodgsonae would have been used. The person commemorated in the binomial name is not usually (if ever) the person who created the name; for example Anthus hodgsoni was named by Charles Wallace Richmond, in honour of Hodgson. Rather than a person, the noun may be related to a place, as with Latimeria chalumnae, meaning \"of the Chalumna River\". Another use of genitive nouns is in, for example, the name of the bacterium Escherichia coli, where coli means \"of the colon\". This formation is common in parasites, as in Xenos vesparum, where vesparum means \"of the wasps\", since Xenos vesparum is a parasite of wasps.Whereas the first part of a binomial name must be unique within the purview of each nomenclatural code, the second part is quite commonly used in two or more genera (as is shown by examples of hodgsonii above). The full binomial name must be unique within each code.\n\n\n== Codes ==\nFrom the early 19th century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became nomenclature codes. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) governs the naming of animals, the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) that of plants (including cyanobacteria), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB) that of bacteria (including Archaea). Virus names are governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), a taxonomic code, which determines taxa as well as names. These codes differ in certain ways, e.g.:\n\n\"Binomial nomenclature\" is the correct term for botany, although it is also used by zoologists. Since 1953, \"binominal nomenclature\" is the technically correct term in zoology. A binominal name is also called a binomen (plural binomina).\nBoth codes consider the first part of the two-part name for a species to be the \"generic name\". In the zoological code (ICZN), the second part of the name is a \"specific name\". In the botanical code (ICNafp), it is a \"specific epithet\". Together, these two parts are referred to as a \"species name\" or \"binomen\" in the zoological code; or \"species name\", \"binomial\", or \"binary combination\" in the botanical code. \"Species name\" is the only term common to the two codes.\nThe ICNafp, the plant code, does not allow the two parts of a binomial name to be the same (such a name is called a tautonym), whereas the ICZN, the animal code, does. Thus the American bison has the binomial Bison bison; a name of this kind would not be allowed for a plant.\nThe starting points, the time from which these codes are in effect (retroactively), vary from group to group. In botany the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year Carl Linnaeus first published Species Plantarum). In zoology the starting point is 1758 (1 January 1758 is considered the date of the publication of Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, 10th Edition, and also Clerck's Aranei Svecici). Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point on 1 January 1980.Unifying the different codes into a single code, the \"BioCode\", has been suggested, although implementation is not in sight. (There is also a published code for a different system of biotic nomenclature which does not use ranks above species, but instead names clades. This is called the PhyloCode.)\n\n\n=== Differences in handling personal names ===\nAs noted above, there are some differences between the codes in the way in which binomials can be formed; for example the ICZN allows both parts to be the same, while the ICNafp does not. Another difference is in the way in which personal names are used in forming specific names or epithets. The ICNafp sets out precise rules by which a personal name is to be converted to a specific epithet. In particular, names ending in a consonant (but not \"er\") are treated as first being converted into Latin by adding \"-ius\" (for a man) or \"-ia\" (for a woman), and then being made genitive (i.e. meaning \"of that person or persons\"). This produces specific epithets like lecardii for Lecard (male), wilsoniae for Wilson (female), and brauniarum for the Braun sisters. By contrast the ICZN does not require the intermediate creation of a Latin form of a personal name, allowing the genitive ending to be added directly to the personal name. This explains the difference between the names of the plant Magnolia hodgsonii and the bird Anthus hodgsoni. Furthermore, the ICNafp requires names not published in the form required by the code to be corrected to conform to it, whereas the ICZN is more protective of the form used by the original author.\n\n\n== Writing binomial names ==\nBy tradition, the binomial names of species are usually typeset in italics; for example, Homo sapiens. Generally, the binomial should be printed in a font style different from that used in the normal text; for example, \"Several more Homo sapiens fossils were discovered.\" When handwritten, a binomial name should be underlined; for example, Homo sapiens.The first part of the binomial, the genus name, is always written with an initial capital letter. Older sources, particularly botanical works published before the 1950s, use a different convention. If the second part of the name is derived from a proper noun, e.g. the name of a person or place, a capital letter was used. Thus the modern form Berberis darwinii was written as Berberis Darwinii. A capital was also used when the name is formed by two nouns in apposition, e.g. Panthera Leo or Centaurea Cyanus. In current usage, the second part is never written with an initial capital.When used with a common name, the scientific name often follows in parentheses, although this varies with publication. For example, \"The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is decreasing in Europe.\"\nThe binomial name should generally be written in full. The exception to this is when several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report, or the same species is mentioned repeatedly; in which case the genus is written in full when it is first used, but may then be abbreviated to an initial (and a period/full stop). For example, a list of members of the genus Canis might be written as \"Canis lupus, C. aureus, C. simensis\". In rare cases, this abbreviated form has spread to more general use; for example, the bacterium Escherichia coli is often referred to as just E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex is perhaps even better known simply as T. rex, these two both often appearing in this form in popular writing even where the full genus name has not already been given.\nThe abbreviation \"sp.\" is used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified. The abbreviation \"spp.\" (plural) indicates \"several species\". These abbreviations are not italicised (or underlined). For example: \"Canis sp.\" means \"an unspecified species of the genus Canis\", while \"Canis spp.\" means \"two or more species of the genus Canis\". (These abbreviations should not be confused with the abbreviations \"ssp.\" (zoology) or \"subsp.\" (botany), plurals \"sspp.\" or \"subspp.\", referring to one or more subspecies. See trinomen (zoology) and infraspecific name.)\nThe abbreviation \"cf.\" (i.e. confer in Latin) is used to compare individuals/taxa with known/described species. Conventions for use of the \"cf.\" qualifier vary. In paleontology, it is typically used when the identification is not confirmed. For example, \"Corvus cf. nasicus\" was used to indicate \"a fossil bird similar to the Cuban crow but not certainly identified as this species\". In molecular systematics papers, \"cf.\" may be used to indicate one or more undescribed species assumed related to a described species. For example, in a paper describing the phylogeny of small benthic freshwater fish called darters, five undescribed putative species (Ozark, Sheltowee, Wildcat, Ihiyo, and Mamequit darters), notable for brightly colored nuptial males with distinctive color patterns, were referred to as \"Etheostoma cf. spectabile\" because they had been viewed as related to, but distinct from, Etheostoma spectabile (orangethroat darter). This view was supported in varying degrees by DNA analysis. The somewhat informal use of taxa names with qualifying abbreviations is referred to as open nomenclature and it is not subject to strict usage codes.\nIn some contexts the dagger symbol (\"†\") may be used before or after the binomial name to indicate that the species is extinct.\n\n\n=== Authority ===\n\nIn scholarly texts, at least the first or main use of the binomial name is usually followed by the \"authority\" – a way of designating the scientist(s) who first published the name. The authority is written in slightly different ways in zoology and botany. For names governed by the ICZN the surname is usually written in full together with the date (normally only the year) of publication. The ICZN recommends that the \"original author and date of a name should be cited at least once in each work dealing with the taxon denoted by that name.\" For names governed by the ICNafp the name is generally reduced to a standard abbreviation and the date omitted. The International Plant Names Index maintains an approved list of botanical author abbreviations. Historically, abbreviations were used in zoology too.\nWhen the original name is changed, e.g. the species is moved to a different genus, both codes use parentheses around the original authority; the ICNafp also requires the person who made the change to be given. In the ICNafp, the original name is then called the basionym. Some examples:\n\n(Plant) Amaranthus retroflexus L. – \"L.\" is the standard abbreviation for \"Linnaeus\"; the absence of parentheses shows that this is his original name.\n(Plant) Hyacinthoides italica (L.) Rothm. – Linnaeus first named the Italian bluebell Scilla italica; that is the basionym. Rothmaler later transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides.\n(Animal) Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) – the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica; unlike the ICNafp, the ICZN does not require the name of the person who changed the genus to be given.\n\n\n== Other ranks ==\n\nBinomial nomenclature, as described here, is a system for naming species. Implicitly it includes a system for naming genera, since the first part of the name of the species is a genus name. In a classification system based on ranks there are also ways of naming ranks above the level of genus and below the level of species. Ranks above genus (e.g., family, order, class) receive one-part names, which are conventionally not written in italics. Thus the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, belongs to the family Passeridae. Family names are normally based on genus names, although the endings used differ between zoology and botany.\nRanks below species receive three-part names, conventionally written in italics like the names of species. There are significant differences between the ICZN and the ICNafp. In zoology, the only rank below species is subspecies and the name is written simply as three parts (a trinomen). Thus one of the subspecies of the olive-backed pipit is Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii. In botany, there are many ranks below species and although the name itself is written in three parts, a \"connecting term\" (not part of the name) is needed to show the rank. Thus the American black elder is Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis; the white-flowered form of the ivy-leaved cyclamen is Cyclamen hederifolium f. albiflorum.\n\n\n== See also ==\nGlossary of scientific naming\nBotanical name\nHybrid name (botany)\nList of botanists by author abbreviation\nList of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names\nList of organisms named after famous people\nList of zoologists by author abbreviation\nScientific terminology\nSpecies description\nUndescribed taxon\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nHyam, R. & Pankhurst, R.J. (1995), Plants and their names : a concise dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-866189-4\nInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1999), International Code of Zoological Nomenclature online (4th ed.), The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, ISBN 978-0-85301-006-7, retrieved 20 June 2011\nMcNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012), International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011, Regnum Vegetabile 154, A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG, ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6\n\n\n== External links ==\nCuriosities of Biological Nomenclature\nNCBI Taxonomy Database\nCrinan, Alexander, ed. (2007), Plant Names : A Guide for Horticulturists, Nurserymen, Gardeners and Students (PDF), Horticultural Taxonomy Group, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2013, retrieved 4 June 2013", "Dryopteris cristata is a species of fern native to wetlands throughout the Northern Hemisphere. It is known as crested wood fern or crested buckler-fern. This plant is a tetraploid species of hybrid origin, one parent being Dryopteris ludoviciana and the other being the unknown, apparently extinct species, dubbed Dryopteris semicristata, which is also one of the presumed parents of Dryopteris carthusiana. D. cristata in turn is one of the parents of Dryopteris clintoniana, another fern of hybrid origin.\nThe crested wood fern is a wetlands plant, needing year-round moisture. The fronds often grow quite tall, up to a meter or more in height, but are extremely narrow under most conditions.\n\n\n== Anti-microbial properties ==\nIt is known that this plant has been used as an anti-microbial agent; for example, root extracts from D. cristata (as well as the kindred species D. arguta) has been shown efficacious in expelling intestinal parasites from certain mammals.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nU.S. Department of Agriculture. 2009. USDA PLANTS Profile: Dryopteris cristata\nDryopteris cristata in Flora of North America", "Tulostoma is a genus of over 100 species of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Commonly known as stalked puffballs, the cosmopolitan genus consists of species which produce small fruit bodies, characterized by stalks inserted in a socket at the base of the spherical spore-sac opened by a small and apical mouth. The spore-sac contains gleba, a mixture of spores and associated cells; at maturity, the spores are released through one or more apical pores. Tulostoma species prefer xeric microhabitats, savannahs and deserts, and are saprobic—obtaining nutrients by decomposing roots, buried wood and other organic material of plant origin.The following list of 102 species is compiled from Jorge Eduardo Wright's 1987 world monograph on the Tulostomatales, as well as reports of new taxa described in the literature published since then. Wright included 139 species in his monograph, including 47 \"doubtful or critical\" species. New species have since been reported from Spain (1992), Mexico (1995), Venezuela (2000), Tunisia (2002), China (2005), and Argentina.\n\n\n== Infrageneric classification ==\nCzech mycologist Zdeněk Pouzar elaborated an infrageneric (below the level of genus) system of classification for Tulostoma species in his 1958 monograph of European taxa. Wright expanded and revised Pouzar's classification system to include all known species:\n\nSubgenus Tulostoma\nSeries Tubulares\nSection Brumalia\nSection Hyphales\nSection Granulosae\nSection Volvulata\nSection Meristostoma\nSeries Fimbriata\nSection Fimbriata\nSection Poculata\nSection Exasperata\nSection Dubiostoma\nSection RickianaSubgenus Lacerostoma\n\nSection Lacerata\n\n\n== Key ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nWright JE. (1987). The genus Tulostoma (Gasteromycetes). Bibliotheca mycologia. 113. Berlin, Germany: J. Cramer. p. 338. ISBN 3-443-59014-4.", "An abortifacient (\"that which will cause a miscarriage\" from Latin: abortus \"miscarriage\" and faciens \"making\") is a substance that induces abortion. This is a nonspecific term which may refer to any number of substances or medications, ranging from herbs to prescription medications.Common abortifacients used in performing medical abortions include mifepristone, which is typically used in conjunction with misoprostol in a two-step approach. Synthetic oxytocin, which is routinely used safely during term labor, is also commonly used to induce abortion in the second or third trimester.For thousands of years writers in many parts of the world have described and recommended herbal abortifacients to women who seek to terminate a pregnancy, although their use carries risks to the health of the woman.\n\n\n== Medications ==\n\nBecause \"abortifacient\" is a broad term used to describe a substance's effects on pregnancy, there is a wide range of drugs that can be described as abortifacients or as having abortifacient properties.\nThe most commonly recommended medication regimen for intentionally inducing abortion involves the use of mifepristone followed by misoprostol 1–2 days later. The use of these medications for the purpose of ending a pregnancy has been extensively studied, and has been shown to be both effective and safe with fewer than 0.4% of patients needing hospitalization to treat an infection or to receive a blood transfusion. This combination is approved for use up to 10 weeks' gestation (70 days after the start of the last menstrual period).Other drugs with abortifacient properties can have multiple uses. Both synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin) and dinoprostone (Cervidil, Prepidil) are routinely used during healthy, term labor. Pitocin is used to induce and strengthen contractions, and Cervidil is used to prepare the cervix for labor by inducing softening and widening of this opening to the uterus. When used this way, neither medication is considered an abortifacient. However, the same drugs can be used to induce an abortion, particularly after 12 weeks of pregnancy. Misoprostol (discussed above) is also used to treat peptic ulcers in patients who have suffered gastric or intestinal damage from use of NSAIDs. Because its use in treatment of ulcers makes it easier to access, misoprostol alone is sometimes used for self-induced abortion in countries or regions where legal abortion is not available or readily accessible.Not all abortifacient agents are taken with the intention to end a pregnancy. Methotrexate, a drug often used for management of rheumatoid arthritis, can induce abortion. For this reason contraception is often advised while using methotrexate for management of a chronic condition.Sometimes herbal medicines are used in an attempt to induce abortion. In general, a dose sufficient to be effective poses a risk to the mother because of potential liver and kidney damage; failed attempts may require a follow-up clinical abortion because the uterus did not evacuate completely.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe medical literature of classical antiquity often refers to pharmacological means of abortion; abortifacients are mentioned, and sometimes described in detail, in the works of Aristotle, Caelius Aurelianus, Celsus, Dioscorides, Galen, Hippocrates, Oribasius, Paul of Aegina, Pliny, Theodorus Priscianus, Soranus of Ephesus, and others.\nIn ancient Babylonian texts, scholars have described multiple written prescriptions or instructions for ending pregnancies. Some of these instructions were explicitly for ingesting ingredients to end a pregnancy, whereas other cuneiform texts discuss the ingestion of ingredients to return a missed menstrual period (which is used repeatedly throughout history as a coded reference to abortion). \"To make a pregnant woman lose her foetus: ...Grind nabruqqu plant, let her drink it with wine on an empty stomach, [then her foetus will be aborted].\"\n\nThe ancient Greek colony of Cyrene at one time had an economy based almost entirely on the production and export of the plant silphium, which had uses ranging from food to a salve for feral dog bites. It was also considered a powerful abortifacient used to \"purge the uterus\". Silphium figured so prominently in the wealth of Cyrene that the plant appeared on coins minted there.\nIn the Bible, many commentators view the ordeal of the bitter water (prescribed for a sotah, or a wife whose husband suspects that she was unfaithful to him) as referring to the use of abortifacients to terminate her pregnancy. The wife drinks \"water of bitterness,\" which, if she is guilty, causes the abortion or miscarriage of a pregnancy she may be carrying. The Biblical scholar Tikva Frymer-Kensky has disputed the interpretation that the ordeal of the bitter water referred to the use of abortifacients.The medieveal Islamic physician Ibn Sina documented various birth control practices, including the use of rue as an abortifacient. Similarly, 11th-century physician Constantine the African described multiple abortifacient herbs, which he classified by order of their intensity, starting with abortifacients that had weaker effects on the body and ending with the most potent substances.Carl Linnaeus, known as the \"father of botany\", listed five abortifacients in his 1749 Materia medica.: 124  According to the historian of science Londa Schiebinger, in the 17th and 18th centuries \"many sources taken together – herbals, midwifery manuals, trial records, Pharmacopoeia, and Materia medica – reveal that physicians, midwives, and women themselves had an extensive knowledge of herbs that could induce abortion.\": 124–125  Schiebinger further writes that \"European exploration in the West Indies yielded about a dozen known abortifacients.\": 177 For Aboriginal people in Australia, plants such as giant boat-lip orchid (Cymbidium madidum), quinine bush (Petalostigma pubescens), or blue-leaved mallee (Eucalyptus gamophylla) were ingested, inserted into the body, or were smoked with Cooktown ironwood (Erythrophleum chlorostachys).Historically, the First Nations people of eastern Canada used Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodwort) and Juniperus virginiana to induce abortions.According to Virgil Vogel, a historian of the indigenous societies of North America, the Ojibwe used blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) as an abortifacient, and the Quinault used thistle for the same purpose.: 244  The appendix to Vogel's book lists red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), American pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides), tansy, Canada wild ginger (Asarum canadense), and several other herbs as abortifacients used by various North American Indian tribes.: 289–290, 339, 380, 391  The anthropologist Daniel Moerman wrote that calamus (Acorus calamus), which was one of the ten most common medicinal drugs of Native American societies, was used as an abortifacient by the Lenape, Cree, Mohegan, Sioux, and other tribes; and he listed over one hundred substances used as abortifacients by Native Americans.\n\n\n=== Quickening ===\nFor much of history, ending a pregnancy prior to \"quickening\" (the moment when a pregnant woman first feels fetal movement) did not have the type of legal or political restrictions and taboos found in the 21st century. Early medieval laws did not discuss abortion prior to quickening. The early Catholic church held that human life began at \"ensoulment\" (at the time of quickening), a continuation of Roman norms and positions on the use of abortifacients prior to quickening.In English law, abortion did not become illegal until 1803. \"Women who took drugs before that time [quickening] would describe their actions as 'restoring the menses' or 'bringing on a period'.\"At that time, abortion after quickening became subject to the death penalty. In 1837, the significance of quickening was removed, but the death penalty was also abandoned.\n\n\n=== 18th - 20th Century ===\nThe historian Angus McLaren, writing about Canadian women between 1870 and 1920, states that \"A woman would first seek to 'put herself right' by drinking an infusion of one of the traditional abortifacients, such as tansy, quinine, pennyroyal, rue, black hellebore, ergot of rye, sabin, or cotton root.\"During the American slavery period, 18th and 19th centuries, cotton root bark was used in folk remedies to induce a miscarriage.In the 19th century Madame Restell provided mail-order abortifacients and surgical abortion to pregnant clients in New York.Early 20th-century newspaper advertisements included coded advertisements for abortifacient substances which would solve menstrual \"irregularities.\" Between 1919 and 1934 the U.S. Department of Agriculture issued legal restraints against fifty-seven \"feminine hygiene products\" including \"Blair's Female Tablets\" and \"Madame LeRoy's Regulative Pills.\"\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n The dictionary definition of abortifacient at Wiktionary", "The moth genus Dryopteris is now considered a junior synonym of Oreta.\n\nDryopteris , commonly called the wood ferns, male ferns (referring in particular to Dryopteris filix-mas), or buckler ferns, is a fern genus in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Dryopteridoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). There are about 300-400 species in the genus. The species are distributed in Asia, the Americas, Europe, Africa, and the Pacific islands, with the highest diversity in eastern Asia. It is placed in the family Dryopteridaceae, subfamily Dryopteridoideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). Many of the species have stout, slowly creeping rootstocks that form a crown, with a vase-like ring of fronds. The sori are round, with a peltate indusium. The stipes have prominent scales.\nHybridization and polyploidy are well-known phenomena in this group, with many species formed via these processes. The North American Dryopteris hybrid complex is a well-known example of speciation via allopolyploid hybridization.\n\n\n== Selected species ==\nThe genus has a large number of species. The PPG I classification suggested there were about 400 species; as of February 2020, the Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World listed 328 species and 83 hybrids. Some genera sunk into Dryopteris, such as Dryopsis, Stenolepia and Nothoperanema, are distinguished by other sources.\n\n\t\t\n\n\n== Ecology ==\nDryopteris species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Batrachedra sophroniella (which feeds exclusively on D. cyatheoides) and Sthenopiseauratus.\n\n\n== Cultivation and uses ==\nMany Dryopteris species are widely used as garden ornamental plants, especially D. affinis, D. erythrosora, and D. filix-mas, with numerous cultivars.\nDryopteris filix-mas was throughout much of recent human history widely used as a vermifuge, and was the only fern listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.\nTraditional use in Scandinavia against red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae) infestation is to place fronds in nesting boxes under nesting material and under floor covering material.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNorth American Dryopteris hybrid complex\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nFlora Europaea: Dryopteris\nFlora of North America: Dryopteris\nFlora of China: Dryopteris species list", "Dryopteris crassirhizoma is a fern species in the wood fern family Dryopteridaceae.\nThis semi-evergreen fern grows to 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and broad, with narrowly-divided fronds growing in a vase-like shape from a central crown, which is brown in colour.It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.The acylphloroglucinols (flavaspidic acids) isolated from D. crassirhizoma show in vitro antibacterial and fatty acid synthase inhibitory activity. Also, the constituents sutchuenoside A and kaempferitrin have in vivo antiparasitic activity.\n\n\n== References ==", "Cyperus pseudothyrsiflorus is a plant species native to Nuevo León, New Mexico and Texas, a member of Cyperus subgenus Cyperus. It occurs in cultivated fields and other disturbed areas at elevations of less than 1000 m (3400 feet).Cyperus pseudothyrsiflorus is a perennial herb spreading by underground rhizomes. Stems are triangular in cross-section, up to 40 cm (16 inches) tall. It is closely related to C. retroflexus and considered a variety of that species by some authors.\n\n\n== References ==", "The Arabian Peninsula (; Arabic: شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة‎, shibhu l-jazīrati l-ʿarabiyyah, \"Arabian Peninsula\" or جَزِيرَةُ الْعَرَب, jazīratu l-ʿarab, \"Island of the Arabs\") is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. At 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi), the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.Geographically, the Arabian Peninsula includes Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Yemen, as well as the southern portions of Iraq and Jordan. The biggest of these is Saudi Arabia.The Arabian Peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and southwest, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast, the Levant and Mesopotamia to the north and the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. The peninsula plays a critical geopolitical role in the Arab world and globally due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.\nBefore the modern era, the region was divided into primarily four distinct regions: the Central Plateau (Najd or Al-Yamama), South Arabia, Al-Bahrain (Eastern Arabia or Al-Hassa), and the Hejaz (Tihamah for the western coast), as described by Ibn al-Faqih.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nThe Arabian Peninsula is located in the continent of Asia and is bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel and Somali Sea on the south, the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait on the southwest and the Red Sea, which is located on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear borderline, although the northern boundary of the peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest, there are mountain ranges, which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from northwestern Arabia into Jordan and southern Syria.\n\n\n=== Political boundaries ===\n\nThe Peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise from north to south) Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south, and Saudi Arabia at the center. The island country of Bahrain lies just off the east coast of the Peninsula. Due to Yemen's jurisdiction over the Socotra Archipelago, the Peninsula's geopolitical outline faces the Guardafui Channel and the Somali Sea to the south.The six countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the Peninsula. The majority of the population of the Peninsula lives in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The Peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. Saudi Arabia and the UAE are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, the only peninsular country in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home to the Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the United States-led 2003 invasion of Iraq.\n\n\n=== Population ===\nThough historically lightly populated, political Arabia is noted for a high population growth rate – as the result of both very strong inflows of migrant labor as well as sustained high birth rates. The population tends to be relatively young and heavily skewed gender ratio dominated by males. In many states, the number of South Asians exceeds that of the local citizenry. The four smallest states (by area), which have their entire coastlines on the Persian Gulf, exhibit the world's most extreme population growth, roughly tripling every 20 years. In 2014, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 77,983,936 (including expatriates). The Arabian Peninsula is known for having one of the most uneven adult sex ratios in the world, with females in some regions (especially the east) constituting only a quarter of vicenarians and tricenarians.\n\n\n==== Cities ====\nThe ten most populous cities on the Arabian Peninsula are:\n\n\n=== Landscape ===\n\nGeologically, this region is perhaps more appropriately called the Arabian subcontinent because it lies on a tectonic plate of its own, the Arabian Plate, which has been moving incrementally away from the rest of Africa (forming the Red Sea) and north, toward Asia, into the Eurasian Plate (forming the Zagros Mountains). The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail Ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.\nThe peninsula consists of:\n\nA central plateau, the Najd, with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of sheep and other livestock\nA range of deserts: the Nefud in the north, which is stony; the Rub' al Khali or Great Arabian Desert in the south, with sand estimated to extend 600 ft (180 m) below the surface; between them, the Dahna\nMountains\nStretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side (Tihamah)\nOases and marshy coast-land in Eastern Arabia, the most important of which are those of Al Ain (Tawam in the United Arab Emirates and Oman) and Al-Hasa (in Saudi Arabia), according to one author\nTropical monsoon coastline in Dhofar and Al-Mahra (known as Khareef in the Arabian Peninsula).Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al-Hasa and Qatif, two of the world's largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid, although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive surprisingly cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests. Desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.\nAccording to NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data (2003–2013) analysed in a University of California, Irvine (UCI)-led study published in Water Resources Research on 16 June 2015, the most over-stressed aquifer system in the world is the Arabian Aquifer System, upon which more than 60 million people depend for water. Twenty-one of the thirty seven largest aquifers \"have exceeded sustainability tipping points and are being depleted\" and thirteen of them are \"considered significantly distressed\".A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterised by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east.\n\n\n==== Mountains ====\n\nThere are mountains at the eastern, southern and northwestern borders of the peninsula. Broadly, the ranges can be grouped as follows:\n\nNortheast: The Hajar range, shared by the UAE and northern Oman\nSoutheast: The Dhofar Mountains of southern Oman, contiguous with the eastern Yemeni Hadhramaut\nWest: Bordering the eastern coast of the Red Sea are the Sarawat, which can be seen to include the Haraz Mountains of eastern Yemen, and the 'Asir and Hijaz Mountains of western Saudi Arabia, the latter including the Midian in northwestern Saudi Arabia\nNorthwest: Aside from the Sarawat, the northern portion of Saudi Arabia hosts the Shammar Mountains, which include the Aja and Salma subranges\nCentral: The Najd hosts the Tuwaiq Escarpment or Tuwair rangeFrom the Hejaz southwards, the mountains show a steady increase in altitude westward as they get nearer to Yemen, and the highest peaks and ranges are all located in Yemen. The highest, Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb or Jabal Hadhur of the Haraz subrange of the Sarawat range, is 3,666 metres (12,028 ft) high. By comparison, the Tuwayr, Shammar and Dhofar generally do not exceed 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.Not all mountains in the peninsula are visibly within ranges. Jebel Hafeet in particular, on the border of the UAE and Oman, measuring between 1,100 and 1,300 m (3,600 and 4,300 ft), is not within the Hajar range, but may be considered an outlier of that range.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Land and sea ===\n\nMost of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and tropical fruits. Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula. Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate, in particular the Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate. The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical sea with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. In addition, the organisms living in symbiosis with the Red Sea coral, the protozoa and zooxanthellae, have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence, these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the indopacific coral sea. The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. However, some reefs were destroyed in the Persian Gulf, mostly caused by phosphate water pollution and resultant increase in algae growth as well as oil pollution from ships and pipeline leakage.The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher elevations, elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger and khat cultivation. The Arabian peninsula is known for its rich oil, i.e. petroleum production due to its geographical location.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nDuring the Hellenistic period, the area was known as Arabia or Aravia (Greek: Αραβία). The Romans named three regions with the prefix \"Arabia\", encompassing a larger area than the current term \"Arabian Peninsula\":\n\nArabia Petraea (\"Stony Arabia\"): for the area that is today southern modern Syria, Jordan, the Sinai Peninsula and northwestern Saudi Arabia. It was the only one that became a province, with Petra as its capital.\nArabia Deserta (\"Desert Arabia\"): signified the desert interior of the Arabian peninsula. As a name for the region, it remained popular into the 19th and 20th centuries, and was used in Charles M. Doughty's Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888).\nArabia Felix (\"Fortunate Arabia\"): was used by geographers to describe what is now Yemen, which enjoys more rainfall, is much greener than the rest of the peninsula and has long enjoyed much more productive fields.The Arab inhabitants used a north–south division of Arabia: Al Sham-Al Yaman, or Arabia Deserta-Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' – Bilad al-'Arab (Arabia), and its major divisions were the bilad al-Sham (Levant), bilad al-Yaman (Yemen), and Bilad al-'Iraq (Iraq). The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the region starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas.The provinces of Arabia were: Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hedjaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrain, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe history of the Arabian Peninsula goes back to the beginnings of human habitation in Arabia up to 130,000 years ago. However, a fossilized Homo sapiens finger bone was found at Al Wusta in the Nefud Desert, which indicates that the first human migration out of Africa to Arabia might date back to approximately 90,000 years ago. Nevertheless, the stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic age along with fossils of other animals discovered at Ti's al Ghadah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia, might imply that hominids migrated through a \"Green Arabia\" between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago. Acheulean tools found in Saffaqah, Riyadh Region reveal that hominins lived in the Arabian Peninsula as recently as 188,000 years ago. However, 200,000-year-old stone tools were discovered at Shuaib Al-Adgham in the eastern Al-Qassim Province, which would indicate that many prehistoric sites, located along a network of rivers, had once existed in the area.\n\n\n=== Pre-Islamic Arabia ===\n\nThere is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 106,000 to 130,000 years ago. The harsh climate historically prevented much settlement in the pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula, apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of the peninsula.Archaeology has revealed the existence of many civilizations in pre-Islamic Arabia (such as the Thamud), especially in South Arabia. South Arabian civilizations include the Sheba, the Himyarite Kingdom, the Kingdom of Awsan, the Kingdom of Ma'īn and the Sabaean Kingdom. From 106 CE to 630 CE northwestern Arabia was under the control of the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea. Central Arabia was the location of the Kingdom of Kindah in the 4th, 5th and early 6th centuries AD. Eastern Arabia was home to the Dilmun civilization. The earliest known events in Arabian history are migrations from the peninsula into neighbouring areas.The Arabian peninsula has long been accepted as the original Urheimat of the Semitic languages by a majority of scholars.\n\n\n=== Rise of Islam ===\n\nThe seventh century saw the rise of Islam as the peninsula's dominant religion. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian peninsula.\nMuhammad established a new unified polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.\nWith Muhammad's death in 632 AD, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or \"Wars of Apostasy\".Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph. After putting down a rebellion by the Arab tribes (known as the Ridda wars, or \"Wars of Apostasy\"), Abu Bakr attacked the Byzantine Empire. On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn: the Rashidun or \"rightly guided\" Caliphate. Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qur'an requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime. The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) in Mecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad’s tomb; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world.\n\n\n=== Middle Ages ===\nDespite its spiritual importance, in political terms Arabia soon became a peripheral region of the Islamic world, in which the most important medieval Islamic states were based at various times in such far away cities as Damascus, Baghdad, and Cairo.\n\nHowever, from the 10th century (and, in fact, until the 20th century) the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca maintained a state in the most developed part of the region, the Hejaz. Their domain originally comprised only the holy cities of Mecca and Medina but in the 13th century it was extended to include the rest of the Hejaz. Although, the Sharifs exercised at most times independent authority in the Hejaz, they were usually subject to the suzerainty of one of the major Islamic empires of the time. In the Middle Ages, these included the Abbasids of Baghdad, and the Fatimids, Ayyubids, and Mamluks of Egypt.\n\n\n=== Modern history ===\nThe provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was headquartered in Syria, which included Palestine, the Transjordan region in addition to Lebanon (Mount Lebanon was, however, a semi-autonomous mutasarrifate). It was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula. The Ottomans never had any control over central Arabia, also known as the Najd region.\nThe Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia – İskenderun and Mersin, Iraq with Kuwait, Syria, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, Jordan, and Palestine.In the modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.\n\n\n==== Late Ottoman rule and the Hejaz Railway ====\n\nThe railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by the Turks, with German advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf, an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.\n\n\n==== The Arab Revolt and the foundation of Saudi Arabia ====\n\nThe major developments of the early 20th century were the Arab Revolt during World War I and the subsequent collapse and partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Arab Revolt (1916–1918) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Empire and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916.\nThese events were followed by the foundation of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. In 1902, Ibn Saud had captured Riyadh. Continuing his conquests, Abdulaziz subdued Al-Hasa, Jabal Shammar, Hejaz between 1913 and 1926 founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. The Saudis absorbed the Emirate of Asir, with their expansion only ending in 1934 after a war with Yemen. Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud, however, established the third Saudi state.\n\n\n==== Oil reserves ====\nThe second major development has been the discovery of vast reserves of oil in the 1930s. Its production brought great wealth to all countries of the region, with the exception of Yemen.\n\n\n==== North Yemen Civil War ====\n\nThe North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Muhammad al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.\nThe royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.\nBy 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as their Vietnam.\n\n\n==== Gulf War ====\n\nIn 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 Gulf War. Egypt, Qatar, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and Palestine resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so-called \"Damascus Declaration\" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC member states.\n\n\n==== 2014 Yemen civil war ====\n\nThe Arab Spring reached Yemen in January 2011. People of Yemen took to the street demonstrating against three decades of rule by President Ali Abdullah Saleh. The demonstration led to cracks in the ruling General People's Congress (GPC) and Saleh's Sanhani clan. Saleh used tactic of concession and violence to save his presidency. After numerous attempt Saleh accepted the Gulf Cooperation Council mediation. He eventually handed power to Vice President Hadi, who was sworn in as President of Yemen on 25 February 2012. Hadi launched a national dialogue to address new constitution, political and social issues. The Houthi movement, dissatisfied with the outcomes of the national dialogue, launched an offensive and stormed the Yemeni capital Sanaa on 21 September 2014. In response, Saudi Arabia launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015. The civil war and subsequent military intervention and blockade caused a famine in Yemen.\n\n\n== Transport and industry ==\nThe extraction and refining of oil and gas are the major industrial activities in the Arabian Peninsula. The region also has an active construction sector, with many cities reflecting the wealth generated by the oil industry. The service sector is dominated by financial and technical institutions, which, like the construction sector, mainly serve the oil industry. Traditional handicrafts such as carpet-weaving are found in rural areas of Arabia.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== Explanatory notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nTravels in Arabia, 1892\nHigh resolution scan of old map of Arabia\nThe Coast of Arabia the Red Sea, and Persian Sea of Bassora Past the Straits of Hormuz to India, Gujarat and Cape Comorin from the World Digital Library, depicts a map from 1707.\nWahab, Robert Alexander; Thatcher, Griffithes Wheeler; Goeje, Michael Jan de (1911). \"Arabia\" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).\nArabia: Cultural-Historical Zones\nOld maps of Arabia, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel", "Cyperus alternifolius, the umbrella papyrus, umbrella sedge or umbrella palm, is a grass-like plant in the very large genus Cyperus of the sedge family Cyperaceae. The plant is native to West Africa, Madagascar and the Arabian Peninsula, but widely distributed throughout the world. The subspecies Cyperus alternifolius ssp. flabelliformis is also known as Cyperus involucratus Rottb.. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.\n\n\n== Cultivation ==\nCyperus alternifolius is frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide. It is planted in gardens in the ground, pots, in ponds, and as a house plant. It is not hardy, and requires protection when temperatures fall below 5 °C (41 °F) (USDA Zones: 9a-11b). It is propagated by dividing the roots and requires copious amounts of water. The cultivar Cyperus alternifolius 'Variegatus' is grown for its variegated foliage and smaller size.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to Cyperus alternifolius at Wikimedia Commons", "The Agaricaceae are a family of basidiomycete fungi and include the genus Agaricus, as well as basidiomycetes previously classified in the families Tulostomataceae, Lepiotaceae, and Lycoperdaceae.\n\n\n== Taxonomy ==\nThe family Agaricaceae was published by French botanist François Fulgis Chevallier in 1826. It is named after the type genus Agaricus, originally circumscribed by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum. In his authoritative 1986 classification of the Agaricales, Rolf Singer divided the Agaricaceae into four tribes distinguished largely by spore color: Leucocoprineae, Agariceae, Lepioteae, and Cystodermateae. Genera once classified in the families Tulostomataceae, Battarreaceae, Lycoperdaceae, and Mycenastraceae have since been moved to the Agaricaceae based on molecular phylogenetics studies. According to a standard reference text, the Agaricaceae contains 85 genera and 1340 species.\n\n\n== Description ==\nAgaricaceae species use a wide variety of fruit body morphology. Although the pileate form (i.e., with a cap and stipe) is predominant, gasteroid and secotioid forms are known. In pileate species, the gills are typically thin, and free from attachment to the stipe. Caps are scurfy to smooth, and range from roughly flat to umbonate. They typically have a centrally attached stipe and a membrane-like partial veil. The species formerly classified in the family Lycoperdaceae are also known as the \"true puffballs\". Their fruiting bodies are round and are composed of a tough skin surrounding a mass of spores. When they mature, the skin splits open and they release their spores.\nThe spore print color of Agaricaceae species is highly variable, ranging from white to greenish to ochraceous to pink or sepia; rusty-brown or cinnamon brown colours are absent. Microscopically, the spore surface ranges from smooth to ornamented, and the presence of a germ pore is variable. Amyloidity (i.e. sensitivity to staining in Melzer's reagent) is also variable. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are usually small, four-spored, and may have interspersed cystidia.\n\n\n== Genera ==\n\nThe extinct genus Coprinites is one of four known Agaricaceae genera in the fossil record. Others include Aureofungus, Protomycena, and Archaeomarasmius. Archaeomarasmius leggeti, from Atlantic Coastal Plain amber, is 90–94 Ma); the other fossil genera are from Dominican amber and date to 15–20 Ma.The family currently includes the following genera:\n\n\n== Ecology ==\nThe Agaricaceae are widely distributed. Most species are saprobic and prefer grassland and woodland habitats. Genera Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprinus are known to be cultivated by fungus-growing ants in ant-fungus mutualism.\n\n\n== Economic significance ==\nThe genus Agaricus includes some species that are cultivated commercially throughout the world. The common \"button mushroom\", Agaricus bisporus, is the most widely cultivated edible mushroom. Agaricus blazei is a well-known medicinal mushroom used for a number of therapeutic and medicinal purposes. Several species are poisonous, such as some Lepiota, Agaricus sect. Xanthodermatei and Chlorophyllum species .\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of Agaricales families\nList of Basidiomycota families\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAgaricaceae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database" ] }

{ "title": [ "1984–85 FC Bayern Munich season", "2016–17 FC Bayern Munich season", "FC Bayern Munich Junior Team", "1986–87 FC Bayern Munich season", "1990–91 FC Bayern Munich season", "2017–18 FC Bayern Munich season", "1987–88 FC Bayern Munich season", "Udo Lattek", "1. FC Kaiserslautern", "1991–92 FC Bayern Munich season", "1999–2000 FC Bayern Munich season" ], "text": [ "The 1984–85 FC Bayern Munich season was the 85th season in the club's history. Bayern Munich won its seventh Bundesliga title, reached the semi-final of UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and finished as runner-up of DFB-Pokal. This season was the second season of Udo Lattek's second stint as manager of the club. The Bundesliga campaign started 25 August 1984 with a 3-1 victory over Arminia Bielefeld. Bayern Munich, 1. FC Köln, and Borussia Mönchengladbach were tied for first place after Round 1. From Round 2 through Round 34 of the season, Bayern Munich were the lone team in first place. Qualification for the 1984–85 European Cup Winners' Cup was a result of winning the 1983–84 DFB-Pokal.\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n== Transfers ==\n\n\n=== In ===\nFirst Team\n\nTotal spending: €1.275m\n\n\n=== Out ===\nFirst Team\n\nTotal income: €5.5m\nNotes\n\nNote 1: Manfred Müller retired at the end of the 1983–84 season before making a return for one game in November 1986 for 1. FC Nürnberg.\n\n\n=== Totals ===\n\n\n== Results ==\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== Results by round ====\n\n\n=== DFB Pokal ===\n\n\n=== European Cup Winners' Cup ===\n\n\n==== 1st Round ====\n\n\n==== 2nd Round ====\n\n\n==== Quarter-finals ====\n\n\n==== Semi-finals ====\n\n\n== References ==", "The 2016–17 FC Bayern Munich season was the 118th season in the football club's history and 52nd consecutive and overall season in the top flight of German football, the Bundesliga, having won promotion from the Regionalliga in 1965 after winning the Regionalliga Süd. Bayern Munich also participated in this season's edition of the domestic cup, the DFB-Pokal, and the premier continental cup competition, the UEFA Champions League. Bayern were the reigning Bundesliga and DFB-Pokal champions, and therefore also participated in the German super cup, the DFL-Supercup. It was the 12th season for Bayern in the Allianz Arena, located in Munich, Germany. The season covers a period from 11 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.\n\n\n== Review ==\n\n\n=== Background ===\nBayern won the double in the previous season after winning a record-setting fourth consecutive and 25th overall Bundesliga title (26th German title) and 18th DFB-Pokal title. Manager Pep Guardiola did not extend his contract, and decided to move to Manchester City. Carlo Ancelotti was announced as his replacement in December 2015.In addition, Bayern hired Paul Clement as their assistant coach. Hermann Gerland was also kept as an assistant coach, after also having been an assistant under Louis van Gaal, Jupp Heynckes, and Pep Guardiola. Toni Tapalović was retained as the goalkeeping coach, while Giovanni Mauri and Francesco Mauri were brought in as fitness coaches. In August, Carlo Aneclotti named his son Davide as assistant coach, joining Clement and Gerland.Bayern signed Renato Sanches from Benfica and Mats Hummels from Borussia Dortmund on 10 May. Serdar Tasci returned to Spartak Moscow after his loan spell was finished. On 24 May, Pierre-Emile Højbjerg confirmed that he would be leaving Bayern, and on 11 July he transferred to Southampton. Patrick Weihrauch, who never made a senior appearance for Bayern, also left the club for Würzburger Kickers on 2 June. On 6 June, after making 17 appearances in all competitions during the 2015–16 season, Sebastian Rode left the club for Borussia Dortmund. Medhi Benatia was sent out on a season-long loan to Juventus, with the option to make it permanent for €17M. On 1 August, Mario Götze returned to Borussia Dortmund after three difficult seasons at the club. Goalkeeper Ivan Lučić signed for Bristol City on 27 July.\n\n\n=== July ===\nThe new season officially began on 11 July 2016 with the presentation of Carlo Ancelotti as new manager and a training session. Jérôme Boateng, Manuel Neuer, Joshua Kimmich, Thomas Müller, Mats Hummels, Robert Lewandowski, Kingsley Coman, and Renato Sanches were all given an extended break until 5 August after UEFA Euro 2016.\nOn 23 July, Bayern played in their first pre-season friendly match against SV Lippstadt. The friendly was organised with Karl-Heinz Rummenigge's former club as part of a 60th birthday present for him. The match was meant to take place in October 2015, but was cancelled and rescheduled for July. Bayern won the match 4–3 after goals from Julian Green, Arjen Robben, and Franck Ribéry, along with a Lippstadt own goal. However, Robben suffered a hamstring injury, ruling him out for six weeks. On 20 July, Bayern faced Manchester City and former manager Pep Guardiola at home. Bayern won the match 1–0 after a goal from Erdal Öztürk in the 76th minute. Bayern's third pre-season friendly took place on 23 July against SpVgg Landshut. Bayern won 3–0 with goals from Franck Ribéry, David Alaba, and Daniel Hägler.In March 2016, Bayern announced they would participate in a summer tour (referred to as the \"2016 Audi Summer Tour\") in the United States as part of the International Champions Cup, after success with their previous US visit in 2014. Bayern began their International Champions Cup campaign against Milan on 27 July in Chicago. Milan took the lead, but Bayern struck back with a goals from Ribéry and Alaba to give them the lead at half-time. In the second half, Milan retook the lead after scoring two goals. However, Bayern were awarded a penalty in the dying minutes, and Ribéry converted it to secure a 3–3 draw. The match would be decided on penalties, which Bayern lost 5–3 after Rafinha missed his spot kick. However, one point was still awarded for a loss on penalties. In their second match, Bayern faced Internazionale on 30 July in Charlotte. Bayern won the match 4–1 after a goal from Ribéry and a hat-trick from Green.\n\n\n=== August ===\nIn their third match on 3 August, Bayern faced Real Madrid in East Rutherford. Bayern lost 1–0 after Danilo scored the winning goal in the 79th minute. Bayern finished 6th in the United States and Europe table.Bayern returned to Munich on 4 August, and began final preparations for the new season. Their first competitive match was the DFL-Supercup away to Borussia Dortmund on 14 August. As Bayern completed the domestic double the previous season, Dortmund qualified as league runners-up. Bayern won the match 2–0 with second half goals from Arturo Vidal and Thomas Müller, after being outplayed in the opening 45 minutes.In the first round of the DFB-Pokal, Bayern were drawn against fourth-division side Carl Zeiss Jena. The away match took place on 19 August. Bayern won 5–0 with a first half hat-trick from Lewandowski, and goals from Vidal and Hummels in the second period.Bayern qualified automatically for the UEFA Champions League group stage after winning the Bundesliga the previous season. The draw for the group stage took place on 25 August, at the Grimaldi Forum in Monaco. Bayern were placed in Pot 1, and were drawn into Group D, along with Atlético Madrid, who knocked them out of the semi-finals in the previous season, PSV Eindhoven, and Rostov.In late June, the DFL released the full Bundesliga schedule for the upcoming season. Bayern Munich were selected to face Werder Bremen at home in the season opener on 26 August. Bayern won the match 6–0, making it the biggest win by a defending champion to start the season. Xabi Alonso opened the scoring in the 9th minute, followed by Lewandowski four minutes later. Lewandowski then scored his second in the first minute of the second half, followed by goals from Philipp Lahm in the 66th minute and Ribéry in the 73rd. Lewandowski then completed his hat-trick in the 77th minute from the penalty spot. The win put Bayern in first following the matchday. Following the match, Bayern were drawn into a derby match against FC Augsburg at home for the second round of the DFB-Pokal, to take place on 26 October.\n\n\n=== September ===\nAfter the international break, Bayern faced Schalke 04, who were 15th in the table, for matchday 2 of the Bundesliga on 9 September. Bayern won the away match 2–0, sealing the win with two late goals. Lewandowski put Bayern ahead in the 81st minute, and Joshua Kimmich scored his first goal for the club in the second minute of stoppage time. The win kept Bayern at top of the table.On 13 September, Bayern faced Russian side Rostov at home for the first Champions League fixture. Bayern won the match 5–0, with Lewandowski converting a penalty in the 28th minute before Müller scored on his birthday during second half stoppage time. Kimmich then scored a brace, with goals in the 53rd and 60th minutes. Juan Bernat then finished off the scoring with a goal in the 90th minute. With the win, Bayern finished top of Group D.Bayern faced FC Ingolstadt, who were 16th in the table, at home on matchday 3 of the Bundesliga on 17 September. Bayern won the derby match 3–1, keeping them top of the table. Bayern went behind 8 minutes in after a goal from Darío Lezcano, but equalised four minutes later via a goal from Lewandowski. Alonso scored in the 50th minute to put Bayern in front, and Rafinha sealed the win with a goal in the 84th minute, his first since April 2013.On 21 September, matchday 4 of the Bundesliga, Bayern played at home against Hertha BSC, who were second in the table and had a perfect record. Bayern won the match 3–0, putting them 2 points clear at the top of the table. Ribéry opened the scoring in the 16th minute, before Thiago extended Bayern's lead in the 68th minute. Robben, returning from injury, scored his first of the season in the 72nd minute after coming on as a substitute to wrap up the scoring.Bayern met Hamburger SV on matchday 5 of the Bundesliga, taking place on 24 September. The match finished as a 1–0 win for Bayern, keeping them in first place in the league. The match was scoreless until the 88th minute, when Kimmich scored the lone goal, giving Bayern the late victory. The next day, Hamburg coach Bruno Labbadia was sacked after a winless start to the Bundesliga.On 28 September, Bayern faced Spanish side Atlético Madrid away on matchday 2 in the Champions League. Bayern lost the match 0–1 for their first competitive loss of the season, putting them second in the group behind Atlético. Madrid opened the scoring in the 35th minute through Yannick Carrasco, deflecting off the post and in. Although having numerous opportunities, Bayern were unable to equalise, and in the 84th minute, Atlético were given a penalty after a poor challenge by Vidal on Filipe Luís. Antoine Griezmann missed the penalty, having hit the crossbar, but Atlético held on for the victory.\n\n\n=== October ===\nBayern faced 1. FC Köln at home on 1 October, matchday 6 of the Bundesliga. The match finished as a 1–1 draw, their first dropped league points of the season, with Bayern staying 3 points clear at the top of the table. Kimmich opened the scoring for Bayern in the 40 minutes in, before Anthony Modeste equalised 63rd minute against the run of play. Bayern had numerous opportunities, but were unable to capitalise, making it two winless games in a row for the Bavarians.After the international break, Bayern faced Eintracht Frankfurt away on 15 October, week 7 of the Bundesliga. The match finished as a 2–2 draw, their third consecutive winless match, but stayed first in the table with a 2-point lead. Robben opened the scoring for Bayern in the 10th minute, before Szabolcs Huszti equalised for Frankfurt right before half-time. Bayern once again went ahead after a goal from Kimmich in the 62nd minute, but Eintracht once again leveled the score, with a goal from Marco Fabián in the 78th minute securing the draw. During the match, reserve goalkeeper Tom Starke was sent off from the sidelines after a confrontation with Frankfurt players. However, he was not listed as a substitute despite being on the bench. The DFB Sports Court handed Starke a one match suspension, making him unavailable for selection against Borussia Mönchengladbach.On 19 October, Bayern met Dutch side PSV Eindhoven at home on matchday 3 of the Champions League. Bayern won the match 4–1, staying second in the group standings. Müller opened the scoring in the 13th minute, before Kimmich added a second 8 minutes later. Luciano Narsingh got a goal back for Eindhoven to reduce the deficit to 2–1 going into half-time. In the 59th minute, Lewandowski put Bayern back to a two-goal lead, before Robben wrapped up the scoring in the 84th minute.Bayern met Borussia Mönchengladbach at home on 22 October, matchday 8 of the Bundesliga. The match finished as a 2–0 win to Bayern, maintaining their 2-point lead at the top of the table. Vidal scored the first goal for Bayern in the 16th minute via a header. Fifteen minutes later, Douglas Costa extended Bayern's lead, which was enough for the win.On 26 October, Bayern met FC Augsburg in round 2 of the DFB-Pokal. Bayern won the derby match 3–1, advancing to the round of 16. Lahm opened the scoring for Bayern only two minutes in, before Green doubled Bayern's lead four minutes before half-time. Only two minutes in the second half, Augsburg were awarded a penalty after Hummels knocked Gojko Kačar to the ground. Koo Ja-cheol had his penalty saved by Neuer, maintaining Bayern's two-goal advantage. Nine minutes later, Bayern were also awarded a penalty after a handball from Georg Teigl. However, Müller skied the ball over the crossbar. Augsburg then cut the deficit in the 68th minute via a goal from Ji Dong-won. In the third minute of stoppage time, Alaba scored Bayern's third goal and sealed the win. Following the match, Bayern were drawn against VfL Wolfsburg in the round of 16 of the DFB-Pokal, to take place on 7–8 February 2017 at home.On 29 October, Bayern met FC Augsburg once again, this time away in week 9 of the Bundesliga. Bayern again won the derby match by the same scoreline of 3–1, keeping themselves first in the table by two points. Lewandowski opened the scoring in the 19th minute, before Robben doubled Bayern's advantage two minutes later. After two minutes into the second half, Lewandowski completed a brace, putting Bayern up by three. In the 67th minute, Koo Ja-cheol got a goal back for Augsburg, which ended up only as a consolation.\n\n\n=== November ===\nBayern met PSV Eindhoven once again on 1 November, matchday 4 of the Champions League. Bayern won the match 2–1, keeping themselves second in the group standings. Santiago Arias opened the scoring for PSV with a possibly offside header past Neuer. However, the linesman did not see this, and the goal was given. In the 34th minute, Bayern were given the chance to equalise from the penalty spot after a handball from Andrés Guardado. Lewandowski scored the penalty to put Bayern level. The score remained level until the 73rd minute, when Lewandowski completed a brace with a goal following a cross from Alaba. With the win, Bayern qualified for the knockout phase of the Champions League, along with Atlético Madrid. The win also meant the elimination of PSV from the Champions League.On 5 November, Bayern played 1899 Hoffenheim at home on matchday 10 of the Bundesliga. The match finished as a 1–1 draw, keeping Bayern at the top of the table based on goal difference. Kerem Demirbay opened the scoring for Hoffenheim in the 16th minute. Bayern equalised in the 34th minute via an own goal from Steven Zuber after a cross from Douglas Costa intended for Lewandowski. Both sides had chances in the second half, but the scores remained level.\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad ===\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n=== Transfers ===\n\n\n==== In ====\n\n\n==== Out ====\n\n\n== Friendly matches ==\n Win\n Draw\n Loss\n\n\n== Competitions ==\n Win\n Draw\n Loss\n\n\n=== Overview ===\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== League table ====\n\n\n==== Results summary ====\n\n\n==== Results by round ====\n\n\n==== Matches ====\n\n\n=== DFB-Pokal ===\n\n\n=== DFL-Supercup ===\n\n\n=== UEFA Champions League ===\n\n\n==== Group stage ====\n\n\n==== Knockout phase ====\n\n\n===== Round of 16 =====\n\n\n===== Quarter-finals =====\n\n\n== Squad statistics ==\n\n\n=== Appearances and goals ===\nAs of 20 May 2017\n\n\n=== Goalscorers ===\nAs of 20 May 2017\n\n\n=== Clean sheets ===\nAs of 6 May 2017\n\n\n=== Disciplinary record ===\nAs of 26 April 2017\n\n\n== References ==", "The FC Bayern Munich Junior Team is the youth academy for German football club Bayern Munich. The Junior Team was created in 1902 and restructured in 1995. It has educated many players who have become regulars in the Bundesliga and Germany. The vision for the Junior Team is \"to educate young players so that it will be possible for FCB to keep a global position in club football in the next millennium\" and its mission is \"to have the best youth development in club football.\" Bayern Munich have to test you before the school will accept you and you can study free until you graduate if you are talented.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe Junior Team was created in 1902 and restructured in 1995.In 2006 FC Bayern purchased land near the Allianz Arena with the purpose of building a new youth academy. In 2015 the project, estimated to cost €70 million, was started, after overcoming internal resistance. The main reasons for the project were that the existing facilities were too small and that the club, while very successful at senior level, lacked competitiveness with other German and European clubs at youth level. The new facility is scheduled to open in the 2017–18 season.\n\n\n== Overview ==\nThe vision for the Junior Team is \"to educate young players so that it will be possible for FCB to keep a global position in club football in the next millennium\" and its mission is \"to have the best youth development in club football.\"There are 165 players, 16 instructors and managers, 1 physiotherapist and 1 masseur. Rosters remain unchanged while the kids learn their trade whether it be for goalkeeper, defence, midfield or forward. They are trained for no more than 1 or 2 positions.Bayern Munich Junior Team uses a 4–3–3 formation system from D Juniors and upwards. Players from overseas are offered accommodation in a youth apartment block with 13 single rooms inside the club grounds on Säbener Straße. The facility arrangement at different from many other high-profile clubs, in that both the first team and the youth teams train at the same location.Bayern Munich has a residence building for players who are between 15 and 18 and live too far away from the training ground. Up to 14 youth team players can live there. They have an employee in the residence building where in the morning waking up and prepares a breakfast buffet and also takes care of small and large problems of youth players. There are up to eight part-time teachers are available to support the youth players to compensate for the educational gaps. The ground floor of the youth center is also the office of the junior team and a meeting room for the coaches.\n\n\n== Scouting ==\nBayern Munich has scouts all over the world, though most of the scouting happens within a few hours drive of Munich. Thomas Hitzlsperger, Christian Lell, Andreas Ottl, former captain Philipp Lahm and most recent graduates Holger Badstuber, Diego Contento and Thomas Müller are all from either Munich or within a 70 km radius of the city.\nAs part of the restructuring and to help find players for the Junior Team, Bayern Munich has developed a \"Talent Day\" where up to 500 boys are scouted. The Talent Days are done over Saturday and Sunday. The format used is 3 twenty-minute 5-a-side matches on reduced-sized football fields. The scouts are looking for how well the participants \"cope with the ball\" \"particular skill\", \"excellent dribbling\" and \"good vision\". An average of seven children will make it to the Bayern Munich Junior Team during Talent days. Talent Days has drawn \"worldwide attention\". The event has drawn participants from all over Germany along with participants from Austria, France, Italy, Egypt, Slovenia, Slovakia and Australia.In 2003, Bayern Munich started partnering with other football clubs. The partner clubs are SpVgg Unterhaching, Ingolstadt 04, Kickers Offenbach and Ulm 1846, 1860 Rosenheim, SpVgg Landshut, TSV Milbertshofen and SC Fürstenfeldbruck. SpVgg Unterhaching, Ingolstadt 04, Kickers Offenbach and Ulm 1846 are the elite partners. 1860 Rosenheim and SpVgg Landshut are regional partners. TSV Milbertshofen and SC Fürstenfeldbruck are local partners. Udo Bassemir is responsible for club partnerships. Players they are interested in are not transferred immediately. They allow the player to train at their own club and at Bayern Munich's training fields and the transfer happens at the \"right time\".\n\n\n== Reserve team ==\n\nThe penultimate stage for youngsters at Bayern is Bayern Munich II, which currently plays in the Regionalliga Bayern, the fourth tier of German football.\n\n\n== Current youth squads ==\n\n\n=== Under 19 ===\nAs of 30 August 2021Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n=== Under 17 ===\nAs of 30 August 2021Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n== Technical staff ==\nThe director of the youth setup at Bayern Munich is Jochen Sauer. The following staff are in charge of the various age groups:\n\n\n== Noted graduates ==\nThe following players played either first team football for Bayern or in the Bundesliga for another club:\n\nNote: So far, that means the Bayern München Junior Academy has produced;\n\nFIFA World Cup\n2 World Cup winning captains\n11 World Cup winners\nUEFA European Championships\n5 European Championship winners\nUEFA Champions League\n13 European Cup/ Champions League winners\nUEFA Europa League\n5 UEFA Cup/Europa League winners\n\n\n== Honours ==\n\n\n=== Youth ===\nUnder 19 Bundesliga\nWinners: 2001, 2002, 2004\nRunners-up: 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012, 2017\nUnder 17 Bundesliga\nWinners: 1989, 1997, 2001, 2007, 2017\nRunners-up: 2000, 2009, 2018\nSouth/Southwest German Under 19 championship\nWinners: 2004, 2007, 2012, 2013, 2017\nSouth/Southwest German Under 17 championship\nWinners: 2009, 2017, 2018, 2019\nSouthern German Under 19 championship\nWinners: 1950, 1954\nSouthern German Under 15 championship\nWinners: 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991\nBavarian Under 19 championship\nWinners: 1950, 1954, 1966, 1972, 1973, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996\nRunners-up: 1946, 1960, 1964, 1980, 1999‡\nBavarian Under 17 championship\nWinners: 1976, 1978, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2010‡, 2014‡\nRunners-up: 1982, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1996, 2012‡, 2015‡\nBavarian Under 15 championship\nWinners: 1975, 1978, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1995, 2007, 2009\nRunners-up: 1976, 1977, 1988, 1992, 2008\n‡ Reserve team\n\n\n== Recent seasons ==\nThe recent season-by-season performance of the club's under 19 and under 17 sides since 2003–04:\n\n\n== Heads of the Junior team ==\n\n\n== German championship winning teams ==\nBayern Munich has won the German under 19 championship three times and the under 17 championship five times. Here are the championship winning teams with goals in the final in brackets:\n\n\n=== Under 19 ===\n\n\n=== Under 17 ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nBayern Munich U19 Team website\nThe Bayern Munich academy way – These Football Times (2015)", "The 1986–87 FC Bayern Munich season was the 87th season in the club's history and 22nd season since promotion from Regionalliga Süd in 1965. Bayern Munich won its ninth Bundesliga title. This title marked a third consecutive championship for the club. The club reached the third round of the DFB-Pokal and finished as runner-up of the European Cup. The Bundesliga campaign ended with only one loss with no away losses. This feat set two Bundesliga records that were not repeated until the 2012–13 season. This season was the final season under manager Udo Lattek.\n\n\n== Results ==\n\n\n=== Friendlies ===\n\n\n==== Casio-Cup ====\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== Results by round ====\n\n\n==== League standings ====\n\n\n=== DFB Pokal ===\n\n\n=== European Cup ===\n\n\n==== 1st Round ====\n\n\n==== 2nd Round ====\n\n\n==== Quarter-finals ====\n\n\n==== Semi-finals ====\n\n\n==== Final ====\n\n\n== Team statistics ==\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n=== Bookings ===\n\n\n== Transfers ==\n\n\n=== In ===\n\n\n=== Out ===\n\n\n== Team kits ==\n\n\n== References ==", "The 1990–91 FC Bayern Munich season was the 91st season in the club's history and 26th season since promotion from Regionalliga Süd in 1965. Bayern finished three points behind champions 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the Bundesliga. In the DFB-Pokal, Bayern were eliminated in the first round for the first time in club history. Bayern reached the semifinals of the European Cup before being eliminated by Red Star Belgrade due to an own goal in the 90th minute of the second leg. The first competitive match of the season was the DFB-Supercup on 31 July which Bayern won by a score of 4–1 over 1. FC Kaiserslautern.\n\n\n== Review and events ==\n\n\n=== Pre-season ===\nPlayers to transfer to Bayern this summer were: Stefan Effenberg from Borussia Mönchengladbach, Gerald Hillringhaus from SV Türk Gücü München, Brian Laudrup from Bayer 05 Uerdingen, Michael Sternkopf from Karlsruher SC, and Christian Ziege from Hertha Zehlendorf. Rainer Aigner was promoted from Bayern Munich II and Markus Münch was promoted from Bayern Munich Junior Team. Ludwig Kögl left Bayern for VfB Stuttgart, Thomas Kastenmaier left for Borussia Mönchengladbach, and Hansi Flick left for 1. FC Köln. The Fuji-Cup took place on 24 July and 25 July in Lüdenscheid. The semifinal match against Borussia Dortmund finished as a goalless draw which was decided by a penalty shoot-out with Bayern going to the third place match. The third place match against 1. FC Köln was won by a score of 4–1. Bayern defeated 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the DFB-Supercup on 31 July 4–1.\n\n\n=== August ===\nBayern faced FV 09 Weinheim in the first round of the DFB-Pokal on 4 August. FV 09 Weinheim won the match 1–0 due to a penalty kick scored by Thomas Schwechheimer after a foul by Thomas Strunz which resulted in a red card. Due to the loss, Bayern were eliminated from the DFB-Pokal in the first round for the first time in club history. The first Bundesliga match of the season took place on 11 August which resulted in a 1–1 draw against Bayer 04 Leverkusen. On 14 August, Bayern faced FC St. Pauli in a match that ended goalless. The Teresa Herrera Trophy took place 16–18 August. In a semifinal match against S.L. Benfica, Bayern lost 1–2. In the third place match on 18 August against Deportivo de La Coruña, Bayern won 3–2 due to a hat-trick by Alan McInally. The first win of the Bundesliga season came against VfB Stuttgart 2–1 on 25 August.\n\n\n=== September ===\nSeptember started with a 3–2 win over Karlsruher SC on 1 September. The win streak continued on 7 September when Bayern defeated 1. FC Kaiserslautern 4–0. By defeating Fortuna Düsseldorf 2–1 on 15 September, Bayern extended its win streak to four matches. The first European Cup match took place on 19 September when Bayern defeated APOEL F.C. 3–2. A 2–2 draw against VfL Bochum on 22 September kept Bayern undefeated through seven Bundesliga matches. The first loss of the Bundesliga season came on 28 September against SV Werder Bremen with Bayern losing 0–1.\n\n\n=== October ===\nThe second leg of the European Cup first round was played on 2 October. Bayern won this match 4–0 over APOEL which resulted in an aggregate score of 7–2 allowing Bayern to advance to the second round. Radmilo Mihajlović scored a hat-trick in this match. Bayern defeated Borussia Mönchengladbach 4–1 on 6 October. The 0–4 loss to 1. FC Köln on 13 October saw three red cards, two for Bayern and one for Köln. Hamburger SV faced Bayern on 20 October in a match which Bayern won 6–1. The first leg of the second round of the European Cup took place on 23 October with Bayern defeating PFC CSKA Sofia 4–0. October ended with a 4–1 victory over Eintracht Frankfurt on 27 October.\n\n\n=== November ===\n\nOn 6 November, Bayern defeated PFC CSKA Sofia 3–0 (7–0 aggregate) to move on to the quarterfinals of the European Cup. The third loss of the Bundesliga season came on 10 November to Borussia Dortmund by a score of 2–3. A goalless draw with Hertha BSC followed on 17 November. The final Bundesliga match of the month came on 24 November when Bayern defeated SG Wattenscheid 09 7–0. On 27 November, Bayern, champions of 1989–90 Bundesliga, and Dynamo Dresden, champions of 1989–90 DDR-Oberliga, took part in the Deutschland Cup as a part of German reunification. Dresden won the match 1–0.\n\n\n=== December–February ===\nOn 8 December, Bayern defeated 1. FC Nürnberg 1–0. The final Bundesliga game of the first half of the season was a 1–1 draw with Bayer 05 Uerdingen which left Bayern in second place. The Bundesliga took a two-month winter break between matchday 17 and matchday 18. Winter saw transfers of Radmilo Mihajlović to FC Schalke 04 and Hans Dorfner to 1. FC Nürnberg. Bayern competed in the Miami Cup in Miami, Florida. A goalless draw against Colombia took place on 1 February. Bayern defeated the United States 4–0 on 3 February. The Fort Lauderdale Strikers held Bayern to a goalless draw in a friendly played on 6 February. A match against Bayer Leverkusen on 23 February was the only competitive match of the month. Bayern won by the score 2–1.\n\n\n=== March ===\nSt. Pauli defeated Bayern 0–1 on 2 March. The first leg of the European Cup quarterfinals on 6 March ended 1–1 against FC Porto. Bayern defeated VfB Stuttgart on 9 March 3–0. On 15 March, Bayern defeated Karlsruher SC 3–0. Bayern defeated Porto 2–0 (3–1 aggregate) on 20 March to advance to the semifinals of the European Cup. The fifth Bundesliga loss of the season came on 23 March against 1. FC Kaiserslautern. Bayern, reduced to 10 men after a 65th minute red card for Manfred Bender, lost the match 1–2.\n\n\n=== April ===\nFortuna Düsseldorf defeated Bayern 0–1 on 2 April. After two consecutive losses, Bayern defeated VfL Bochum 2–1. The first leg of the European Cup semifinals against Red Star Belgrade on 10 April ended in a 1–2 loss. A 1–1 draw against Werder Bremen was played on 13 April. Borussia Mönchengladbach also held Bayern to a 1–1 draw on 16 April. The final Bundesliga match of the month was a 2–2 draw with 1. FC Köln. An own goal in the 90th minute by Klaus Augenthaler in the second leg of the European Cup semifinals on 24 April saw Bayern eliminated from the competition. The goal caused the game to be a 2–2 draw but the aggregate score of 3–4 saw eventual champions Red Star Belgrade advance to the finals.\n\n\n=== May ===\nBayern had a perfect record in May with wins over Hamburger SV, Eintracht Frankfurt, Borussia Dortmund, and Hertha BSC. On 5 May, Bayern defeated Hamburger SV 3–2. Bayern defeated Eintracht Frankfurt 2–0 on 11 May. The win streak continued against Borussia Dortmund on 17 May with Bayern winning 3–2. The final match of the month, on 25 May, was a 7–3 victory over Hertha BSC. Olaf Thon scored a hat-trick in this match.\n\n\n=== June ===\nThe win streak came to an end on 1 June when Bayern lost to SG Wattenscheid 09 2–3. This loss was followed by a win over 1. FC Nürnberg by a score of 1–0. A 2–2 draw against Bayer 05 Uerdingen on the final matchday saw Bayern finish in second place three points behind Bundesliga champion 1. FC Kaiserslautern.\n\n\n== Results ==\n\n\n=== Friendlies ===\n\n\n==== Fuji-Cup ====\n\n\n==== Teresa Herrera Trophy ====\n\n\n==== Miami Cup ====\nBayern Munich finished second in the final table of the tournament.\n\n\n==== Other friendlies ====\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== League results ====\n\nSource: 1Bayern Munich goals come first.\nGround's country's flag and opponent's country's flag shown when from a different country of Bayern Munich.Pos. = Position in league, Pts. = Points, GD = Goal difference, Ground: H = Home, A = Away, N = Neutral, HR = Home replacement, AR = Away replacement.\n\n\n==== League standings ====\n\n\n=== DFB Pokal ===\n\n\n=== DFB-Supercup ===\n\n\n=== Deutschland Cup ===\n\n\n=== European Cup ===\n\n\n==== 1st Round ====\n\n\n==== 2nd Round ====\n\n\n==== Quarterfinals ====\n\n\n==== Semifinals ====\n\n\n== Team statistics ==\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n=== Minutes played ===\n\n\n=== Bookings ===\n\n\n== Transfers ==\n\n\n=== In ===\n\n\n=== Out ===\n\n\n== References ==", "The 2017–18 season season was the 119th season in the history of FC Bayern Munich, a German football club, and their 53rd consecutive season in the top flight of German football, the Bundesliga, since it was established in 1965. Bayern Munich also participated in the DFB-Pokal and the UEFA Champions League. Bayern were the reigning Bundesliga champions, and therefore also participated in the DFL-Supercup. This is the 13th season for Bayern in the Allianz Arena, located in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.\nThe season was the first since 2004–05 without former captain Philipp Lahm, who retired after the 2016–17 season.\n\n\n== Season overview ==\n\n\n=== Background ===\nIn the previous season, Bayern won a record-setting fifth consecutive and 26th overall Bundesliga title, and 27th German title. They also won the DFL-Supercup, beating Borussia Dortmund. Bayern Munich were knocked out of the DFB-Pokal in the semi-finals by Borussia Dortmund, and were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League in the quarter-finals by Real Madrid.On 15 January 2017, Bayern announced the signing of Niklas Süle and Sebastian Rudy, both from 1899 Hoffenheim. Süle was signed for an undisclosed fee, with a five-year contract lasting until 2022. Rudy joined on a free transfer, signing a three-year contract until 2020. On 7 February, Bayern captain Philipp Lahm confirmed his retirement at the end of the 2016–17 season. On 9 March, Xabi Alonso announced his retirement at the end of the 2016–17 campaign. On 14 March, Bayern announced that youth player Marco Friedl signed his first professional contract, lasting four years until 2021. On 27 April, Bayern announced the permanent signing of Kingsley Coman in the summer for €21 million, previously on loan from Juventus, with a contract running for three years until 2020. On 12 May, Bayern announced that Holger Badstuber, on loan to Schakle 04, would be released on a free transfer in the summer following the end of his contract on 30 June. Also on 12 May, Bayern announced that Juventus permanently signed Medhi Benatia for €17 million, on loan from Bayern since the start of the 2016–17 season. On 17 May, it was announced that youth goalkeeper Christian Früchtl would be the third-string goalkeeper for the 2017–18 season. On 19 May, it was announced that goalkeeper Tom Starke would retire at the end of the 2016–17 season. On 24 May, Bayern youth defender Felix Götze signed a professional contract with the club, with a two-year contract lasting until 2019. On 11 June, Bayern signed German forward Serge Gnabry from Werder Bremen for an undisclosed fee, with a three-year contract lasting until 2020. On 14 June, Bayern announced the signing of midfielder Corentin Tolisso from Lyon for €41.5 million plus possible add-ons up to an additional €6 million, with a five-year contract lasting until 2022. On 30 June, it was announced that Gianluca Gaudino, who was returning to Bayern following his loan spell at FC St. Gallen, would move to Chievo.On 29 April, after winning the Bundesliga, Bayern confirmed a spot in the 2017 DFL-Supercup, taking place on 5 August, and will play away to the winners of the 2016–17 DFB-Pokal, Borussia Dortmund.On 14 March, it was announced that Bayern would take part in the 2017 International Champions Cup in July as part of the 2017 Audi Summer Tour. The first two matches will take place in China as part of the 2017 Audi Football Summit. The first match is against Arsenal on 19 July in Shanghai, and the second against Milan on 22 July in Shenzhen. The final two matches will take place in Singapore, with Bayern playing Chelsea on 25 July and Internazionale on 27 July. On 21 April, it was announced that Bayern would take part in the summer 2017 edition of the Telekom Cup, taking place at the BORUSSIA-PARK in Mönchengladbach on 15 July. On 12 May, Bayern announced they would host the 2017 Audi Cup, the fifth edition of the pre-season tournament, at the Allianz Arena. Bayern will face Liverpool in the first round, with Atlético Madrid and Napoli contesting the other semi-final.On 9 June, Bayern announced the appointment of former player Willy Sagnol as assistant manager, joining head coach Carlo Ancelotti and assistant coach Davide Ancelotti from 1 July 2017.On 11 June, Bayern were drawn against Chemnitzer FC in the first round of the DFB-Pokal.On 29 June, the Bundesliga schedule for the 2017–18 season was released, with Bayern playing Bayer Leverkusen in the opening fixture.\n\n\n=== July ===\nTraining for the new season began on 1 July. Players that returned for training included Juan Bernat, Kingsley Coman, Marco Friedl, Christian Früchtl, Mats Hummels, Javi Martínez, Thomas Müller, and Franck Ribéry. Tom Starke, who retired at the end of the previous season, returned as standby professional to help during pre-season training while Bayern's other goalkeepers were still recovering from injury. Manuel Neuer and Jérôme Boateng continued their rehabilitation program in the performance center. The rest of the first-team squad were scheduled to return to training on 10 July.On 6 July, Bayern faced BCF Wolfratshausen in the first friendly match of the season, which was only 60 minutes long. Bayern won the match 4–1, with a goal from Manuel Wintzheimer and Thomas Müller, and a brace from Franck Evina.On 7 July, Bayern announced the squad for the 2017 Audi Summer Tour to China and Singapore. Manuel Neuer and Sven Ulreich will not join the squad, still recovering from injury. Serge Gnabry, Joshua Kimmich, Sebastian Rudy, Niklas Süle, and Arturo Vidal were also not included in the squad, given an extended summer break after international tournaments.On 9 July, Bayern faced FSV Erlangen-Bruck in a charity match. Bayern won the match 9–1, with goals from Marco Friedl, Michael Strein, and Raphael Obermair, and braces from Franck Evina, Kingsley Coman, and Marco Hingerl. On 10 July, additional players returned from summer holiday, including David Alaba, Robert Lewandowski, Rafinha, Arjen Robben, Thiago, and Corentin Tolisso.On 11 July, Bayern announced the signing of Colombian midfielder James Rodríguez from Real Madrid on a two-year loan spell, lasting until 2019, with an option to make the move permanent. He will also join the squad for the Audi Summer Tour in Asia.\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad information ===\nAs of 28 April 2018Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n=== Transfers ===\n\n\n==== In ====\n\n\n==== Out ====\n\n\n== Friendly matches ==\n Win\n Draw\n Loss\n\n\n== Competitions ==\n Win\n Draw\n Loss\n\n\n=== Overview ===\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== League table ====\n\n\n==== Results summary ====\n\n\n==== Results by round ====\n\n\n==== Matches ====\n\n\n=== DFB-Pokal ===\n\n\n=== DFL-Supercup ===\n\n\n=== UEFA Champions League ===\n\n\n==== Group stage ====\n\n\n==== Knockout phase ====\n\n\n===== Round of 16 =====\n\n\n===== Quarter-finals =====\n\n\n===== Semi-finals =====\n\n\n== Statistics ==\n\n\n=== Appearances and goals ===\nAs of 30 May 2018\n\n\n=== Goalscorers ===\nAs of 19 May 2018\n\n\n=== Clean sheets ===\nAs of 21 April 2018\n\n\n=== Disciplinary record ===\nAs of 25 April 2018\n\n\n== References ==", "The 1987–88 FC Bayern Munich season was the 88th season in the club's history and 23rd season since promotion from Regionalliga Süd in 1965. Bayern Munich finished as runner-up in the Bundesliga to SV Werder Bremen. The club reached the quarterfinals of both the DFB-Pokal and the European Cup. The inaugural DFB-Supercup was won by Bayern Munich over Hamburger SV. This season was the first season under manager Jupp Heynckes, who replaced Udo Lattek.\n\n\n== Results ==\n\n\n=== Friendlies ===\n\n\n==== Fuji-Cup ====\n\n\n==== Joan Gamper Trophy ====\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== Results by round ====\n\n\n==== League standings ====\n\n\n=== DFB Pokal ===\n\n\n=== DFB-Supercup ===\n\n\n=== European Cup ===\n\n\n==== 1st Round ====\n\n\n==== 2nd Round ====\n\n\n==== Quarterfinals ====\n\n\n== Team statistics ==\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n=== Bookings ===\n\n\n== Transfers ==\n\n\n=== In ===\n\n\n=== Out ===\n\n\n== References ==", "Udo Lattek (16 January 1935 – 31 January 2015) was a German professional football player and coach.\nLattek is one of the most successful coaches in the history of the game, having won 15 major titles, most famously with Bayern Munich. He also won major trophies with Borussia Mönchengladbach and FC Barcelona. In addition to these clubs, his managerial career saw him coach Borussia Dortmund, Schalke 04 and 1. FC Köln before his retirement from the game. Alongside the Italian Giovanni Trapattoni he is the only coach to have won all three major European club titles, and he is the only one to do so with three teams.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nLattek was born in Bosemb, East Prussia, German Empire (now Boże, Poland). While Lattek was preparing for a career as a teacher, he played football with SSV Marienheide, Bayer 04 Leverkusen and VfR Wipperfürth. In 1962, he joined VfL Osnabrück. He spent his first season at the club in the first division (the northern division of the \"Oberliga\") and the remainder of his time in the second division, as the club did not qualify for the new Bundesliga at its inception 1963. He played primarily as a centre forward and became known for his heading ability. He scored 34 goals in 70 league matches between 1962 and 1965.\nEarly in 1965, Lattek was prematurely released from his playing contract to join the German football association DFB as a youth team coach alongside Dettmar Cramer, one of the assistants to head coach Helmut Schön. In this role he was also part of the coaching staff which led Germany into the final of the 1966 World Cup.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Bayern Munich ===\nIn March 1970, Lattek took over the reins of Bayern Munich as successor of the Croatian, Branko Zebec. He was recommended to the club by Franz Beckenbauer, however his appointment was controversial as he had never previously coached a club side. To a team already boasting Beckenbauer, Gerd Müller and Sepp Maier, Lattek added the young talents of Paul Breitner and Uli Hoeneß, ushering in a period of near dominance for the Bavarian club. Lattek led Bayern to three consecutive league titles, a first in German football history, as well as the German Cup. In 1974 they became the first German team to win the European Champions Cup, defeating Atlético Madrid in the final, in a replay. It was the first of three consecutive European Cup successes for the club (although Lattek was only there for the first of them).\n\nSix players from the Bayern side were also part of the West German side that won the 1974 World Cup and 1972 European Championship. A poor start to the 1974–75 domestic season saw Lattek's tenure come to an end, with Bayern replacing him with Dettmar Cramer, who was also recommended to the club by Beckenbauer. According to Lattek, after telling club president Wilhelm Neudecker that, given the club's poor domestic form changes were necessary, Neudecker replied, \"Correct. You're sacked.\"\n\n\n=== Borussia Mönchengladbach ===\nAt the beginning of the 1975–76 season, Lattek succeeded Hennes Weisweiler at Borussia Mönchengladbach, where he stayed until 1979. This spell saw him win two more German titles, in addition to achieving further European success with victory in the 1979 UEFA Cup final, defeating Red Star Belgrade. A third consecutive championship for him, which would have been a record fourth consecutive league championship for the club, eluded Mönchengladbach when they came second in the race to 1. FC Köln, managed by Lattek's predecessor Hennes Weisweiler, by the narrowest of margins, that of goal difference.\nIn 1977, the club reached the European Champions Cup final against Liverpool in Rome, which they lost 3-1. Liverpool declined to participate in the ensuing matches for the Intercontinental Cup, so Borussia took their place against South American champions Boca Juniors in the final. After drawing 2–2 in Argentina, Mönchengladbach lost the home match in Karlsruhe 3-0.\n\n\n=== Borussia Dortmund ===\nAt the end of that season, Lattek quit Mönchengladbach and spent two undistinguished years with Borussia Dortmund. In his time at Mönchengladbach he had managed legendary striker Jupp Heynckes (226 goals in 375 league matches / 51 goals in 64 European competition matches), along with great Danish forward Allan Simonsen and such national team stalwarts as Berti Vogts, Rainer Bonhof, Uli Stielike, and Herbert Wimmer. At Dortmund he lacked that wealth of talent, and at the time his new club did not have the resources or the patience to develop it.\n\n\n=== FC Barcelona ===\nIn 1981, Lattek was appointed successor to Helenio Herrera at Spanish club FC Barcelona. He led the club to the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1982, defeating Standard Liège 2-1 in the final. He is the only coach to lead three clubs to three different major European trophies. On the field Barcelona was led by Migueli, Alexanco, Rexach, Asensi, Quini, the German Bernd Schuster, and the Dane, Allan Simonsen, Lattek's star signing from his old club, Mönchengladbach. In the second season Diego Maradona, then 22 years of age, was signed for a record transfer fee. However Barcelona did not win any domestic titles that year, and Lattek was replaced at the end of the 1982–83 season by the World Cup winning Argentine coach, César Luis Menotti, who it was hoped would bring out the best in Maradona.\n\n\n=== Return to Bayern Munich ===\nLattek got his next managerial appointment from his former player Uli Hoeneß, who was by then in charge as commercial manager with his old side, Bayern Munich. Lattek succeeded the Hungarian coach Pal Csernai. In the next few years he won another league championship hat-trick with the club and two more national cups, the 'double\" in 1986 being the fourth in German football history. However Bayern lost the 1987 European Champions Cup final 2-1 to FC Porto. Great players during his second stint with Bayern included Karl-Heinz Rummenigge, Lothar Matthäus, Klaus Augenthaler, Dieter Hoeneß, the Danish midfielder Søren Lerby and the Belgian national goalkeeper Jean-Marie Pfaff. As it had been with Borussia Mönchengladbach, his former player Jupp Heynckes followed him as coach here, too.\n\n\n=== Cologne and Schalke ===\nAfter the heady days at Bayern, Lattek retired for a few years. In 1991, he joined 1. FC Köln as Sporting Director and was head coach for one match as coach, where he achieved a home draw against Bayern. The rest of the season he spent with the club as technical manager. 1992 he returned once more to the dugout and led Schalke 04 through the first half of the season. His last match in Munich was a 1–1 draw against Bayern.\n\n\n=== Return to Borussia Dortmund ===\nLattek officially retired and took up a role as TV commentator and newspaper columnist with the national broadsheet Die Welt and the bi-weekly sports magazine kicker. He was tempted out of retirement by his old team, Borussia Dortmund. The club had won the 1997 Champions League title, but was in panic mode towards the end of the 1999–2000 season, just one point above the relegation zone with five matches left to play. For what is speculated to be an extremely lucrative sum, as much as 250,000 Euros, the then 65-year-old Lattek took on the role of savior. His magic did the trick, two wins, two draws and only one defeat – against Bayern Munich – were enough to keep the club in the league. His last match was a 3–0 away triumph against Hertha BSC in front of a crowd of 75,000. At Dortmund he left a working base for his successor Matthias Sammer, who two years later at the age of 34 became the youngest coach to manage a German team to the league championship.\n\n\n== Coaching record ==\n\n\n== Later life ==\nLattek retired having won 14 major trophies. He still holds the record for having managed teams to the most Bundesliga titles, six with Bayern Munich and two with Borussia Mönchengladbach. \nHe lived in a nursing home in Cologne, where he was known for his continuous fondness of beer (\"all great coaches have enjoyed a drink\"). In 2012, Lattek suffered a stroke. Lattek later suffered from Parkinson's disease and dementia, and died on 31 January 2015. On the news of his death, Franz Beckenbauer tweeted: \"Sad news: The great Udo Lattek is dead. Rest in peace, my friend.\"\n\n\n== Honours ==\n\n\n=== Coach ===\nBayern Munich\n\nBundesliga: 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87\nDFB-Pokal: 1970–71, 1983–84, 1985–86\nEuropean Cup: 1973–74Borussia Mönchengladbach\n\nBundesliga: 1975–76, 1976–77\nUEFA Cup: 1978–79Barcelona\n\nEuropean Cup Winners' Cup: 1981–82\n\n\n=== Individual ===\nESPN 19th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013\nFrance Football 30th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019\nWorld Soccer 36th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of UEFA club competition winning managers\nList of European Cup and Champions League winning managers\nList of UEFA Cup Winners' Cup winning managers\nList of UEFA Cup winning managers\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nUdo Lattek on Myspace\nUdo Lattek at fussballdaten.de (in German)", "1. Fußball-Club Kaiserslautern e. V., also known as 1. FCK, FCK or 1. FC Kaiserslautern (German pronunciation: [ʔɛf t͡seː kaɪ̯zɐsˈlaʊ̯tɐn]), is a German sports club based in Kaiserslautern, Rhineland-Palatinate. In addition to football, the club also operates in several other sports.\nOn 2 June 1900, Germania 1896 and FG Kaiserslautern merged to create FC 1900. In 1909, the club went on to join FC Palatia (founded in 1901) and FC Bavaria (founded in 1902) to form FV 1900 Kaiserslautern. In 1929, they merged with SV Phönix to become FV Phönix-Kaiserslautern before finally taking on their current name in 1933.\nAs a founding member of the Bundesliga, FCK played from 1963 to 1996 uninterrupted in the top division. It has won four German championships, two DFB-Pokals, and one DFL-Supercup, and historically is among the most successful football clubs in Germany, currently occupying eleventh place in the all-time Bundesliga table. The club's international performances include reaching the Champions League quarter-finals in 1999 as well as two participations in the UEFA Cup semi-finals. Kaiserslautern won the German championship in the 1997–98 season as a newly promoted team, which is unique in German football. After a six-year spell in the second tier, in 2018 they were relegated to the 3. Liga for the first time.\nSince 1920, Kaiserslautern's stadium has been the Fritz-Walter-Stadion, named after Fritz Walter, the captain of the West German national team who won the world cup in 1954. Walter spent his entire career at Kaiserslautern.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Early years to World War II ===\nTwo of the club's predecessors, Bavaria and FC 1900 Kaiserslautern, were part of the Westkreis-Liga (I) when this league was formed in 1908, with the latter winning the first league. From 1909 through 1918, the new FV Kaiserslautern performed well, finishing runners-up in 1910 and 1912. The team reached tier-one in the new Kreisliga Saar in 1919, the Kreisliga Pfalz in 1920 and the Bezirksliga Rhein-Saar in 1931 and spent the rest of the 1930s bouncing up and down between the Bezirksliga and the upper level Gauliga Südwest, one of sixteen top flight divisions formed in the re-organization of German football under the Third Reich.The club's performance was unremarkable in the years leading up to World War II, but improved after 1939. They captured the Gauliga Südwest/Staffel Saarpfalz title, but lost the overall division title to Staffel Mainhessen winners Kickers Offenbach. In the 1941–42 season the Gauliga Südwest was split into the Gauliga Hessen-Nassau and the Gauliga Westmark, and Kaiserslautern took the Westmark title, going on to play for the first time in the national final rounds. They were decisively put out 3–9 by eventual champions Schalke 04, the dominant side in this era of German football.The performance of the team slipped and they finished last in their division in 1944. The following year saw the collapse of league play in this part of Germany as the Third Reich crumbled under the advance of Allied armies.\n\n\n=== Postwar play ===\n\nAfter the war, Southwestern Germany was part of the occupation zone held by the French. Teams there were organized into northern and southern divisions and played to determine which of them would join the new Oberliga being put together. French authorities were slow to loosen their control over play in their zones of occupation – and in the Saarland in particular – Teams in the French areas took longer to join the re-established German national league than in other parts of the country. 1. FC Kaiserslautern resumed play in the Oberliga Südwest in 1945 and finished the season just one point behind 1. FC Saarbrücken. The next season, they easily won the Gruppe Nord in 1947 due in large part due to the play of Fritz Walter and his brother Ottmar – the duo scored 46 goals between them, more than any other entire team.\n\n\n=== Success in the 1950s and entry to the Bundesliga ===\nThis marked the beginning of the club's dominance of the Oberliga Südwest as they went on to capture the division title eleven times over the next twelve seasons. FCK advanced to Germany's first post-war national final in 1948, but lost 1–2 to 1. FC Nürnberg.\nKaiserslautern became a presence on the national scene through the early 1950s, capturing their first German championship in 1951 with a 2–1 victory of their own, this time over Preußen Münster. They won a second title in 1953, followed by two losing final appearances in 1954 and 1955. The club also sent five players to the national side for the 1954 FIFA World Cup, which West Germany won in what became popularly known as \"The Miracle of Bern\".\nKaiserslautern's performance fell off late in the decade and into the early 1960s, the only highlight being an advance to the 1961 DFB-Pokal final, where they lost 0–2 to Werder Bremen. The side recovered its form in time to again win their division on the eve of the formation in 1963 of the Bundesliga, Germany's new professional football league. This secured them one of the 16 places in the new top flight circuit. However, the club's next honours would be some time in coming: they made failed German Cup final appearances in 1972, 1976, and 1981 and were UEFA Cup semi-finalists in 1982 (losing narrowly to eventual winners IFK Göteborg) before finally winning the domestic Cup in 1990. They followed up the next season with their first Bundesliga championship.\n\n\n=== Fall from the top flight ===\n1. FCK won a second German Cup in 1996, but that victory was soured since the team had been relegated to 2. Bundesliga with a 16th-place finish just one week before the Cup final. At the time, Kaiserslautern was one of only four of the original 16 teams that had played in each Bundesliga season since the inception of the league, having never been relegated. This group also included Eintracht Frankfurt (who went down in the same season), 1. FC Köln (down in 1998), and \"the Dinosaur\", Hamburger SV, whose spell ended in 2018.The Red Devils came storming back with an accomplishment unique in Bundesliga history – and very rare across the major European football leagues – by winning promotion from the 2. Bundesliga at the first attempt in 1997, and immediately going on to win the national championship under veteran coach Otto Rehhagel. They also played in the 1998–99 UEFA Champions League, where they topped a group comprising PSV, Benfica and HJK Helsinki but were eliminated in the quarter-finals by compatriots Bayern Munich, who also took back the domestic title (FCK finished 5th).\nThe club, however, found itself in serious trouble soon after. Despite coming close to a UEFA Cup final in 2001, Kaiserslautern soon found itself on the brink of bankruptcy and at the centre of controversy being played out publicly. The club's management – Jürgen Friedrich, Robert Wieschemann and Gerhard Herzog – were forced out. A new team president, Rene C. Jäggi, sold the debt-ridden Fritz-Walter-Stadion to an entity owned by the Land Rheinland-Pfalz and the city of Kaiserslautern, thus saving the club from financial disaster, while a new coach, Erik Gerets, led a run after the winter break that moved the footballers out of last place and saved them from relegation.\nThe club started the 2003–04 season under the burden of a three-point penalty imposed by the German Football Association for its financial misdeeds. After a faltering start to the season, Gerets was fired and replaced by Kurt Jara. Jara was unpopular with the FCK faithful for his defensive football philosophy, but with him at the helm, the club had a safe season. Jara, however, quit the position before the season ended, citing irreconcilable differences with club management.\n\n\n=== 2005–present ===\nIn 2005, Michael Henke, who served as long-time assistant to Germany's most successful coach Ottmar Hitzfeld, became coach. FCK was initially successful, but then suffered a string of reverses and crashed to the bottom of the table. Henke was fired, and FCK alumnus Wolfgang Wolf took up the trainer's role. Wolf brought in many young, home-grown players, but despite winning over fans and experts alike, the 2005–06 season ended in failure as FCK was once again relegated to the 2. Bundesliga after a nine-year stay at the top flight. They finished the 2006–07 season in sixth place in the 2. Bundesliga, seven points out of the promotion places.\nOn 20 May 2007, the club announced the Norwegian manager Kjetil Rekdal, formerly with Belgian side Lierse, as their new head coach. Rekdal took over the reins on 1 July. Due to very bad results (the club being in 16th place in the standings with only three wins in 19 games), Rekdal was sacked and replaced by Milan Šašić in February 2008. In April 2008, the club hired Stefan Kuntz as chairman, and with new leadership at the helm, managed to save themselves from relegation to the new 3. Liga with a win over already promoted 1. FC Köln on the final day of the 2007–08 season.\n\nŠašić lasted almost the entire 2008–09 season but was dismissed on 4 May 2009 after run of poor results in the second half of the season, and three days after a 1–5 defeat by Hansa Rostock. Alois Schwartz was named interim coach and he managed the club to a seventh-place finish on the season. The club eventually hired Marco Kurz as head coach.\nUnder Kurz, the club secured promotion to the 1. Bundesliga on 25 April 2010 after four years in the second league. At the start of the 2010–11 season, newly promoted 1. FCK had a promising two-straight wins, including a 2–0 victory over the previous year's Bundesliga champions, Bayern Munich. However, after a hard-fought 2–1 defeat at Mainz 05 and a 5–0 drubbing at eventual season champions, Borussia Dortmund, the club began to struggle and fell back to just ahead of the relegation zone. The club then had a poor start to the second half of the season – dropping into the relegation zone for several weeks – but managed to coalesce and eventually earned seven victories in their last ten matches, recording only two defeats and a single draw. They ended this run with four straight victories to finish the season at the seventh place.\nThe following season, 2011–12, the club finished in the bottom 18th place and after only two seasons in the top flight, were relegated to the 2. Bundesliga. They remained in that division until 2018, being relegated to the third tier for the first time in club history.\n\n\n== Reserve team ==\n\nThe club's reserve team, 1. FC Kaiserslautern II, played as 1. FC Kaiserslautern Amateure until 2005. It made a first appearance in the tier three Amateurliga Südwest in 1957. It won a league championship in 1960 and 1968 but was not entitled to promotion to professional level. In 1978, when the Oberliga Südwest was introduced the team qualified for this new league which it would belong to, with the exception of the 1982–83 season, until 1992. It won promotion back to the Oberliga in 1994 and became a yo-yo team between this league and the Regionalliga above, a league newly introduced in 1994. The team was relegated from the latter in 1996, 2000, 2004 and 2007 but each time won promotion back to the league. Since 2012, it has belonged to the Regionalliga Südwest.\nThe team has also won the Southwestern Cup on three occasions, in 1979, 1997 and 2008. Through this competition, 1. FC Kaiserslautern II qualified for the DFB-Pokal on three occasions, reaching the second round twice and being drawn against their own first team in 1997–98 where they lost 5–0.\n\n\n== Recent seasons ==\nAs of 18 May 2019Key\nP = Played; W = Win; D = Draw; L = Loss; F = Goals for; A = Goals against; GD = Goal difference; Pts = Points; Cup = DFB-Pokal; CWC = European Cup Winners' Cup; EL = UEFA Europa League; CL = UEFA Champions League.\n – = Not attended; 1R = 1st round; 2R = 2nd round; 3R = 3rd round; 1/8 = Round of sixteen; QF = Quarter-finals; SF = Semi-finals.\n\n\n== Honours ==\n\n\n== Stadium ==\n\nFCK plays its home fixtures in the Fritz Walter Stadion first built in 1920. The stadium and the adjacent street are named for the player who brought the club to prominence after the war. The facility is built on the Betzenberg, literally \"Mount Betze\", a steep sandstone hill.\nThe stadium has a capacity of 49,850 and was a 2006 World Cup venue, hosting four preliminary round and one group of 16-round matches. The facility underwent a major refurbishment for the tournament with addition of new grandstands and a roof.\n\n\n== Club culture ==\n\nKaiserslautern's Fritz-Walter-Stadion has long been a feared away venue given the rabid ferocity of Kaiserslautern fans: the most faithful of these supporters are located in the stadium's \"Westkurve\" (Westside, literally \"West Curve\", since the stands used to be shaped in a semicircle behind the goals). Most famously, Bayern Munich once lost a match here in a charged atmosphere by a score of 7–4 after leading 4–1 at the 58th minute.\nThe club has friendly ties to 1860 Munich, VfB Stuttgart, Werder Bremen and Kilmarnock F.C. of Scotland and are bitter rivals of Waldhof Mannheim and Bayern Munich. They also have lesser local rivalries with Eintracht Frankfurt and, more recently, with Mainz 05 and Karlsruher SC.\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Current squad ===\nAs of 8 July 2021Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n=== Out on loan ===\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\n\n=== Former players ===\n\n\n== Other sports ==\n1. FC Kaiserslautern also has sports departments in athletics, basketball, boxing, handball, headis, hockey, running, and triathlon.\n\n\n=== Basketball ===\nThe basketball department was founded in 1952. The seniors team played in the second German Basketball league from 2002 until 2007. In the 2014–15 season, both the male and female senior teams play in the fourth division.\n\n\n=== Boxing ===\nThe boxing department exists since the times of FV Kaiserslautern. Most prominent athletes are Silver medalist of the 1964 Summer Olympics Emil Schulz, Bronze medalist of the 1988 Summer Olympics Reiner Gies and, before his professional career, later European heavyweight champion Karl Mildenberger.\n\n\n=== Former departments ===\n\n\n==== Wheelchair basketball ====\nThe wheelchair basketball team FCK Rolling Devils was founded in 2009 as a part of the club's basketball department and turned into a separate department in 2013. Since 2014, the Rolling Devils play in the 1st German Wheelchair Basketball Federal League. In July 2015, the outsourcing of Rolling Devils into an independent club with 1.FC Kaiserslautern as name sponsor took place and the FCK department was suspended at the annual meeting of 1.FC Kaiserslautern in December 2015.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website \nKaiserslautern statistics", "The 1991–92 FC Bayern Munich season was the 92nd season in the club's history and 27th season since promotion from Regionalliga Süd in 1965. Bayern finished in tenth place in the Bundesliga having sixteen fewer points than champion VfB Stuttgart. This finish was the lowest since Bayern finished twelfth in 1977–78. The Bundesliga season consisted of 38 games instead of the usual 34 due to German reunification. For a second consecutive season, the DFB-Pokal campaign was ended after one match. The UEFA Cup campaign lasted two rounds when Bayern was eliminated by Boldklubben 1903. Three managers were in charge of the club this season. Jupp Heynckes was manager until 8 October), Søren Lerby led the team from 9 October to 11 March, and Erich Ribbeck finished the season.\n\n\n== Results ==\n\n\n=== Friendlies ===\n\n\n==== Fuji-Cup ====\n\n\n=== Bundesliga ===\n\n\n==== League results ====\n\nSource: 1Bayern Munich goals come first.\nGround's country's flag and opponent's country's flag shown when from a different country of Bayern Munich.Pos. = Position in league, Pts. = Points, GD = Goal difference, Ground: H = Home, A = Away, N = Neutral, HR = Home replacement, AR = Away replacement.\n\n\n==== League table ====\n\n\n=== DFB Pokal ===\n\n\n=== UEFA Cup ===\n\n\n==== 1st Round ====\n\n\n==== 2nd Round ====\n\n\n== Team statistics ==\n\n\n== Players ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n=== Bookings ===\n\n\n== Transfers ==\n\n\n=== In ===\n\n\n=== Out ===\n\n\n== References ==", "The 1999–2000 FC Bayern Munich season was the 100th season in the club's history. FC Bayern Munich clinched its second consecutive league title, its third consecutive DFB-Ligapokal championship, and the 1999–2000 DFB-Pokal.\n\n\n== Squad ==\n\n\n=== Squad, appearances and goals ===\n\n\n=== Transfers and loans ===\n\n\n==== Transfers in ====" ] }

{ "title": [ "M2 motorway (Pakistan)", "A57 road", "Cardiff West services", "Parkway Man", "Sheffield City Airport", "N81 road (Ireland)", "Sheffield Parkway", "Pelham Parkway", "M1 motorway", "Sheffield Inner Ring Road", "Park Square, Sheffield" ], "text": [ "The M-2 Motorway (Urdu: ‎ ) is a North-South motorway in Pakistan, connecting Rawalpindi/Islamabad to Lahore. The motorway is 375 km long and located entirely in Punjab. It passes through Kala Shah Kaku, Sheikhupura, Khanqah Dogran, Kot Sarwar, Pindi Bhattian, Salem, Lilla, Kot Momin, Kallar Kahar, Balksar, Nila Dulha and Chakri before ending just outside the twin cities Rawalpindi and Islamabad. It was the first motorway built in South Asia. At Junction of M2 and M1 there is an interchange which on one side connect Islamabad/Rawalpindi through an expressway of 8 km long, and the new Islamabad international airport through the other side of junction. It then continues on to eventually become the M1 motorway linking the twin cities with Peshawar. The M-2 crosses the junction of the M4 (to Faisalabad) at Pindi Bhattian. It is part of Pakistan's Motorway Network. Chaudhary Ghias Mela recently inaugurated the Sial More interchange which exits at Sial More and provides an alternate route to Sargodha.", "The A57 is a major road in England. It runs east from Liverpool to Lincoln via Warrington, Cadishead, Irlam, Patricroft, Eccles, Salford and Manchester, then through the Pennines over the Snake Pass (between the high moorlands of Bleaklow and Kinder Scout), around the Ladybower Reservoir, through Sheffield and past Worksop. Between Liverpool and Glossop, the road has largely been superseded by the M62, M602 and M67 motorways. Within Manchester a short stretch becomes the Mancunian Way, designated A57(M). \nThe 3-mile (4.8 km) £4 million Aston relief road in Sheffield opened in mid-1985, with the old route now designated as the B6200.\n\n\n== Route ==\n\n\n=== Liverpool–Warrington ===\nThe A57 begins at The Strand (A5036) near the River Mersey, as part of Water Street. It forms an east–west route through the north of the city centre with another one-way road system as Tithebarn Street (passing part of Liverpool John Moores University), Great Crosshall Street and Churchill Way in the east direction and Churchill Way and Dale Street in the west direction. The connecting roads Moorfields and Hatton Garden are also part of the A57, which join the east and west directions. In both directions, Churchill Way crosses the A59 near the entrance of the Queensway Tunnel. It overlaps briefly with the A580 as Islington, separated as two one-way roads, then becomes Prescot Street, passing the Royal Liverpool University Hospital. At the junction with the B5340, it becomes Kensington, meeting the A5089 to the south and B5188 to the north, becoming Prescot Road. It crosses a railway at Fairfield passing St Anne's Church on the left near the Stanley public house, overlapping with the B5189 Green Lane to the north. It meets the A5047 to the south near a Tesco and the B5189 at Old Swan. At the junction with the A5058 Queens Drive it enters Knotty Ash (with Alder Hey Children's Hospital to the north), becoming East Prescot Road and a trunk road. There is a roundabout and it enters Dovecot before it passes through Huyton. It meets the A526 Seth Powell Way to the north (for the M57), becoming Liverpool Road, At junction two of the M57, it meets the B5194 Knowsley Lane to the north and B5199 Huyton Lane to the south, and the start of the A58. It passes through Prescot as the non-trunk Derby Street then High Street. It meets the A58 again and becomes a trunk road, then meets the B5200 (former route of the A57) at a roundabout, becoming Warrington Road. It crosses the Liverpool to Wigan Line near Scotchbarn Leisure Centre. It meets the B5201 to the north opposite Whiston Hospital. It passes through Rainhill, meeting the B5413 near the railway station. It passes Rainhill High School to the left, then St Bartholomew RC Primary School. At junction 7 of the M62, it meets the A557 (for Widnes) and the St Helens Linkway A570 (for St Helens). The road runs along the road from junction 7 for about 1 mile (1.6 km), then it meets the B5419 at a crossroads, and the A569 to the left at Bold Heath near the Griffin Inn. At Lingley Green it enters as Liverpool Road, passing the Trigger Pond pub on the left. It crosses the Liverpool to Manchester Line (southern route). At Great Sankey, it becomes a dual-carriageway and meets the A562 at a roundabout.\n\n\n=== Warrington–Manchester ===\n\nThe original route through Warrington town centre included the narrow Sankey Street, which required special narrow buses to be operated. The road now bypasses Warrington town centre via a new elevated road, Midland Way, before emerging at a roundabout junction with the A49. The road loses its trunk road status and becomes School Brow. Warrington Parish Church, St Elphin, is to the right, near the right turn for Church Street. The road becomes Manchester Road, and meets the A50 at crossroads. It passes through Bruche, home of a former police training centre, and its running track. At Paddington, the road becomes dual-carriageway as New Manchester Road, passing close to Woolston Community High School. In Woolston, it becomes Manchester Road. It passes a 40 mph (64 km/h) speed camera near Woolston Leisure Centre and enters Martinscroft. At junction 21 of the M6, it becomes a trunk road and meets the B5210 Woolston Grange Avenue at a roundabout, then passes the Mascrat Manor at another roundabout. It traverses Rixton Moss, passing Ramswood Nurseries. It passes briefly through Rixton, with a right turn for Warburton over the Warburton toll bridge, and becomes dual-carriageway at Hollins Green. At the end of the dual-carriageway is a left turn for the B5212 for Glazebrook and its railway station, and then it crosses Glaze Brook as Liverpool Road, entering the metropolitan district of Salford. \n\nThere is a new roundabout with the former road through Cadishead, and a new section of the A57 follows the Manchester Ship Canal, on the route of the MSC Railway. The former route is partly the B5417 (and the B5320 is an earlier route), continuing as Liverpool Road. The £11.3 million Cadishead Way opened on 16 September 2005. It meets the B5417 at a roundabout near Northbank Industrial Estate. It passes under the railway near the junction of the River Mersey and Manchester Ship Canal, and there is a left turn for the B5311. There is a new roundabout next to Irlam Locks and the Boat House pub and another with the B5320 at the end of the Cadishead Way, which bypasses Irlam. Entering Eccles as Liverpool Road, it passes Boysnope Park Golf Club on Barton Moss, where the road becomes dual-carriageway. It passes the City Airport Manchester on the left (AKA Barton Aerodrome before March 2007). At Peel Green, it meets the M60 at junction 11, with the Barton High Level Bridge and Barton-upon-Irwell close by to the south. \n\nSoon after this junction the road enters Patricroft and is no longer a trunk road, passing the Unicorn pub. It meets the B5211 at crossroads (Patricroft Bridge) and crosses the Bridgewater Canal, then there is a left turn for the B5231 (Green Lane) towards Patricroft railway station and Monton. Before long it enters the centre of Eccles proper, splitting into two as Church Street and Irwell Place going east, passing the library and a Morrisons, and Corporation Road going west. It meets a roundabout near the Eccles terminus of the Manchester Metrolink. It becomes the dual-carriageway Bentcliffe Way, meeting the A576 (for Trafford Park. It leaves the A576 near junction 2 of the M602, heading east as the single-carriageway Eccles New Road. It passes the Ladywell tram stop on the right and meets the A5185 to the left. The Metrolink follows the road on the right hand side. There is the B5228 to the left near the Weaste station. In Weaste, there is the Langworthy tram stop near the A5186 left turn where the Metrolink leaves the road to the south. The road runs parallel to the M602 100m to the north.\n\nThe road becomes the trunk road dual carriageway Regent Road at the junction with the terminus of the M602 and the A5063 (Albion Way north for the A6, and Trafford Road south for Salford Quays). It is now the main route into Manchester from the west, meeting the A5066 at crossroads, passes a Sainsbury's on the left, then meets the B5461 and crosses the River Irwell where it enters the city of Manchester. There is a left turn for the A6143 Water Street (for Castlefield) and it becomes Dawson Street, is crossed by the Metrolink (for Altrincham), passes over the Bridgewater Canal and Cheshire Ring, then becomes Egerton Street. It runs into the A57(M) - the Mancunian Way at the GSJ with the A56 Bridgewater Way. The Beetham Tower Manchester is seen nearby to the left.\n\n\n=== Manchester–Sheffield ===\n\nIt leaves the A57(M) at the A6 exit and follows Downing Street, and Ardwick Green South, passing through Brunswick and the Ardwick Green Barracks of the King's and Cheshire Regiment. The A6 leaves at a roundabout, and the road temporarily loses its trunk status. At the Ellen Wilkinson High School, it meets the A665, and becomes a trunk road as Hyde Road. It crosses under a railway and meets the A6010 at crossroads. It passes through Belle Vue, meets the B6178 (for Levenshulme), crosses a railway near the Belle Vue railway station, entering Gorton. It meets the B6167 (for North Reddish). It enters the borough of Tameside, becoming the dual-carriageway Manchester Road. \nIt meets the M60 at junction 24, and divides into two east and west routes next to Denton railway station on the left and a Sainsbury's on the right, either side of the M67. They meet and the road loses its trunk status, entering Denton, passing the Christ Church Denton on the right. It meets the A6017 at crossroads, becoming Hyde Road with a Morrisons on the right. It meets junction 2 of the M67, which follows the road, near the church of St Anne and crosses the River Tame, becoming Manchester Road. It crosses the Peak Forest Canal and goes under the Hope Valley Line near Hyde Central railway station. The A627 overlaps and there it meets junction 3 of the M67 with an Asda on the right as it passes through Hyde as Market Street and Union Street and passes Tameside College on the right. It leaves the A627 to the right as Mottram Road, with a Morrisons on the left next to the M67, entering Godley and passing under the Glossop Line near Godley railway station and Godley Reservoir. It passes through Hattersley, and mets the final junction of the M67 - junction 4 - at a roundabout with the dual-carriageway A560 (for Stockport).\n\nIt resumes its trunk road status as Hyde Road, passing through Mottram in Longdendale, where there are crossroads at traffic lights with the B6174. Leaving Mottram, it meets the A6018 to the left (from Stalybridge) at traffic lights. It becomes Mottram Moor and at the next junction, it leaves to the right, with the A628 continuing straight on. It loses trunk road status and becomes Woolley Lane, passing through part of Hollingworth. It crosses the River Etherow, entering Derbyshire and the High Peak district. It enters Brookfield and meets the A626 (for Marple) from the right. It passes under the Glossop Line, at the Dinting viaduct, again near Dinting railway station as it passes through Dinting and the primary school. The A6016 leaves to the right and the road enters Glossop as High Street West passing a Tesco on the left. It meets the A624 (for Hayfield) and the B6105 at crossroads in the middle of the town, near the railway station. It becomes High Street East, passing Glossop Leisure Centre on the right. There is a roundabout and it becomes Sheffield Road, then Woodcock Road as it leaves Glossop and enters the Peak District National Park (Dark Peak). There is a sharp bend to the right and it becomes Snake Pass.\nIt climbs up Holden Clough and at Featherbed Moss, it is crossed by the Pennine Way at the summit at 1550 ft, with the hills of Bleaklow to the left and Kinder Scout to the right. Here it enters the National Trust's High Peak Estate. It passes the Doctor's Gate and follows the Lady Clough valley downhill to a point where Lady Clough meets the River Ashop, passing the Snake Pass Inn on the left. It follows the River Ashop closely to the north in the Woodlands Valley for about 4 miles (6.4 km), and leaves the High Peak Estate. It crosses the River Alport. It crosses Ladybower Reservoir at Ashopton Bridge. It meets the A6013 (for Bamford) and passes the Ladybower Inn. It climbs the valley and passes over Cutthroat Bridge. It is at about 1200 ft as it enters South Yorkshire and the city of Sheffield. It follows down the hill as Manchester Road past Hollow Meadows.\n\nFollowing the hill down into Sheffield, it passes the New Norfolk Arms on the left, with the Rivelin Dams on the right with the Rivelin Rocks high on the left, and leaves the Peak District National Park. At the Rivelin Mill Bridge it crosses the River Rivelin and the A6101 leaves to the left. It passes the Bell Hagg Inn on the left, then the Sportsman in Crosspool. It enters Tapton Hill and passes the Lydgate Junior School and Tapton School. It meets Fulwood Road in Broomhill. The B6069 leaves to the right, and it becomes Whitham Road.\nIt passes Weston Park Hospital and as Western Bank, it passes Sheffield Children's Hospital then the Octagon Centre on the right and becomes the dual-carriageway Brook Hill, passing straight through the University of Sheffield with its Arts Tower and Alfred Denny Building seen to the left, and the Hicks Building seen to the right. It becomes Broad Lane in Netherthorpe, passing the former Jessop Hospital and then St George's Church in Portobello (now part of Sheffield University). At a roundabout it passes the City Plaza, becoming Tenter Street then Westbar Green. It becomes West Bar, passing the Law Courts on the left, then the police headquarters and former Castle Market on the right as Bridge Street. It passes close to the River Don on Castlegate, becoming Exchange Place. It becomes the Sheffield Parkway (built in 1974), Sheffield's main route to the M1, meeting a roundabout.\n\n\n=== Sheffield–Worksop ===\n\nIt meets the A6102 at a GSJ, near the Sheffield Park Academy. At Bowden Housteads Woods, it leaves to the right at a GSJ, passing Athelstan Primary School becoming single-carriageway (three lanes). It passes the City School in Richmond and meets the B6064 at a roundabout, being followed by the Trans Pennine Trail. It passes Hackenthorpe and meets the B6053 (for Crystal Peaks) at a roundabout, becoming a short section of dual-carriageway until another nearby roundabout at Beighton. It crosses the River Rother, entering the borough of Rotherham, and meets a roundabout.\n\nIt crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line and at the roundabout at Swallownest with the former route (B6200) turns right onto Aston Way. At Aston, it meets the A618 from the left, then the A618 leaves to the right at the next roundabout. The Aston Relief Road ends where it meets the M1 at junction 31, just after the junction for the former route (B6067). It becomes the dual-carriageway Worksop Road, and now the level of traffic increases as it is a major east–west route. It becomes single-carriageway and meets the B6463 from the left, near Todwick and Red Lion Inn. At South Anston, it meets the B6059 at the Shell Worksop Road station. It crosses a railway and Lindrick Common near Woodsetts.\n\n\n=== Worksop–Lincoln ===\n\nThe 5-mile (8 km) £11.3 million Worksop Southern Bypass opened in May 1986. It starts at the roundabout with the B6041 (for Gateford and the former route through Worksop). The next short section is dual-carriageway to the Shireoaks roundabout, which also has access to the Gateford and Dukeries industrial estates. It becomes single-carriageway and crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line, at the junction with the Robin Hood Line, and over the Chesterfield Canal. It meets the A60 (for Worksop) at the Rhodesia Roundabout, near Rhodesia, a Sainsbury's and a McDonald's. The next short section, overlapping with the A60 and crossing the River Ryton, is dual-carriageway to the roundabout with the A60 (for Mansfield) and B6024, near the Shell Dukeries Garage and the Worksop Little Chef. From here, it is single carriageway (excluding the A1 section). There is a roundabout with the B6034 (for Ollerton) near Worksop College and Portland School.\n\nIt passes the former site of Manton Colliery, and a large B&Q depot on the left. There is a roundabout with the B6040 (former route through Worksop), which has access to Manton Wood Enterprise Zone. It passes a large Wilkos depot on the left and goes through Clumber Park. It meets the A1 at the Apleyhead Junction, with the A614, also known as Five Lanes End. The former roundabout was grade-separated in November 2007. Via the A1, it passes Elkesley (on the former route) with two 50 mph speed cameras and the Retford Gamston Airport, where it crosses the River Idle. Prior to the A1(M) Doncaster bypass opening in August 1961, this section of the road was the A57 - the A1 (now A638) went straight through Retford. Near to West Drayton it crosses the River Maun; this section shared with the A1 was dualled in the late 1950s, and the West Drayton Diversion was a completely new section, with the bridge over the Maun and Markham Moor roundabout, and opened in February 1957. At the next roundabout with the A638 (for Retford) and B1164 (for West Markham) at Markham Moor (again being grade-separated) there is the Markham Hotel and two Little Chefs, including one (originally a petrol station) designed by Sam Scorer with a hyperbolic paraboloid-shaped roof that was threatened with demolition but was listed by the Department for Culture Media and Sport in 2012. The Markham Hotel is currently situated on the former pre-1957 route, 330 yards to the north, and there are two large Markham Moor Shell stations. It leaves up the steep Cliff Gate to the left, which now has a crawler lane over Beacon Hill. It bypasses East Markham (on the former route to the south), and crosses the East Coast Main Line. 550 yards east of the village it resumes its former route. It meets the A6075 (for Tuxford and Ollerton) from the right west of Darlton where it passes St Giles' Church. There are turns for East Drayton to the left and Ragnall on the right, and the power stations of Cottam and (former) High Marnham are to the north and south, with many lines of pylons following the Trent.\n\nIt goes through Dunham on Trent, where it passes the White Swan, Bridge Inn and St Oswald's Church; the width of road through the village is not suited for the volume of traffic. It crosses the River Trent at Dunham Bridge (toll, rebuilt in the mid-1970s), where there are queues, entering Lincolnshire and the district of West Lindsey as Dunham Road. The Trent Valley Way joins at Dunham and leaves to the south at the other end of the bridge. It meets the A1133 (for Gainsborough) at a staggered junction at Newton on Trent; the former route of both routed went through the village along High Street - 330 yards east of the junction it resumes the former route (Southmoor Road further to the south). On entering the parish (but not the village) of Kettlethorpe the road formerly followed the turn for Thorney (in Nottinghamshire) to the right, and then further to the south, with the new section of road resuming the old route close where it crosses Darnsdyke. The road follows the boundary of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire for about 2 miles (3.2 km), and this section of Lincolnshire encloses former parishes in Nottinghamshire. The (Roman) Fossdyke Navigation runs alongside from the junction with the A156; the road becomes Gainsborough Road passing Drinsey Nook, with the A156 taking priority from the left (north) at the traffic-light-controlled junction. On the bend at Drinsey Nook, the road briefly re-enters Nottinghamshire - the Fossdyke is the boundary. At the junction with the B1190 at Tom Otter's Bridge, the boundary follows the B1190 to the south, along Ox Pasture Drain. It enters Saxilby, passing the BP Lincolnshire Co-operative Otter's Bridge Service Station and a similarly named Total service station. The Bridge Inn is on the left, with a turn for Broadholme (former Nottinghamshire) to the right. It crosses the Sheffield to Lincoln Line and Fossdyke, meeting the B1241, for Sturton by Stow.\n\nIt crosses the River Till as Lincoln Road; a former section of the road from here passed closer to Odder Farm to the north. There is a roundabout, where the road rejoins the old route, for Burton, and Burton Waters Marina, then the road enters the borough of Lincoln at the bend in the road to the left before Bishop Bridge (over Catchwater Drain and Main Drain) and meets the A46 Lincoln Bypass at a roundabout. It enters Lincoln as Carholme Road passing the Total Winning Post Service Station, with Carholme Golf Club to the right, then meets the B1273 Lincoln inner ring road, becoming Newland, where it passes the offices of Lincolnshire County Council on the left. It follows the dual-carriageway Wigford Way next to Brayford Pool and the University of Lincoln, over the River Witham, where it meets the B1262 High Street. It becomes St Mary's Street and passes the railway station on the right. It splits into Oxford Street, Pelham Street and Norman Street where it meets the A15 at Pelham Bridge, close to the large Siemens engineering company.\nAlthough the terminus of the road is in Lincoln, most of the A57 follows the former Liverpool-Skegness trunk road, created by the 1946 Trunk Roads Act. The road from Lincoln to Skegness was formerly also known as the A158.\n\n\n== Proposed closure ==\nIn 1979, the Department for Transport considered closing the Snake Pass section with traffic to be diverted to use the A628.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nGuide to the area around junction 31 of the M1\nA57 at SABRE", "Cardiff West services (Welsh: Gwasanaethau Gorllewin Caerdydd) is a motorway service station on junction 33 of the M4 motorway and the Capel Llanilltern junction of the A4232 near Cardiff, Wales. It is owned by Moto. In 2008, the services won the AA Patrol Approved Awards for best toilet.The services has previously acted as a site for escorting fans to Cardiff City FC games, because of travelling restrictions imposed on away fans visiting the city. These restrictions were relaxed in 2010, but the services continued to act as a sales point for match vouchers. Subsequently, the services has become well known to Cardiff City fans, particularly after a prominent appearance in the situation comedy Gavin & Stacey.In 2004, the services was the site of several protests over the rise in fuel duty. In May, 50 heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) entered the services' car park as the ending point of a \"go slow\" demonstration along the M4. In June, the site was chosen as a meeting place for another protest. 150 HGVs made a journey from the services to the centre of Cardiff.In 2010, rugby player Andy Powell was arrested at the services for allegedly driving a stolen golf buggy while intoxicated.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMotorway Services Online - Cardiff West\nMotorway Services Info - Cardiff West", "The Parkway Man, also known locally as \"Iron Henry\" (even though it represents a steelworker) is a statue located in Bowden Housteads Woods in the Handsworth district of Sheffield, England. The statue is visible from the road, and can be seen by people driving on Sheffield Parkway. The statue can also be viewed using public footpaths in the woods.\nThe statue, made of cast iron and designed by Jason Thomson in 2001, depicts a large man, stripped to the waist and wielding a sledgehammer; it weighs over 3 tonnes and is over 3 metres high. It was originally commissioned by the Sheffield City Council Heritage Woodland Team, as part of a project known as the Fuelling a Revolution project, which was managed by various environmental groups in the area. H.Downs & Sons Ltd. are responsible for designing and casting the statue.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nhttp://www.hdowns.co.uk/library/artwork.php", "Sheffield City Airport (IATA: SZD, ICAO: EGSY) was a small airport in Sheffield; it is now closed. It was in the Tinsley Park area of the city, near the M1 motorway and Sheffield Parkway, and opened in 1997. The airport's CAA licence was withdrawn on 21 April 2008 and it was officially closed on 30 April 2008, and the site is now part of the Advanced Manufacturing Park with various manufacturing businesses.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Planning ===\nAlthough an early proposal was made in 1968 to build an airport in South Yorkshire on land near Todwick in Rotherham, the scheme came to nothing. Almost thirty years later, a consultant report suggested that Sheffield would benefit from a short-runway STOLPORT model similar to London City Airport. The lack of an airport in Sheffield was (is) due primarily to the fact there is only a limited area of flat land large enough for it. In fact the size of the airport which was eventually built was determined by this geographical factor, see topographical map of the Sheffield area. It is not coincidental that Sheffield is built on hills because the resultant rivers powered the development of its most famous industries, namely steel making and engineering.\n\n\n=== Operations ===\nThe airport opened in 1997. Airlines KLM UK, Sabena, British Airways and Aer Arann offered regular passenger services between Belfast, Amsterdam, Brussels, Dublin, Jersey and London. The Amsterdam service was described by KLM UK as the best start-up they had ever experienced.Passenger figures were:\n\n46,000 in 1998\n75,000 in 1999\n60,000 in 2000\n33,000 in 2001\n13,000 in 2002\n\n\n=== Demise ===\nSheffield City opened just as the low-cost airline revolution began in the UK, a change that rapidly made the high-fare short-hop business flights model obsolete. Likewise the length of the runway limited the range of aircraft types that could use Sheffield. Most of the early low-cost airlines had planes that were unable to land at Sheffield. Nevertheless, Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield, which did have a larger runway, struggled to attract such airlines.The last scheduled airline pulled out of Sheffield City in 2002.\nPeel Airports, who were shortly to be opening Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield airport, purchased the site in 2002. By then, the airport terminal interior had already been converted to office accommodation. Fire and rescue cover and air traffic control were both reduced along with the withdrawal of published procedures for instrument approaches.\n\n\n=== Closure and redevelopment ===\nControversy surrounds whether Peel Airports had any incentive to promote the airport. The original lease between the Sheffield Development Corporation and Tinsley Park Ltd included a reversionary clause permitting the buyback of 80 acres (320,000 m2) of land for £1, if it could be shown that - after 10 years of opening - the airport was not financially viable. Peel's proposal to turn the airport into Sheffield Business Park was advertising land at up to £220 per square foot. The estimated profit on the site was more than £1,000,000.On 22 November 2012, the South and East Yorkshire Branch of the Federation of Small Businesses launched a campaign and petition against the redevelopment of the airport site. They wanted the airport's potential to be reassessed. Three weeks later, a mystery bidder made a bid to Sheffield City Council to reopen the airport. However, nothing came of this and construction work began in 2014.The ICAO identifier EGSY was reassigned to MOD St Athan from 1 April 2019.\n\n\n== Accidents and incidents ==\nOn 4 February 2001, Short 360-100 registration EI-BPD, carrying 25 passengers and 3 crew, was damaged beyond repair following a hard landing at Sheffield City Airport after a scheduled Aer Arann Express passenger flight from Dublin. There were no injuries.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nSources for the history of Sheffield's Airports Produced by Sheffield City Council's Libraries and Archives\nCouncil information", "The N81 road is a national secondary road in Ireland, from the M50 motorway to Tullow, County Carlow, north to south. The N81 continues past Tullow for another 8 km to terminate at the village of Closh, County Carlow, where it intersects the N80. The N81 is 76.784 km (47.711 mi) long (route map). The road is a dual carriageway between M50 motorway and west of Tallaght, known as the Tallaght Bypass or Blessington Road. It intersects with the M50 motorway at Junction 11. There are plans to extend the dual carriageway by 5 km (3.1 mi) to the urban boundary.The N81 is the only major national road emanating from Dublin that is a national secondary rather than national primary road.\nThe official definition of the N81 from the Roads Act, 1993 (Declaration of National Roads) Order, 2012 states:\n\nN81: Dublin — Closh Cross, County CarlowBetween its junction with M50 at Templeogue in the county of South Dublin and its junction with N80 at Closh Cross in the county of Carlow via Tallaght Bypass, Blessington Road, Jobstown, Gibbons, Corbally, Crooksling and Brittas in the county of South Dublin: Moanaspick, Tinode; Main Street at Blessington; and Burgage More in the county of Wicklow: Glebe East in the county of Kildare: Burgage Moyle and Russborough in the county of Wicklow; Bishopslane and Horsepasstown in the county of Kildare: Poulaphoca Bridge at the boundary between the county of Kildare and the county of Wicklow: Hollywood Lower, Hollywood Cross, Whitestown, Castleruddery; Mill Street and Edward Street at Baltinglass; and Holdenstown Lower in the county of Wicklow: Bough, Rathvilly, Kilmagarvoge; Dublin Road, Church Street, Market Square, Bridge Street and Abbey Street in the town of Tullow; and Castlegrace in the county of Carlow.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe Dublin and Blessington Steam Tramway once took this route from Terenure to Blessington before it was closed in 1932 due to falling passenger numbers.In the 1990s when it was proposed to reestablish a tram system in Dublin due to chronic traffic congestion (see Luas), the old tram route from the City Centre via Terenure to Tallaght was proposed.This route was later ruled out as a result of space constraints and the pipes under the N81 route seemingly being too old in the Terenure area, thus proving to be a great deal more expensive for utility diversion. The Luas instead was made to follow a less direct route from the City to Tallaght, following the Southern Canal ring and then moving south to Tallaght alongside the M50 Motorway.\n\n\n== See also ==\nRoads in Ireland\nMotorways in Ireland\nNational primary road\nRegional road\nList of streets and squares in Dublin\n\n\n== External links ==\nMap of N81 route\n\n\n== References ==", "The Sheffield Parkway is a major dual carriageway which runs between the City of Sheffield and junction 33 of the M1 in South Yorkshire, England. The 5.5-mile (8.9 km) road was opened in 1974.\n\n\n== Route ==\nThe route runs east of the City, connecting Park Square in the city centre with the inner ring road, outer ring road and out to the M1 motorway at junction 33. It passes the districts of the city council which are former villages: Wybourn, Darnall and Handsworth and the large village of Catcliffe, at which a slip road connects to Sheffield Business Park and the Advanced Manufacturing Park (AMP). At Handsworth the road passes through Bowden Housteads Woods, where it is possible to see the Parkway Man statue. Many businesses and Sheffield attractions are within sight of The Parkway, as it is known in South Yorkshire, and it can become highly congested. For approximately 2.5 miles (4.0 km) the road forms part of the A57; the rest is part of the A630. The South Yorkshire Fire and Rescue service Parkway Fire Station, which opened on 14 July 2015, has direct access to the Parkway, via Reynolds Road, at the junction of the A57 and A630.A £46 million upgrade to create three lanes between Catcliffe junction to the M1 on both carriageways, and four lanes on the M1 slip roads, started in February 2021 with a completion date of autumn 2022. The upgrade will also include new barriers, traffic lights, resurfacing and a permanent speed restriction of 50 mph.\n\n\n== Junctions ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nParkway Man\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nSheffield City Council Live Traffic Cameras\nPark Square North - Commercial Street, Exchange Place, Parkway, Broad Street\nBernard Road - Parkway - Parkway, Cutlers Gate, Bernard Road, Cricket Inn Road\nHandsworth Road - Parkway - Handsworth Road, Parkway", "The Bronx and Pelham Parkway, also known formally as the Bronx–Pelham Parkway but called Pelham Parkway in everyday use, is a 2.25-mile-long (3.62 km) parkway in the borough of the Bronx in New York City. The road begins in Bronx Park at the Bronx River Parkway and U.S. Route 1 (US 1) and ends at Interstate 95 (I-95), the New England Thruway, in Pelham Bay Park, hence the roadway's name. The parkway is designated as New York State Route 907F (NY 907F), an unsigned reference route, by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT).\nDespite the parkway moniker, Pelham Parkway is partially limited access and partially a local street, with two main roadways (one in each direction), and two service roads during the local street section. Like other parkways in New York City, commercial traffic is not permitted, however it can use the paralleling service roads. The parkway is maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation.\nThe residential neighborhood that surrounds the parkway is Morris Park, though the part of the neighborhood closest to the road is commonly referred to as Pelham Parkway.\nA bikeway, which signed as a portion of the East Coast Greenway travels alongside the parkway for its entire length.\n\n\n== Route description ==\nPelham Parkway begins at a cloverleaf interchange with the Bronx River Parkway (exit 7W–E) in the Bronx Park section of the Bronx. West of here, it continues as East Fordham Road, which also carries the US 1 designation. The first 0.18 miles (0.29 km) of the Pelham Parkway is co-signed with US 1. At an intersection with Boston Road – named for the Boston Post Road – US 1 turns north and leaves the parkway.\n\n The road, a six-lane divided parkway, crosses under the New York City Subway's IRT White Plains Road Line (the 2 and ​5 trains) at the Pelham Parkway station at an intersection with White Plains Road. The parkway continues east through the Morris Park neighborhood, passing and intersecting with Williamsbridge Road, which leads to the Jacobi Medical Center. At this intersection, the parkway also crosses over the IRT Dyre Avenue Line (the 5 train) at the underground Pelham Parkway station on that line. The parkway bends eastward, crossing Eastchester Road, then Stillwell Avenue merges into the parkway, marking the eastern end of the service roads.After Stillwell Avenue and leaving Morris Park, the parkway becomes a limited-access freeway, meaning that all entrances and exits have ramps, rather than signalized intersections crossing the center barrier. The parkway crosses over the Northeast Corridor tracks and enters Pelham Bay. It enters a cloverleaf interchange with the Hutchinson River Parkway (exit 3). Less than 0.5 miles (0.80 km) later, the parkway enters Pelham Bay Park and has another cloverleaf interchange with I-95 (the New England Thruway). This junction serves as the eastern terminus of Pelham Parkway, which continues east into the park as Shore Road.The speed limit on the parkway is 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) between Boston Road and Stillwell Avenue (the surface road section), and 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) between Stillwell Avenue and Shore Road (the limited access section). Service roads maintain the city-wide default speed limit of 25 miles per hour (40 km/h).Pelham Parkway is maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT), while the surrounding landscaping and bike path are managed by the New York City Parks Department. The parkway between White Plains Road and Stillwell Avenue has a wide landscaped median between the frontage roads on both sides and the westbound main road. The space between the westbound main and frontage roads on the north side is used as a park, with benches and walking paths.\nThe parkway also has two bike paths between Boston Road and Stillwell Avenue, one for each direction. These bike paths are part of the larger East Coast Greenway, which connects Maine and Florida. \n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Origins ===\nIn the 1870s, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted envisioned a greenbelt across the Bronx, consisting of parks and parkways that would align with existing geography.: 47  However, in 1877, the city declined to act upon his plan. Around the same time, New York Herald editor John Mullaly pushed for the creation of parks in New York City, particularly lauding the Van Cortlandt and Pell families' properties in the western and eastern Bronx respectively. He formed the New York Park Association in November 1881.: 49  There were objections to the system, which would apparently be too far from Manhattan, in addition to precluding development on the parks' sites. However, newspapers and prominent lobbyists, who supported such a park system, were able to petition the bill into the New York State Senate, and later, the New York State Assembly (the legislature's lower house).: 56 In June 1884, Governor Grover Cleveland signed the New Parks Act into law, authorizing the creation of the park system. The system consisted of three parkways and six parks, with Bronx Park at the center of the system. Bronx Park was connected to Pelham Bay Park in the east via Pelham Parkway; to Van Cortlandt Park in the northwest via Mosholu Parkway; and to Crotona Park in the south via Crotona Parkway. There were no direct connections to Claremont Park and St. Mary's Park, the other two parks in the system.\n\n\n=== Construction, proposed upgrades ===\nThe original Pelham Parkway was built in 1911 and opened in 1912 as a small, two-lane road in today's westbound lanes through what was then rural Westchester County. The road had strict building codes, as nobody could build within 150 feet of it.When New York City boomed after World War I and the Bronx became part of the city and neighborhoods, highways, and parks built up, the Pelham Parkway became a commuter route. Construction on today's Pelham Parkway started in 1935 under parks commissioner Robert Moses and was completed in 1937.In the 1950s and 1960s, Moses wanted to upgrade the parkway to a limited-access freeway and extend it to the Henry Hudson Parkway in the Inwood neighborhood of Manhattan. It would also connect to proposed limited-access upgrade and extension of the Mosholu Parkway and a large interchange with I-95 and a never built portion of I-895 at the current interchange with I-95 in Pelham Bay. Due to a growing opposition to highway improvements in the city partially fueled by opposition to the construction of the Cross Bronx Expressway, only the section from Shore Road to Stillwell Avenue was upgraded to a freeway.\n\n\n=== Present ===\nIn 2010, many trees were cut down along the Pelham Parkway so that NYSDOT could install a guardrail in response to an uptick in accidents. While there was local opposition to this, the project was carried out, and the parks department vowed to plant 200 new trees along the parkway.\n\n\n== Major intersections ==\nThe entire route is in the New York City borough of the Bronx. All exits are unnumbered.\n\n\n== See also ==\n U.S. Roads portal\n New York City portal\n New York (state) portal\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nPelham Parkway at\nPelham Parkway & Pelham Bay-Shore Drive @ NYCROADS.com", "The M1 motorway connects London to Leeds, where it joins the A1(M) near Aberford, to connect to Newcastle. It was the first inter-urban motorway to be completed in the UK; the first motorway in the country was the Preston By-pass, which later became part of the M6.The motorway is 193 miles (311 km) long and was constructed in four phases. Most of the motorway was opened between 1959 and 1968. The southern end was extended in 1977 and the northern end was extended in 1999.\n\n\n== History ==\nThere had been plans before the Second World War for a motorway network in the United Kingdom. Lord Montagu formed a company to build a 'motorway like road' from London to Birmingham in 1923, but it was a further 26 years before the Special Roads Act 1949 was passed, which allowed for the construction of roads limited to specific vehicle classifications, and in the 1950s, the country's first motorways were given the government go-ahead.\nThe first section of motorway was the Preston Bypass in Lancashire, now part of the M6 motorway, which opened in 1958. The M1 was Britain's first full-length motorway and opened in 1959. The early M1 had no speed limits, crash barriers, or lighting, and had soft shoulders rather than hard.\n\n\n=== First section, 1959 ===\n\nThe first section of the motorway, between Junction 5 (Watford) and Junction 18 (Crick/Rugby), opened on 2 November 1959, together with the motorway's two spurs, the M10 (from Junction 7 to south of St Albans originally connecting to the A1) and the M45 (from Junction 17 to the A45 and Coventry). Parts of the Hertfordshire section were built using steam rollers.The M1 was officially inaugurated from Slip End (close to Luton), celebrated by a large concrete slab on the bridge next to the village, with inscription \"London-Yorkshire Motorway – This slab was sealed by the Rt Hon Harold Watkinson M.P. – Minister of Transport – Inauguration Day – 24th March 1958\". It was relocated, during widening works in 2007–08, to the eastern side of junction 10.\n\nThis section of the M1 broadly follows the route of the A5 north-west. It started at the Watford Bypass (A41), which runs south-east to meet the A1 at Apex corner, and ended on the A5 at Crick. The M10 spur motorway connected the M1 to the North Orbital Road (A405/A414, a precursor of the M25) where it also met the A5 (now renumbered here as the A5183) and, 2 miles (3.2 km) to the east via the A414, the A6, which subsequently became part of the M25.\nAlthough the whole of the first section opened in 1959, it was built in two parts, with the northern part (Junctions 10 to 18) being built by John Laing and the southern part (the St Albans Bypass) being built by Tarmac Construction.\n\n\n=== Rugby to Leeds, 1965 to 1968 ===\nThe continuation of the motorway from Junction 18 towards Yorkshire was carried out as a series of extensions between 1965 and 1968. Diverging from the A5, the motorway takes a more northerly route through the East Midlands, via Leicester, Loughborough, Nottingham to Sheffield, where the M18 splits from the M1 at Junction 32 to head to Doncaster.\nOriginally, the M1 was planned to end at Doncaster but it was decided to make what was going to be the \"Leeds and Sheffield Spur\" into the primary route, with the 11-mile (18 km) section to the A1(M) south of Doncaster given the separate motorway number M18.\nFrom Junction 32, the motorway passes Sheffield, Rotherham, Barnsley and Wakefield, reaching the original end of the motorway at (the original) Junction 44 to the east of Leeds. There were plans to route the M1 from just south of Junction 42, where it interchanges with the M62, round the west of Leeds to the A1 at Dishforth. The chosen route passes to the east of Leeds. With the M62 and M621, the M1 forms a ring of motorways around the south of Leeds.\n\n\n=== Leeds South Eastern Urban Motorway, 1972 ===\n\nIn 1972, an extension of the M1 was opened into central Leeds as the Leeds South Eastern Motorway, where it met the Leeds South Western Motorway (M621) coming north-east from the M62 at Junction 3.\n\n\n=== Lighting ===\nIn July 1972, the then UK Minister for Transport Industries, John Peyton, announced that 86 miles (138 km) of UK motorway particularly prone to fog would benefit from lighting in a project that \"should be\" completed by 1973. Sections to be illuminated included the M1 between Junctions 3 and 14, and between Junctions 16 and 24. In August 2011, the Highways Agency announced that, despite being converted to Smart Motorway status, the lights will be switched off on stretches of the motorway between Junctions 10 (Luton) and 15 (Northampton) without affecting road user safety. The motorway junctions and their approaches, and a section of the M1 on either side of Junction 11 (north Luton), would have lighting columns replaced and remain lit. All lighting columns from Junctions 10 to 14 were removed completely, apart from some on slip roads.\n\n\n=== Safety barriers ===\nAn increasing official interest in secondary safety was evident in an announcement in March 1973 that work would begin shortly on erecting \"tensioned safety barriers\" along the central reservation of a 34-mile (55 km) section of the M1 between Kegworth (J24) and Barlborough (J30).\n\n\n=== Leeds to Hook Moor, 1999 ===\nBetween 1996 and 1999, the M1 section north of the M62 underwent a major reconstruction and extension to take the M1 on a new route to the A1(M) at Aberford. The new road involved the construction of a series of new junctions, bridges and viaducts to the east of Leeds. When the new section of M1 was completed and opened on 4 February 1999, the Leeds South Eastern Motorway section of the M1 was re-designated as the M621, and the junctions were given new numbers: M621 Junctions 4 to 7.\n\n\n=== London extensions, 1966, 1967 and 1977 ===\n\nThe M1 was extended south towards London from its original starting point at Junction 5, in three stages. The first stage, opened in 1966, took the motorway south-east, parallel to the A41, to meet the A5 at junction 4 south of Elstree. The second phase continued east to Scratchwood (London Gateway Services occupies the location of the missing junction 3 from where an unbuilt spur would have connected to the A1 at Stirling Corner to the north-east). The M1 then runs south alongside the Midland Main Line towards Hendon, where it meets the A1 again at Junction 2 via a tightly curved flyover section. These flyovers connecting from the A1 were originally both for northbound traffic: the left one as the on-ramp to the M1, the right one going over the A1/A41 junction beneath to rejoin the A1 northbound.\nJunction 2 is about 2.5 miles (4 km) south of the original Junction 3. Before the completion of Junction 2, southbound traffic left the motorway via a slip road which passed around the back of the now disused Homebase and under the A41/A1 Mill Hill Bypass, and looped round to join it at Fiveways Interchange. This slip road is still visible to southbound traffic approximately 650 yards (590 m) before Junction 2, and was maintained until the early 2000s, even though not accessible to traffic. The northbound slip road from the A1 is now partially used as the entrance way to a retail park and was once carried by bridge, but no longer reaches the northbound carriageway, because it is cut off by the motorway continuing south.\nThe final section of the M1 was opened to Junction 1 at Staples Corner in 1977. There the motorway meets the North Circular Road (A406) at a grade separated junction and roundabout. Unrealised plans from the 1960s would have seen the motorway continue through the junction on an elevated roadway to end at West Hampstead, where it would have met the North Cross Route, the northern section of the London Motorway Box, a proposed ring of urban motorway around the central area. The layout of the Staples Corner junction was originally built in accordance with those plans, although most of the London Ringways Plan had been cancelled by 1973. Around the same time, the section between the then-M10 and Junction 5 was widened from the original two lanes to three.\nOn its completion, the M1 acted as a fast link road between London and Birmingham via the M6. It also provided a link to London Luton Airport for those regions, and its proximity to the site of the Milton Keynes new town (designated in 1967) meant that it was soon providing a vital transport link to another major area.\n\n\n=== Recent developments ===\nIn 2006, plans were published for the widening of 91 miles (146 km) from Leicester through to Leeds (Junctions 21–42) to four lanes each way.\nEscalating costs across the whole of the Highways Agency programme, including the M1 project, on which costs had risen to £5.1 billion, as well as increasing opposition to major road expansion, as well as criticisms by the Transport Select Committee and the National Audit Office, led to wide-ranging re-assessments of the Agency's project costs. Widening was scaled back to the Junctions 6A to 10 scheme that was already in progress, and from Nottingham and Mansfield (Junctions 25–28), and hard shoulder running was to be used for other sections.\nMany later developments, including Smart Motorway schemes, have been made to the M1, and these are detailed below.\n\n\n== Developments ==\n\n\n=== A5-M1 Link (Dunstable Northern Bypass) ===\nThe A5-M1 Link (Dunstable Northern Bypass) is a two-lane dual carriageway running east from the A5 north of Dunstable joining the M1 at a new Junction 11a south of Chalton. Here, it is intended to join with a proposed Luton Northern Bypass to form a northern bypass for the wider conurbation. The A5-M1 Link aims to alleviate traffic congestion in Houghton Regis and Dunstable, reduce journey times for long-distance traffic travelling through Dunstable and improve the regional economy. The Highways Agency detrunked the A5 through Dunstable when the A5-M1 Link opened to the public in May 2017. As part of the Dunstable Town Centre Masterplan, Central Bedfordshire Council built the 2.9 km Woodside Link to connect the new junction 11a to the industrial areas of Dunstable and Houghton Regis. Most of the road opened to traffic in autumn 2016 with the remaining section connecting to junction 11a.\n\n\n=== M1/M69 junction ===\nThere is a proposal to widen the M1 to dual 4-lane or dual 5-lane between Junctions 21 and 21a and construct a new link road between the M1 and the M69. During this work the Leicester Forest East services would be closed, and possibly relocated. Consultation took place in 2007. As of April 2020, work on this scheme has still not begun.\n\n\n=== M1 junction 19 improvement ===\nFollowing the report of a public inquiry in March 2013, the Secretary of State for Transport announced on 18 July 2013 that work to update the Catthorpe Interchange at junction 19, between the M1 motorway, M6 motorway and A14 road close to Catthorpe would go ahead. Work on the £191 million three-layer interchange started in January 2014 and the scheme was fully opened to traffic in December 2016.\n\n\n=== Smart Motorways ===\n\n\n==== M1 widening and variable speed limits, Junctions 6A to 10 (M25 to Luton) ====\nWork began on the 10-mile (16 km) section between the M25 and Luton (Junctions 6A and 10) in 2006 and opened in 2009, which included the construction of new parallel collector-distributor lanes between Junctions 7 and 8.\nThe M10 spur was built as a motorway because it inevitably led to the M1, but as non-motorway traffic could now travel between the A414 at Hemel Hempstead and Park Street Roundabout without having to access the M1, the M10 was downgraded to an A road, and designated as part of the A414 to allow for this. The widening or replacement of eleven underbridges on one or both carriageways, and replacing seven overbridges at a cost of £294 million. A variable mandatory speed limit system was installed, making this the first Smart Motorway scheme on the M1.\n\n\n==== M1 dynamic hard shoulder running, Junctions 10 to 13 (Luton to Milton Keynes South) ====\nWork to introduce dynamic hard shoulder running on approximately 15 miles (24 km) of motorway between Luton and Milton Keynes (J10-13) was completed in December 2012, at a total cost of £327 million. This made the hard shoulder available to be opened as a traffic lane where additional capacity was necessary. Modifications were made to Junctions 11 and 12, to allow for four lanes running through each junction, and the A421 road from Junction 13 to the Bedford southern bypass was also upgraded to two lanes each way during this period. The scheme will likely be converted to all lane running at some point in the 2020 decade, alongside all other dynamic hard shoulder running schemes. This was because a Government review into smart motorways found dynamic hard shoulder running was too confusing for drivers, leading to plans to convert all dynamic hard shoulders into permanent running lanes.\n\n\n==== M1 widening and variable speed limits, Junctions 25-28 (Nottingham to Mansfield) ====\nWork to widen the 15-mile (24 km) section from Nottingham to Mansfield (J25-J28) to four lanes each way began in October 2007 and was completed in May 2010, at a cost of £340 million. A 50 mph limit, enforced by average speed cameras, was imposed for the period of construction, but it proved to be so effective that a permanent variable mandatory speed limit system was installed.\n\n\n=== Other proposals ===\nPlans to dual the A421 from Junction 13 to Milton Keynes and to add capacity from Junction 10a on the Luton spur are being developed.\nThere are plans to reduce speed between M1 junctions 33 to 34, by Rotherham to 60 mph, to reduce levels of nitrogen dioxide. The plans are to be implemented before October 2020 and the trial period is expected to last from 12 to 15 months.\n\n\n== Incidents and accidents ==\nIn March 1972, 200 vehicles crashed in thick fog resulting in the deaths of nine people on the M1 north of Luton.\nOn 8 January 1989, a Boeing 737 crashed onto the embankment of the M1 whilst attempting an emergency landing at East Midlands Airport in Leicestershire. There were no ground casualties nor vehicular damage on the motorway as a result of the crash, however 47 passengers on board the aircraft were killed and a further 74 passengers and crew members were seriously injured.\nOn 6 September 1997, large sections of the northbound carriageway were closed between London and Althorp, Northamptonshire to allow for the funeral procession of Diana, Princess of Wales. In an unprecedented event, police allowed pedestrians onto the normally busy northbound carriageway almost the entire length of the route to pay their respects.\nOn 11 June 2003 three tanks were thrown across the carriageway near Junction 19 near Lutterworth when the transporter carrying them was involved in a crash; five were killed.\nAn 18-mile (29 km) stretch of the motorway was closed entirely on the morning of 11 December 2005, following a major explosion and fire at the Buncefield Oil Depot which is less than half a mile (800 m) from the M1.\nIn June 2007, the section of M1 between Junctions 32 and 36 was closed for a number of days after the Ulley Reservoir developed cracks after being deluged in the 2007 United Kingdom floods.\nPart of the motorway close to Tinsley Viaduct was closed to allow safe demolition of the Tinsley cooling towers in the early hours of 24 August 2008. The M1 remaining closed for much of the day until the stability of the viaduct was confirmed.\nOn 15 April 2011, a seven-mile stretch of the road was closed between Junctions 1 and 4 due to a fire at a scrapyard underneath the motorway. The road was fully re-opened early on 21 April 2011 with a 50 mph speed limit in force whilst repair work continued to an elevated section.\nOn 26 August 2017, two lorries and a minibus crashed between junctions 14 and 15, near Newport Pagnell, shutting down the motorway for most of the day. Eight people were killed and three severely injured. The drivers of the lorries were charged with dangerous driving, with one also charged with drunk driving. The incident represented the largest loss of life as the result of a motorway accident since a crash on the M40 in 1993.\n\n\n== Junctions ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of motorways in the United Kingdom\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nHighways Agency\nCBRD Motorway Database – M1\nThe Motorway Archive:\nHendon to Crick\nCrick to Doncaster\nAston to Leeds\nM1/M18\nM1 extension to A1(M)\nBBC website The Backbone of Britain contains link to a video of 2'42\" in length\nMajor Road Ahead by the John Laing Film Unit, showing construction of the first section", "Sheffield Inner Ring Road is a dual-carriageway circling central Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. Marked up as the A61 all the way around, it was built from the 1960s onwards. The Ring Road connects to the Sheffield Parkway, which itself connects with the M1 motorway. Many of Sheffield's current and under construction major office premises and luxury apartments are located on the Ring Road.\n\n\n== Route ==\n\nIt is formed mostly from the north–south A61, coming in from Chesterfield as the Unstone-Dronfield Bypass, Chesterfield Road South, Meadowhead, Chesterfield Road, London Road and Queens Road, joining the ring road itself at Suffolk Road. The A57 (as The Parkway) approaches Sheffield from the east (M1 jct 33) and arrives at Park Square Roundabout, the start of the ring road. Travelling clockwise, the ring road consists of Sheaf Street, Sheaf Square, Suffolk Road (anticlockwise) and Shoreham Street (clockwise), St Mary's Road, St Mary's Gate, Hannover Way, Upper Hannover Street, Netherthorpe Road and Hoyle Street, terminating at Shalesmoor, where the A61 turns north-west the Sheffield's northern suburbs and onto Barnsley. The South portion of the inner ring road follows most of the course of the B6070 before the dual-carriageway sections were built. The B6070 now only applies to Granville Road and Rutland Road at either ends of the southern portion of the ring road.\n\n\n== Northern Relief Road ==\nThe Sheffield Northern Relief Road is the scheme closing a hole in the Inner Ring Road. Work began work in 1999, with phase 1 finished in 2000 as Cutlers Gate and was subsequently renamed late in 2008 as Derek Dooley Way, in honour of the late Sheffielder who played football for Sheffield Wednesday before breaking his leg and going on to perform a number of backroom roles across the city at Sheffield United. Derek Dooley Way named section runs from the Parkway to the Wicker. In 2005 work started on the remainder, closing the gap from there to Shalesmoor and ended at the end of 2007. This section goes from Shalesmoor, down Moorfields, turning north at the junction with Gibraltar Street via a newly built road, meeting Corporation Street. It then crosses a new bridge before making its way to the Wicker through what was disused factories. There, at Junction 9, Bridgehouses, the road diverges, with part linking up to the Cutlers Gate section as described to join the Parkway where motorists may then turn right to continue on the ring road to Park Square and part heads underneath the viaduct and links to Spital Hill, Savile Street and Burngreave Road for connections to Attercliffe, Carbrook and the northeast of Sheffield at Meadowhall Centre/Tinsley. Nursery Street, the Wicker and Exchange Place were downgraded as part of the project.\n\n\n== Junctions ==\nFor an explanation of the Quarters, see Sheffield City Centre's Quarters\n\n\n== References ==", "Park Square is a major roundabout in Sheffield, England. The Sheffield Parkway, a major road from M1 Junction 33, terminates here. It is located next to Ponds Forge and Victoria Quays.\nIt is also a major tram junction connecting to the Park Square Bridge, and has many pedestrian bridges.\n\n\n== Roads running into Park Square ==\nClockwise from the North-East:\n\nSheffield Parkway (A57)\nBroad Street (B6071)\nDuke Street (A6135)\nSheaf Street (A61)\nCommercial Street (A621)\nBroad Street\nExchange Place (A61)" ] }

{ "title": [ "USS Colorado (BB-45)", "USS Alaska (CB-1)", "USS Oklahoma (BB-37)", "New York Shipbuilding Corporation", "Eldon P. Wyman", "USS Washington (BB-47)", "USS Utah (BB-31)", "USS Idaho (BB-42)", "USS Vulcan (AR-5)", "USS Arkansas (BB-33)" ], "text": [ "USS Colorado (BB-45) was a battleship of the United States Navy that was in service from 1923 to 1947. She was the lead ship of the Colorado class of battleships. Her keel was laid down on 29 May 1919, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. She was launched on 22 March 1921, and commissioned on 30 August 1923. She was armed with eight 16-inch (406 mm) guns and fourteen 5-inch (127 mm) deck guns; two 5-inch guns were removed in an overhaul.\nColorado took her maiden voyage in 1923, to Europe. She later operated with the Battle Fleet and sailed through the Pacific during the interwar years. She also underwent a further refit, during which her four 3-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft guns were replaced with an equal number of 5 in (127 mm)/25 cal guns.\nDuring the early part of World War II, Colorado undertook a defensive patrol near the Golden Gate Bridge in May 1942, to stop a possible Japanese invasion. She then sailed to Fiji, to stop any further Japanese advance into the Pacific. Next, she supported the landings on Tarawa, the Marshall Islands, Saipan, Guam, and Tinian. On 24 July 1944, during the shelling of Tinian, Colorado received 22 shell hits from shore batteries, but continued to support the invading troops until 3 August. She later arrived in Leyte Gulf on 20 November 1944, to support American troops fighting ashore. On 27 November, she was hit by two kamikazes which caused moderate damage.\nAfter that, Colorado sailed to Luzon on 1 January 1945, where she participated in the preinvasion bombardments in Lingayen Gulf. She returned to Okinawa on 6 August and sailed from there to Japan for the occupation of the country, arriving in Tokyo on 27 August. Departing Tokyo Bay on 20 September, she arrived at San Francisco on 15 October. She was placed out of commission in reserve in Pearl Harbor on 7 January 1947, and sold for scrapping on 23 July 1959. She won seven battle stars during her service. Many of Colorado's anti-aircraft guns are in museums across the state of Colorado (her bell and teak decking are also in museums and the USO in the Seattle-Tacoma airport) or mounted on the museum ship Olympia.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nIn 1916, design work was completed on the next class of battleships to be built for the United States Navy beginning in 1917. These ships were nearly direct copies of the preceding Tennessee class, with the exception of the main battery, which increased from twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns to eight 16 in (406 mm) guns. The Colorado class proved to be the last class of battleships completed of the standard type.Colorado was 624 ft (190 m) long overall and she had a beam of 97 ft 6 in (29.72 m) and a draft of 30 ft 6 in (9.30 m). She displaced 32,693 long tons (33,218 t) as designed and up to 33,590 long tons (34,130 t) at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric turbo-electric drives with steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The ship's propulsion system was rated at 28,900 shaft horsepower (21,600 kW) for a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph), though on speed trials she reached 31,268 shp (23,317 kW) and a speed of 21.09 kn (39.06 km/h; 24.27 mph). She had a normal cruising range of 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph), but additional fuel space could be used in wartime to increase her range to 21,100 nmi (39,100 km; 24,300 mi) at that speed. Her crew numbered 64 officers and 1,241 enlisted men.She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 in /45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin-gun turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft in superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns, mounted individually in casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. She carried an anti-aircraft battery of eight 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns in individual high-angle mounts. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she had a 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tube mounted in her hull below the waterline on each broadside. Colorado's main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick, while the main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces on 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. Her conning tower had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Inter-war period ===\n\nHer keel was laid down on 29 May 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey. Named for the 38th state, she was launched on 22 March 1921 and commissioned on 30 August 1923 for her initial sea trials and training. The ship's first commanding officer was Captain Reginald R. Belknap. On 29 December 1923, Colorado departed New York, bound for Portsmouth in the United Kingdom. She thereafter sailed south to visit Cherbourg and then Villefranche-sur-Mer, France. She also stopped in Naples, Italy, and the British naval base at Gibraltar. She arrived back in New York on 15 February 1924. There, the ship underwent repairs and further testing before getting underway on 11 July for the West Coast of the United States. She reached San Francisco, California on 15 September, where she joined the Battle Fleet. She remained a part of this unit for the next fifteen years.Over the course of the 1920s and 1930s, Colorado took part in the series of Fleet Problems, which were large-scale training exercises held annually. These took place in the Pacific and the Caribbean Sea. During this period, she also took part in various ceremonies and naval reviews with the rest of the fleet. From 8 June to 26 September 1925, the ship participated in a voyage to visit Samoa, Australia, and New Zealand with several other battleships of the fleet. She ran aground on the Diamond Shoals off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on 1 May 1927, but was refloated on 2 May 1927.Colorado was overhauled in 1928–1929, during which her four 3-inch (76 mm) anti-aircraft guns were replaced by eight 5-inch (130 mm)/25 caliber guns. From 10 to 11 March 1933, the ship went to Long Beach, California, to assist in relief efforts following an earthquake.In the summer of 1937 Colorado was the training ship for NROTC students from the University of Washington and University of California, Berkeley. She embarked the University of Washington students in Puget Sound on 15 June, and the University of California students four days later in San Francisco Bay. The ship arrived in Hilo, Hawaii, on 26 June and sailed two days later for Lahaina Roads, where the students practiced firing the 5\"/51 caliber guns in whose casemates they were berthed in hammocks. Liberty in Honolulu began on 1 July, but was interrupted the following day so Colorado could join the search for Amelia Earhart. She rendezvoused with the United States Coast Guard cutter Itasca on 7 July; and launched seaplanes to search the Phoenix Islands. After holding a line-crossing ceremony on 9 July, she returned the NROTC students to their schools on the west coast.\n\n\n=== World War II ===\n\nFrom 27 January 1941, Colorado was based in Pearl Harbor undergoing intensive training exercises and taking part in several war games until 25 June, when she departed Hawaii for the West Coast. Undergoing overhaul at the Puget Sound Navy Yard, she was not present for the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December. During the refit, which was completed on 31 March 1942, two of the 12 original 5 in/51 caliber guns were removed, and were replaced by an equal number of 5 in/38 caliber guns.After refit Colorado carried out extensive training maneuvers along the West Coast. On 31 May, she and Maryland patrolled near Golden Gate Bridge to protect San Francisco from any Japanese attack. Some time after this she returned to Pearl Harbor to complete her final preparations for action. She operated in the vicinity of the Fiji Islands and New Hebrides from 8 November 1942 to 17 September 1943 to prevent any further Japanese expansion in the Pacific. She sailed from Pearl Harbor on 21 October 1943 to provide pre-invasion shelling and fire support for the invasion of Tarawa, returning to port on 7 December 1943. After another overhaul on the West Coast, Colorado returned to Lahaina Roads, in the Hawaiian Islands, on 21 January 1944 and sortied the next day for the Marshall Islands. She provided the pre-invasion bombardment and fire support for the invasions of Kwajalein and Eniwetok until 23 February, when she headed for the Puget Sound Navy Yard for another overhaul.She joined other units going for the Mariana Islands at the harbor at San Francisco. She departed on 5 May passing Pearl Harbor and Kwajalein to the pre-invasion shelling at Saipan, Guam, and Tinian after 14 June. During the shelling of Tinian on 24 July she was damaged, 43 men were killed, and 198 wounded by 22 shell hits from 150mm Japanese shore batteries; she continued shelling the island and providing fire support for the invasion troops. After undergoing extensive repairs along the West Coast, she arrived in Leyte Gulf to begin the invasion of Leyte. A week after her arrival she was struck by two kamikaze bombers, which killed 19 crewmembers, injured 72, and moderately damaged the ship. Despite the damage, she bombarded Mindoro on schedule from 12 to 17 December 1944. She then proceeded to Manus Island for urgent repairs.She returned to Luzon on New Year's Day 1945 to participate in the pre-invasion shelling of the Lingayen Gulf. She was hit by accidental gunfire eight days later. The gunfire hit her superstructure, and caused 69 casualties (18 killed, 51 wounded). After a few repairs at the island of Ulithi, she joined Task Force 54 (TF 54), the pre-invasion shelling group for the invasion of Okinawa, at Kerama Retto. She stayed at Okinawa until 22 May, providing anti-aircraft cover and fire support for the invasion troops. On 6 August, she returned to the occupied Okinawa to sail to Japan for its occupation. On 27 August, she covered the airborne occupation of Atsugi Airfield.\nColorado was awarded seven battle stars for her World War II service.\n\n\n=== Post war ===\nColorado departed Tokyo Bay on 20 September 1945 for San Francisco. She arrived there on 15 October, and then sailed for Seattle for Navy Day (27 October). She was part of the Operation Magic Carpet force, making three runs to Pearl Harbor to transport 6357 soldiers home, before returning to Bremerton Navy Yard for her deactivation. She was placed out of reserve commission on 7 January 1947 and was sold for scrap on 23 July 1959.\n\n\n== Artifacts on display ==\n\nThe ship's bell is currently on display in the University Memorial Center (UMC) at the University of Colorado. A 5 in (130 mm)/51 cal deck gun from Colorado was donated to the Puget Sound Maritime Historical Society in 1959, and is displayed at the Museum of History and Industry in Seattle. It was one of eight such guns on Colorado.\nSix of Colorado's 5/51 cal guns were put aboard the protected cruiser USS Olympia, after she became a museum in Philadelphia in 1957. Boards from her teak-wood deck were re-purposed to form a wall in the main lounge of Haggett Hall at the University of Washington. A plaque commemorates the source. Deck boards are also used in a wall in the Legends Room of the Washington Athletic Club, having originally been preserved within the club at the behest of two former officers of the ship who were club members.On 7 February 2014, Boeing donated some decking from Colorado to the USO Northwest SeaTac Center to serve as the new center's entry flooring. Her helm is in the collection of the Colorado Springs Museum. It was donated to the museum in 1961 by Rear Admiral G. R. Luker and other naval officers. Admiral Luker served on Colorado. The donation also included a bronze plaque and other historical materials.\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\nBreyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905–1970. New York City: Doubleday and Company. ISBN 0-385-07247-3.\n\"Colorado\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 15 September 2011. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\nDye, Ira (1997). \"Liberty Lost Pursuing a Legend\". Naval History. United States Naval Institute. 11 (3): 42–45.\nFriedman, Norman (1985). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-715-1.\nFriedman, Norman (1986). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 105–133. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5.\nMartin, Robert J. (1997). USS West Virginia (BB-48). Nashville, Tennessee: Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56311-341-3.\nSchaefer, Scott (7 February 2014). \"Ceremony held for transfer of the USS Colorado's teak decking\". The SeaTac Blog. SeaTac, Washington: South King Media. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2015.\nGoldstein, Donald M. & Dillon, Katherine V. (1997). Amelia: The Centennial Biography of an Aviation Pioneer. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's Publishing. ISBN 1-57488-134-5.\n\n\n== External links ==\nMaritimeQuest USS Colorado BB-45 photo gallery\nPhoto gallery of Colorado at NavSource Naval History\nDANFS photograph collection of USS Colorado (BB-45)", "USS Alaska (CB-1) was the lead ship of the Alaska class of large cruisers which served with the United States Navy during the end of World War II. She was the first of two ships of her class to be completed, followed only by Guam; four other ships were ordered but were not completed before the end of the war. Alaska was the third vessel of the US Navy to be named after what was then the territory of Alaska. She was laid down on 17 December 1941, ten days after the outbreak of war, was launched in August 1943 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, in Camden, New Jersey, and was commissioned in June 1944. She was armed with a main battery of nine 12 in (300 mm) guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 33 kn (61 km/h; 38 mph).\nDue to being commissioned late in the war, Alaska saw relatively limited service. She participated in operations off Iwo Jima and Okinawa in February–July 1945, including providing anti-aircraft defense for various carrier task forces and conducting limited shore bombardment operations. She shot down several Japanese aircraft off Okinawa, including a possible Ohka piloted missile. In July–August 1945 she participated in sweeps for Japanese shipping in the East China and Yellow Seas. After the end of the war, she assisted in the occupation of Korea and transported a contingent of US Army troops back to the United States. She was decommissioned in February 1947 and placed in reserve, where she remained until she was stricken in 1960 and sold for scrapping the following year.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nAlaska was 808 feet 6 inches (246.43 m) long overall and had a beam of 91 ft 1 in (27.76 m) and a draft of 31 ft 10 in (9.70 m). She displaced 29,779 long tons (30,257 t) as designed and up to 34,253 long tons (34,803 t) at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft General Electric geared steam turbines and eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 150,000 shaft horsepower (110,000 kW), generating a top speed of 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 12,000 nautical miles (22,000 km; 14,000 mi) at a speed of 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph). She carried four OS2U Kingfisher or SC Seahawk seaplanes, with a pair of catapults mounted amidships.The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 12 in (305 mm) L/50 Mark 8 guns in three triple gun turrets, two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of twelve 5 in (130 mm) L/38 dual-purpose guns in six twin turrets. Two were placed on the centerline superfiring over the main battery turrets, fore and aft, and the remaining four turrets were placed on the corners of the superstructure. The light anti-aircraft battery consisted of 56 quad-mounted 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors guns and 34 single-mounted 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon guns. A pair of Mk 34 gun directors aided gun laying for the main battery, while two Mk 37 directors controlled the 5-inch guns and a Mk 57 director aided the 40 mm guns. The main armored belt was 9 in (229 mm) thick, while the gun turrets had 12.8 in (325 mm) thick faces. The main armored deck was 4 in (102 mm) thick.\n\n\n== Service history ==\nAlaska was authorized under the Fleet Expansion Act on 19 July 1940, and ordered on 9 September. On 17 December 1941 she was laid down at New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 15 August 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Dorothy Gruening (née Smith) the wife of Governor Ernest Gruening of Alaska, after which fitting-out work was effected. The ship was completed by June 1944, and was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 June, under the command of Captain Peter K. Fischler.\n\n\n=== World War II ===\n\nAfter her commissioning, Alaska steamed down to Hampton Roads, escorted by the destroyers Simpson and Broome. The ship was then deployed for a shakedown cruise, first in the Chesapeake Bay and then into the Caribbean, off Trinidad. On the cruise, she was escorted by the destroyers Bainbridge and Decatur. After completing the cruise, Alaska returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for some minor alterations, including the installation of four Mk 57 fire control directors for her 5-inch guns. On 12 November, she left Philadelphia in the company of the destroyer-minelayer Thomas E. Fraser, bound for two weeks of sea trials off Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. On 2 December, she left Cuba for the Pacific, transiting the Panama Canal two days later, and reaching San Diego on 12 December. There her gun crews trained for shore bombardment and anti-aircraft fire.On 8 January 1945, Alaska left California for Hawaii, arriving in Pearl Harbor on 13 January. There she participated in further training and was assigned to Task Group 12.2, which departed for Ulithi on 29 January. The Task Group reached Ulithi on 6 February and was merged into Task Group 58.5, part of Task Force 58, the Fast Carrier Task Force. Task Group 58.5 was assigned to provide anti-aircraft defense for the aircraft carriers; Alaska was assigned to the carriers Enterprise and Saratoga. The fleet sailed for Japan on 10 February to conduct air strikes against Tokyo and the surrounding airfields. The Japanese did not attack the fleet during the operation. Alaska was then transferred to Task Group 58.4 and assigned to support the assault on Iwo Jima. She served in the screen for the carriers off Iwo Jima for nineteen days, after which time she had to return to Ulithi to replenish fuel and supplies.Alaska remained with TG 58.4 for the Battle of Okinawa. She was assigned to screen the carriers Yorktown and Intrepid; the fleet left Ulithi on 14 March and reached its operational area southeast of Kyushu four days later. The first air strikes on Okinawa began that day, and claimed 17 Japanese aircraft destroyed on the ground. Here, Alaska finally saw combat, as the Japanese launched a major air strike on the American fleet. Her anti-aircraft gunners destroyed a Yokosuka P1Y bomber attempting to crash into Intrepid. Shortly thereafter, Alaska was warned that American aircraft were in the vicinity. About ten minutes later, her gunners spotted an unidentified aircraft, approaching in what they thought was a threatening manner; they shot down what turned out to be a Grumman F6F Hellcat fighter, though the pilot was uninjured. Later that afternoon, Alaska shot down a second Japanese bomber, a Yokosuka D4Y.\n\nThe following day, the carrier Franklin was badly damaged by several bomb hits and a kamikaze. Alaska and her sister Guam, two other cruisers, and several destroyers were detached to create Task Group 58.2.9 to escort the crippled Franklin back to Ulithi. On the voyage back to port, another D4Y bomber attacked Franklin, though the ships were unable to shoot it down. Gunfire from one of the 5-inch guns accidentally caused flash burns on several men standing nearby; these were the only casualties suffered by her crew during the war. Alaska then took on the role of fighter director; using her air search radar, she vectored fighters to intercept and destroy a Kawasaki Ki-45 heavy fighter. On 22 March, the ships reached Ulithi and Alaska was detached to rejoin TG 58.4.After returning to her unit, Alaska continued to screen for the aircraft carriers off Okinawa. On 27 March, she was detached to conduct a bombardment of Minamidaitō. She was joined by Guam, two light cruisers, and Destroyer Squadron 47. On the night of 27–28 March, she fired forty-five 12-inch shells and three hundred and fifty-two 5-inch rounds at the island. The ships rejoined TG 58.4 at a refueling point, after which they returned to Okinawa to support the landings when they began on 1 April. On the evening of 11 April, Alaska shot down one Japanese plane, assisted in the destruction of another, and claimed what might have been an Ohka piloted rocket-bomb. On 16 April, the ship shot down another three aircraft and assisted with three others. Throughout the rest of the month, her heavy anti-aircraft fire succeeded in driving off Japanese bombers.Alaska then returned to Ulithi to resupply, arriving on 14 May. She was then assigned to TG 38.4, the reorganized carrier task force. The fleet then returned to Okinawa, where Alaska continued in her anti-aircraft defense role. On 9 June, she and Guam bombarded Oki Daitō. TG 38.4 then steamed to San Pedro Bay in the Leyte Gulf for rest and maintenance; the ship remained there from 13 June until 13 July, when she was assigned to Cruiser Task Force 95 along with her sister Guam, under the command of Rear Admiral Francis S. Low. On 16 July, Alaska and Guam conducted a sweep into the East China and Yellow Seas to sink Japanese shipping vessels. They had only limited success, however, and returned to the fleet on 23 July. They then joined a major raid, which included three battleships and three escort carriers, into the estuary of the Yangtze River off Shanghai. Again, the operation met with limited success. In the course of her service during World War II, Alaska was awarded three battle stars.\n\n\n=== Post-war ===\n\nOn 30 August, Alaska left Okinawa for Japan to participate in the 7th Fleet occupation force. She arrived in Incheon, Korea, on 8 September and supported Army operations there until 26 September, when she left for Tsingtao, China, arriving the following day. There, she supported the 6th Marine Division until 13 November, when she returned to Incheon to take on Army soldiers as part of Operation Magic Carpet, the mass repatriation of millions of American servicemen from Asia and Europe. Alaska left Incheon with a contingent of soldiers bound for San Francisco. After reaching San Francisco, she left for the Atlantic, via the Panama Canal, which she transited on 13 December. The ship arrived in the Boston Navy Yard on 18 December, where preparations were made to place the ship in reserve. She left Boston on 1 February 1946 for Bayonne, New Jersey, where she would be berthed in reserve. She arrived there the following day, and on 13 August, she was removed from active service, though she would not be decommissioned until 17 February 1947.In 1958, the Bureau of Ships prepared two feasibility studies to see if Alaska and Guam were suitable to be converted to guided missile cruisers. The first study involved removing all of the guns in favor of four different missile systems. At $160 million this was seen as too costly, so a second study was conducted. This study left the forward batteries—the two 12-inch triple turrets and three of the 5-inch dual turrets—in place and added a reduced version of the first plan for the aft. This would have cost $82 million, and was still seen as too cost-prohibitive. As a result, the conversion proposal was abandoned and the ship was instead stricken from the naval registry on 1 June 1960. On 30 June, she was sold to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers to be broken up for scrap.\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\nCressman, Robert (2000). The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-149-1.\nGardiner, Robert; Chesneau, Roger (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-913-8.\nDulin, Robert O. Jr.; Garzke, William H. Jr. (1976). Battleships: United States Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-174-2.\nEgan, Robert S. (March 1971). \"The US Navy's Battlecruisers\". Warship International. International Naval Research Organization. VIII (1): 28–51.\nFriedman, Norman (1984). U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-718-6.\nRohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two. Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.\nSwanborough, Gordon; Bowers, Peter M. (1968). United States Navy Aircraft Since 1911. Funk & Wagnalls.\n\n\n== External links ==\nUSS Alaska (CB-1) Website Information for and about veterans that served on the USS Alaska CB-1 during World War II.", "USS Oklahoma (BB-37) was a Nevada-class battleship built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation for the United States Navy, notable for being the first American class of oil-burning dreadnoughts.\nCommissioned in 1916, Oklahoma served in World War I as a part of Battleship Division Six, protecting Allied convoys on their way across the Atlantic. After the war, she served in both the United States Battle Fleet and Scouting Fleet. Oklahoma was modernized between 1927 and 1929. In 1936, she rescued American citizens and refugees from the Spanish Civil War. On returning to the West Coast in August of the same year, Oklahoma spent the rest of her service in the Pacific.\nOn 7 December 1941, during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, several torpedoes from torpedo-bomber airplanes hit the Oklahoma's hull and the ship capsized. A total of 429 crew died; survivors jumped off the ship 50 feet (15 m) into burning hot water or crawled across mooring lines that connected Oklahoma and Maryland. Some sailors inside escaped when rescuers drilled holes and opened hatches to rescue them. In 1943, Oklahoma was righted and salvaged. Unlike most of the other battleships that were recovered following Pearl Harbor, Oklahoma was too damaged to return to duty. Her wreck was eventually stripped of her remaining armament and superstructure before being sold for scrap in 1946. The hulk sank in a storm in 1947, while being towed from Oahu, Hawaii, to a breakers yard in San Francisco Bay.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nOklahoma was the second of two Nevada-class battleships. Both were ordered in a naval appropriation act on 4 March 1911. She was the latest in a series of 22 battleships and seven armored cruisers ordered by the United States Navy between 1900 and 1911. The Nevada-class ships were the first of the US Navy's Standard-type battleships, of which 12 were completed by 1923. With these ships, the Navy created a fleet of modern battleships similar in long-range gunnery, speed, turning radius, and protection. Significant improvements, however, were made in the Standard type ships as naval technology progressed. The main innovations were triple turrets and all-or-nothing protection. The triple turrets reduced the length of the ship that needed protection by placing 10 guns in four turrets instead of five, thus allowing thicker armor. The Nevada-class ships were also the first US battleships with oil-fired instead of coal-fired boilers, oil having more recoverable energy per ton than coal, thus increasing the ships' range. Oklahoma differed from her sister Nevada in being fitted with triple-expansion steam engines, a much older technology than Nevada's new geared turbines.As constructed, she had a standard displacement of 27,500 long tons (27,941 t) and a full-load displacement of 28,400 long tons (28,856 t). She was 583 feet (178 m) in length overall, 575 feet (175 m) at the waterline, and had a beam of 95 feet 6 inches (29.11 m) and a draft of 28 feet 6 inches (8.69 m).She was powered by 12 oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers driving two dual-acting, vertical triple-expansion steam engines, which provided 24,800 ihp (18,500 kW) for a maximum speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph). She had a designed range of 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).As built, the armor on Oklahoma consisted of belt armor from 13.5 to 8.0 inches (343 to 203 mm) thick. Deck armor was 3 inches (76 mm) thick with a second 1.5 inches (38 mm) deck, and turret armor was 18 inches (457 mm) or 16 in (406 mm) on the face, 5 inches (127 mm) on the top, 10 inches (254 mm) on the sides, and 9 inches (229 mm) on the rear. Armor on her barbettes was 13.5 inches. Her conning tower was protected by 16 inches of armor, with 8 inches of armor on its roof.Her armament consisted of ten 14-inch (356 mm)/45 caliber guns, arranged in two triple and two twin mounts. As built, she also carried 21 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns, primarily for defense against destroyers and torpedo boats. She also had two (some references say four) 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes for the Bliss-Leavitt Mark 3 torpedo. Her crew consisted of 864 officers and enlisted men.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Construction ===\n\nOklahoma's keel was laid down on 26 October 1912, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey, which bid $5,926,000 to construct the ship. By 12 December 1912, she was 11.2% complete, and by 13 July 1913, she was at 33%.She was launched on 23 March 1914, sponsored by Lorena J. Cruce, daughter of Oklahoma Governor Lee Cruce. The launch was preceded by an invocation, the first for an American warship in half a century, given by Elijah Embree Hoss, and was attended by various dignitaries from Oklahoma and the federal government. She was subsequently moved to a dock near the new Argentine battleship Moreno and Chinese cruiser Fei Hung, soon to be the Greek Elli, for fitting-out.\n\nOn the night of 19 July 1915, large fires were discovered underneath the fore main battery turret, the third to flare up on an American battleship in less than a month. However, by 22 July, the Navy believed that the Oklahoma fire had been caused by \"defective insulation\" or a mistake made by a dockyard worker. The fire delayed the battleship's completion so much that Nevada was able to conduct her sea trials and be commissioned before Oklahoma. On 23 October 1915, she was 98.1 percent complete. She was commissioned at Philadelphia, on 2 May 1916, with Captain Roger Welles in command.\n\n\n=== World War I ===\nFollowing commissioning, the ship remained along the East Coast of the United States, primarily visiting various Navy yards. At first, she was unable to join the Battleship Division Nine task force sent to support the Grand Fleet in the North Sea during World War I because oil was unavailable there. In 1917, she underwent a refit, with two 3 in (76 mm)/50 caliber guns being installed forward of the mainmast for antiaircraft defense and nine of the 5-inch/51 caliber guns being removed or repositioned. While conditions on the ship were cramped, the sailors on the ship had many advantages for education available to them. They also engaged in athletic competitions, including boxing, wrestling, and rowing competitions with the crews of the battleship Texas and the tug Ontario. The camaraderie built from these small competitions led to fleet-wide establishment of many athletic teams pitting crews against one another for morale by the 1930s.On 13 August 1918, Oklahoma was assigned to Battleship Division Six under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas S. Rodgers, and departed for Europe alongside Nevada. On 23 August, they met with destroyers Balch, Conyngham, Downes, Kimberly, Allen, and Sampson, 275 miles (443 km) west of Ireland, before steaming for Berehaven, where they waited for 18 days before battleship Utah arrived. The division remained at anchor, tasked to protect American convoys coming into the area, but was only called out of the harbor once in 80 days. On 14 October 1918, while under command of Charles B. McVay Jr., she escorted troop ships into port at the United Kingdom, returning on 16 October. For the rest of the time, the ship conducted drills at anchor or in nearby Bantry Bay. To pass the time, the crews played American football, and competitive sailing. Oklahoma suffered six casualties between 21 October and 2 November to the 1918 flu pandemic. Oklahoma remained off Berehaven until the end of the war on 11 November 1918. Shortly thereafter, several Oklahoma crewmembers were involved in a series of fights with members of Sinn Féin, forcing the ship's commander to apologize and financially compensate two town mayors.\n\n\n=== Interwar period ===\n\nOklahoma left for Portland on 26 November, joined there by Arizona on 30 November, Nevada on 4 December, and Battleship Division Nine's ships shortly after. The ships were assigned as a convoy escort for the ocean liner SS George Washington, carrying President Woodrow Wilson, and arrived with that ship in France several days later. She departed 14 December, for New York City, and then spent early 1919 conducting winter battle drills off the coast of Cuba. On 15 June 1919, she returned to Brest, escorting Wilson on a second trip, and returned to New York, on 8 July. A part of the Atlantic Fleet for the next two years, Oklahoma was overhauled and her crew trained. The secondary battery was reduced from 20 to 12 5-inch/51 caliber guns in 1918. Early in 1921, she voyaged to South America's West Coast for combined exercises with the Pacific Fleet, and returned later that year for the Peruvian Centennial.She then joined the Pacific Fleet and, in 1925, began a high-profile training cruise with several other battleships. They left San Francisco on 15 April 1925, arrived in Hawaii, on 27 April, where they conducted war games. They left for Samoa, on 1 July, crossing the equator on 6 July. On 27 July, they arrived in Australia and conducted a number of exercises there, before spending time in New Zealand, returning to the United States later that year. In early 1927, she transited the Panama Canal and moved to join the Scouting Fleet.In November 1927, she entered the Philadelphia Navy Yard for an extensive overhaul. She was modernized by adding eight 5-inch/25 cal guns, and her turrets' maximum elevation was raised from 15 to 30 degrees. An aircraft catapult was installed atop turret No.3. She was also substantially up-armored between September 1927 and July 1929, with anti-torpedo bulges added, as well as an additional 2 inches (51 mm) of steel on her armor deck. The overhaul increased her beam to 108 feet (33 m), the widest in the US Navy, and reduced her speed to 19.68 knots (36.45 km/h; 22.65 mph).\n\nOklahoma rejoined the Scouting Fleet for exercises in the Caribbean, then returned to the West Coast in June 1930, for fleet operations through spring 1936. That summer, she carried midshipmen on a European training cruise, visiting northern ports. The cruise was interrupted by the outbreak of civil war in Spain. Oklahoma sailed to Bilbao, arriving on 24 July 1936, to rescue American citizens and other refugees whom she carried to Gibraltar and French ports. She returned to Norfolk on 11 September, and to the West Coast on 24 October.The Pacific Fleet operations of Oklahoma during the next four years included joint operations with the Army and the training of reservists. Oklahoma was based at Pearl Harbor from 29 December 1937, for patrols and exercises, and only twice returned to the mainland, once to have anti-aircraft guns and armor added to her superstructure at Puget Sound Navy Yard in early February 1941, and once to have armor replaced at San Pedro in mid-August of the same year. En route on 22 August, a severe storm hit Oklahoma. One man was swept overboard and three others were injured. The next morning, a broken starboard propeller shaft forced the ship to halt, assess the damage, and sail to San Francisco, the closest navy yard with an adequate drydock. She remained in drydock, undergoing repairs until mid-October. The ship then returned to Hawaii.\nThe Washington Naval Treaty had precluded the Navy from replacing Oklahoma, leading to the series of refits to extend her lifespan. The ship was planned to be retired on 2 May 1942.\n\n\n=== Attack on Pearl Harbor ===\n\nOn 7 December 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Oklahoma was moored in berth Fox 5, on Battleship Row, in the outboard position alongside the battleship Maryland. She was immediately targeted by planes from the Japanese aircraft carriers Akagi and Kaga, and was struck by three torpedoes. The first and second hit seconds apart, striking amidships at approximately 07:50 or 07:53, 20 feet (6.1 m) below the waterline between the smokestack and mainmast. The torpedoes blew away a large section of her anti-torpedo bulge and spilled oil from the adjacent fuel bunkers' sounding tubes, but neither penetrated the hull. About 80 men scrambled to man the AA guns on deck, but were unable to use them because the firing locks were in the armory. Most of the men manned battle stations below the ship's waterline or sought shelter in the third deck, protocol during an aerial attack. The third torpedo struck at 08:00, near Frame 65, hitting close to where the first two did, penetrating the hull, destroying the adjacent fuel bunkers on the second platform deck and rupturing access trunks to the two forward boiler rooms as well as the transverse bulkhead to the aft boiler room and the longitudinal bulkhead of the two forward firing rooms.As she began to capsize to port, two more torpedoes struck, and her men were strafed as they abandoned ship. In less than twelve minutes, she rolled over until halted by her masts touching bottom, her starboard side above water, and a part of her keel exposed. It's believed the ship absorbed as many as eight hits in all. Many of her crew, however, remained in the fight, clambering aboard Maryland to help serve her anti-aircraft batteries. Four hundred twenty-nine of her officers and enlisted men were killed or missing. One of those killed, Father Aloysius Schmitt, was the first American chaplain of any faith to die in World War II. Thirty-two others were wounded, and many were trapped within the capsized hull. Efforts to rescue them began within minutes of the ship's capsizing and continued into the night, in several cases rescuing men trapped inside the ship for hours. Julio DeCastro, a Hawaiian civilian yard worker, organized a team that saved 32 Oklahoma sailors. This was a particularly tricky operation as cutting open the hull released trapped air, raising the water levels around entombed men, while cutting in the wrong places could ignite stored fuel. It is likely that some survivors were never reached in time.Some of those who died later had ships named after them, including Ensign John C. England for whom USS England (DE-635) and USS England (DLG-22) are named. USS Stern (DE-187) was named for Ensign Charles M. Stern Jr. USS Austin was named for Chief Carpenter John Arnold Austin, who was also posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions during the attack. USS Schmitt (DE-676) was named for Father Aloysius Schmitt. USS Barber (DE-161) was named for Malcolm, Randolph, and Leroy Barber. In addition to Austin's Navy Cross, the Medal of Honor was awarded to Ensign Francis C. Flaherty and Seaman James R. Ward, while three Navy and Marine Corps Medals were awarded to others on Oklahoma during the attack.\n\n\n==== Salvage ====\n\nBy early 1942, it was determined that Oklahoma could be salvaged and that she was a navigational hazard, having rolled into the harbor's navigational channel. Even though it was cost-prohibitive to do so, the job of salvaging Oklahoma commenced on 15 July 1942, under the immediate command of Captain F. H. Whitaker, and a team from the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard.Preparations for righting the overturned hull took under eight months to complete. Air was pumped into interior chambers and improvised airlocks built into the ship, forcing 20,000 tonnes (19,684 long tons; 22,046 short tons) of water out of the ship through the torpedo holes. Four thousand five hundred tonnes (4,429 long tons; 4,960 short tons) of coral soil were deposited in front of her bow to prevent sliding and two barges were posted on either end of the ship to control the ship's rising.Twenty-one derricks were attached to the upturned hull; each carried high-tensile steel cables that were connected to hydraulic winching machines ashore. The righting (parbuckling) operation began on 8 March, and was completed by 16 June 1943. Teams of naval specialists then entered the previously submerged ship to remove human remains. Cofferdams were then placed around the hull to allow basic repairs to be undertaken so that the ship could be refloated; this work was completed by November. On 28 December, Oklahoma was towed into drydock No. 2, at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard. Once in the dock, her main guns, machinery, remaining ammunition, and stores were removed. The severest structural damage on the hull was also repaired to make the ship watertight.\n\nOklahoma was decommissioned on 1 September 1944, and all remaining armaments and superstructure were then removed. She was then put up for auction at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 26 November 1946, with her engines, boilers, turbo generators, steering units and about 24,000 tonnes (23,621 long tons; 26,455 short tons) of structural steel deemed salvageable. She was sold to Moore Drydock Co. of Oakland, California for $46,127.\n\n\n==== Final voyage ====\nIn May 1947, a two-tug towing operation began to move the hull of Oklahoma from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco Bay. Due to arrive on Memorial Day, a delegation of nearly 500 Oklahomans led by Governor Roy J. Turner planned to visit and pay final respects to the ship.Disaster struck on 17 May, when the ships entered a storm more than 500 miles (800 km) from Hawaii. The tug Hercules put her searchlight on the former battleship, revealing that she had begun listing heavily. After radioing the naval base at Pearl Harbor, both tugs were instructed to turn around and head back to port. Without warning, Hercules was pulled back past Monarch, which was being dragged backwards at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Oklahoma had begun to sink straight down, causing water to swamp the sterns of both tugs.Both tug skippers had fortunately loosened their cable drums connecting the 1,400-foot (430 m) tow lines to Oklahoma. As the battleship sank rapidly, the line from Monarch quickly played out, releasing the tug. However, Hercules' cables did not release until the last possible moment, leaving her tossing and pitching above the grave of the sunken Oklahoma. The battleship's exact location is unknown.\n\n\n== Memorials and recovery of remains ==\n\nDuring dredging operations in 2006, the US Navy recovered a part of Oklahoma from the bottom of Pearl Harbor. The Navy believes it to be a portion of the port side rear fire control tower support mast. It was flown to Tinker Air Force Base then delivered to the Muskogee War Memorial Park in Muskogee, in 2010, where the 40-foot-long (12 m), 25,000-pound (11,340 kg), barnacle-encrusted mast section is now on permanent outdoor display. The ship's bell and two of her screws are at the Kirkpatrick Science Museum in Oklahoma City. Oklahoma's aft wheel is at the Oklahoma History Center in Oklahoma City.On 7 December 2007, the 66th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor, a memorial for the 429 crew members who were killed in the attack was dedicated on Ford Island, just outside the entrance to where the battleship Missouri is docked as a museum. Missouri is moored where Oklahoma was moored when she was sunk. The USS Oklahoma memorial is part of Pearl Harbor National Memorial and is an arrangement of engraved black granite walls and white marble posts. Only 35 of the 429 sailors and Marines who died on Oklahoma were identified in the years following the attack. The remains of 394 unidentified sailors and Marines were first interred as unknowns in the Nu'uanu and Halawa cemeteries, but were all disinterred in 1947, in an unsuccessful attempt to identify more personnel. In 1950, all unidentified remains from Oklahoma were buried in 61 caskets in 45 graves at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific.\n\n\n=== Identification program ===\nIn April 2015, the Department of Defense announced, as part of a policy change that established threshold criteria for disinterment of unknowns, that the unidentified remains of the crew members of Oklahoma would be exhumed for DNA analysis, with the goal of returning identified remains to their families. The process began in June 2015, when four graves, two individual and two group graves, were disinterred for DNA analysis by the Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA). By December 2017, the identity of 100 crew members had been discovered, and with the numbers of sailor and Marine identities increasing at a steady pace, the 200th unknown was identified by 26 February 2019. Throughout 2019 and 2020, the DPAA continued to successfully identify more crew members, and on 4 February 2021, they announced the identity of the 300th unknown, a 19 year old Marine from Illinois.As of 29 June 2021, the DPAA announced that the program was coming to a close, and that the remains of 51 crew members that could not be identified have been returned to Hawaii, and will be reinterred at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific at Punchbowl Crater, with a ceremony scheduled for 7 December, the 80th anniversary of the Attack on Pearl Harbor.\nThe program identified 343 crew members, including two Medal of Honor recipients, giving the DPAA a success rate of 88%. DPAA Director Kelly McKeague hopes to be able to identify at least a few more crew members before the program is shutdown, and in time for the ceremony. On 17 September 2021, the Department of Defense announced that number of identified was 346.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nList of commanding officers of USS Oklahoma (BB-37)\nList of U.S. Navy losses in World War II\nPearl Harbor Survivors Association\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n\n=== Other reading ===\n\n\n== External links ==\nMaritimequest USS Oklahoma BB-37 Photo Gallery\n2003: Survivors dedicate Pearl Harbor USS Oklahoma Memorial highway\nPhoto gallery of USS Oklahoma (BB-37) at NavSource Naval History\nUSS Oklahoma (BB-37) Official Web Site", "The New York Shipbuilding Corporation (or New York Ship for short) was an American shipbuilding company that operated from 1899 to 1968, ultimately completing more than 500 vessels for the U.S. Navy, the United States Merchant Marine, the United States Coast Guard, and other maritime concerns. At its peak during World War II, NYSB was the largest and most productive shipyard in the world. Its best-known vessels include the destroyer USS Reuben James (DD-245), the cruiser USS Indianapolis (CA-35), the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63), the nuclear-powered cargo ship NS Savannah, and a quartet of cargo-passenger liners nicknamed the Four Aces.\n\n\n== History ==\nIt was founded in 1899 by Henry G. Morse (1850–2 June 1903), an engineer noted in connection with bridge design and construction and senior partner of Morse Bridge Company. The original plan was to build a shipyard on Staten Island, thus the name of the company. Plans to acquire a site failed and, after exploration as far south as Virginia with special attention being paid to the Delaware River area, a location in the southern part of Camden, New Jersey, was chosen instead. Site selection specifically considered the needs of the planned application of bridge building practices of prefabrication and assembly line production of ships in covered ways. Construction of the plant began in July 1899 and was so rapid that the keel of the first ship was laid November 1900. That ship, contract number 1, was M. S. Dollar, later to be modified as an oil tanker and renamed J. M. Guffey. Two of the first contracts were for passenger ships that were among the largest then being built in the United States: #5 for Mongolia and #6 for Manchuria. Morse died after securing contracts for 20 ships. He was followed as president by De Coursey May.On November 27, 1916, a special meeting of the company's stockholders ratified sale of the \"fifteen million dollar plant\" to a group of companies composed of American International Corporation, International Mercantile Marine Co., W. R. Grace and Company and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company.New York Ship's unusual covered ways produced everything from aircraft carriers, battleships, and luxury liners to barges and car floats.\n\n \nDuring World War I, New York Ship expanded rapidly to fill orders from the U.S. Navy and the Emergency Fleet Corporation. A critical shortage of worker housing led to the construction of Yorkship Village, a planned community of 1,000 brick homes designed by Electus Darwin Litchfield and financed by the War Department. Yorkship Village is now the Fairview section of the City of Camden.\nNew York Ship's World War II production included all nine Independence-class light carriers (CVL), built on Cleveland-class light cruiser hulls; the 35,000-ton battleship USS South Dakota (BB-57); and 98 LCTs (Landing Craft, Tank), many of which took part in the D-Day landings at Normandy.\nAfter World War II, a much-diminished New York Ship subsisted on a trickle of contracts from the United States Maritime Administration and the U.S. Navy. In 1959 the yard launched the NS Savannah, the world's first nuclear powered merchant ship. The yard launched its last civilian vessel (SS Export Adventurer) in 1960, and its last naval vessel, USS Camden, was ordered in 1967. The company's final completed submarine was USS Guardfish (SSN-612), which had been ordered in the early 1960s, but construction was halted from 1963 to 1965 because of the loss of the USS Thresher. Guardfish was commissioned in December 1967.\nIn 1968, lacking new naval orders, NYS ceased operations. USS Pogy (SSN-647), then under construction, was towed to Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi, for completion.\nThe yard's site is now part of the Port of Camden.\n\n\n== Ships built ==\nShips built by New York Ship include:\n\nAircraft carriers\nIndependence Class aircraft carrier * Note: These were light fast CV conversions as an expedient of war.\nUSS Independence (CVL-22), commissioned 14 January 1943\nUSS Princeton (CVL-23), commissioned 25 February 1943\nUSS Belleau Wood (CVL-24), commissioned 31 March 1943\nUSS Cowpens (CVL-25), commissioned 28 May 1943\nUSS Monterey (CVL-26), commissioned 17 June 1943\nUSS Langley (CVL-27), commissioned 31 August 1943\nUSS Cabot (CVL-28), commissioned 24 July 1943\nUSS Bataan (CVL-29), commissioned 17 November 1943\nUSS San Jacinto (CVL-30), commissioned 15 December 1943\n Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carrier\nUSS Kitty Hawk (CV-63), launched 21 May 1960\n Lexington-class aircraft carrier\nUSS Saratoga (CV-3), launched 7 April 1925\nBattleships\n New Mexico-class battleship\nUSS Idaho (BB-42)\n South Dakota-class battleship\nUSS South Dakota (BB-57)\nColliers\nSS Plymouth served as USS Plymouth from 1918 to 1919, as an auxiliary cargo ship, then returned to civilian service as SS Plymouth\nSS Fairmont served as USS Fairmont from 1918 to 1919, as an auxiliary cargo ship, then returned to civilian service again as the SS Fairmont. In 1922 she was renamed Nebraskan. For World War II she was renamed SS Black Point and was the last ship sunk by a U-boat on May 5, 1945.\nSS Winding Gulf\nSS Tidewater did not serve in the US Navy. Renamed SS Isaac T. Mann in 1923 and was scrapped at Baltimore in 1954.\nSS Glen White served as USS Glen White from 1918 to 1919 then returned to civilian service as SS Glen White.\nSS Sewalls Point did not serve in the US Navy.\nSS Franklin did not serve in the US Navy, became SS Nevadan in 1921, then SS Oakey L. Alexander in 1926. Was wrecked on the Maine coast on 3 March 1947.\nSS William N. Page \nCruisers\n Portland-class cruiser\nUSS Indianapolis (CA-35) launched 7 November 1931\nBaltimore-class cruisers\nUSS Bremerton (CA-130) launched 2 July 1944\n Alaska-class large cruiser\nUSS Alaska (CB-1)\nUSS Guam (CB-2)\nUSS Hawaii (CB-3)\nFast combat support ship\n Sacramento-class fast combat support ship\nUSS Camden (AOE-2)\nOil tankers\nGulflight launched 1914. Center of a diplomatic incident when torpedoed in World War I.\nSS Camden (1921) sunk by Japanese submarine I-25 in 1942\nJapanese seaplane tender Kamoi launched 1922\nSS Empire Arrow\nSubmarine\nThresher/Permit-class fast attack submarine (nuclear)\nUSS Pollack (SSN-603)\nUSS Haddo (SSN-604)\nUSS Guardfish (SSN-612)\n Sturgeon-class fast attack submarine (nuclear)\nUSS Pogy (SSN-647) (completed at Ingalls Shipbuilding)\nBarbel-class fast attack submarine (diesel):\nUSS Bonefish (SS-582)\nNuclear-powered merchant ship\nNS Savannah\nPassenger/cargo ship\nSS Panhandle State: Also named: President Monroe, President Buchanan, (Iris), and Emily H. M. Weder.\nSS Munargo: Also named Arthur Murray (Army but never used), USS Munargo (Navy), USAT Thistle, USAHS Thistle (Army hospital). [1]\nOther ships and boats\nWashington Irving—the biggest passenger-carrying riverboat (paddle steamer) ever built.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNew York Shipbuilding strike\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\nCV / CVL Class Carriers: Book; USS INDEPENDENCE CVL-22, A War Diary of the Nation's First Dedicated Night Carrier by: John G. Lambert\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nNew York Shipbuilding Company Historical Sites\nA Tribute to a Place Called Yorkship\nNew York Shipbuilding, Camden NJ\nA web exhibit of ship christening photos that includes twenty images of launching ceremonies at New York Shipbuilding", "Eldon P. Wyman (11 January 1917 - 7 December 1941) was an ensign serving aboard the USS Oklahoma (BB-37) when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Wyman was among the sailors trapped inside the Oklahoma when it sank at its berth.", "USS Washington (BB-47), a Colorado-class battleship, was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 42nd state. Her keel was laid down on 30 June 1919, at Camden, New Jersey, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. She was launched on 1 September 1921, sponsored by Miss Jean Summers, the daughter of Congressman John W. Summers of Washington.\nOn 8 February 1922, two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armaments, all construction work ceased on the 75.9%-completed superdreadnought. She was sunk as a gunnery target on 26 November 1924, by the battleships New York and Texas.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nIn 1916, design work was completed on the next class of battleships to be built for the United States Navy beginning in 1917. These ships were nearly direct copies of the preceding Tennessee class, with the exception of the main battery, which increased from twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns to eight 16 in (406 mm) guns. The Colorado class proved to be the last class of battleships completed of the standard type.Washington was 624 ft (190 m) long overall and she had a beam of 97 ft 6 in (29.72 m) and a draft of 30 ft 6 in (9.30 m). She displaced 32,693 long tons (33,218 t) as designed and up to 33,590 long tons (34,130 t) at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric turbo-electric drives with steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The ship's propulsion system was rated at 28,900 shaft horsepower (21,600 kW) for a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph), though on speed trials she reached 31,268 shp (23,317 kW) and a speed of 21.09 kn (39.06 km/h; 24.27 mph). She had a normal cruising range of 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph), but additional fuel space could be used in wartime to increase her range to 21,100 nmi (39,100 km; 24,300 mi) at that speed. Her crew numbered 64 officers and 1,241 enlisted men.She was armed with a main battery of eight 16 in /45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four twin-gun turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft in superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns, mounted individually in casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. She carried an anti-aircraft battery of eight 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns in individual high-angle mounts. As was customary for capital ships of the period, she had a 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tube mounted in her hull below the waterline on each broadside. Washington's main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick, while the main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces on 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. Her conning tower had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nWith fiscal year 1917 appropriations, bids on the four Colorados were opened on 18 October 1916; though Maryland's keel was laid on 24 April 1917. The other three battleships, including Washington, were not laid down until 1919–1920. With the cancellation of the first South Dakota class, the Colorados were the last U.S. battleships to enter service for nearly two decades. They were also the final U.S. battleships to use twin gun turrets—the North Carolina and second South Dakota classes used nine 16-inch/45 caliber Mark 6 guns and the Iowas used nine 16-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns in three triple turrets. Washington was laid down on 30 June 1919.On 8 February 1922, two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of all Naval Armaments, all construction work was stopped on the 75.9-percent-completed superdreadnought. By that time, she had her underwater armored protection in place.The ship was towed out in November 1924, to be used as a gunnery target. On the first day of testing, the ship was hit by two 400-pound (180 kg) torpedoes and three 1-metric-ton (1.1-short-ton) near-miss bombs causing minor damage and a list of three degrees. She then had 400 pounds of TNT detonated on board, but remained afloat. Two days later, the ship was hit by fourteen 14-inch (356 mm) shells dropped from 4,000 feet (1,200 m), but only one penetrated. The ship was finally sunk by Texas and New York with fourteen more 14-inch shells. After the test, it was decided that the existing deck armor on battleships was inadequate, and that future battleships should be fitted with triple bottoms, which was underwater armor with three layers.\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\nFerguson, John C. (2007). Historic Battleship Texas: The Last Dreadnought. Military History of Texas No. 4. Abilene: State House Press. ISBN 978-1-933337-07-4.\nFriedman, Norman (1980). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Chesneau, Roger (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. pp. 86–166. ISBN 978-0-87021-913-9.\nFriedman, Norman (1985). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-715-1.\nFriedman, Norman (1986). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 105–133. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5.\nGraff, Cory (2010). The Navy at Puget Sound. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. OCLC 700503123.\nKearns, Patricia M.; Morris, James M. (2011). Historical dictionary of the United States Navy (Second ed.). Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7229-5.\nMartin, Robert J. (1997). USS West Virginia (BB-48). Nashville: Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56311-341-3.\n\n\n== External links ==\nWashington (BB-47), construction cancelled 1922\nMaritimeQuest USS Washington BB-47 Photo Gallery\nPhoto gallery of Washington at NavSource Naval History\n\"Washington (Battleship No. 47)\". DANFS. 23 February 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2018.\nDANFS photographs of USS Washington (BB-47)", "USS Utah (BB-31/AG-16) was the second and final member of the Florida class of dreadnought battleships. The first ship of the United States Navy named after the state of Utah, she had one sister ship, Florida. Utah was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, laid down in March 1909 and launched in December of that year. She was completed in August 1911, and was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns in five twin gun turrets.\nUtah and Florida were the first ships to arrive during the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914 during the Mexican Revolution. The two battleships sent ashore a landing party that began the occupation of the city. After the American entrance into World War I, Utah was stationed at Berehaven in Bantry Bay, Ireland, where she protected convoys from potential German surface raiders. Throughout the 1920s, the ship conducted numerous training cruises and fleet maneuvers, and carried dignitaries on tours of South America twice, in 1924 and 1928.\nIn 1931, Utah was demilitarized and converted into a target ship and re-designated as AG-16, in accordance with the terms of the London Naval Treaty signed the previous year. She was also equipped with numerous anti-aircraft guns of different types to train gunners for the fleet. She served in these two roles for the rest of the decade, and late 1941 found the ship in Pearl Harbor. She was in port on the morning of 7 December, and in the first minutes of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, was hit by two torpedoes, which caused serious flooding. Utah quickly rolled over and sank; 58 men were killed, but the vast majority of her crew were able to escape. The wreck remains in the harbor, and in 1972, a memorial was erected near the ship.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nUtah was 521 ft 6 in (158.95 m) long overall and had a beam of 88 ft 3 in (26.90 m) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in (8.69 m). She displaced 21,825 long tons (22,175 t) as designed and up to 23,033 long tons (23,403 t) at full load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28,000 shp (20,880 kW) and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, generating a top speed of 20.75 kn (38.43 km/h; 23.88 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 5,776 nmi (6,650 mi; 10,700 km) at a speed of 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph). She had a crew of 1,001 officers and men.The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch/45 Mark 5 guns in five twin gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for capital ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. The main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick, while the armored deck was 1.5 in (38 mm) thick. The gun turrets had 12 in (305 mm) thick faces and the conning tower had 11.5 in (292 mm) thick sides.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Construction – 1922 ===\n\nUtah was laid down at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation on 15 March 1909. She was launched on 23 December 1909 and was commissioned into the United States Navy on 31 August 1911. She then conducted a shakedown cruise that stopped in Hampton Roads, Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola, Galveston, Kingston, Jamaica, and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. She was then assigned to the Atlantic Fleet in March 1912, after which time she participated in gunnery drills. She underwent an overhaul at the New York Navy Yard starting on 16 April. Utah left New York on 1 June and proceeded to Annapolis by way of Hampton Roads, arriving on 6 June. From there, she took a crew of naval cadets from the Naval Academy on a midshipman training cruise off the coast of New England, which lasted until 25 August.For the next two years, Utah followed a similar routine of training exercises and midshipman cruises in the Atlantic. During the period 8–30 November 1913, Utah made a goodwill cruise to European waters, which included a stop in Villefranche, France. In early 1914 during the Mexican Revolution, the United States decided to intervene in the fighting. While en route to Mexico on 16 April, Utah was ordered to intercept the German-flagged steamer SS Ypiranga, which was carrying arms to the Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta. Ypiranga's arrival in Veracruz prompted the US to occupy the city; Utah and her sister ship Florida were the first American vessels on the scene. The two ships landed a combined contingent of a thousand Marines and Bluejackets to begin the occupation of the city on 21 April. Over the next three days, the Marines battled rebels in the city and suffered 94 casualties, while killing hundreds of Mexicans in return.\n\nUtah remained off Veracruz for two months, before she returned to the New York Navy Yard for an overhaul in late June. She spent the next three years conducting the normal routine of training with the Atlantic Fleet. On 6 April 1917, the United States entered World War I, declaring war on Germany over its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign against Britain. Utah was stationed in Chesapeake Bay to train engine room personnel and gunners for the rapidly expanding fleet until 30 August 1918, when she departed for Bantry Bay, Ireland with Vice Admiral Henry T. Mayo, Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet aboard. After arriving in Ireland, Utah was assigned as the flagship of Battleship Division 6 (BatDiv 6), commanded by Rear Admiral Thomas S. Rodgers. BatDiv 6 was tasked with covering convoys in the Western Approaches against possible attacks from German surface raiders. Utah served in the division along with Nevada and Oklahoma.Following the end of the war in November 1918, Utah visited the Isle of Portland in Britain, and escorted the liner George Washington in December, which carried President Woodrow Wilson to Brest, France, for the post-war peace negotiations at Versailles. Utah left Brest on 14 December, and arrived in New York on the 25th of the month. She remained there until 30 January 1919, after which time she returned to the normal peacetime routine of fleet exercises and training cruises. On 9 July 1921, Utah departed for Europe, stopping in Lisbon, Portugal, and Cherbourg, France. After arriving, she became the flagship of American warships in Europe. She carried on in this role until she was relieved by the armored cruiser USS Pittsburgh in October 1922.\n\n\n=== 1922–1941 ===\nUtah returned to the US on 21 October, where she returned to her old post as the flagship of BatDiv 6. In early 1924, Utah took part in the Fleet Problem III maneuvers, where she and her sister Florida acted as stand-ins for the new Colorado-class battleships. Later that year, Utah was chosen to carry the US diplomatic mission to the centennial celebration of the Battle of Ayacucho, which took place on 9 December 1924. She left New York on 22 November with General of the Armies John J. Pershing aboard for a goodwill tour of South America; Utah arrived at Callao, Peru, on 9 December. At the conclusion of Pershing's tour, Utah met him at Montevideo, Uruguay, and then carried him to other ports, including Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, La Guaira, Venezuela, and Havana, Cuba. The tour ultimately ended when Utah returned Pershing to New York on 13 March 1925. Utah conducted midshipman training cruises over the summer of 1925. She was decommissioned at the Boston Navy Yard on 31 October 1925, and placed in drydock for modernization. The modernization replaced her coal-fired boilers with new oil-fired models, and her aft cage mast was replaced with a pole mast. She was reboilered with four White-Forster oil-fired models that had been removed from the battleships and battlecruisers scrapped as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty. Utah also had a catapult mounted on her Number 3 turret along with cranes for handling the floatplanes. \n\nUtah returned to active duty on 1 December, after which she served with the Scouting Fleet. She left Hampton Roads on 21 November 1928 for another South American cruise. This time, she picked up President-elect Herbert C. Hoover and his entourage in Montevideo, and transported them to Rio de Janeiro in December, and then carried them home to the United States, arriving in Hampton Roads on 6 January 1929. According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, Utah was converted into a radio-controlled target ship, to replace the older North Dakota. On 1 July 1931, Utah was accordingly redesignated \"AG-16\". All of her primary and secondary weapons were removed, though her turrets were still mounted. The plane handling equipment was removed along with the torpedo blisters that were added in 1925. Work was completed by 1 April 1932, when she was recommissioned.On 7 April, Utah left Norfolk for sea trials to train her engine room crew and to test the radio-control equipment. The ship could be controlled at varying rates of speed and changes of course: maneuvers that a ship would conduct in battle. Her electric motors, operated by signals from the controlling ship, opened and closed throttle valves, moved her steering gear, and regulated the supply of oil to her boilers. In addition, a Sperry gyro pilot kept the ship on course. She passed her radio control trials on 6 May, and on 1 June, the ship was operated for 3 hours under radio control. On 9 June, she again left Norfolk, bound for San Pedro, Los Angeles, where she joined Training Squadron 1, Base Force, United States Fleet. Starting in late July, the ship began her first round of target duty, first for the cruisers of the Pacific Fleet, and then for the battleship Nevada. She continued in this role for the next nine years; she participated in Fleet Problem XVI in May 1935, during which she served as a transport for a contingent of Marines. In June, the ship was modified to train anti-aircraft gunners in addition to her target ship duties. To perform this task, she was equipped with a new 1.1-inch (28 mm)/75 caliber anti-aircraft gun in a quadruple mount for experimental testing and development of the new type of weapon.Utah returned to the Atlantic to participate in Fleet Problem XX in January 1939, and at the end of the year, she trained with Submarine Squadron 6. She then returned to the Pacific, arriving in Pearl Harbor on 1 August 1940. There, she conducted anti-aircraft gunnery training until 14 December, when she departed for Long Beach, California, arriving on 21 December. There, she served as a bombing target for aircraft from the carriers Lexington, Saratoga, and Enterprise. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 1 April 1941, where she resumed anti-aircraft gunnery training. She cruised to Los Angeles on 20 May to carry a contingent of Marines from the Fleet Marine Force to Bremerton, Washington, after which she entered the Puget Sound Navy Yard on 31 May, where she was overhauled. She was equipped with new 5-inch (127 mm)/38 cal dual-purpose guns in single mounts to improve her ability to train anti-aircraft gunners. She left Puget Sound on 14 September, bound for Pearl Harbor, where she resumed her normal duties through the rest of the year.\n\n\n=== Attack on Pearl Harbor ===\n\nIn early December 1941, Utah was moored off Ford Island in berth F-11, after having completed another round of anti-aircraft gunnery training. Shortly before 08:00 on the morning of 7 December, some crewmen aboard Utah observed the first Japanese planes approaching to attack Pearl Harbor, but they assumed they were American aircraft. The Japanese began their attack shortly thereafter, the first bombs falling near a seaplane ramp on the southern tip of Ford Island. At the same time sixteen Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers from the Japanese aircraft carriers Soryu and Hiryu flew over Pearl City approaching the west side of Ford Island. The torpedo bombers were looking for American aircraft carriers, which usually anchored where Utah was moored that morning. The flight leaders identified Utah and rejected her as a target, deciding instead to attack 1010 Dock. However six of the B5Ns from Soryu led by Lieutenant Nakajima Tatsumi broke off to attack Utah, not recognizing that the shapes over the barbettes were not turrets, but boxes covering empty holes. Six torpedoes were launched against Utah, two of them struck the battleship while another missed and hit the cruiser Raleigh.Serious flooding started to quickly overwhelm Utah and she began to list to port and settle by the stern. As the crew began to abandon ship, one man—Chief Watertender Peter Tomich—remained below decks to ensure as many men as possible could escape, and to keep vital machinery running as long as possible; he received the Medal of Honor posthumously for his actions. At 08:12, Utah rolled over onto her side, while those crew members who had managed to escape swam to shore. Almost immediately after reaching shore, the ship's senior officer on board, Commander Solomon Isquith, heard knocking from men trapped in the capsized ship. He called for volunteers to secure a cutting torch from the badly damaged cruiser Raleigh and attempt to free trapped men; they succeeded in rescuing four men. In total, 58 officers and men were killed, though 461 survived.\n\n\n=== Salvage ===\n\nThe Navy declared Utah to be in ordinary on 29 December, and she was placed under the authority of the Pearl Harbor Base Force. Following the successful righting (rotation to upright) of the capsized Oklahoma, an attempt was made to right the Utah by the same parbuckling method using 17 winches. As Utah was rotated, she did not grip the harbor bottom, and slid towards Ford Island. The Utah recovery effort was abandoned, with Utah rotated 38 degrees from horizontal.As abandoned, Utah cleared her berth. There was no further attempt to refloat her; unlike the battleships sunk at Battleship Row, she had no military value. She was formally placed out of commission on 5 September 1944, and then stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 13 November. Utah received one battle star for her brief service during World War II. Her rusting hulk remains in Pearl Harbor, partially above water; the men killed when Utah sank were never removed from the wreck, and as such, she is considered a war grave.\n\n\n== Memorial ==\nAround 1950, two memorials were placed at the wreck dedicated to the men in the ship's crew who were killed in the attack on Pearl Harbor. The first is a plaque on the wharf to the north of the ship, and the second is a plaque that was placed on the ship itself. In 1972, a larger memorial was erected just off Ford Island, near the sunken wreck, and is now part of Pearl Harbor National Memorial. The memorial consists of a 70-foot (21 m) walkway made of white concrete, which extends from Ford Island out to a 40 by 15 ft (12.2 by 4.6 m) platform in front of the ship, where a brass plaque and a flagpole are located. The memorial is on the northwest side of Ford Island and is accessible only to individuals with military identification. A color guard stands watch over the wreck. On 9 July 1988, Utah and Arizona, the other remaining wreck in the harbor, were nominated to be added to the National Historic Landmark registry. Both wrecks were added to the list on 5 May 1989. As of 2008, seven former crewmen who were aboard Utah at the time of her sinking have been cremated and had their ashes interred in the wreck.Relics from the ship are also preserved in the Utah State Capitol building; among the items on display are pieces from the ship's silver service and the captain's clock. The ship's bell was on display at the University of Utah near the entrance of the Naval Science Building from the 1960s until 2016, when it was loaned to the Naval War College. It was then sent to the Naval History and Heritage Command in Richmond, Virginia for conservation work. With the bell restored, it was returned to the University of Utah on 7 December 2017 and is currently on display inside the Naval Science Building.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\"Can I visit the USS Utah Memorial?\". Pearl Harbor Visitors Bureau. Retrieved 1 July 2019.\nCutright, Eric J., Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class (AW) (19 June 2008). \"Former Sailor Interred at USS Utah Memorial\" (Story Number: NNS080619-05). Hawaii: U.S. Navy, Fleet Public Affairs Detachment. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2013 – via Wayback Machine. → Re: Petty Officer 1st Class Jimmy Oberto (né James Edgar Oberto; 1920–2007).CS1 maint: postscript (link)\nFriedman, Norman (1986). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 105–133. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5.\n\"Historic Bell Returns Home to U Campus\". unews.utah.edu. 1 December 2017. Retrieved 31 March 2019.\nJones, Jerry W. (1998). United States Battleship Operations in World War One. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557504113.\nMartinez, Daniel A. (1989). \"Chapter II: Historical Record – USS Utah – Salvage\". In Lenihan, Daniel J. (ed.). Submerged Cultural Resources Study: USS Arizona Memorial and Pearl Harbor National Historic Landmark. Santa Fe: Southwest Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers. pp. 13–74.\nNalty, Bernard C. (1999). War in the Pacific: Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806131993 – via Internet Archive.\nNofi, Albert A. (2010). To Train The Fleet For War: The U.S. Navy Fleet Problems, 1923–1940. Washington, DC: Naval War College Press. ISBN 978-1-88-473387-1.\n\"Pearl Harbor Area Attractions\". Retrieved 5 May 2013.\nRoth, Max (7 December 2017). \"USS Utah Bell Reminds Midshipmen of the Sacrifice at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941\". fox13now.com. Retrieved 31 March 2019.\n\"USS Utah (AG-16) Memorial at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii\". Retrieved 10 October 2015.\n\"USS Utah - The 100th Anniversary\". Archived from the original on 9 May 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2013.\nCressman, Robert J. (3 February 2021). \"Utah I (Battleship No. 31)\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 6 May 2021.\nZimm, Alan D. (2011). Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deceptions. Havertown: Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61200-197-5.\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to USS Utah (BB-31) at Wikimedia Commons\n\n\"USS Utah BB-31 / AG-16\". ussutah1941.org. Retrieved 1 July 2019.\n\"NavSource Online: Battleship Photo Archive BB-31 USS Utah\". navsource.org. Retrieved 1 July 2019.\n\n\n=== Selected oral histories ===\nMartinez, Daniel (interviewer); transcribed by Cara Kimura 17 October 1999 (7 December 1998). \"Oral History Interview #267 – Clark James Simmons (1921–2017)\" (PDF). \"USS Utah, Survivor\" (PDF) (oral history). USS Arizona Memorial National Park Service Oral History Collection. Honolulu. (81 pages). Retrieved 6 May 2021 (Daniel Alan Martinez, born 1949, since 1989 – and as of May 2021 – has been Chief Historian at the USS Arizona Memorial of the World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument)CS1 maint: postscript (link)\n\"Oral History Interview #392, Reuben John Eichman (1919–2004), USS Utah, Survivor,\" 5 December 2001\n\"Vaessen, John B[arth] (Jack) (1916–2018) — Pearl Harbor Survivor,\" 1 June 1987 U.S. Naval Institute.\nUtah State Historical Society (9 September 1989). \"USS Utah Survivor Eye Witness Account Charles R. Christensen SEA 2/c\". Retrieved 12 September 2021 – via ussutah1941.org.\n\"Pharmacist's Mate Second Class Lee Soucy [né Leonide Benoit Soucy; 1919–2010] – Oral History of The Pearl Harbor Attack,\" – published 21 September 2015, Naval History and Heritage Command\n\"Interview With Mr. Lee Soucy,\" 7 December 2004, National Museum of the Pacific War", "USS Idaho (BB-42), a New Mexico-class battleship, was the fourth ship of the United States Navy to be named for the 43rd state. She was the third of three ships of her class. Built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey, she was launched in June 1917 and commissioned in March 1919. She was armed with a battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm) guns in four three-gun turrets, and was protected by heavy armor plate, with her main belt armor being 13.5 inches (343 mm) thick.\nIdaho spent most of the 1920s and 1930s in the Pacific Fleet, where she conducted routine training exercises. Like her sister ships, she was modernized in the early 1930s. In mid-1941, before the United States entered World War II, Idaho and her sisters were sent to join the Neutrality Patrols that protected American shipping during the Battle of the Atlantic. After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Idaho and her sisters were sent to the Pacific, where she supported amphibious operations in the Pacific. She shelled Japanese forces during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands and the Philippines campaigns and the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.\nIdaho was among the ships present in Tokyo Bay when Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945. With the war over, the ship was decommissioned in July 1946. She was sold to ship breakers in November 1947 and subsequently dismantled.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nIdaho was 624 feet (190 m) long overall and had a beam of 97 ft 5 in (29.69 m) and a draft of 30 ft (9.1 m). She displaced 32,000 long tons (32,514 t) as designed and up to 33,000 long tons (33,530 t) at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Curtis turbines and nine oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 32,000 shaft horsepower (24,000 kW), generating a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at a speed of 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph). Her crew numbered 1,081 officers and enlisted men. As built, she was fitted with two lattice masts with spotting tops for the main gun battery. The main armored belt was 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm) thick, while the main armored deck was up to 3.5 in (89 mm) thick. The main battery gun turrets had 18 in (457 mm) thick faces on 13 in (330 mm) barbettes. The conning tower had 16 in (406 mm) thick sides.The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 14-inch (356 mm)/50 caliber guns in four, three-gun turrets on the centerline, placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft of the superstructure. Unlike earlier American battleships with triple turrets, these mounts allowed each barrel to elevate independently. The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns mounted in individual casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. Initially, the ship was to have been fitted with twenty-two of the guns, but experiences in the North Sea during World War I demonstrated that the additional guns, which would have been placed in the hull, would have been unusable in anything but calm seas. As a result, the casemates were plated over to prevent flooding. The secondary battery was augmented with four 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns. In addition to her gun armament, Idaho was also fitted with two 21-inch (530 mm) torpedo tubes, mounted submerged in the hull, one on each broadside.\n\n\n=== Modifications ===\nStarting in 1921, the Navy began installing aircraft catapults on its battleships, and Idaho was among the vessels to receive a Mark II catapult. Idaho was heavily modernized in the early 1930s. Her original turbines were replaced with new geared models manufactured by Westinghouse, and she received six express boilers designed by the Bureau of Engineering. This improved her performance to a top speed of 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) from 40,000 shaft horsepower (30,000 kW). Her armament was also revised, with the main battery turrets being modified to allow elevation to 30 degrees, greatly extending the range of the guns. Two of the 5-inch guns were removed, and eight 5-inch/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. She received an additional 2-inch (51 mm) armored deck, and her underwater protection was improved. Both lattice masts were removed; a heavy tower bridge was built in place of the fore mast, and a light pole mast was erected in place of the main mast. During the installation of the new bridge, she was fitted out as a flagship, which included the addition of a flag bridge for the admiral and his staff. These alterations greatly increased her displacement, to 33,420 long tons (33,960 t) standard and 36,157 long tons (36,737 t) full load. Her crew increased significantly, to 1,443.During a refit from 14 October to 28 December 1942, Idaho received a new anti-aircraft battery of ten quadruple Bofors 40 mm (1.6 in) guns and forty-three 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon guns, though the Oerlikons were added in stages. By the time the refit ended, she carried only sixteen of them, with eleven more added in January 1943, the remaining sixteen being added in February. From 22 October 1944 to 1 January 1945, Idaho received another major refit, which included the installation of ten 5-inch/38 caliber guns in individual, dual-purpose mounts in place of the old 25-caliber guns. She also received new Mark 8 radars for her main battery fire control system.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Interwar period ===\n\nIdaho was laid down on 20 January 1915 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 30 June 1917, and after fitting-out work ended, the new battleship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 March 1919. Shortly afterward, the ship began her shakedown cruise, departing on 13 April for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before returning to New York. There, the President of Brazil, Epitácio Pessoa, boarded the ship to return to Brazil. The trip began on 6 July; Idaho reached Rio de Janeiro on 17 July, where Pessoa left the ship, and continued on to the Panama Canal. She steamed to Monterey, California, where she joined the Pacific Fleet in September. The fleet then conducted a series of training exercises and held a naval review on 13 September for President Woodrow Wilson. Idaho hosted the Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and the Secretary of the Interior John B. Payne for a tour of Alaska, which concluded on 22 July.Idaho returned to the peacetime routine of fleet exercises over the next five years; these were held off the coast of North and South America, as far south as Chile. The ship was also present for a variety of ceremonies during this period, including a Naval Review for President Warren Harding in Seattle in 1923. The Pacific Fleet was reorganized as the Battle Fleet in 1922. She took part in major exercises off Hawaii in 1925, departing California on 15 April. The exercises lasted until 1 July, after which Idaho embarked on a cruise to the southern Pacific. Stops included Samoa, Australia, and New Zealand. While returning from Hawaii to California, she carried Commander John Rodgers, who had failed in his attempt to fly a seaplane from California to Hawaii. The ship reached San Francisco on 24 September. For the next six years, Idaho was based in San Pedro, where she continued to conduct readiness training, alternating between the Pacific and the Caribbean Sea.On 7 September 1931, she departed San Pedro for the Norfolk Navy Yard, where she received a major reconstruction that began after her arrival on 30 September. The lengthy reconstruction finished on 9 October 1934, and after completing another shakedown cruise in the Caribbean, Idaho returned to San Pedro, arriving on 17 April 1935. Fleet maneuvers increased in frequency, particularly after tensions began to rise with Japan over its expansionist policies in Asia. In mid-1940, the Battle Fleet was transferred from California to Hawaii; Idaho joined the other ships on 1 July. By this time, World War II had broken out in Europe, spawning the Battle of the Atlantic. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the Neutrality Patrols to protect American shipping. On 7 May 1941, Admiral Harold Stark, the Chief of Naval Operations, transferred Idaho, her sisters Mississippi and New Mexico, the aircraft carrier Yorktown, four light cruisers, and two destroyer squadrons to the Atlantic to reinforce the Neutrality Patrols. Idaho left Hawaii on 6 June, bound for Hampton Roads to join the neutrality patrols. In September, she was stationed in Hvalfjörður, Iceland, and was there when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December.\n\n\n=== World War II ===\n\nWith the United States now an active participant in World War II, Idaho and Mississippi left Iceland on 9 December to rejoin the Pacific Fleet. They stopped in Norfolk before steaming through the Panama Canal and continuing on to San Francisco, where they arrived on 31 January 1942. For much of the year, Idaho was occupied with combat training off the coast of California. In October, she went to the Puget Sound Navy Yard to receive replacements for her worn out main battery guns. The original secondary battery of 5-inch/51 cal. guns was removed as these guns were badly needed to arm merchant ships. Further training followed until April 1943, when on the 7th she departed for the Aleutian Islands, where Japanese troops had occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska. Idaho served as the flagship of the bombardment and patrol force. On 11 May, US Army forces went ashore on Attu, and Idaho provided gunfire support for the assault. The following month, a second attack followed on Kiska, but the Japanese had already abandoned the island in July. On 7 September, Idaho returned to San Francisco to begin preparations for the next major amphibious assault, which shifted focus to the central Pacific.Idaho moved to Pearl Harbor and then joined the invasion fleet on 10 November, which then steamed to the Gilbert Islands. They arrived off Makin Atoll on 20 November; Idaho continued her role as gunfire support for the next two weeks, shelling Japanese positions in the Gilberts as well as contributing her antiaircraft battery to defend against Japanese aerial attacks. On 5 December, she left the area for Pearl Harbor, where she prepared for the next attack, against the Marshall Islands. On 31 January 1944, Idaho and the rest of the fleet arrived off Kwajalein to begin the preparatory bombardment. She continued to batter Japanese forces until 5 February, by which time the Marines had wrested control of the small island from its Japanese garrison. Idaho replenished fuel and ammunition at Majuro before returning to shell Japanese positions on other islands in the Marshalls before steaming to Kavieng, New Ireland to conduct a diversionary bombardment on 20 March.On 25 March, Idaho arrived in the New Hebrides, before continuing on to Australia for a brief stay. She returned to Kwajalein on 8 June, where she joined a group of escort carriers for the invasion of the Mariana Islands. Idaho began the preparatory bombardment of Saipan on 14 June, with the assault taking place the following day. Idaho then shifted to Guam, where she shelled Japanese positions. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19–20 June, Idaho remained with the invasion fleet and protected the troop transports and supply ships. She steamed to Eniwetok in the Marshalls to replenish her stocks of ammunition from 28 June to 9 July, before returning to Guam on 12 July. She bombarded the island for eight days before ground troops went ashore on 21 July. The ship continued to support American forces ashore until 2 August, when she returned to Eniwetok for further supplies. From there, she steamed to Espiritu Santo, where on 15 August she entered a floating dry dock for repairs.\n\nIn early September, Idaho steamed to Guadalcanal, where she took part in amphibious assault training. On 12 September, she steamed to Peleliu and joined the preparatory bombardment of the island. In the ensuing Battle of Peleliu, dug in Japanese defenders inflicted heavy casualties on the assaulting Marines, with Idaho providing artillery support until 24 September, when she withdrew for an overhaul. She steamed to Manus and then to Bremerton, Washington, arriving on 22 October. During the refit, the 5-inch /25 cal. guns were replaced by ten 5-inch /38 cal. guns in single enclosed mounts; she was the only ship of her class to receive this modification. The installation of these guns required the removal of the last of the old 5-inch /51 guns, as the new weapons required continuous ammunition hoists. After completion of the work, she conducted training off California. On 28 January 1945, Idaho departed San Diego, bound for Pearl Harbor. There, she joined the bombardment group, which proceeded to the Marianas and then on 14 February steamed north to Iwo Jima, the target of the next major amphibious assault. The ship bombarded the Japanese defenders on 19 February as the Marines went ashore; Idaho remained there for nearly a month before withdrawing on 7 March to replenish at Ulithi.On 21 March, Idaho joined Task Force 54 (TF 54), the Gunfire and Covering Group under the command of Rear Admiral Morton Deyo, as the flagship of Bombardment Unit 4 for the invasion of Okinawa. She began shelling Okinawa on 25 March, and the landings started on 1 April. The battle marked the height of the kamikaze attacks by the increasingly desperate Japanese defenders. Idaho shot down five kamikazes in a massed attack on 12 April, and in return, a near miss inflicted damage to her port side anti-torpedo bulge. Temporary repairs were effected off Okinawa, and on 20 April she left for Guam, arriving on the 25th. Permanent repairs were completed quickly, allowing the ship to return to Okinawa on 22 May, where she resumed her fire support mission. She operated off Okinawa until 20 June, before departing for the Philippines. There, she conducted training operations in Leyte Gulf until Japan agreed to surrender on 15 August. Idaho was among the ships to enter Tokyo Bay on 27 August, carrying a detachment of occupation troops. She was present during the signing of the surrender documents on 2 September. The ship left Japanese waters on 6 September, bound for the east coast of the United States. She arrived in Norfolk on 16 October, and was decommissioned there on 3 July 1946. She remained in reserve for a year and a half before being sold for scrap on 24 November 1947 to Lipsett, Inc., of New York City.\n\n\n== Footnotes ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\nBreyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905–1970. Doubleday and Company. ISBN 0-385-07247-3.\nFriedman, Norman (1980). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Chesneau, Roger (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. pp. 86–166. ISBN 978-0-87021-913-9.\nFriedman, Norman (1985). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-715-9.\nFriedman, Norman (1986). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 105–133. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5.\n\"Idaho IV (BB-42)\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. 21 July 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2016.\nMorison, Samuel E. (1947). History of United States Naval Operations in World War II: The Battle of the Atlantic, September 1939 – May 1943. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. OCLC 768913264.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nSchumann, William (2008). The Big Spud: USS Idaho in WWII. Bennington: Merriam Press. ISBN 978-1-4357-5495-9.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\n Media related to USS Idaho (BB-42) at Wikimedia Commons\n\nFrom Dam Neck to Okinawa, First person account of Kamikazee attacks on Idaho and Tennessee by an Anti-Aircraft Director\nPhoto gallery of USS Idaho (BB-42) at NavSource Naval History\nThe Organization, Administration and Ship's Regulations of the United States Ship Idaho, 1934-1935, MS 87 held by Special Collections & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy", "USS Vulcan (AR-5) was the lead ship of her class of repair ships of the United States Navy. The ship was laid down on 16 December 1939 at Camden, New Jersey, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation; launched on 14 December 1940; sponsored by Mrs. James Forrestal, wife of the Under Secretary of the Navy; and commissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 14 June 1941, Commander Leon S. Fiske in command.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Iceland, 1941–1943 ===\nFollowing her shakedown cruise to San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Guantanamo Bay, Vulcan underwent post-shakedown repairs at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in mid-August. Assigned to the Atlantic Fleet Train on the 20th, the repair ship departed Philadelphia the following day and proceeded, via Casco Bay, Maine, to Argentia, Newfoundland.By this time, the Atlantic Fleet was becoming more fully involved in the Battle of the Atlantic. In July 1941, at the request of the Icelandic government, the United States had occupied Iceland – the strategic island which, as the German geopolitician Karl Haushofer wrote, lay pointed \"like a pistol ... at the United States\" — and had established bases at the barren ports of Reykjavík and Hvalfjörður. Marine wags soon nicknamed these places \"Rinky Dink\" and \"Valley Forge\", respectively.Prompted by fears that the German battleship Tirpitz would break out into the Atlantic as her sister ship, Bismarck had done in the spring of 1941, the Navy dispatched a task force to Iceland to deter such a move. Accordingly, the unit – designated Task Force (TF) 4 and based around Wasp (CV-7) — sailed from Argentia on 23 September. Besides the valuable carrier, the force included Mississippi (BB-41), Wichita (CA-45), Vulcan, and a screen of four destroyers. A German U-boat, prowling to the southwest of Iceland, sighted the ships on the 26th, but could not keep up with or identify the Americans. Having outpaced their adversary, TF 4 reached \"Valley Forge\" on 28 September.While Tirpitz did not sortie, the U-boats continued their deadly forays against Allied shipping. By the fall of 1941, American destroyers were engaged in convoy operations half-way across the Atlantic, turning their charges over to British units at the MOMP (mid-ocean meeting point). On 4 September, Greer (DD-145) narrowly avoided being torpedoed after attacking a German U-boat.During the midwatch on 17 October 1941, U-568 torpedoed Kearny (DD-432) while the latter was screening Convoy SC-48. With 11 bluejackets dead, Kearny limped into Reykjavík, a gaping hole and buckled plating disfiguring her starboard side below and aft of the bridge. Vulcan provided timely and effective assistance to the stricken warship. Since permanent repair facilities – such as a drydock – were nonexistent, Kearny pulled up alongside the repair vessel, and her port side was flooded to raise the torpedo hole above water level. Soon, Vulcan's repair force had cut away the damaged plating and had fixed a patch. By Christmas 1941, Kearny could sail for the east coast and permanent repairs at Boston.Operations in these inhospitable climes posed natural dangers as well – fog and storms frequently hampered operations and caused collisions. In November, Niblack (DD-424) was rammed by a Norwegian freighter. The destroyer had been scouring Iceland's coastal waters for a straying Icelandic merchant vessel when the accident occurred, costing Niblack an anchor and putting a hole in her side plating. Vulcan swiftly fixed the damage and patched the side, enabling the destroyer to resume her vital escort duties.Vulcan remained in Iceland's chill and barren area into the spring of 1942. Meanwhile, on 7 December 1941, a Japanese task force had struck Pearl Harbor and severely crippled the battleships of the Pacific Fleet, plunging the United States into war on both oceans. Vulcan — bound for home in company with Tarazed (AF-13), Livermore (DD-429), and the familiar Kearny — departed \"Valley Forge\" on 26 April 1942 and arrived at Boston on 2 May. There, the repair ship underwent a drydocking before she returned northward to support the Fleet's operations in the North Atlantic. Based at Argentia from 16 June to 14 November, Vulcan shifted to Hvalfjörður and relieved Melville (AD-2) there on 18 November. She remained at \"Valley Forge\" until she got underway on 6 April 1943, bound via Derry, Northern Ireland, for Hampton Roads.\n\n\n=== Mediterranean, 1943–1944 ===\nAfter repairs at Norfolk from 8 to 22 June, Vulcan headed for the Mediterranean and arrived at Oran, Algeria, on the 27th. Shifting to Algiers in late June, Vulcan sent a fire and rescue party to the burning British ammunition ship Arrow. Three Vulcan sailors brought a boat alongside the flaming vessel and cut through her side plating to rescue British sailors trapped below decks. For their bravery and resourcefulness, the trio from the repair ship received decorations from the British government and Navy and Marine Corps medals from their own.Vulcan remained based on the North African coast into the summer of 1944. In August and September, the repair ship supported the invasion of southern France and received her sole battle star for providing repair services to the ships and craft involved in the operation.\n\n\n=== Pacific, 1945–1946 ===\nBy late 1944, Vulcan was urgently required in the Pacific, and she accordingly departed the Mediterranean on 23 November 1944 in Convoy GUS-59. After voyage repairs at Norfolk which lasted into January 1945, the repair ship sailed for the South Pacific. Arriving at Guadalcanal on 9 February 1945, Vulcan operated successively out of Tulagi, Nouméa, and Ulithi for the remainder of the war. From Ulithi, Vulcan serviced the amphibious units which participated in the assault on the key island of Okinawa.After hostilities with Japan ceased, Vulcan shifted to Okinawa and entered Buckner Bay in the wake of a destructive typhoon which had forced some ships aground and had severely damaged others. Repair work was well in hand by late September, when another typhoon threatened the anchorage. Vulcan led 17 merchantmen to sea in a typhoon evasion sortie – a mission successfully accomplished without loss or damage by 28 September.Vulcan sailed for Japan immediately thereafter to support the occupation of the erstwhile enemy's home islands. Leading a group of service force ships and oilers through dangerous, still-mined waters, Vulcan arrived in Hiro Wan, near Kure, Japan, on 8 October. Here, the repair ship established an advance service unit to provide food, oil, and water to the ships of the occupation force based there. She also set up mail, medical, and recreational facilities ashore. In addition, she performed maintenance tasks on the diesel-powered vessels of the mine forces then clearing the waters around the Japanese home islands.Vulcan also operated out of Kobe and Yokosuka into the new year. Departing Yokosuka on 9 March 1946, the repair ship sailed for the east coast of the United States, calling at Pearl Harbor and transiting the Panama Canal en route. She arrived at Brooklyn, New York, on 15 April 1946.\n\n\n=== Atlantic Fleet, 1946–1991 ===\nVulcan operated at Newport, Rhode Island, until February 1954, when she shifted to Norfolk, Virginia. The ship, supporting the Atlantic Fleet with repair services, was homeported at Norfolk into the mid-1970s. During this time, she conducted repairs, alterations, and overhauls on a wide variety of vessels. She called at ports from the Caribbean to Canada, providing repair services to the Fleet at such ports as Guantanamo Bay, San Juan, New York, and Boston, as well as Mayport, Florida, and Charleston, South Carolina.When American intelligence pinpointed the presence of Russian missiles in Cuba in the fall of 1962, the United States and the Soviet Union stood \"eyeball to eyeball\" in the Caribbean. Vulcan sailed to San Juan, where she provided essential repair services to the ships operating on the \"quarantine\" line off Cuban shores to prevent the arrival of any further Russian military equipment. The ship also assumed an additional role as electronics and ordnance repair vessel as well. After supporting the Cuban blockade from 2 to 26 November, she returned to Norfolk to resume normal operations.Only once in the 1960s and 1970s did Vulcan venture beyond her normal deployment bounds of the east coast and the Caribbean. In the fall of 1964, the repair ship sailed for Europe to participate in NATO exercises. Departing Norfolk on 8 September, bound for Scotland, she arrived at Greenock on 21 September.After participating in NATO Exercise \"Teamwork\", Vulcan called at Antwerp, Belgium; Le Havre, France; and Rota, Spain, before participating in amphibious Exercise \"Operation Steel Pike I\" off Huelva, Spain. She returned to Norfolk soon thereafter to again take up her regular duties.Besides type and underway training exercises at sea, Vulcan made an occasional NROTC midshipman cruise and conducted individual ship exercises in between her regular long assignments as repair ship at Norfolk. Among the ships for which Vulcan provided availabilities was the intelligence ship Liberty (AGTR-5). Between 24 March and 21 April, Liberty lay alongside the repair ship before getting underway later that spring for the fateful overseas deployment in which she was attacked by Israeli planes and motor torpedo boats off El Arish on the morning of 8 June 1967.In late 1975, Vulcan paid a working visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where she tended three ex-U.S. Navy destroyers of that nation's navy. Not only did Vulcan repair the vessels, but her crew also provided valuable training to their Colombian counterparts. During the ship's nine-month major overhaul in 1976, her long-time main battery – 4 × 5-inch (127 mm) guns – was removed and replaced by four 20-millimeter guns.In the 1970s, Vulcan's itinerary included recreational and port visits to such places as Fort Lauderdale, Florida; Halifax, Nova Scotia; and the more regular ports such as Charleston and Guantanamo Bay. In 1977, while returning from underway training, Vulcan was called upon to assist a Portuguese destroyer named Coutinho. Alongside, Vulcan provided emergency boiler feedwater to the Coutinho.By a matter of hours, Vulcan became the first non-hospital ship in the Navy to receive women officers on 1 November 1978. The first contingents of enlisted women arrived in December 1978 and January 1979. Vulcan's first point-to-point cruise with women took place in February 1979, with a trip to Earle, New Jersey. In September 1979, Vulcan left Norfolk for the Navy's first Mediterranean cruise with a mixed crew. A pioneer in the Women in Navy Ships (WINS) program, USS Vulcan had reserved positions for 66 women (including six officers) in its 730 member crew female sailors. In September 1980, Vulcan deployed to the North Atlantic to participate in NATO exercise \" Teamwork 80 \" which included ships from the United States, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and West Germany. Vulcan completed an extensive overhaul of thirteen months in mid-February 1983. Captain J. E. McConville, the ship's thirty-fourth commanding officer, guided Vulcan to a successful completion of the difficult overhaul and subsequent refresher training. In May 1983, while en route to Florida from Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, Vulcan assisted a Haitian refugee boat, the \" Rose Carida, \" adrift without power for three days.Port visits to St. John's New Brunswick and Earle, N.J., were made in the first half of 1984. On 1 October, Vulcan left for Málaga, Spain, before arriving on station off Al Masirah, Oman where she was scheduled to relieve USS Yosemite (AD-19), another Second World War era vessel. Vulcan resumed her Norfolk duties in mid-1985.\n\n\n=== Decommissioning and sale ===\nVulcan was decommissioned on 30 September 1991, struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 28 July 1992 and laid up in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She was transferred to the Maritime Administration on 1 February 1999, for lay up in the National Defense Reserve Fleet on the James River, Fort Eustis, Virginia. On 9 November 2006 the contract was awarded to Bay Bridge Enterprises LLC, Chesapeake, Virginia, for her scrapping, and she was towed to the shipbreakers on 19 December 2006.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nVulcan received one battle star for her World War II service.\nArmed Forces Expeditionary Medal, 30-Oct-1962 to 29-Nov-1962, Cuba\nArmed Forces Expeditionary Medal, 06-May-1965 to 30-May-1965, Dominican Republic\nNavy E Ribbon, 01-Jul-1974 to 30-Jun-1975\nMeritorious Unit Commendation, 01-Jun-1989\nNavy Unit Commendation, 17-Jan-1991 to 28-Feb-1991, Desert Storm\nSouthwest Asia Service Medal, 23-Jan-1991 to 15-Feb-1991\n\n\n== References ==\n\nThis article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here.\nPhoto gallery of USS Vulcan at NavSource Naval History\n\n\n== External links ==\nglobalsecurity.org: AR-5 Vulcan\nnavysite.de: USS Vulcan (AR-5)\nHistoric American Engineering Record (HAER) No. VA-129, \"USS Vulcan, James River Reserve Fleet, Newport News, Newport News, VA\"", "USS Arkansas (BB-33) was a dreadnought battleship, the second member of the Wyoming class, built by the United States Navy. She was the third ship of the US Navy named in honor of the 25th state, and was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation. She was laid down in January 1910, launched in January 1911, and commissioned into the Navy in September 1912. Arkansas was armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch (305 mm) guns and capable of a top speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph).\nArkansas served in both World Wars. During World War I, she was part of Battleship Division Nine, which was attached to the British Grand Fleet, but she saw no action during the war. During the interwar years, Arkansas performed a variety of duties, including training cruises for midshipmen and goodwill visits overseas.\nFollowing the outbreak of World War II, Arkansas conducted Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic prior to America's entry into the war. Thereafter, she escorted convoys to Europe through 1944; in June, she supported the invasion of Normandy, and in August she provided gunfire support to the invasion of southern France. In 1945, she transferred to the Pacific, and bombarded Japanese positions during the invasions of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. After the end of the war, she ferried troops back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Arkansas was expended as a target in Operation Crossroads, a pair of nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946.\n\n\n== Design ==\n\nArkansas was 562 ft (171 m) long overall and had a beam of 93 ft 3 in (28 m) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in (9 m). She displaced 26,000 long tons (26,417 t) as designed and up to 27,243 long tons (27,680 t) at full load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers rated at 28,000 shp (21,000 kW), generating a top speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph). The ship had a cruising range of 8,000 nmi (15,000 km; 9,200 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 guns guns in six twin Mark 9 gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs. The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. The main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick, while the gun turrets had 12 in (305 mm) thick faces. The conning tower had 11.5 in (292 mm) thick sides.\n\n\n=== Modifications ===\nIn 1925, Arkansas was modernized in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. Her displacement increased significantly, to 26,066 long tons (26,484 t) standard and 30,610 long tons (31,101 t) full load. Her beam was widened to 106 ft (32 m), primarily from the installation of anti-torpedo bulges, and draft increased to 29 ft 11.75 in (9 m). Her twelve coal-fired boilers were replaced with four White-Forster oil-fired boilers that had been intended for the ships cancelled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty; performance remained the same as the older boilers. The ship's deck armor was strengthened by the addition of 3.5 in (89 mm) of armor to the second deck between the end barbettes, plus 1.75 in (44 mm) of armor on the third deck on the bow and stern. The deck armor over the engines and boilers was increased by 0.75 in (19 mm) and 1.25 in (32 mm), respectively. Five of the 5-inch guns were removed and eight 3 in (76 mm)/50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. The mainmast was removed to provide space for an aircraft catapult mounted on the Number 3 turret amidships.\n\n\n== Service history ==\n\n\n=== Pre-World War I ===\nArkansas was laid down on 25 January 1910, at New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 14 January 1911, after which fitting-out work was effected. The ship was completed by September 1912, and was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 September, at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, under the command of Captain Roy C. Smith. Following her commissioning, Arkansas participated in a fleet review on 14 October 1912, for President William Howard Taft. The ship took Taft aboard that day for a trip to Panama to inspect the Panama Canal, which was still under construction. Arkansas began her shakedown cruise after delivering Taft and his entourage to the Canal Zone. During this cruise, the Navy's first long-distance, continuous-wave, wireless telegraphy system was successfully tested, with regular transmissions received by Arkansas from a prototype Poulsen-arc transmission facility located in Arlington, Virginia. On 26 December, she returned to the Canal Zone to take Taft to Key West, Florida. After completing the voyage, Arkansas was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and participated in fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States. Arkansas's first overseas cruise, to the Mediterranean Sea, began in late October 1913. While there, she stopped in several ports, including Naples, Italy on 11 November, where the ship celebrated the birthday of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.\n\nIn early 1914, an international incident with Mexico culminated in the American occupation of Veracruz. Arkansas participated in the occupation, contributing four companies of naval infantry, which amounted to 17 officers and 313 enlisted men. The American forces fought their way through the city until they secured it. Two of Arkansas's crewmen were killed in the fighting, and another two, John Grady and Jonas H. Ingram, received the Medal of Honor for actions during the occupation. The ship's detachment returned on 30 April; Arkansas remained in Mexican waters until she departed on 30 September, to return to the United States. While stationed in Veracruz, the ship was visited by Captain Franz von Papen, the German military attaché to the United States and Mexico, and Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock, the commander of the British 4th Cruiser Squadron, on 10 May and 30 May 1914, respectively.Arkansas arrived in Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 7 October, after which she took part in exercises for a week. She then sailed to the New York Navy Yard for periodic maintenance. After repairs were completed, the ship steamed down to the Virginia Capes area for training maneuvers. She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 12 December, for additional maintenance. The repairs were completed within a month, and on 16 January 1915, Arkansas departed for the Virginia Capes for exercises on 19–21 January. The ship then steamed down to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba for exercises with the fleet. Arkansas returned for training off Hampton Roads on 7 April, followed by another maintenance period at the New York Navy Yard, starting on 23 April.On 25 June, the repairs were complete, and Arkansas departed for Newport, Rhode Island, for torpedo practice and tactical maneuvers in Narragansett Bay, which lasted through late August. On 27 August, the ship was back in Hampton Roads. There, she participated in exercises off Norfolk through 4 October. She then returned to Newport, where she took part in strategic maneuvers on 5–14 October. She went to the New York Navy Yard on 15 October, where she was drydocked for extensive maintenance. The work was completed by 8 November, when Arkansas returned to Hampton Roads. The ship was in Brooklyn for repairs on 19 November, which lasted until 5 January 1916, when she steamed south to the Caribbean Sea, via Hampton Roads, for winter exercises. She steamed to Mobile Bay on 12 March, for torpedo practice, before returning to Guantánamo Bay. She returned to the New York Navy Yard on 15 April, for an overhaul.\n\n\n=== World War I ===\n\nThe United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, joining the Allied Powers in World War I. Arkansas was at the time assigned to Battleship Division 7 stationed in Virginia. The ship patrolled the east coast and trained gun crews for the next fourteen months. The ship was sent to Britain in July 1918 to relieve the battleship Delaware, which had been assigned to operate with the Grand Fleet in the 6th Battle Squadron since December 1917. Arkansas departed the United States on 14 July; while approaching the Royal Navy base in Rosyth, the battleship fired on what was thought to be a periscope from a German U-boat. The destroyers escorting Arkansas dropped depth charges but did not hit the alleged submarine. Arkansas arrived in Rosyth on 28 July, and joined the rest of Battleship Division 9 stationed there. For the remainder of the conflict, Battleship Division 9 operated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet.On 11 November, the Armistice with Germany that ended World War I went into effect. The terms of the Armistice required Germany to intern the bulk of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow, under the supervision of the Grand Fleet. Arkansas and the other American warships participated in the internment; a combined fleet of 370 British, American, and French warships met the High Seas Fleet in the North Sea on 21 November, and escorted it into Scapa Flow. On 1 December, Battleship Division 9 was detached from the Grand Fleet, after which Arkansas departed the Firth of Forth for the Isle of Portland. She then went to sea to meet the ocean liner George Washington, which was carrying President Wilson to Europe. Arkansas and the other American naval forces in Europe escorted the ship into Brest, France, on 13 December. After completing the escort, Arkansas sailed for New York City, arriving on 26 December, where the fleet participated in a Naval Review for Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels.\n\n\n=== Inter-war period ===\n\n\n==== 1919–1927 ====\n\nThe peacetime training regimen for Arkansas consisted of individual training, an annual fleet maneuver, and periodic maintenance in drydock. She also participated in gunnery and engineering competitions. After returning to the United States, Arkansas went into drydock at the Norfolk Navy Yard for an extensive overhaul. She then rejoined the fleet to conduct training exercises off Cuba, after which she crossed the Atlantic, bound for Europe. She reached Plymouth, on 12 May 1919, and then took weather observations on 19 May, and later served as a reference vessel to guide the Navy Curtiss NC flying boats flying from Trepassey Bay, Newfoundland, to Europe. After completing that task, she steamed to Brest, on 10 June, and picked up Admiral William S. Benson, the Chief of Naval Operations, and his wife. Arkansas carried them back to New York, after Benson was finished at the Peace Conference in Paris, arriving on 20 June.On 19 July, Arkansas departed Hampton Roads, to join her new assignment, the US Pacific Fleet, bound for San Francisco. She arrived 6 September, via the Panama Canal, and embarked Secretary and Mrs. Josephus Daniels. She took Daniels and his wife to Blakely Harbor, Washington, on 12 September, and the following day, participated in a naval review for President Wilson. On 19 September, Arkansas entered the Puget Sound Navy Yard for a general overhaul. She returned to the fleet in May 1920 for training operations off California. The Navy adopted a hull classification system, and on 17 July, assigned Arkansas the designation \"BB-33\". She steamed to Hawaii, in September, the first time she went to the islands. In early 1921, Arkansas visited Valparaíso, Chile, where she was received by President Arturo Alessandri Palma; the ship's crew manned the rail to honor the Chilean president.In August 1921, Arkansas returned to the Atlantic Fleet, where she became the flagship of the Commander, Battleship Force, Atlantic Fleet. Throughout the 1920s, Arkansas carried midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy on summer cruises. She went on a tour of Europe in 1923; there, on 2 July, she stopped in Copenhagen, and was visited by King Christian X of Denmark. She also stopped in Lisbon and Gibraltar. Another midshipmen cruise to Europe followed in 1924; the cruise for the next year went to the west coast of the United States. On 30 June 1925, she stopped in Santa Barbara, California, to assist in the aftermath of the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake. Arkansas, the destroyer McCawley, and the patrol craft PE-34 sent detachments ashore to help the police in Santa Barbara. They also established a temporary radio station in the city.\n\nAfter returning from the 1925 cruise, the ship was modernized at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She had her twelve old coal-fired boilers replaced with four oil-fired models, which were trunked into a single larger funnel. She also had more deck armor added to protect her from plunging fire, and a short tripod mast was installed in place of the aft cage mast. The modernization was completed in November 1926, after which Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in the Atlantic. She returned to Philadelphia, where she ran acceptance trials before she could rejoin the fleet. On 5 September 1927, Arkansas was present for ceremonies unveiling a memorial tablet honoring the French soldiers and sailors who died during the Yorktown campaign in 1781.\n\n\n==== 1928–1941 ====\nShe returned to training cruises in May 1928, when she took a crew of midshipmen into the Atlantic along the east coast, along with a trip down to Cuba. In June, she participated in a join Army-Navy coast defense exercise as part of the hostile \"attacking\" fleet. In early 1929, Arkansas cruised in the Caribbean and near the Canal Zone. She returned to the United States in May 1929, for an overhaul in the New York Navy Yard. After emerging from drydock, she conducted another training cruise, this time to European waters; she spent time in the Mediterranean and visited Britain. Arkansas returned to the United States in August and operated with the Scouting Fleet off the east coast. The training cruise for 1930 again went to Europe. She called in Cherbourg, France, Kiel, Germany, Oslo, Norway, and Edinburgh, Scotland. The cruise continued through the end of the year, and in 1931, the battleship visited Copenhagen, Greenock, Scotland, and Cádiz and Gibraltar in Spain. By September, the ship had crossed the Atlantic, and she stopped in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In February, Arkansas participated in Fleet Problem XII. During the maneuvers, she served as Admiral Arthur L. Willard's flagship, and she was \"sunk\" by a submarine. A month later, on 21–22 March, Arkansas conducted exercises with the carriers Lexington and Saratoga.\n\nArkansas participated in the Yorktown Sesquicentennial celebrations in October 1931, marking the 150th anniversary of the Siege of Yorktown. She embarked President Herbert Hoover and his entourage on 17 October, and took them to the exposition, and returned them to Annapolis on 19–20 October. She then went into drydock for an extensive refit in the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which lasted until January 1932. During this time, she was under the command of George Landenberger. Arkansas was transferred to the Pacific Fleet after completing the refit; while en route, she stopped in New Orleans to participate in the Mardi Gras celebration. She operated off the west coast through early 1934, at which point she was transferred back to the Atlantic Fleet, where she served as the flagship of the Training Squadron.She conducted another training cruise to Europe in the summer of 1934. She stopped in Plymouth, England, Nice, France, Naples, Italy, and Gibraltar. She returned to Annapolis in August, after which she steamed to Newport. In Newport, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt reviewed the battleship from the yacht Nourmahal. While there, Arkansas entered one of her cutters in a competition with the British cruiser HMS Dragon for the Battenberg Cup, and the City of Newport Cup; Arkansas's cutter won both races. The ship carried the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines to Culebra, for a Fleet Landing Exercise No. 1 (FLEX 1) in January 1935. She returned to training cruise duties in June, and she again took the midshipmen to Europe. Among the stops were Edinburgh, Oslo, Copenhagen, Gibraltar, and Funchal, on the island of Madeira. She disembarked the Naval Academy crew in August and began another training cruise to Halifax, this time for Naval Reservists, the following month. A refit was conducted in October after completing the cruise.Arkansas participated in the FLEX 2 at Culebra in January 1936, and then visited New Orleans, during Mardi Gras. She went to Norfolk for a major overhaul that lasted through the spring of 1936. After completing the overhaul, the ship took another midshipmen crew to European waters; she called in the ports of Portsmouth, England, Gothenburg, Sweden, and Cherbourg, and returned to Annapolis, in August. As in the previous year, she conducted another Reserve training cruise, and then went into drydock for an overhaul in Norfolk. The remainder of the 1930s followed a similar pattern; in 1937, the midshipmen training cruise went to Europe, but the 1938 and 1939 cruises remained in the western Atlantic.At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Arkansas was moored at Hampton Roads, preparing to depart on a training cruise for the Naval Reserve. She departed to transport seaplane mooring and aviation equipment from Norfolk to Narragansett Bay, where the Navy planned to set up a seaplane base. While in Newport, Arkansas picked up ordnance for destroyers and brought it back to Hampton Roads. After returning to Virginia, Arkansas was assigned to a reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic, along with her sister Wyoming, the battleships New York and Texas and the carrier Ranger. On 11 January 1940, Arkansas, New York, and Texas left for fleet maneuvers off Cuba. She underwent an overhaul at Norfolk between 18 March and 24 May. After emerging from her refit, Arkansas conducted another midshipman training cruise, along with Texas and New York, to Panama and Venezuela. In late 1940, she conducted three Naval Reserve training cruises in the Atlantic.On 19 December 1940, with 500 naval reservists on board, the Arkansas collided at ~0300 hrs. with the outbound Collier Melrose, of the Mystic Steamship Company of Boston, off of Sea Girt, New Jersey. Although a glancing blow, the collier's below-water plates were cracked, and she sank just short of a Brooklyn drydock after a 40-mile race to port. \"The warship proceeded to her Hudson river anchorage, minus only some paint and with a smashed lifeboat.\"Over the months that followed, the United States gradually edged toward war in the Atlantic. The ship was assigned to the escort force for the Marines deployed to occupy Iceland, in July 1941, along with New York, two cruisers, and eleven destroyers. The task force deployed from NS Argentia, Newfoundland, on 1 July, and were back in port by 19 July. Starting on 7 August, Arkansas went on a neutrality patrol in the mid-Atlantic that lasted a week. After returning to port, Arkansas traveled to the Atlantic Charter conference with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, which took place on board HMS Prince of Wales. While there, the US Under Secretary of State, Sumner Welles, stayed aboard Arkansas. She conducted another neutrality patrol between 2 and 11 September.\n\n\n=== World War II ===\n\nArkansas was anchored in Casco Bay, Maine, on 7 December 1941, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and brought the United States into the war. A week later, she steamed to Hvalfjordur, Iceland, and returned to Boston on 24 January 1942. She conducted training maneuvers in Casco Bay, to prepare her crew for convoy escort duties. On 6 March, she arrived at Norfolk, to begin overhaul. The secondary battery was reduced to six 5-inch/51 cal guns. Also, 36 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft (AA) guns (in quadruple mounts) and 26 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns were added, the experience at Pearl Harbor having made the US Navy aware of the need for increased light AA armament. The 3-inch/50 caliber gun armament was also increased from 8 guns to 10. Work lasted until 2 July, after which time Arkansas conducted a shakedown cruise in Chesapeake Bay; she then proceeded to New York, arriving on 27 July. There, she became the flagship of Task Force 38 (TF 38), the escort for a convoy of twelve transports bound for Scotland. The convoy arrived in Greenock, on 17 August, and Arkansas returned to New York on 4 September.Arkansas again escorted a convoy to Scotland, returning to New York by 20 October. Thereafter, convoys were sent to North Africa, to support the invasion of North Africa. Arkansas covered her first such convoy, along with eight destroyers, on 3 November. She returned to New York on 11 December, where she went into dock for another overhaul. On 2 January 1943, Arkansas departed New York to conduct gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay. Back in New York by 30 January, the ship's crew prepared for a return to convoy escort duty. She escorted two convoys to Casablanca, between February and April, before returning to New York, for yet another period in drydock, which lasted until 26 May. Arkansas returned to duty as a training ship for midshipmen based at Norfolk. She resumed her convoy escort duties after four months, and on 8 October, she steamed to Bangor, Northern Ireland. She remained in Northern Ireland, through November, and departed on 1 December, bound for New York. After arriving on 12 December, Arkansas went into dock for more repairs, and then returned to Norfolk, on 27 December. The ship escorted another convoy bound for Ireland, on 19 January 1944, before returning to New York, on 13 February. Another round of gunnery drills followed on 28 March, after which Arkansas went to Boston for more drydock period.\n\nOn 18 April, Arkansas departed for Northern Ireland, where she trained for shore bombardment duties, as she had been assigned to the shore bombardment force in support of Operation Overlord, the invasion of northern France. She was assigned to Group II, along with Texas and five destroyers. Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS-7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee-on-Solent (HMS Daedalus). On 3 June, she left her moorings, and on the morning of 6 June, took up a position about 4,000 yd (3,700 m) from Omaha Beach. At 05:52, the battleship's guns fired in anger for the first time in her career. She bombarded German positions around Omaha Beach until 13 June, when she was moved to support ground forces in Grandcamp les Bains. On 25 June, Arkansas bombarded Cherbourg, in support of the American attack on the port; German coastal guns straddled her several times, but scored no hits. Cherbourg fell to the Allies the next day, after which Arkansas returned to port, first in Weymouth, England, and then to Bangor, Wales, on 30 June.On 4 July, Arkansas departed Northern Ireland for the Mediterranean Sea; she reached Oran, Algeria, on 10 July, before proceeding on to Taranto, arriving on 21 July. There, she joined the support force for Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France. Again, the battleship provided gunfire support to the amphibious invasion along with six Allied cruisers, starting on 15 August. The bombardment lasted for two more days, after which she withdrew, first to Palermo, and then to Oran. Arkansas then returned to the United States, arriving in Boston, on 14 September, where she underwent another refit that lasted until early November. She then steamed to California, via the Panama Canal, and spent the rest of the year conducting training maneuvers. On 20 January 1945, Arkansas departed California for Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to Ulithi, to join the fleet in preparation for the amphibious assault on Iwo Jima. There, she was assigned to Task Force 54 (TF 54), which included five other battleships, four cruisers, and sixteen destroyers.On 16 February, Arkansas was in position off Iwo Jima, and at 06:00, she opened fire on Japanese positions on the island's west coast. The bombardment lasted until 19 February, though she remained off the island throughout the Battle of Iwo Jima, ready to provide fire support to the American Marines ashore. She departed on 7 March, bound for Ulithi, and arrived on 10 March, where she rearmed and refueled in preparation for the next major operation in the Pacific War, the invasion of Okinawa. She departed Ulithi, on 21 March, and arrived off Okinawa, four days later, when she began the bombardment along with the rest of Task Force 54. The soldiers and Marines went ashore on 1 April, and Arkansas continued to provide gunfire support over the course of 46 days throughout the Battle of Okinawa. Kamikazes repeatedly attacked the ship, though none struck her. She left the island in May, arriving in Guam on 14 May. She then proceeded to Leyte Gulf, on 12 June, arriving four days later. There, she was assigned to Task Group 95.7, along with Texas and three cruisers. She remained in the Philippines until 20 August, when she departed for Okinawa, arriving in Buckner Bay on 23 August, by which time Japan had surrendered, ending World War II. Over the course of the war, Arkansas earned four battle stars.\n\n\n=== Post-war ===\n\nAfter the end of the war, Arkansas participated in Operation Magic Carpet, the repatriation of American servicemen from the Pacific. She took around 800 men back to the United States, departing on 23 September, and reaching Seattle, Washington on 15 October. She made another three Magic Carpet trips between Pearl Harbor and the continental United States to ferry more soldiers home. During the first months of 1946, Arkansas lay at San Francisco. In late April, the ship got underway for Hawaii. She reached Pearl Harbor on 8 May, and departed Pearl Harbor on 20 May, bound for Bikini Atoll, earmarked for use as target for atomic bomb testing in Operation Crossroads. On 1 July, Arkansas was exposed to an air burst in ABLE, but survived with extensive shock damage to her upper works, while her hull and armored turrets were lightly damaged.On 25 July, the battleship was sunk by the underwater nuclear test BAKER at Bikini Atoll. Unattenuated by air, the shock was \"transmitted directly to underwater hulls\", and Arkansas, only 250 yd (230 m) from the epicenter, appeared to have been \"crushed as if by a tremendous hammer blow from below\". It appears that the wave of water from the blast capsized the ship, which was then hammered down into the shallow bottom by the descent of the water column thrown up by the blast. Decommissioned on 29 July, Arkansas was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 August. The ship lies inverted in about 180 ft (55 m) of water at the bottom of Bikini Lagoon, where it acts as an artificial reef. There are many pictures of the wreck on the National Park Service website.\n\n\n== Relationship with the Arkansas Flag ==\nThe USS Arkansas was the catalyst to the creation of the Arkansas Flag. In 1912 the Daughters of the Revolution (DAR) decided that they would present three flags to the battleship as she was nearing her commission date. The three flags the DAR choose to present were the American Flag, Navy battalion Ensign and a state flag. Upon the DAR learning from the Arkansas Secretary of State, Earle W. Hodges, that Arkansas possessed no official state flag, they decided to hold a statewide competition to come up with one. The winning design was from Willie Kavanaugh Hocker of Pine Bluff, Arkansas and also a member of the DAR. On 26 February 1913, with a few alterations, Hockers design become the official flag of Arkansas and was soon thereafter presented to the USS Arkansas by the DAR.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n=== Footnotes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n== References ==\nAdams, Stephen B. (Summer 2017). \"Arc of Empire: The Federal Telegraph Company, the U.S. Navy, and the Beginnings of Silicon Valley\". Business History Review. 91 (2): 329–359. doi:10.1017/S0007680517000630. Retrieved 6 January 2020.\n\"Arkansas III (Battleship No. 33)\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. 18 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2016.\nBreyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battle Cruisers 1905–1970. Garden City: Doubleday and Company. OCLC 702840.\nCampbell, John (1998). Jutland: An Analysis of the Fighting. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-1-55821-759-1.\nDavis, J. H. (1982). \"Question 24/81\". Warship International. XIX (3): 303. ISSN 0043-0374.\nDelgado, James P. & Murphy, Larry E. (1991). \"Chapter 4: Site Descriptions\". The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb. nps.gov. National Park Service. ASIN B0014H9NEW. Retrieved 21 September 2011.\nFriedman, Norman (1980). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Chesneau, Roger (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. pp. 86–166. ISBN 978-0-87021-913-9.\nFriedman, Norman (1985). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-715-1.\nFriedman, Norman (1986). \"United States of America\". In Gardiner, Robert & Gray, Randal (eds.). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 105–133. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5.\n\"G. B. Landenberger, Navy Captain, Dies: Retired Officer Served for 35—Held Many Important Posts During Career\". The New York Times. 16 January 1936. p. 21. Retrieved 22 February 2010.\nHerwig, Holger (1980). \"Luxury\" Fleet: The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918. Amherst: Humanity Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-286-9.\nIreland, Bernard (1996). Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-470997-0.\nNofi, Albert A. (2010). To Train The Fleet For War: The U.S. Navy Fleet Problems, 1923–1940. Washington, DC: Naval War College Press. ISBN 978-1-88-473387-1.\nRohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-119-8.\n\n\n== External links ==\nPhoto gallery of USS Arkansas at NavSource Naval History" ] }

{ "title": [ "Lehigh University", "Duke University", "Arthur E. Humphrey", "Daren Queenan", "Duke University School of Law", "James A. Baldwin", "Renaissance Computing Institute", "Steven Sametz", "John Gutekunst", "Duke University Hospital" ], "text": [ "Lehigh University (LU) is a private research university in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. It was established in 1865 by businessman Asa Packer. Its undergraduate programs have been coeducational since the 1971–72 academic year. As of 2019, the university had 5,047 undergraduate students and 1,802 graduate students.Lehigh has five colleges: the P.C. Rossin College of Engineering and Applied Science, the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Business, the College of Education, and the College of Health. The College of Arts and Sciences is the largest, with 35% of the university's students. The university offers the Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Master of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Business Administration, Master of Engineering, Master of Education, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. It is classified among \"R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity\".Lehigh alumni and faculty include Pulitzer Prize winners, Fulbright Fellows, members of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences and of the National Academy of Sciences, National Medal of Science winners, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.\n\n\n== Campus ==\n\nLocated in the Lehigh Valley, the university is a 70-mile (110 km) drive from Philadelphia, and an 85-mile (137 km) drive from New York City.Lehigh encompasses 2,350 acres (9.5 km2), including 180 acres (0.73 km2) of recreational and playing fields and 150 buildings comprising four million square feet of floor space. It is organized into three contiguous campuses on and around South Mountain, including:\n\nthe Asa Packer Campus, built into the northern slope of the mountain, is Lehigh's original and predominant campus;\nthe Mountaintop Campus, atop South Mountain, featuring an intramural sports field as well as Iacocca Hall; and\nthe Murray H. Goodman Campus, immediately south, where a 16,000-seat stadium and other sports facilities are located.In May 2012, Lehigh became the recipient of a gift of 755 acres of property in nearby Upper Saucon Township from the Donald B. and Dorothy L. Stabler Foundation. The gift from the estate of the long-time benefactor allowed the university to expand its footprint to now comprise 2,350 acres across all its campuses, and to consider its long-term potential uses.\n\n\n== Admissions ==\nU.S. News & World Report classifies Lehigh's selectivity as \"Most Selective.\" For the Class of 2022 (enrolled fall 2018), Lehigh received 15,623 applications and accepted 3,418 (22%). Per Lehigh's school newspaper, 2022 marked the most selective year with a 19% acceptance rate for regular decision applicants.\n\n\n== Rankings and reputation ==\nU.S. News & World Report ranked Lehigh tied for 49th among \"National Universities\", tied for 13th for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching\", and 29th for \"Best Value Schools\" in its 2022 edition of \"Best Colleges\". The Economist ranked Lehigh 7th among national universities in its 2015 ranking of non-vocational U.S. colleges ranked by alumni earnings above expectation.Lehigh was a 2020 recipient of the Campus Sustainability Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education for its participation in the Solar Collaboration Project along with Dickinson College, Muhlenberg College, and Lafayette College.\n\n\n== Academics ==\n\nAs of 2019, Lehigh has 540 full-time faculty members, with 95% holding a doctorate degree or the highest degree in their field. Faculty members are required to have a minimum of four office hours per week.\nLehigh's average class size is 28 students; the student-to-faculty ratio is 9:1.Lehigh University offers undergraduate enrollment in all colleges but the College of Education. Students are able to take courses or major/minor in a subject outside of their respective college. The university operates on a semester system.\n\n\n=== P.C. Rossin College of Engineering and Applied Science ===\n\nGraduates of Lehigh's engineering programs invented the escalator and founded Packard Motor Car Company and the companies that built the locks and lockgates of the Panama Canal. Other notable alumni include Roger Penske, Lee Iacocca, John W. Fisher, and Terry Hart. Tau Beta Pi, the engineering honor society, was founded at Lehigh. George Tamaro graduated with a master's degree in civil engineering; he became the 2005 recipient of the John Fritz Medal awarded by the American Association of Engineering Societies.\n\n\n=== College of Business ===\nIn 2012, BusinessWeek ranked Lehigh's College of Business 31st in the nation among undergraduate business programs. Lehigh's finance program is particularly strong, ranked as 7th overall undergraduate finance program in the nation by BusinessWeek. The accounting program is also strong, ranked as the 21st best undergraduate program in the nation by BusinessWeek. Additionally, US News & World Report ranked Lehigh's part-time MBA 20th in the nation in 2018 rankings. Entrepreneur Magazine and The Princeton Review named Lehigh the 24th best undergraduate college for entrepreneurship in 2012.\n\n\n=== College of Arts and Sciences ===\nBased in Maginnes Hall, Lehigh offers a variety of humanities courses and visual arts programs and many music programs, including a marching band, the Wind Ensemble and the Philharmonic orchestra. In addition to the sciences, English and Journalism are particularly strong, with a long history dating back to Richard Harding Davis's days. It has a dedicated Humanities Center, which is the site for many literature and other arts-based programs, including the DWS, or Drown Writers Series.Lehigh also has a program called ArtsLehigh, oriented towards enhancing interest in the arts on campus.\n\n\n=== College of Education ===\nMore than 7,000 students have received master's, education specialist, PA Department of Education teaching certificates and certifications, doctoral degrees and professional certificates from Lehigh's College of Education as of 2018.\n\n\n=== College of Health ===\nLehigh's College of Health offers classes in biostatistics, epidemiology, population health data science, and more. It officially opened on August 21, 2020 and will be the first in the world to offer undergraduate, graduate and executive degrees in population health. It will be based at the Health, Science, and Technology (HST) building of which construction is expected to be completed in 2021.\n\n\n== Athletics ==\n\nCalled the Engineers until 1995, Lehigh's teams are now officially known as the Mountain Hawks.\nAs a member of the Patriot League, Lehigh competes in 25 different NCAA Division I sports. Lehigh's 2006 student-athlete graduation rate of 97% ranked 12th among all 326 NCAA Division I institutions. In 2002, it won the inaugural USA Today/NCAA Foundation Award for having the nation's top graduation rate of all Division I institutions.Lehigh graduates have gone on to professional careers in the National Football League, Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, and the National Basketball Association as players, scouts, coaches and owners. Lehigh graduates have competed in the Super Bowl and won gold medals for the US at the Olympics. And while not a school sport, a number of graduates such as Roger Penske, Al Holbert, and John Fitch went on to successful careers in auto racing.\n\n\n=== Basketball ===\n\nLehigh's fifth trip to the NCAA tournament in 2012 proved to be their most notable to date, thanks to its first-round game as a #15 seed on March 16, 2012 against the #2 seed Duke Blue Devils. Despite being a heavy underdog, thanks to CJ McCollum's 30-point heroics, the Mountain Hawks pulled off the stunning upset, defeating the Blue Devils 75-70 and making it only the sixth time that a 15th seed has defeated a 2nd seed.\n\n\n=== Wrestling ===\nThe most storied athletic program at Lehigh is its wrestling team dating back to 1910. Over the past several decades it has turned out 158 All-Americans and had numerous squads finish with Top 20 NCAA national rankings, including the highest finish at the NCAA tournament as 2nd in 1939. Under coach Greg Strobel, Lehigh dominated the EIWA (The Patriot League does not sponsor wrestling). On April 15, 2008, the athletic department announced the hiring of former assistant coach and two-time national champion and two-time winner of the EIWA Coach of the Year (2009, 2012) Pat Santoro as Lehigh's next head wrestling coach.\nHome dual meets and tournaments take place on campus at the Leeman-Turner Arena at Grace Hall.\nGrace Hall has historically been the site of Lehigh's matches, but in 2013 the building had been converted into the Caruso Wrestling Complex, with a visiting area and a 'Wall of Fame'. The latter lists various Lehigh National Champions, in their respective weight class. In 2017, Lehigh wrestler and Bethlehem native Darian Cruz won the NCAA national wrestling tournament, becoming the team's first National Champion wrestler since Zach Rey won the heavyweight title in 2011.\n\n\n=== \"The Rivalry\" ===\n\nLehigh University is notable for its rivalry in sports and academics with nearby Lafayette College. Since 1884, the two football teams have met more than 150 times, making \"The Rivalry\" the most played in the history of college football. As of their last game, played on November 17, 2018, Lafayette holds the series lead, with a record of 78-71-5, although Lehigh has won the previous four matchups (2015-2018). It is also the longest uninterrupted rivalry in college football, with the teams playing at least once every year since 1897. This game is sold out long before gameday each year. For the 150th meeting, the teams played in Yankee Stadium in New York City on November 22, 2014; Lafayette won, 27–7.\n\n\n== Greek letter organizations ==\nA large majority of Lehigh's social fraternities and sororities have their own university-owned houses; most of the fraternities and sororities are on the \"Hill\" along Upper and Lower Sayre Park Roads. Approximately 34% of undergraduates are members of a fraternity or sorority. During new member education, Greek membership rises to almost 45%. There are 13 fraternities, all of which are housed on campus, and 8 sororities, all of which are housed on campus:\n\n\n=== NIC fraternities ===\n\n\n=== NPC sororities ===\n\n\n=== CGC fraternities and sororities ===\n\n1.^ Non-Residential.\nIn addition to the 31 social fraternities and sororities, there are also a number of professional and honor fraternities and sororities on campus. It is most well known for Tau Beta Pi the engineering honor society since it was founded at Lehigh.\n\n\n=== Professional fraternities and sororities ===\n\n\n=== Honor societies ===\n\n1.^ Non-Affiliated with the Association of College Honor Societies\n\n\n== Spirit and traditions ==\nLehigh students have several lasting traditions: Lehigh's school colors, brown and white, date back to 1874, and the school newspaper of the same name was first published in 1894.\nFollowing the death of Asa Packer in May 1879, the University established \"Founder's Day\" to be held in October to remember and recognize those have contributed to the success of the University. The event remains an annual tradition.\nFreshmen are traditionally inducted into the University in a convocation in the Zoellner Arts Center and welcomed at a Freshman-Alumni Rally where their class flag is given to them by the class from fifty years before.\nUntil the 1970s, freshmen wore small brown hats with their class numbers called \"dinks\" from the beginning of the fall semester until the Lafayette football game. The week leading up to the big game was full of festivities created to unite the students and fuel spirit. In one of these events, \"The Pajama Parade,\" the freshmen were led across the penny toll bridge in their pajamas singing \"We Pay No Tolls Tonight\" to the Moravian College dormitories where they would serenade the women. The week before the game still involves decoration of the Greek houses, a bonfire, parties, rallies and the Marching 97 performing unexpectedly during classes the Friday before the game.\n\n\n== The Clery Act ==\n\nOn April 5, 1986, a 19-year-old Lehigh freshman was raped and murdered in her dorm room; the perpetrator was apprehended, tried and sentenced to death. The backlash against unreported crimes on numerous campuses across the country led to the Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act. The Clery Act requires that colleges reveal information regarding crime on their campuses.20 years after the federal Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act took effect, thought leaders on campus safety came to Lehigh to discuss critical safety issues for colleges and universities. The event, \"Proceeding in Partnership: The Future of Campus Safety,\" was held on the Lehigh campus in September 2011, and was co-sponsored by Security on Campus (SOC), which was founded by Connie and Howard Clery following the death of their daughter, Jeanne Clery. The conference represented the first cooperative effort between Lehigh and the organization since Jeanne Clery's death.\n\n\n== Notable people ==\n\n\n=== Alumni ===\n\nNotable alumni include:\n\nPongpol Adireksarn (deputy prime minister of Thailand)\nAli Al-Naimi (former Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources of Saudi Arabia)\nMartin Baron (editor of The Washington Post)\nLynn S. Beedle (National Academy of Engineering member, founder and director of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Frank P. Brown Medal recipient, John Fritz Medal recipient,, and served as Deputy Office in Charge of the Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll in 1946)\nStephen J. Benkovic (notable chemist and National Medal of Science recipient)\nHarry J. Buncke (\"father of microsurgery\")\nSteve Chang (co-founder and former CEO of Trend Micro)\nStacey Cunningham (the 67th president of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)).\nCharlie Dent (U.S. Representative for Pennsylvania's 15th congressional district)\nHenry Sturgis Drinker (Class of 1871, mechanical engineer for the Lehigh Valley Railroad and president of Lehigh University, 1905–1920)\nRobert Durst (suspected serial killer and the subject of The Jinx, a 2015 HBO miniseries)\nCathy Engelbert (WNBA commissioner and former CEO of Deloitte)\nJohn W. Fisher (National Academy of Engineering member, founding director of the ATLSS Engineering Center, and Frank P. Brown Medal Laureate)\nTheodore V. Galambos (National Academy of Engineering member and considered by the American Institute of Steel Construction the \"Father of LRFD\")\nJames Geurts (Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition))\nTerry Hart (NASA astronaut)\nRichard Hayne (co-founder of Urban Outfitters)\nLee Iacocca (longtime CEO of Chrysler Corporation)\nThomas R. Kline (lawyer, namesake and benefactor of the Drexel University Thomas R. Kline School of Law)\nCJ McCollum (professional basketball player in the NBA currently a member of the Portland Trail Blazers)\nThomas William McNamara, United States Navy rear admiral\nJoe Morgenstern (film critic and Pulitzer Prize winner)\nJames Ward Packard (founder of the Packard Motor Car Company)\nRoger Penske (founder of Penske Corporation, recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom)\nAustin Price (born 1995), basketball player in the Israeli Premier Basketball League\nJesse W. Reno (inventor of the escalator)\nStephanie Ruhle (MSNBC journalist)\nMichael Smerconish (SiriusXM radio host and CNN television presenter)\nJohn H. Tilelli Jr. (former Four Star General (United States) of the Army and Commander of United States Army Forces Command)\nWendell Weeks (CEO and chairman of Corning Inc , member of the board of directors of Amazon.com)\n\n\n=== Faculty ===\nNotable faculty members include: \n\nSirry Alang (professor of sociology and public health researcher)\nMichael Behe (professor of biochemistry, and intelligent design advocate)\nDan M. Frangopol (professor of structural engineering and inaugural holder of the Fazlur R. Khan Endowed Chair of Structural Engineering and Architecture)\nTerry Hart (professor of mechanical engineering and former NASA astronaut)\nJoanna B. Michlic (professor of Polish-Jewish history)\nNorman Melchert (Selfridge Professor of Philosophy from 1962 until his retirement in 1995)\nStephanie Powell Watts (professor of English and award-winning author)\nFrancis J. Quirk (professor of art, active at the School from 1950 to 1973)\n\n\n=== Honorary degrees ===\nBill Cosby was awarded an honorary degree in 1987 when he delivered the University's commencement address. Lehigh revoked the degree in October 2015 following the allegations of sexual assault by more than 40 women.Donald Trump was awarded an honorary degree in 1988 when he delivered the University's commencement address. Lehigh revoked the degree in January 2021 following the storming of the United States Capitol.\n\n\n== See also ==\nLehigh University Press\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nLehigh Athletics website\n\"Lehigh University\" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.", "Duke University is a private research university in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present-day town of Trinity in 1838, the school moved to Durham in 1892. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established The Duke Endowment and the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father, Washington Duke.\nThe campus spans over 8,600 acres (3,500 hectares) on three contiguous sub-campuses in Durham, and a marine lab in Beaufort. The West Campus—designed largely by architect Julian Abele, an African American architect who graduated first in his class at the University of Pennsylvania School of Design—incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210-foot (64-meter) Duke Chapel at the campus' center and highest point of elevation, is adjacent to the Medical Center. East Campus, 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers) away, home to all first-years, contains Georgian-style architecture. The university administers two concurrent schools in Asia, Duke-NUS Medical School in Singapore (established in 2005) and Duke Kunshan University in Kunshan, China (established in 2013).Duke is ranked among the top universities in the United States. The undergraduate admissions are among the most selective in the country, with an overall acceptance rate of 5.7% for the class of 2025. Duke spends more than $1 billion per year on research, making it one of the ten largest research universities in the United States. More than a dozen faculty regularly appear on annual lists of the world’s most-cited researchers. As of 2019, 15 Nobel laureates and 3 Turing Award winners have been affiliated with the university. Duke alumni also include 50 Rhodes Scholars, 25 Churchill Scholars, 13 Schwarzman Scholars, and 8 Mitchell Scholars. The university has produced the third highest number of Churchill Scholars of any university (behind Princeton and Harvard) and the fifth-highest number of Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars of any American university between 1986 and 2015. Duke is the alma mater of one president of the United States (Richard Nixon) and 14 living billionaires.Duke is the second-largest private employer in North Carolina, with more than 39,000 employees. The university has been ranked as an excellent employer by several publications.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Beginnings ===\n\nDuke first opened in 1838 as Brown's Schoolhouse, a private subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, Brown's Schoolhouse became the Union Institute Academy in 1841 when North Carolina issued a charter. The academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. In 1892, Trinity College moved to Durham, largely due to generosity from Julian S. Carr and Washington Duke, powerful and respected Methodists who had grown wealthy through the tobacco and electrical industries. Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus. At the same time, Washington Duke gave the school $85,000 for an initial endowment and construction costs—later augmenting his generosity with three separate $100,000 contributions in 1896, 1899, and 1900—with the stipulation that the college \"open its doors to women, placing them on an equal footing with men.\"\nIn 1924 Washington Duke's son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund. Income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges (including Trinity College). William Preston Few, the president of Trinity at the time, insisted that the institution be renamed Duke University to honor the family's generosity and to distinguish it from the myriad other colleges and universities carrying the \"Trinity\" name. At first, James B. Duke thought the name change would come off as self-serving, but eventually, he accepted Few's proposal as a memorial to his father. Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly. Duke's original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the campus one mile (1.6 km) west were completed, and construction on West Campus culminated with the completion of Duke Chapel in 1935. \nIn 1878, Trinity (in Randolph County) awarded A.B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to again allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students. At the time of Washington Duke's donation in 1896, which carried the requirement that women be placed \"on an equal footing with men\" at the college, four women were enrolled; three of the four were faculty members' children. In 1903 Washington Duke wrote to the Board of Trustees withdrawing the provision, noting that it had been the only limitation he had ever put on a donation to the college. A woman's residential dormitory was built in 1897 and named the Mary Duke Building, after Washington Duke's daughter. By 1904, fifty-four women were enrolled in the college. In 1930, the Woman's College was established as a coordinate to the men's undergraduate college, which had been established and named Trinity College in 1924.\n\n\n=== Expansion and growth ===\nEngineering, which had been taught at Duke since 1903, became a separate school in 1939. The university president's official residence, the J. Deryl Hart House, was completed in 1934. In athletics, Duke hosted and competed in the first Rose Bowl ever played outside California in Wallace Wade Stadium in 1942; the second such game was played in Arlington, Texas, in 2021, moved as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. During World War II, Duke was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. In 1963 the Board of Trustees officially desegregated the undergraduate college.Duke enrolled its first black graduate students in 1961. The school did not admit Black undergraduates until September 1963. The teaching staff remained all-White until 1966.Increased activism on campus during the 1960s prompted Martin Luther King Jr. to speak at the University in November 1964 on the progress of the Civil Rights Movement. Following Douglas Knight's resignation from the office of university president, Terry Sanford, the former governor of North Carolina, was elected president of the university in 1969, propelling The Fuqua School of Business' opening, the William R. Perkins library completion, and the founding of the Institute of Policy Sciences and Public Affairs (now the Sanford School of Public Policy). The separate Woman's College merged back with Trinity as the liberal arts college for both men and women in 1972.\nBeginning in the 1970s, Duke administrators began a long-term effort to strengthen Duke's reputation both nationally and internationally. Interdisciplinary work was emphasized, as was recruiting minority faculty and students. During this time it also became the birthplace of the first Physician Assistant degree program in the United States. Duke University Hospital was finished in 1980 and the student union building was fully constructed two years later. In 1986 the men's soccer team captured Duke's first National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championship, and the men's basketball team followed shortly thereafter with championships in 1991 and 1992, then again in 2001, 2010, and 2015.\nDuke Forward, a seven-year fundraising campaign, raised $3.85 billion by August 2017.\n\n\n=== Recent history ===\n\nIn 2014, Duke removed the name of Charles B. Aycock, a white-supremacist governor of North Carolina, from an undergraduate dormitory. It is now known as the East Residence Hall.\nOn August 19, 2017, following the violent clashes at the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, the statue of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee was removed from the entrance to the Duke University Chapel, after having been vandalized by protesters.In August 2020, the first undergraduates from Duke Kunshan University arrived for their study abroad on Duke's campus. Due to COVID-19, Chinese Duke undergraduate and graduate students unable to travel to the United States were reciprocally hosted at the Duke Kunshan campus.\n\n\n==== Controversies ====\nIn 2006, three men's lacrosse team members were falsely accused of rape, which garnered significant media attention. On April 11, 2007, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper dropped all charges and declared the three players innocent. Cooper stated that the charged players were victims of a \"tragic rush to accuse.\" The District Attorney, Mike Nifong, was subsequently disbarred.In 2019, Duke paid $112.5 Million to settle False Claims Act allegations related to scientific research misconduct. A researcher at the school was falsifying or fabricating research data, in order to win grants for financial gain. The researcher was arrested in 2013 on charges of embezzling funds from the university. The scheme was exposed by the allegations made through a lawsuit, filed by a whistleblower, who had worked as a Duke employee, and discovered the false data.In response to the misconduct settlement, Duke established an advisory panel of academics from Caltech, Stanford and Rockefeller University. Based on the recommendations of this panel, the Duke Office of Scientific Integrity (DOSI) was established under the leadership of Lawrence Carin, an engineering professor who is one of the world's leading experts on machine learning and artificial intelligence The establishment of this office brings Duke's research practices in line with those at peer institutions like Johns Hopkins University.\n\n\n== Campus ==\n\nDuke University currently owns 256 buildings on 8,693 acres (35.18 km2) of land, which includes the 7,044 acres (28.51 km2) Duke Forest. The campus is divided into four main areas: West, East, and Central campuses and the Medical Center, which are all connected via a free bus service. On the Atlantic coast in Beaufort, Duke owns 15 acres (61,000 m2) as part of its marine lab. One of the major public attractions on the main campus is the 54-acre (220,000 m2) Sarah P. Duke Gardens, established in the 1930s.Duke students often refer to the campus as \"the Gothic Wonderland,\" a nickname referring to the Collegiate Gothic architecture of West Campus. Much of the campus was designed by Julian Abele, one of the first prominent African-American architects and the chief designer in the offices of architect Horace Trumbauer. The residential quadrangles are of an early and somewhat unadorned design, while the buildings in the academic quadrangles show influences of the more elaborate late French and Italian styles. The freshmen campus, known as East Campus, is composed of buildings in the Georgian architecture style. In 2011, Travel+Leisure listed Duke among the most beautiful college campuses in the United States.The stone used for West Campus has seven primary colors and seventeen shades of color. The university supervisor of planning and construction wrote that the stone has \"an older, more attractive antique effect\" and a \"warmer and softer coloring than the Princeton stone\" that gave the university an \"artistic look.\" James B. Duke initially suggested the use of stone from a quarry in Princeton, New Jersey, but later amended the plans to purchase a local quarry in Hillsborough to reduce costs. Duke Chapel stands at the center of West Campus on the highest ridge. Constructed from 1930 to 1935, the chapel seats 1,600 people and, at 210 feet (64 m) is one of the tallest buildings in Durham County.A number of construction projects in recent years include renovations to Duke Chapel, Wallace Wade Stadium (football) and Cameron Indoor Stadium (basketball).In early 2014, the Nicholas School of the Environment opened a new home, Environmental Hall, a five-story, glass-and-concrete building that incorporates the highest sustainable features and technologies, and meets or exceeds the criteria for LEED platinum certification. The School of Nursing in April 2014 opened a new 45,000 sq ft (4,200 m2) addition to the Christine Siegler Pearson Building. In summer 2014, a number of construction projects were completed. The project is part of the final phase of renovations to Duke's West Campus libraries that have transformed one of the university's oldest and most recognizable buildings into a state-of-the-art research facility. The David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library reopened in August 2015 after about $60 million in renovations to the sections of the building built in 1928 and 1948. The renovations include more space, technology upgrades and new exhibits.\nIn 2013, construction projects included transforming buildings like Gross Hall and Baldwin Auditorium, plus new construction such as the Events Pavilion. About 125,000 sq ft (11,600 m2) was updated at Gross Hall, including new lighting and windows and a skylight. Baldwin's upgrades include a larger stage, more efficient air conditioning for performers and audience and enhanced acoustics that will allow for the space to be \"tuned\" to each individual performance. The 25,000 sq ft (2,300 m2) Events Pavilion opened to students in 2013 and serves as temporary dining space while the West Campus Union undergoes major renovations, expected to be completed in the spring of 2016.\nFrom February 2001 to November 2005, Duke spent $835 million on 34 major construction projects as part of a five-year strategic plan, \"Building on Excellence.\" Completed projects since 2002 include major additions to the business, law, nursing, and divinity schools, a new library, the Nasher Museum of Art, a football training facility, two residential buildings, an engineering complex, a public policy building, an eye institute, two genetic research buildings, a student plaza, the French Family Science Center, and two new medical-research buildings.In early 2012, the Duke Cancer Center opened next to Duke Hospital in Durham. The patient care facility consolidates nearly all of Duke's outpatient clinical care services.\n\n\n=== West, East, and Central Campuses ===\nSee main article, Duke University West Campus\n\nWest Campus, considered the main campus of the University, houses the sophomores and juniors, along with some seniors. Most of the academic and administrative centers are located there. Main West Campus, with Duke Chapel at its center, contains the majority of residential quads to the south, while the main academic quad, library, and Medical Center are to the north. The campus, spanning 720 acres (2.9 km2), includes Science Drive, which is the location of science and engineering buildings. The residential quads on West Campus are Craven Quad, Crowell Quad, Edens Quad, Few Quad, Keohane Quad, Kilgo Quad, and Wannamaker Quad. Most of the campus eateries and sports facilities—including the historic basketball stadium, Cameron Indoor Stadium—are on West Campus.East Campus, the original location of Duke after it moved to Durham, functions as a first-year campus, housing the university's freshmen dormitories as well as the home of several academic departments. Since the 1995–96 academic year, all freshmen—and only freshmen, except for upperclassmen serving as Resident Assistants—have lived on East Campus, an effort to build class unity. The campus encompasses 172 acres (700,000 m2) and is 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from West Campus. African and African American Studies, Art History, History, Cultural Anthropology, Literature, Music, Philosophy, and Women's Studies are housed on East. Programs such as dance, drama, education, film, and the University Writing Program reside on East. The self-sufficient East Campus contains the freshmen residence halls, a dining hall, coffee shop, post office, Lilly Library, Baldwin Auditorium, a theater, Brodie Gym, tennis courts, several disc golf baskets, and a walking track as well as several academic buildings. The East Campus dorms are Alspaugh, Basset, Bell Tower, Blackwell, Brown, East House (formerly known as Aycock), Epworth, Gilbert-Addoms, Giles, Jarvis, Pegram, Randolph, Southgate, Trinity, and Wilson. Separated from downtown by a short walk, the area was the site of the Women's College from 1930 to 1972.Central Campus, consisting of 122 acres (0.49 km2) between East and West campuses, housed around 1,000 sophomores, juniors, and seniors, as well as around 200 professional students in double or quadruple apartments. However, the housing of undergraduates on Central Campus ended after the 2018–2019 school year. Central Campus is home to the Nasher Museum of Art, the Freeman Center for Jewish Life, the Center for Muslim Life, the Duke Police Department, the Duke Office of Disability Management, a Ronald McDonald House, and administrative departments such as Duke Residence Life and Housing Services. Central Campus has several recreation and social facilities such as basketball courts, a sand volleyball court, a turf field, barbecue grills and picnic shelters, a general gathering building called \"Devil's Den\", a restaurant known as \"Devil's Bistro\", a convenience store called Uncle Harry's, and the Mill Village. The Mill Village consists of a gym and group study rooms.\n\n\n=== Other key places ===\n\nDuke Forest, established in 1931, consists of 7,044 acres (28.51 km2) in six divisions, just west of West Campus. The largest private research forest in North Carolina and one of the largest in the nation, the Duke Forest demonstrates a variety of forest stand types and silvicultural treatments. Duke Forest is used extensively for research and includes the Aquatic Research Facility, Forest Carbon Transfer and Storage (FACTS-I) research facility, two permanent towers suitable for micrometeorological studies, and other areas designated for animal behavior and ecosystem study. More than 30 miles (48 km) of trails are open to the public for hiking, cycling, and horseback riding.\nThe Duke Lemur Center, located inside the Duke Forest, is the world's largest sanctuary for rare and endangered strepsirrhine primates. Founded in 1966, the Duke Lemur Center spans 85 acres (34 ha) and contains nearly 300 animals of 25 different species of lemurs, galagos and lorises.\n\nThe Sarah P. Duke Gardens, established in the early 1930s, is situated between West Campus and Central Campus. The gardens occupy 55 acres (22 ha), divided into four major sections: the original Terraces and their surroundings; the H.L. Blomquist Garden of Native Plants, devoted to flora of the Southeastern United States; the W.L. Culberson Asiatic Arboretum, housing plants of Eastern Asia, as well as disjunct species found in Eastern Asia and Eastern North America; and the Doris Duke Center Gardens. There are five miles (8.0 km) of allées and paths throughout the gardens.Duke University Medical Center, bordering Duke's West Campus northern boundary, combines one of the top-rated hospitals and one of the top-ranked medical schools in the U.S. Founded in 1930, the Medical Center occupies eight million square feet (740,000 m2) in 99 buildings on 210 acres (85 ha).Duke University Marine Laboratory, located in the town of Beaufort, North Carolina, is also technically part of Duke's campus. The marine lab is situated on Pivers Island on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, 150 yards (140 m) across the channel from Beaufort. Duke's interest in the area began in the early 1930s and the first buildings were erected in 1938. The resident faculty represent the disciplines of oceanography, marine biology, marine biomedicine, marine biotechnology, and coastal marine policy and management. The Marine Laboratory is a member of the National Association of Marine Laboratories. In May 2014, the newly built Orrin H. Pilkey Marine Research Laboratory was dedicated.\n\n\n=== Singapore and China ===\n\nIn April 2005, Duke and the National University of Singapore signed a formal agreement under which the two institutions would partner to establish the Duke-NUS Medical School in Singapore. Duke-NUS is intended to complement the National University of Singapore's existing undergraduate medical school, and had its first entering class in 2007. The curriculum is based on that of the Duke University School of Medicine. 60% of matriculates are from Singapore and 40% are from over 20 countries. The school is part of the National University of Singapore system, but distinct in that it is overseen by a Governing Board, including a Duke representative who has veto power over any academic decision made by the Board.In 2013,Duke Kunshan University (abbreviated \"DKU\"), a partnership between Duke University, Wuhan University, and the city of Kunshan, was established in Kunshan, China. The university runs Duke degree graduate programs and an undergraduate liberal arts college. Undergraduates are awarded degrees from both Duke Kunshan University and Duke University upon graduation and become members of Duke and DKU's alumni organizations. DKU conducted research projects on climate change, health-care policy and tuberculosis prevention and control.\n\n\n== Administration and organization ==\nDuke University has 12 schools and institutes, three of which host undergraduate programs: Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Pratt School of Engineering, and Duke Kunshan University.The university has \"historical, formal, ongoing, and symbolic ties\" with the United Methodist Church, but is a nonsectarian and independent institution.Duke's endowment had a market value of $8.6 billion in the fiscal year that ended June 30, 2019. The University's special academic facilities include an art museum, several language labs, the Duke Forest, the Duke Herbarium, a lemur center, a phytotron, a free-electron laser, a nuclear magnetic resonance machine, a nuclear lab, and a marine lab. Duke is a leading participant in the National Lambda Rail Network and runs a program for gifted children known as the Talent Identification Program.\n\n\n== Academics ==\n\n\n=== Admissions ===\nAdmission to Duke is defined by U.S. News & World Report as \"most selective.\" Duke received nearly 50,000 applications for the Class of 2025, with an overall acceptance rate of 5.7%. The yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend) for the Class of 2023 was 54%. The Class of 2024 had an ACT range of 34-35 and an SAT range of 1500–1570. (Test score ranges account for the 25th-75th percentile of accepted students.)\nFrom 2001 to 2011, Duke has had the sixth highest number of Fulbright, Rhodes, Truman, and Goldwater scholarships in the nation among private universities. The University practices need-blind admissions and meets 100% of admitted students' demonstrated needs. About 50 percent of all Duke students receive some form of financial aid, which includes need-based aid, athletic aid, and merit aid. The average need-based grant for the 2018–19 academic year was $53,255. In 2020, a study by the Chronicle of Higher Education ranked Duke first on its list of \"Colleges That Are the Most Generous to the Financially Neediest Students\".Roughly 60 merit-based full-tuition scholarships are offered, including the Angier B. Duke Memorial Scholarship awarded for academic excellence, the Benjamin N. Duke Scholarship awarded for community service, and the Robertson Scholars Leadership Program, a joint scholarship and leadership development program granting full student privileges at both Duke and UNC-Chapel Hill. Other scholarships are geared toward students in North Carolina, African-American students, children of alumni, and high-achieving students requiring financial aid.\n\n\n=== Graduate profile ===\nIn 2009, the School of Medicine received 5,166 applications and accepted approximately 4% of them, while the average GPA and ACT scores for accepted students from 2002 through 2009 were 3.74 and 34, respectively. The School of Law accepted approximately 13% of its applicants for the Class of 2014, while enrolling students had a median GPA of 3.75 and median LSAT of 170.The University's graduate and professional schools include the Graduate School, the Pratt School of Engineering, the Nicholas School of the Environment, the School of Medicine, the Duke-NUS Medical School, the School of Nursing, the Fuqua School of Business, the School of Law, the Divinity School, and the Sanford School of Public Policy.\n\n\n=== Undergraduate curriculum ===\nDuke offers 46 arts and sciences majors, four engineering majors, 52 minors (including two in engineering) and Program II, which allows students to design their own interdisciplinary major in arts & sciences, and IDEAS, which allows students to design their own engineering major. Twenty-four certificate programs also are available. Students pursue a major and can pursue a combination of a total of up to three, including minors, certificates, and/or a second major. Eighty-five percent of undergraduates enroll in the Trinity College of Arts and Sciences. The balance enroll in Duke's Pratt School of Engineering. Undergraduates at Duke Kunshan can choose from 15 interdisciplinary majors approved by the Chinese Ministry of Education, and more majors are in the process of approval, including new major in behavioral science.\n\n\n==== Trinity College of Arts and Sciences ====\n\nTrinity's curriculum operates under the revised version of \"Curriculum 2000.\" The curriculum aims to help students develop critical faculties and judgment by learning how to access, synthesize, and communicate knowledge effectively. The intent is to assist students in acquiring perspective on current and historical events, conducting research and solving problems, and developing tenacity and a capacity for hard and sustained work. Freshmen can elect to participate in the FOCUS Program, which allows students to engage in an interdisciplinary exploration of a specific topic in a small group setting in their first semesters.\n\n\n==== Pratt School of Engineering ====\n\nThe curriculum of Duke's Pratt School of Engineering, significantly transformed in recent years, immerses students in design, computing, research, and entrepreneurship — but still accommodates educational opportunities, including double majors, in a variety of disciplines from across Duke. The school emphasizes undergraduate research opportunities with faculty. Research and design opportunities arise through a real-world design course for first-year students, internships, independent study and research fellowships, and through design-focused capstone courses. More than 60 percent of Duke Engineering undergraduates have an intensive research experience during their four years, and nearly a fifth publish or present a research paper off-campus. Nearly 54 percent of Duke Engineering undergraduates intern or study abroad. Eighty-five percent have jobs or job offers at the time of graduation.\n\n\n==== Duke Kunshan University ====\n\nDuke Kunshan's undergraduate curriculum focuses heavily on interdisciplinary coursework and majors. Noah M. Pickus, Associate Provost and Senior Advisor at Duke and Dean of Undergraduate Curricula Affairs and Faculty Development at Duke Kunshan University, oversaw the development of the university's future-focused, internationalized curriculum.\n\n\n=== Libraries and museums ===\n\nDuke Libraries includes the Perkins, Bostock, and Rubenstein Libraries on West Campus, the Lilly and Music Libraries on East Campus, the Pearse Memorial Library at the Duke Marine Lab, and the separately administered libraries serving the schools of business, divinity, law, medicine, and Duke Kunshan University.Duke's art collections are housed at the Nasher Museum of Art on Central Campus. The museum was designed by Rafael Viñoly and is named for Duke alumnus and art collector Raymond Nasher. The museum opened in 2005 at a cost of over $23 million and contains over 13,000 works of art, including works by William Cordova, Marlene Dumas, Olafur Eliasson, David Hammons, Barkley L. Hendricks, Christian Marclay, Kerry James Marshall, Alma Thomas, Hank Willis Thomas, Bob Thompson, Kara Walker, Andy Warhol, Carrie Mae Weems, Ai Weiwei, Fred Wilson, and Lynette Yiadom Boakye.\n\n\n=== Research ===\n\nDuke's research expenditures in the 2018 fiscal year were $1.168 billion, the tenth largest in the U.S. In fiscal year 2019 Duke received $571 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health. Duke is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".Throughout the school's history, Duke researchers have made breakthroughs, including the biomedical engineering department's development of the world's first real-time, three-dimensional ultrasound diagnostic system and the first engineered blood vessels and stents. In 2015, Paul Modrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 2012, Robert Lefkowitz along with Brian Kobilka, who is also a former affiliate, shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their work on cell surface receptors. Duke has pioneered studies involving nonlinear dynamics, chaos, and complex systems in physics.\nIn May 2006 Duke researchers mapped the final human chromosome, which made world news as it marked the completion of the Human Genome Project. Reports of Duke researchers' involvement in new AIDS vaccine research surfaced in June 2006. The biology department combines two historically strong programs in botany and zoology, while one of the divinity school's leading theologians is Stanley Hauerwas, whom Time named \"America's Best Theologian\" in 2001. The graduate program in literature boasts several internationally renowned figures, including Fredric Jameson, Michael Hardt, and Rey Chow, while philosophers Robert Brandon and Lakatos Award-winner Alexander Rosenberg contribute to Duke's ranking as the nation's best program in philosophy of biology, according to the Philosophical Gourmet Report.\n\n\n=== Rankings and reputation ===\n\n\n==== Undergraduate rankings ====\nIn 2016, The Washington Post ranked Duke 7th overall based on the accumulated weighted average of the rankings from U.S. News & World Report, Washington Monthly, Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education, Times Higher Education (global), Money and Forbes.In 2021, Duke was ranked 5th in the Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education College Rankings, having risen five places in the past year. In addition, Duke was ranked 2nd for student outcomes. The rankings take into account graduation rate, teaching reputation, graduate salaries, and student debt.In 2020, Duke was ranked 22nd in the world by U.S. News & World Report and 20th in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. QS World University Rankings ranked Duke 52th the world for its 2022 rankings. Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) ranked Duke 20th globally in its 2020-21 report. Duke was ranked 28th best globally by the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in 2019, focusing on quality of scientific research and the number of Nobel Prizes. The 2010 report by the Center for Measuring University Performance puts Duke at 6th in the nation.The 2012 Global Employability Ranking as published by The New York Times surveyed hundreds of chief executives and chairmen from around the world and asked them to select the best universities from which they recruited. Duke placed 26th in the world and 12th in the country. Duke also ranked 42nd in the world and 12th in the country on Times Higher Education's global employability ranking in 2019.In 2018, Duke enrolled 106 National Merit Scholars, the 19th university in rank by number. Duke ranks 5th among national universities to have produced Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars. As of 2012, Duke graduates have received 25 Churchill Scholarships to the University of Cambridge. Only graduates of Princeton and Harvard have received more Churchill awards. As of 2020, Duke has produced 8 Mitchell Scholars.Kiplinger's 50 Best Values in Private Universities 2013–14 ranks Duke at 5th best overall after taking financial aid into consideration.In a 2016 study by Forbes, Duke ranked 11th among universities in the United States that have produced billionaires and 1st among universities in the South. A survey by the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education in 2002 ranked Duke as the #1 university in the country in regard to the integration of African American students and faculty. According to a poll of recruiters conducted by The Wall Street Journal, Duke ranks 2nd in terms of producing the best graduates who have received either a marketing or liberal arts degree. In a corporate study carried out by The New York Times, Duke's graduates were shown to be among the most valued in the world, and Forbes magazine ranked Duke 7th in the world on its list of 'power factories' in 2012. Duke was ranked 17th on Thomson Reuters' list of the world's most innovative universities in 2015. The ranking graded universities based on patent volume and research output among other factors. In 2015, NPR ranked Duke first on its list of \"schools that make financial sense\". Time magazine ranked Duke third on its list of the \"Best 50 Colleges for African Americans\". The ranking was based on representation, affordability and post-graduate earnings. In 2016, Forbes ranked Duke sixth on its list of \"Expensive Schools Worth Every Penny\".Duke has also been recognized as the third-best university employer in the country, behind Stanford University and Harvard University.\n\n\n==== Graduate school rankings ====\nDuke has been named one of the top universities for graduate outcomes several years in a row, having tied with Harvard University and Yale University. In U.S. News & World Report's \"America's Best Graduate Schools 2021\", Duke's medical school ranked 3rd in research and 26th in primary care. The School of Law was ranked 12th in the 2021 rankings by the same publication, with Duke's nursing school ranked 2nd while the Sanford School of Public Policy ranked 5th in Public Policy Analysis for 2019.\nAmong business schools in the United States, the Fuqua School of Business is ranked tied for 10th overall by U.S. News & World Report for 2020, while BusinessWeek ranked its full-time MBA program 1st in the nation in 2014. The graduate programs of Duke's Pratt School of Engineering ranked 24th in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report in its 2020 rankings.Times Higher Education ranked the mathematics department tenth in the world in 2011. Duke's graduate-level specialties that are ranked among the top ten in the nation include areas in the following departments: biological sciences, medicine, nursing, engineering, law, business, English, history, physics, statistics, public affairs, physician assistant (ranked #1), clinical psychology, political science, and sociology. In 2007, Duke was ranked 22nd in the world by Wuhan University's Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation. The ranking was based on journal article publication counts and citation frequencies in over 11,000 academic journals from around the world. A 2012 study conducted by academic analytics ranks Duke fourth in the nation (behind only Harvard, Stanford, and MIT) in terms of faculty productivity. In 2013, Duke Law ranked 6th in Forbes magazine's ranking of law schools whose graduates earn the highest starting salaries. In 2013, Duke's Fuqua School of Business was ranked 6th in terms of graduate starting salaries by U.S. News & World Report. In the same year, a ranking compiled by the University of Texas at Dallas ranked Fuqua 5th in the world based on the research productivity of its faculty. The MEM (Masters in Engineering Management) program has been ranked 3rd in the world by Eduniversal In 2013, Forbes ranked Duke 4th in the nation in terms of return on investment (ROI). The ranking used alumni giving as a criterion to determine which private colleges offer the best returns. In 2018, Above the Law ranked Duke Law 3rd in the nation in its ranking of law schools based on employment outcomes. In 2013, Business Insider ranked Duke's Fuqua School of Business 5th in the world based on an extensive survey of hiring professionals. In the same year, Forbes magazine ranked Fuqua 8th in the country based on return on investment. In 2014, Duke was named the 20th best global research university according to rankings published by U.S. News & World Report and the University Ranking by Academic Performance published by Middle East Technical University. The U.S. News ranking was based on 10 indicators that measure academic research performance and global reputations. The University Ranking by Academic Performance uses citation data obtained from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science to rank universities based on research output.\n\n\n== Student life ==\n\n\n=== Student body ===\nDuke's student body consists of 6,526 undergraduates and 9,108 graduate and professional students (as of fall 2019). The median family income of Duke students is $186,700, with 56% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 17% from the bottom 60%.\n\n\n=== Residential life ===\nDuke requires its students to live on campus for the first three years of undergraduate life, except for a small percentage of second-semester juniors who are exempted by a lottery system. This requirement is justified by the administration as an effort to help students connect more closely with one another and sustain a sense of belonging within the Duke community. Thus, 85% of undergraduates live on campus. All freshmen are housed in one of 14 residences on East Campus. These buildings range in occupancy size from 50 (Epworth—the oldest residence hall, built in 1892 as \"the Inn\") to 250 residents (Trinity). Most of these are in the Georgian style typical of the East Campus architecture. Although the newer residence halls differ in style, they still relate to East's Georgian heritage. Learning communities connect the residential component of East Campus with students of similar academic and social interests. Similarly, students in FOCUS, a first-year program that features courses clustered around a specific theme, live together in the same residence hall as other students in their cluster.Sophomores and juniors reside on West Campus, while the majority of undergraduate seniors choose to live off campus. West Campus contains six quadrangles—the four along \"Main\" West were built in the 1930s, while two newer ones have since been added. Central Campus provided housing for over 1,000 students in apartment buildings, until 2019. All housing on West Campus is organized into \"houses\"—sections of residence halls—to which students can return each year. House residents create their house identities. There are houses of unaffiliated students, as well as wellness houses and living-learning communities that adopt a theme such as the arts or foreign languages. There are also numerous \"selective living groups\" on campus for students wanting self-selected living arrangements. SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities, except they are generally co-ed and unaffiliated with any national organization. Many of them also revolve around a particular interest such as entrepreneurship, civic engagement or African-American or Asian culture. Fifteen fraternities and nine sororities also are housed on campus. Most of the non-fraternity selective living groups are coeducational.\n\n\n=== Greek and social life ===\n\nAbout 30% of undergraduate men and about 40% of undergraduate women at Duke are members of fraternities and sororities. Most of the 17 Interfraternity Council recognized fraternity chapters live in sections within the residence halls. Eight National Pan-Hellenic Council (historically African American) fraternities and sororities also hold chapters at Duke. The first historically African American Greek letter organization at Duke University was the Omega Psi Phi, Omega Zeta chapter, founded on April 12, 1974. In addition, there are seven other fraternities and sororities that are a part of the Inter-Greek Council, the multicultural Greek umbrella organization. Duke also has Selective Living Groups, or SLGs, on campus for students seeking informal residential communities often built around themes. SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities, except they are generally co-ed and unaffiliated with any national organizations. Fraternity chapters and SLGs frequently host social events in their residential sections, which are often open to non-members.In the late 1990s, a new keg policy was put into effect that requires all student groups to purchase kegs through Duke Dining Services. According to administrators, the rule change was intended as a way to ensure compliance with alcohol consumption laws as well as to increase on-campus safety. Some students saw the administration's increasingly strict policies as an attempt to alter social life at Duke. As a result, off-campus parties at rented houses became more frequent in subsequent years as a way to avoid Duke policies. Many of these houses were situated in the midst of family neighborhoods, prompting residents to complain about excessive noise and other violations. Police have responded by breaking up parties at several houses, handing out citations, and occasionally arresting party-goers. In the mid-to-late 2000s, the administration made a concerted effort to help students re-establish a robust, on-campus social life and has worked with numerous student groups, especially the Duke University Union, to feature a wide array of events and activities. In March 2006, the university purchased 15 houses in the Trinity Park area that Duke students had typically rented and subsequently sold them to individual families in an effort to encourage renovations to the properties and to reduce off-campus partying in the midst of residential neighborhoods.Duke athletics, particularly men's basketball, traditionally serves as a significant component of student life. Duke's students have been recognized as some of the most creative and original fans in all of collegiate athletics. Students, often referred to as Cameron Crazies, show their support of the men's basketball team by \"tenting\" for home games against key Atlantic Coast Conference opponents, especially rival University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC). Because tickets to all varsity sports are free to students, they line up for hours before each game, often spending the night on the sidewalk. For a mid-February game against UNC, some of the most eager students might even begin tenting before spring classes begin. The total number of participating tents is capped at 100 (each tent can have up to 12 occupants), though interest is such that it could exceed that number if space permitted. Tenting involves setting up and inhabiting a tent on the grass near Cameron Indoor Stadium, an area known as Krzyzewskiville, or K-Ville for short. There are different categories of tenting based on the length of time and number of people who must be in the tent. At night, K-Ville often turns into the scene of a party or occasional concert.\n\n\n=== Activities ===\n\n\n==== Student organizations ====\n\nMore than 400 student clubs and organizations operate on Duke's campus. These include numerous student government, special interest, and service organizations. Duke Student Government (DSG) charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups and represents students' interests when dealing with the administration. The Duke University Union (DUU) is the school's primary programming organization, serving a center of social, cultural, intellectual and recreational life. There are a number of student-run businesses operating on campus, including Campus Enterprises, which offer students real-world business experience. Cultural groups are provided funding directly from the university via the Multicultural Center as well as other institutional funding sources. One of the most popular activities on campus is competing in sports. Duke has 37 sports clubs, and several intramural teams that are officially recognized. Performance groups such as Hoof 'n' Horn, the country's second-oldest student-run musical theater organization, a cappella groups, student bands, and theater organizations are also prominent on campus. As of the 2016–2017 school year, there are seven a cappella groups recognized by the Duke University A Cappella Council: Deja Blue, Lady Blue, Out of the Blue, the Pitchforks, Rhythm & Blue, Something Borrowed Something Blue, and Speak of the Devil. The Duke University mock trial team won the national championship in 2012. The Duke University Student Dining Advisory Committee provides guidance to the administration on issues regarding student dining, life, and restaurant choices.\nCultural groups on campus include the Asian Students Association, Blue Devils United (the student lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender group), Black Student Alliance, Diya (South Asian Association), Jewish Life at Duke, Mi Gente (Latino Student Association), International Association/International Council, Muslim Student Association, Native American Student Coalition, Newman Catholic Student Center, Languages Dorm, and Students of the Caribbean.\n\n\n==== Civic engagement ====\n\nMore than 75 percent of Duke students pursue service-learning opportunities in Durham and around the world through DukeEngage and other programs that advance the university's mission of \"knowledge in service to society.\" Launched in 2007, DukeEngage provides full funding for select Duke undergraduates who wish to pursue an immersive summer of service in partnership with a U.S. or international community. As of summer 2013, more than 2,400 Duke students had volunteered through DukeEngage in 75 nations on six continents. Duke students have created more than 30 service organizations in Durham and the surrounding area. Examples include a weeklong camp for children of cancer patients (Camp Kesem) and a group that promotes awareness about sexual health, rape prevention, alcohol and drug use, and eating disorders (Healthy Devils). The Duke-Durham Neighborhood Partnership, started by the Office of Community Affairs in 1996, attempts to address major concerns of local residents and schools by leveraging university resources. Another community project, \"Scholarship with a Civic Mission\", is a joint program between the Hart Leadership Program and the Kenan Institute for Ethics. Another program includes Project CHILD, a tutoring program involving 80 first-year volunteers; and an after-school program for at-risk students in Durham that was started with a $2.25 million grant from the Kellogg Foundation in 2002. Two prominent civic engagement pre-orientation programs also exist for incoming freshmen: Project CHANGE and Project BUILD. Project CHANGE is a free weeklong program co-sponsored by the Kenan Institute for Ethics and the Duke Women's Center with the focus on ethical leadership and social change in the Durham community; students are challenged in a variety of ways and work closely with local non-profits. Project BUILD is a freshman volunteering group that dedicates 3,300 hours of service to a variety of projects such as schools, Habitat for Humanity, food banks, substance rehabilitation centers, homeless shelters. Some courses at Duke incorporate service as part of the curriculum to augment material learned in class such as in psychology or education courses (known as service learning courses).\n\n\n==== Student media ====\n\nThe Chronicle, Duke's independent undergraduate daily newspaper, has been continually published since 1905 and now, along with its website, has a readership of about 70,000. Its editors are responsible for selecting the term \"Blue Devil\". The newspaper won Best in Show in the tabloid division at the 2005 Associated Collegiate Press National College Media Convention. Cable 13, established in 1976, is Duke's student-run television station. It is a popular activity for students interested in film production and media. WXDU, licensed in 1983, is the university's nationally recognized, noncommercial FM radio station, operated by student and community volunteers.The Chanticleer is Duke University's undergraduate yearbook. It was founded while the institution was still Trinity College in 1911, and was first published in 1912. The yearbook been published continually ever since, apart from 1918 when many students left for military service in World War I. In 1919 the yearbook was titled The Victory to mark the war's end.\n\n\n== Alumni ==\n\nDuke's active alumni base of more than 145,000 devote themselves to the university through organizations and events such as the annual Reunion Weekend and Homecoming. There are 75 Duke clubs in the U.S. and 38 such international clubs. For the 2008–09 fiscal year, Duke tied for third in alumni giving rate among U.S. colleges and universities according to U.S. News & World Report. Based on statistics compiled by PayScale in 2011, Duke alumni rank seventh in mid-career median salary among all U.S. colleges and universities.\n\n\n=== Duke Alumni Association ===\nDuke Alumni Association (DAA) is an alumni association automatically available to all Duke graduates. Benefits include alumni events, a global network of regional DAA alumni chapters, educational and travel opportunities and communications such as The Blue Note, social media and Duke Magazine. It provides access to the Duke Lemur Center, Nasher Museum of Art, Duke Rec Centers and other campus facilities.\n\n\n=== Duke Magazine ===\nDuke Magazine, an alumni magazine, is the university's flagship vehicle for stories about the Duke community. It has been published five-six times a year by the Office of Alumni Affairs since 2002.\n\n\n== Athletics ==\n\nTeams for then Trinity College were known originally as the Trinity Eleven, the Blue and White or the Methodists. William H. Lander, as editor-in-chief, and Mike Bradshaw, as managing editor, of the Trinity Chronicle began the academic year 1922-23 referring to the athletic teams as the Blue Devils. The Chronicle staff continued its use and through repetition, Blue Devils eventually caught on.\nThe Duke University Athletic Association chairs 27 sports and more than 650 student-athletes. The Blue Devils are members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level, the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and the Atlantic Coast Conference. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and wrestling; women's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball.\n\nDuke's teams have won 17 NCAA team national championships—the women's golf team has won seven (1999, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2014 and 2019), the men's basketball team has won five (1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, and 2015), the men's lacrosse team has won three (2010, 2013, and 2014), and the men's soccer (1986) and women's tennis (2009) teams have won one each. Duke consistently ranks among the top in the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) Directors' Cup, an overall measure of an institution's athletic success. For Division I in 2015, Duke finished 20th overall and fifth in the ACC. The Blue Devils have finished within the top 10 six times since the inception of the Cup in 1993–94. Also, Athletic Director Kevin White earned multiple awards in 2014, including the National Football Foundation's John L. Toner Award.On the academic front, nine Duke varsity athletics programs registered a perfect 1,000 score in the NCAA's multi-year Academic Progress Report (APR) released in April 2016.\n\n\n=== Men's basketball ===\n\nDuke's men's basketball team is one of the nation's most successful basketball programs. The team's success has been particularly outstanding over the past 30 years under coach Mike Krzyzewski (often simply called \"Coach K\"). The Blue Devils are the only team to win five national championships since the NCAA Tournament field was expanded to 64 teams in 1985, 11 Final Fours in the past 25 years, and eight of nine ACC tournament championships from 1999 to 2006. Coach K has also coached the USA men's national basketball team since 2006 and led the team to Olympic golds in 2008, 2012, and 2016. His teams also won World Championship gold in 2010 and 2014. Overall, 32 Duke players have been selected in the first round of the NBA Draft in the Coach K era. More than 50 Duke players have been selected in the NBA Draft.\n\n\n=== Football ===\n\nThe Blue Devils have won seven ACC Football Championships, have had ten players honored as ACC Player of the Year (the most in the ACC), and have had three Pro Football Hall of Famers come through the program (second in the ACC to only Miami's four). The Blue Devils have produced 11 College Football Hall of Famers, which is tied for the 2nd most in the ACC. Duke has also won 18 total conference championships (7 ACC, 9 Southern Conference, and 1 Big Five Conference). That total is tied with Clemson for the highest in the ACC.The most famous Duke football season came in 1938, when Wallace Wade coached the \"Iron Dukes\" that shut out all regular season opponents; only three teams in history can claim such a feat. That same year, Duke made their first Rose Bowl appearance, where they lost 7–3 when USC scored a touchdown in the final minute of the game. Wade's Blue Devils lost another Rose Bowl to Oregon State in 1942, this one held at Duke's home stadium due to the attack on Pearl Harbor, which resulted in the fear that a large gathering on the West Coast might be in range of Japanese aircraft carriers. The football program proved successful in the 1950s and 1960s, winning six of the first ten ACC football championships from 1953 to 1962 under coach Bill Murray; the Blue Devils would not win the ACC championship again until 1989 under coach Steve Spurrier.David Cutcliffe was brought in prior to the 2008 season, and amassed more wins in his first season than the previous three years combined. The 2009 team won 5 of 12 games, and was eliminated from bowl contention in the next-to-last game of the season. Mike MacIntyre, the defensive coordinator, was named 2009 Assistant Coach of the Year by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA).While the football team has struggled at times on the field, the graduation rate of its players is consistently among the highest among Division I FBS schools. Duke's high graduation rates have earned it more AFCA Academic Achievement Awards than any other institution.In 2012, the Duke football team made its first bowl game appearance since 1994 with a win over arch-rival North Carolina, a bowl which they would lose to the Cincinnati Bearcats in the by a score of 48–34.2013 marked the beginning of the Blue Devils' recent but relative success, having a breakout 10–2, 6-2 (ACC) season while claiming the title of Coastal Division Champions. Duke would go on to play the Florida State Seminoles in the ACC Championship game where they would lose to the national champions 45–7. Duke received an invite to the Chick-fil-a Peach Bowl that same year in which they took on the Texas A&M Aggies led by college football legend Johnny Manziel, losing by a score of 52–48.For the 2014 season, Duke finished 9–3, 5–3 (ACC) and earned a trip to the Sun Bowl, where the Blue Devils lost to the Pac-12's Arizona State 36–31. In 2015, the Detroit Lions drafted Duke offensive guard Laken Tomlinson and the Washington Redskins drafted wide receiver Jamison Crowder. In 2019, Duke quarterback Daniel Jones was drafted 6th overall by the New York Giants.\n\n\n=== Track and field ===\nIn 2003 Norm Ogilvie was promoted to Director of Track and Field, and has led athletes to over 60 individual ACC championships, and 81 All-America selections, along with most of the track and field records being broken during his tenure. A new facility, the Morris Williams Track and Field Stadium, opened in 2015.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of colleges and universities in North Carolina\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website \nDuke Athletics website", "Arthur Earl Humphrey (born November 9, 1927) is an American chemical engineer. Humphrey was born in Moscow, Idaho and attended the University of Idaho, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Columbia University (PhD 1953 in Chemical Engineering). He has taught at the University of Pennsylvania, Lehigh University and Pennsylvania State University after retiring from Lehigh.In 1973, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributions in biochemical engineering as researcher, author, and teacher. He received the John Fritz Medal in 1997. \nHe served as President of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers from 1990 to 1991. He was the Dean of Engineering and Applied Science from 1972 to 1980 at the University of Pennsylvania and former Provost and Vice President of Lehigh University, serving from 1980 to 1986.\n\n\n== References ==", "Daren Queenan (born October 19, 1966) is an American retired basketball player. Born in Norristown, Pennsylvania, he attended Norristown High School as a teenager but went virtually unrecruited by colleges to play basketball except for nearby Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Queenan was an undersized center in high school, standing at 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m), but then-assistant Lehigh coach Fran McCaffery signed him to play for the Mountain Hawks and turned him into a shooting guard/small forward (toward the end of Queenan's career at Lehigh, McCaffery said, \"You wouldn't believe how many coaches told me Daren couldn't play for them. Every coach makes mistakes, but when you say a kid can't play, and he scores 3,000 points, that's a mistake.\") McCaffery would become Lehigh's head coach for Queenan's final three seasons.\n\n\n== Basketball career ==\n\n\n=== College ===\nDuring Queenan's four-year college career, spanning from 1984–85 to 1987–88, he became one of the most prolific scorers in NCAA history. He led Lehigh in scoring all four seasons, finished second in the nation in points per game as a senior (28.4), and is still only one of eight players in Division I to have recorded 2,700+ points and 1,000+ rebounds. He holds numerous school records, including points in a game (49) and career (2,703) as well as total rebounds (1,013). Queenan led the Engineers to the school's first-ever appearance in the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship as a freshman in 1985, then guided them to a second berth in 1988. He was a four-time First Team All-East Coast Conference selection and was the co-honoree of the 1987 ECC Player of the Year award. Especially known for highlight reel dunks, Queenan was also versatile and could play point guard as well.\n\n\n=== Professional ===\nDespite his record-setting collegiate career, Queenan was not drafted into the NBA, though he did play for the Detroit Pistons in their training camp. He was later cut because teams were not willing to risk signing a mid-sized player coming from a small, unestablished school (basketball-wise) such as Lehigh. He spent the first couple years after graduating playing in the Continental Basketball Association and even won the CBA Dunk Contest in 1989 as a member of the Charleston Gunners. After two failed NBA tryouts with the Houston Rockets and Detroit Pistons, Queenan realized that overseas was his most viable professional basketball option. Over the course of the next 12 years, he played for teams in the Philippines, Argentina, Belgium, France, Germany and Spain, plus a stint in the United States Basketball League in his later years. He spent the majority of his career in Belgium, where he has become a naturalized citizen and now holds dual citizenship with the United States.\n\n\n== Later life ==\nQueenan is married and has multiple children. He now works as a certified financial planner for TIAA-CREF.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2000 points and 1000 rebounds\nList of NCAA Division I men's basketball career scoring leaders\n\n\n== References ==", "Duke University School of Law (also known as Duke Law School or Duke Law) is the law school of Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina, United States. One of Duke's 10 schools and colleges, the School of Law is a constituent academic unit that began, in 1868, as the Trinity College School of Law. In 1924, following the renaming of Trinity College to Duke University, the school was renamed Duke University School of Law.\nDuke Law is consistently ranked as one of the top law schools in the United States, and admits about 20 percent of applicants. The law school is one of the \"T14\" law schools, that is, schools that have consistently ranked within the top 14 law schools since U.S. News & World Report began publishing rankings.According to Law.com, 91.36 percent of its 2018 graduating class were employed within 10 months, with a median starting salary in the private sector of $190,000. Duke's 2019 class bar passage rate was \"almost 98 percent\" — the second-highest bar passage rate in the country, after Harvard Law School. As of 2019, Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $329,609.\n\n\n== Reputation ==\nDuke Law is routinely ranked within the top 14 law schools in the country, and is a member of the \"T-14\" law schools. It has never been ranked lower than 12th by U.S. News, or less than 7th by Above the Law. Duke Law is one of three T14 law schools to have graduated a President of the United States (Richard Nixon). Duke Law was ranked by Forbes as having graduated lawyers with the 2nd highest median mid-career salary amount. It is tied as the #8 best law school by the 2015 U.S. News overall law school Rankings. In 2017, The Times Higher Education World University Rankings listed Duke Law as the number one ranked law school in the world.\n\n\n== Admissions ==\nThe law school is one of few that have experienced an increase in law school applications despite an overall national decline of applications in recent years. For the class entering in the fall of 2014, 221 students enrolled out of 5,358 applicants. The 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2014 entering class were 166 and 170, respectively, with a median of 169 (top three percent of test takers worldwide). The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.66 and 3.85, respectively, with a median of 3.77. The school has approximately 640 JD students and 75 students in the LLM and SJD programs.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe date of founding is generally considered to be 1868 or 1924.\nHowever, in 1855 Trinity College, the precursor to Duke University, began offering lectures on (but not degrees in) Constitutional and International Law (during this time, Trinity was located in Randolph County, North Carolina).\nIn 1865, Trinity's Law Department was officially founded, while 1868 marked the official chartering of the School of Law. After a ten-year hiatus from 1894 to 1904, James B. Duke and Benjamin Newton Duke provided the endowment to reopen the school, with Samuel Fox Mordecai as its senior professor (by this time, Trinity College had relocated to Durham, North Carolina). When Trinity College became part of the newly created Duke University upon the establishment of the Duke Endowment in 1924, the School of Law continued as the Duke University School of Law. In 1930, the law school moved from the Carr Building on Duke's East Campus to a new location on the main quad of West Campus. During the three years preceding this move, the size of the law library tripled. Among other well-known alumni, President Richard Nixon graduated from the school in 1937. In 1963, the school moved to its present location on Science Drive in West Campus.\nLaw students at Duke University established the first U.S. Chapter of the International Criminal Court Student Network (ICCSN) in 2009.\n\n\n== Rankings ==\n1st Best Law School in the world, Times Higher Education (2018, 2nd in 2019)\n1st Best Law School by Above the Law (2020; 2nd in 2019)\n1st Best Professors according to the Princeton Review (2015 and 2016; 2nd in 2018-2020)\n1st Best Quality of Life according to the Princeton Review (2014, 2nd in 2015 and 2017)\n2nd Highest Median Mid-Career Salary\n2nd Best Classroom Experience according to Princeton Review (2015 and 2017, 3rd in 2018 and 2019, 4th in 2020)\n3rd Best Career Prospects according to Princeton Review (2020)\n3rd Best Law School (overall) according to the Best Law Schools ranking published by the National Jurist in 2013.\n5th Best Law School by Vault (2017)\n5th Best Law School by Business Insider\n5th Toughest to get into according to the Princeton Review\n5th Best Law School for BigLaw Hiring according to National Law Journal's \"Go-To Law Schools\" ranking\n6th Best Law School according to CNN Money\n6th Best Law School for Federal Clerkships according to National Jurist\n6th Best Law School for Moot Court according to National Jurist\n8th Best Law School as Ranked by Law Firm Recruiters*\n10th Best in the world in the subject of law according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2017\n10th Best for Standard of Living according to National Jurist\nTied for 10th Best Law School by U.S. News Rankings\n12th Most Median Grant Money and Percentage of Students Receiving Grants according to National Jurist\n17th Best Law Review according to National Jurist\n19th Best Law School Library according to National Jurist\n\n\n== Facilities ==\n\nThe Trinity College School of Law was located in the Carr Building prior to the renaming of Trinity to Duke University in 1924. The Duke University Law School was originally housed in what is now the Languages Building, built in 1929 on Duke's West Campus quad.\nThe law school is presently located at the corner of Science Drive and Towerview Road and was constructed in the mid-1960s.\nThe first addition to the law school was completed in 1994, and a dark polished granite façade was added to the rear exterior of the building, enclosing the interior courtyard.\nIn 2004, Duke Law School broke ground on a building construction project officially completed in fall 2008. The renovation and addition offers larger and more technologically advanced classrooms, expanded community areas and eating facilities, known as the Star Commons, improved library facilities, and more study options for students.\n\n\n== Center for the Study of the Public Domain ==\nCenter for the Study of the Public Domain is a university center, aiming to redress the balance of academic study of intellectual property. In their analysis, academic focus has been too great on the incentives created by these rights, rather than the contribution to creativity from information which is not subject to them and also opposing the fair use, as they're focusing on Copyright Act of 1909 rather than Copyright Act of 1976\n\n\n== Law journals ==\n\nDuke Law School publishes eight academic journals or law reviews, which are, in order of their founding:\n\nLaw and Contemporary Problems\nDuke Law Journal\nAlaska Law Review\nDuke Journal of Comparative & International Law\nDuke Environmental Law & Policy Forum\nDuke Journal of Gender Law & Policy\nDuke Law & Technology Review\nDuke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public PolicyLaw and Contemporary Problems is a quarterly, interdisciplinary, faculty-edited publication of the law school. Unlike traditional law reviews, L&CP uses a symposium format, generally publishing one symposium per issue on a topic of contemporary concern. L&CP hosts an annual conference at the law school featuring the authors of one of the year’s four symposia. Established in 1933, it is the oldest journal published at the law school.\nThe Duke Law Journal was the first student-edited publication at Duke Law and publishes articles from leading scholars on topics of general legal interest.\nDuke publishes the Alaska Law Review in a special agreement with the Alaska Bar Association, as the state of Alaska has no law school.\nThe Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy (DJGLP) is the preeminent journal for its subject matter in the world.The Duke Law & Technology Review has been published since 2001 and is devoted to examining the evolving intersection of law and technology.\nThe Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy was founded by members of the Class of 2006. Professors Erwin Chemerinsky and Christopher H. Schroeder served as the ConLaw journal's inaugural faculty advisors. Mikkelsen was the first editor-in-chief; the current editor-in-chief is Daniel Browning. The journal intends to fill a gap in law journal scholarship with a publication that could \"cover constitutional developments and litigation, and their intersection with public policy\". To ensure that the journal would remain timely, it established a partnership with the Duke Program in Public Law to produce \"Supreme Court Commentaries\" summarizing and explaining the impact recent cases could have on current issues. The journal publishes continually online and annually in print. It has sponsored speaker series and conferences exploring various issues in constitutional law and public policy.\nThe law school provides free online access to all of its academic journals, including the complete text of each journal issue dating back to January 1996 in a fully searchable HTML format and in Adobe Acrobat format (PDF). New issues are posted on the web simultaneously with print publication.\nIn 2005, the law school was featured in the June 6 unveiling of the Open Access Law Program, an initiative of Creative Commons, for its work in pioneering open access to legal scholarship.\n\n\n== Joint-degree programs ==\nThe School offers joint-degree programs with the Duke University Graduate School, the Duke Divinity School, Fuqua School of Business, the Medical School, the Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, the Pratt School of Engineering, and the Sanford School of Public Policy; and a JD/LLM dual degree program in International and Comparative Law. Approximately 25 percent of students are enrolled in joint-degree programs.\n\n\n== Employment ==\nAccording to Duke's 2017 ABA-required disclosures, 93.8 percent of the class of 2017 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation and not funded by the school – the highest number for any law school in the country. According to the NLJ, Duke ranks third among all law schools in the percentage of 2017 graduates working in federal clerkships or jobs at firms of 100 or more lawyers, a category NLJ terms \"elite jobs\". Duke also ranks fourth in federal clerkships.Law School Transparency gave Duke Law the highest \"Employment Score\" in the country at 93.8 percent and lowest \"Under-Employment Score\" of 0.4 percent in 2017.\n\n\n== Costs ==\nThe total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses) at Duke for the 2015–2016 academic year is $80,937. The Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years is $329,609.\n\n\n== Notable faculty ==\nCurrent faculty\nNotable faculty including a sitting Supreme Court Justice, a former United States Senator, 14 former Supreme Court clerks, a former federal judge and a former Judge Advocate General.\n\nSamuel Alito, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States\nJames Boyle, William Neal Reynolds Professor of Law (Intellectual Property and Legal Theory)\nJames Earl Coleman, John S. Bradway Professor of Law (criminal law) and Director of the Center for Criminal Justice and Professional Responsibility\nWalter E. Dellinger III, Douglas Blount Maggs Professor of Law, Fmr. Acting Solicitor General of the United States (1996–1997), Fmr. Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black\nJames C. Dever III, United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina\nCharles J. Dunlap Jr., Professor of the Practice of Law, Executive Director, Duke Center on Law, Ethics and National Security, Major General of the United States Air Force\nThavolia Glymph, John Hope Franklin Visiting Professor of American Legal History\nJack Knight, Frederic Cleaveland Professor of Law and Political Science\nDavid F. Levi, Dean, former Chief Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of California (1994–2007), Fmr. Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Lewis Powell.\nH. Jefferson Powell, Professor of Law, Fmr. Principal Deputy Solicitor General of the United States\nArti K. Rai, Elvin R. Latty Professor of Law, Fmr. Administrator of the Office of External Affairs at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (2009-2010)\nSarah Bloom Raskin, Rubenstein Fellow, Fmr. United States Deputy Secretary of the Treasury (2014-2017), Fmr. Governor of the Federal Reserve (2010-2014)\nChristopher H. Schroeder, Charles S. Murphy Professor of Law (administrative law), Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Policy (OLP), Fmr. Acting Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Policy, Chief Counsel to the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee\nScott Silliman, Professor of the Practice of Law (national security law, military law, and the law of armed conflict)\nMichael Tigar, Professor of the Practice of Law (criminal law), Fmr. Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice William Brennan,\nJonathan B. Wiener, William R. and Thomas L. Perkins Professor of Law (Risk Analysis and Regulation)Former faculty\n\nWilliam Van Alstyne, former William R. & Thomas S. Perkins Chair of Law (Constitutional Law), 1974–2004 (deceased)\nErwin Chemerinsky, former Alston & Bird Professor of Law (Constitutional Law), current Dean of the UC Berkeley School of Law\nBrainerd Currie, conflict of laws pioneer (deceased)\nRichard A. Danner, Archibald C. and Frances Fulk Rufty Research Professor of Law (former law librarian at University of Wisconsin–Madison) (deceased)\nRobinson O. Everett, Professor of Criminal Law and Former Chief Judge of the United States Court of Military Appeals (deceased) (also professor at Wake Forest University)\nJedediah Purdy, former Robinson O. Everett Professor of Law\nJoseph Tyree Sneed III, former Dean (1971-1973); federal judge (1973-1987) (deceased)\n\n\n== Notable alumni ==\nPolitical\n\nWillis Smith, 1912 – U.S. Senator from North Carolina\nWilliam B. Umstead, '21 – former Governor of North Carolina, U.S. Senator from North Carolina, U.S. Representative from North Carolina, Chairman of the North Carolina Democratic Party\nRichard Nixon, '37 – 37th President of the United States\nNick Galifianakis, '53 – U.S. Representative from North Carolina\nJim Courter '66 – former U.S. Representative from New Jersey\nDaniel T. Blue Jr. '73 – North Carolina State Senator and former Speaker of the North Carolina House of Representatives\nKenneth Starr, '73 – United States Solicitor General, Independent Counsel during the Clinton Administration\nBill Campbell, '77 – former Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia\nJaime Aleman Healy, '79 – Panama's Ambassador to the United States\nDenise Majette, '79 – U.S. Representative from Georgia\nDavid Addington, '81 – Chief of Staff and former legal counsel to Vice President Dick Cheney\nMichael Dreeben, '81 – Deputy Solicitor General of the United States, and a member of the legal teams involved in the Special Counsel investigation (2017–present) led by Robert Mueller\nTom Grady, '82 – U.S. Representative from Florida\nFloyd McKissick Jr., '84 - North Carolina State Senator\nManuel Sager, '85 – Swiss Ambassador to the United States\nDave Trott, '85 – U.S. Representative from Michigan and fundraiser for the Republican National Committee\nSusan Bysiewicz, '86 – Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut, Former Connecticut Secretary of State\nDavid McKean, '86 – U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg, former Director of Policy Planning\nMike Turzai, '87 – Speaker of the House, Pennsylvania House of Representatives\nClaude Allen, '90 – former Assistant to the President for Domestic Policy\nJohn Jay Hoffman, '92 – Attorney General of New Jersey\nMichael Elston, '94 – former Chief of Staff & Counselor, Office of the Deputy Attorney General\nDarren Jackson, '96 - House Minority Leader, North Carolina House of Representatives\nJerry Meek, '97 – former Chairman of the North Carolina Democratic Party\nMike Levin, '05 - U.S. Representative from California\nMarc Elias '93 - Partner at Perkins Coie LLP, General Counsel for Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign and for John Kerry's 2004 presidential campaignJudiciary\n\nCheri Beasley, LLM'18 – first Black female chief justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court\nCharles Becton, '69 – former Judge, North Carolina Court of Appeals\nGarrett Brown Jr., '68 – former Chief Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey\nJ. Michelle Childs, 'LLM '16, U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of South Carolina\nRobert L. Clifford, '50 – former Associate Justice, Supreme Court of New Jersey\nCurtis Lynn Collier, '74 – senior U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee\nColm Connolly, '91 – U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware\nTimothy J. Corrigan, '81 – U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Florida\nMark A. Davis, 'LLM '18 – Associate Justice, North Carolina Supreme Court\nJames C. Dever III, '87 – U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina\nBernice B. Donald, LLM'18 – U.S. Circuit Judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit\nAllyson Kay Duncan, '75 – retired U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit\nChristine Durham, '71 – first female Justice of the Utah Supreme Court\nRichard Gergel, '79 – U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of South Carolina\nPaul W. Grimm, LLM'16 – U.S. District Judge, United States District Court for the District of Maryland\nDavid Gustafson, '81 – Judge, United States Tax Court\nEva Guzman, LLM'14 – Texas Supreme Court Justice\nTodd M. Hughes, '92 – U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit; first openly gay U.S. Circuit Court Judge\nCarolyn Kuhl, '77 – Judge, Los Angeles Superior Court\nDenise Majette, '79 – former U.S. Representative from Georgia, former Georgia state judge\nSarah A. L. Merriam, LLM'18, nominee, U.S. District Judge, United States District Court for the District of Connecticut\nMandisa Maya, '90 – President of the Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa\nGraham Calder Mullen, '69 – senior U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Western District of North Carolina\nDavid Nuffer, LLM'18 – U.S. District Judge, United States District Court for the District of Utah\nWilliam H. Pauley III, '77 – senior U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York\nJeremy B. Rosen, '97 - nominee, U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California\nJohnnie B. Rawlinson, LLM'16 - U.S. Circuit Judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit\nRobin L. Rosenberg, '89 - U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida\nAllison Jones Rushing, '07 – U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit\nKenneth Starr, '73 – former U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia\nGary S. Stein, '56 – former Associate Justice, Supreme Court of New Jersey\nDonna Stroud, 'LLM '14 – Judge, North Carolina Court of Appeals\nA. William Sweeney, '48 – former Justice, Supreme Court of Ohio\nPatricia Timmons-Goodson, 'LLM '14 – former Associate Justice, North Carolina Supreme Court\nMichael B. Thornton, '82 – Judge, United States Tax Court\nGerald B. Tjoflat, '57 – U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit\nErnest C. Torres, '68 – retired U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of Rhode Island\nPeter Verniero, '84 – former Associate Justice, Supreme Court of New Jersey & Former New Jersey Attorney General\nSarah Hawkins Warren, '08 - Associate Justice, Georgia Supreme Court & Former Georgia Solicitor General\nCharles K. Wiggins, '76 – Associate Justice, Washington Supreme Court\nDon Willett, '92 LLM'16 – U.S. Circuit Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit & Former Texas Supreme Court Justice; famous, in part, for his social media commentary\nMary Ellen Coster Williams, '77 – Senior Judge, U.S. Court of Federal Claims\nAcademia\n\nGarrett Epps, '91 – Professor, University of Baltimore School of Law\nPamela Gann, '73 – President, Claremont McKenna College (former Duke Law professor)\nBen F. Johnson, '49 - Dean, Emory University School of Law and Georgia State University College of Law\nIvan C. Rutledge – Dean, Ohio State University Moritz College of Law.\nRodney A. Smolla, '78 – President, Furman University in South Carolina\nMichael Sorrell, '94 – President, Paul Quinn College in Texas\nKenneth Starr, '73 – Former President of Baylor University and former Dean of Pepperdine University School of Law\nZephyr Teachout, '99 – Professor, Fordham University School of LawBusiness\n\nJohn Canning Jr., '69 – Co-founder of Madison Dearborn Partners, Co-owner of Milwaukee Brewers\nGérard Louis-Dreyfus, '57 – Billionaire/Energy Magnate, Chairman of Louis Dreyfus Energy Services. Father of actress Julia Louis-Dreyfus\nHappy R. Perkins, '80 – former Vice President and General Counsel, GE Energy\nMonty Sarhan, '99 – Publisher and CEO, Cracked Magazine\nGao Xiqing, '86 – Vice Chairman, President, and Chief Investment Officer of the China Investment CorporationMilitary\n\nDan McCarthy, '83 – JAG Chief Prosecutor, United States NavySports\n\nJim Drucker (born 1952/1953), former Commissioner of the Continental Basketball Association, former Commissioner of the Arena Football League, and founder of NewKadia Comics\nDrew Rosenhaus, '90 – Sports Agent/Owner of Rosenhause Sports\nJay Bilas, '92 – ESPN Commentator and Former Duke Basketball Player and Coach\nQuin Snyder, '95 – Head Coach, Utah Jazz\nMiscellaneous\n\nJohn H. Adams, '62 – Founding Director, Natural Resources Defense Council\nD. Todd Christofferson, '72 – Apostle, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\nBen Fountain, '83 – Novelist, Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk\nMatt Jones, '03 – radio host and controlling owner of Ohio Valley Wrestling\nJeffrey Lichtman, '90 – Prominent criminal defense attorney\nArlinda Locklear, '76 – lawyer, the first Native American woman to argue a case before the U.S. Supreme Court\nKeith Lucas, attended – Academy Award-nominated writer and producer of Judas and the Black Messiah\nBascom Lamar Lunsford, 1913 – Folk musician\nGary Lynch, '75 – Chief Legal Officer, Morgan Stanley\nDavid H. Steinberg, '93 – Writer/Director for film and television\nTucker Max, '01 – Humorist and entrepreneur (associated with \"fratire\")\nCharlie Rose, '68 – journalist/TV host of the Charlie Rose Show on PBS\nMichael P. Scharf, '88 – professor of law and director of the Frederick K. Cox International Law Center at Case Western Reserve University School of Law\nTeddy Schwarzman, '06 – Academy Award-nominated film producer, The Imitation Game (son of Stephen A. Schwarzman)Fictional\n\nLt. Colonel Sarah MacKenzie, USMC, portrayed by Catherine Bell on JAG, earned her law degree from Duke University School of Law.\nSam Seaborn, portrayed by Rob Lowe on The West Wing, graduated from Duke Law School.\n\n\n=== Deans of Duke Law School ===\n1850 – 1882, Braxton Craven\n1891 – 1894, A.C. Avery\n1904 – 1927, Samuel Fox Mordecai\n1927 – 1930, W. Bryan Bolich (acting)\n1930 – 1934, Justin Miller\n1934 – 1947, H. Claude Horack\n1947 – 1949, Harold Sheperd\n1949 – 1950, Charles L.B. Lowndes\n1950 – 1956, Joseph A. McClain Jr.\n1956 – 1957, Dale F. Stansbury (acting)\n1957 – 1966, Elvin Latty\n1966 – 1968, F. Hodge O'Neal\n1968 – 1970, A. Kenneth Pye\n1971 – 1973, Joseph Tyree Sneed III\n1973 – 1976, A. Kenneth Pye\n1976 – 1977, Walter Dellinger (acting)\n1978 – 1988, Paul Carrington\n1988 – 1999, Pamela Gann\n1999 Clark C. Havighurst (interim)\n2000 – 2007, Katharine T. Barlett\n2007 – 2018, David F. Levi\n2018 – present, Kerry Abrams\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "James A. Baldwin (May 26, 1886 – August 2, 1964) was an American football player, track athlete, coach of football, basketball, and baseball, and college athletics administrator A native of Somerville, Massachusetts, Baldwin played on the football, baseball, and track teams at Dartmouth College, from which he graduated in 1908. Baldwin served as the head football coach at Rhode Island State College—now the University of Rhode Island, the University of Maine, Trinity College in Durham, North Carolina—now Duke University, Lehigh University, and Wake Forest University, compiling a career college football record of 43–37–16. Baldwin was also the head basketball coach at the same five schools, amassing a career college basketball mark of 85–66. In addition, he served as the head baseball coach at Rhode Island State and at Lehigh, tallying a career college baseball record of 32–25–1. From 1916 to 1919, Baldwin was the athletic director at Rhode Island State while he coached three sports.\n\n\n== Death ==\nBaldwin died on August 2, 1964, at a nursing home in Hyannis, Massachusetts.\n\n\n== Head coaching record ==\n\n\n=== College football ===\n\n\n=== College basketball ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nJames A. Baldwin at Find a Grave", "Renaissance Computing Institute (RENCI) was launched in 2004 as a collaboration involving the State of North Carolina, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), Duke University, and North Carolina State University. RENCI is organizationally structured as a research institute within UNC-CH, and its main campus is located in Chapel Hill, NC, a few miles from the UNC-CH campus. RENCI has engagement centers at UNC-CH, Duke University (Durham), and North Carolina State University (Raleigh).\nRENCI's founding director was Daniel A. Reed; Stanley C. Ahalt is the current director. RENCI employs over 80 staff members.\n\n\n== Mission statement ==\nRENCI's current mission is: \"to develop and deploy advanced technologies to enable research discoveries and practical innovations.\" RENCI achieves its mission by partnering with academic researchers, governmental policy makers, and industry leaders to engage in research and development aimed at solving critical challenges in several focus areas: data science and cyberinfrastructure; environmental sciences; and biomedical and health sciences.\n\n\n== History ==\nRENCI was founded in January 2004 by Daniel A. Reed, PhD, with funding from the State of North Carolina, UNC-CH, North Carolina State University, and Duke University. Dr. Reed formerly served as director of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), Chief Architect for the National Science Foundation (NSF) TeraGrid initiative, and Member of the President's Information Technology Advisory Committee. In May 2004, Alan Blatecky joined RENCI as deputy director. Mr. Blatecky formerly served as executive director of the San Diego Supercomputer Center and head of the NSF Middleware initiative.\n\nRENCI's initial mission statement was: to serve as a multidisciplinary institute bridging academe, commerce and society to enrich and empower human potential, create multi-institutional partnerships, and develop and deploy world-leading computational infrastructure.\nIn December 2005, RENCI received $5.9M in funding from the State of North Carolina for FY2005-2006 and $11.8M in recurring funds for \"staff support, computer operations and equipment.\" This funding was critical for RENCI as it developed a statewide infrastructure to create a virtual organization and leverage that infrastructure and the expertise of RENCI staff in order to engage in federally funded projects of interest to the State. RENCI's initial focus was on applying cyber technologies and advanced analytics to coastal disaster planning, mitigation, and response. RENCI has since engaged in diverse partnerships throughout North Carolina and across the nation. Those partnerships have yielded numerous federal grant awards, thus providing the organization with an additional revenue stream.\n\nRENCI underwent a change in leadership in 2007, with the departure of Dr. Reed and the appointment of Mr. Blatecky as interim director. RENCI implemented its first ever strategic planning process during this time. The process led to a revised mission statement: The Renaissance Computing Institute, a multi-institutional organization, brings together multidisciplinary experts and advanced technological capabilities to address pressing research issues and to find solutions to complex problems that affect the quality of life in North Carolina, our nation and the world.\nIn 2009, Stanley C. Ahalt, PhD, was appointed to the position of director. Dr. Ahalt previously served as executive director of the Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) and was a professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at The Ohio State University (OSU). Upon arriving at RENCI, Dr. Ahalt received a joint appointment as professor in the department of computer science at UNC-CH.\nAshok Krishnamurthy, PhD, was appointed as deputy director in February 2013. Dr. Krishnamurthy was previously the director of research and scientific development at OSC and associate professor in the Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering at OSU.\nUnder the leadership of Drs. Ahalt and Krishnamurthy, RENCI expanded its staff numbers, external partners, and breadth of activities. Several key partnerships and initiatives have been launched. The first is a partnership with the School of Medicine at UNC-CH on a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Center for Translational and Clinical Science award, which led to the establishment of the North Carolina Translational and Clinical Sciences Institute in 2008 (NC TraCS). Drs. Ahalt and Krishnamurthy serve as director and co-director, respectively, of the Biomedical Informatics Service within NC TraCS. A second key activity was the founding of the Water Science Software Institute (WSSI), which was co-founded by RENCI and the National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center (SESYNC) in September 2012. A third key activity was the creation of the National Consortium for Data Science (NCDS) in February 2013. The NCDS is headquartered at RENCI and includes members drawn from academics, industry, and government. Finally, a fourth key activity was the establishment of the iRODS Consortium in December 2014. The iRODS Consortium also is headquartered at RENCI and includes a diverse international membership.\n\n\n== Current leadership ==\nStanley C. Ahalt, director\nAshok Krishnamurthy, deputy director\nJay Aikat, chief operating officer\nIlya Baldin, director of network research and infrastructure\nBrian Blanton, director of earth data sciences\nJason Coposky, executive director of the iRODS Consortium\nRob Fowler, director of high-performance computing\nRay Idaszak, director of DevOps\nRick Luettich, chief domain scientist in coastal models\nLea Shanley, co-executive director of the South Big Data Hub\nKirk C. Wilhelmsen, chief domain scientist in genomics and director of biomedical research initiatives\n\n\n== Key research and development focus areas and technologies ==\n\n\n=== Data science and cyberinfrastructure ===\nRENCI has a number of active research programs that are aimed at developing and deploying advanced computing and networking capabilities. Many of the resultant technologies are open source. For example, the open source ExoGENI (Exo-Global Environment for Network Innovation) is being developed as part of the NSF-funded GENI initiative. ExoGENI functions as a federated, cloud-based Networked Infrastructure-as-a-Service (NIaaS) platform for dynamic provisioning of networking, storage, and compute resources. ADAMANT (Adaptive Data-Aware Multi-domain Application Network Topologies), also funded by the NSF, builds upon ExoGENI. ADAMANT integrates the Pegasus (workflow management) and HT Condor scientific workflow system with the ExoGENI NIaaS platform to orchestrate the execution of large-scale scientific workflows over distributed cloud or traditional high-performance computing resources. iRODS (integrated Rule-Oriented Data System) was developed by the Data Intensive Cyber Environments (DICE) Centers at UNC-CH and the University of California, San Diego and is currently maintained by RENCI. iRODS is an open source middleware technology designed to provide policy-based control over data access, movement, use, and archiving across geographical sites, disparate storage technologies, and multiple user groups, each with varying policies regarding data access and use. RADII (Resource Aware Data-centric collaborative Infrastructure; web citation) integrates GENI's ORCA (Open Resource Control Architecture) with iRODS to dynamically provision a distributed cloud-based infrastructure for multi-institutional, data-driven research collaborations. RADII accomplishes this through software designed to model research data and map data elements, computations, and storage onto the underlying physical infrastructure of iRODS. DataBridge aims to provide a multi-dimensional sociometric network system for sharing long-tail data collections. DataBridge is an open source collaboration tool that allows scientists to explore available data sets and their relevant algorithms and define semantic bridges to link to and access diverse data sets within the sociometric network.\n\n\n=== Environmental sciences ===\nMany of RENCI's projects in the Environmental Sciences focus on hydrology, coastal storm surges, and advanced modeling to assist in disaster preparedness. ADCIRC is an open source software model that applies advanced analytics to multiple data sources and types (e.g., hydrology data sets, atmospheric data sets, tropical storm forecasting data, Geographic Information System data, etc.) to enable real-time, high-resolution prediction of the impact of coastal storm surges and flooding after hurricanes and related events. In collaboration with researchers at the UNC Coastal Resilience Center and the National Hurricane Center, ADCIRC is being developed as a coastal forecasting system to assist with state and federal disaster planning and decision support. EarthCube is an NSF-funded initiative that aims \"to develop a framework over the next decade to assist researchers in understanding and predicting the Earth system from the Sun to the center of the Earth.\" EarthCube is being designed as an open dynamic cyberinfrastructure to enable community-governed data sharing across the geosciences, including ocean science, polar studies, atmospheric science, geospace, computer science, and other fields. HydroShare is supported by the NSF-funded CUAHSI (Consortium of Universities for the Advancement of Hydrologic Science Inc.) and is under development as an open collaboration cyberinfrastructure for hydrology. HydroShare allows water scientists to identify and retrieve water-related data sets and associated algorithms and models and then analyze and compute on the data using a distributed computing environment that includes grid-based cloud and high-performance computing and storage capabilities\n\n\n=== Biomedical and health sciences ===\nA major focus of RENCI's work in the Biomedical and Health Sciences is clinical genomics. RENCI works with NC TraCS, the Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center at UNC-CH, and UNC's Information Technology Services Research Computing Division to develop and implement technologies to support next-generation genomic sequencing technologies, such as Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) and Whole Exome Sequencing (WES). These technologies include the GMW (Genetic Medical Workflow) Engine, which was funded in part by the NIH and provides end-to-end capture, analysis, validation, and reporting of WGS and WES data. The GMW Engine is designed as open source architecture that coordinates workflows, sub-workflows, samples, data, and people to support all aspects of genomics research and clinical application, from the initial patient visit to the physician-guided reporting of genomic findings. MapSeq (Masively Parallel Sequencing) is an open source plugin-based Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) that provides secure management and execution of the complex downstream computational and analytical steps involved in high-throughput genomic sequencing and other data-intensive applications. MaPSeq and its homegrown sister technology, GATE (Grid Access Triage Engine), are built on top of Apache Karaf and together provide extensible capabilities for downstream analysis of genomic data and other large data sets, including workflow pipeline execution and management, meta-scheduling of workflow jobs, opportunistic use of compute resources, secure data transfer, and web-based client access. CANVAS (CAroliNa Variant Annotation Store) and AnnoBot (Annotation Bot) work together to provide version-controlled annotation and metadata for genomic variant data in order to support up-to-date clinical interpretation of genomic variants and thereby guide clinical decision making. CANVAS is designed as an open source, relational PostgreSQL relational database that stores genomic variant data with associated annotation and metadata. AnnoBot consists of Python modules and software driver code configured to provide automated monitoring and retrieval of external data sources for annotation updates. CHAT (Convergent Haplotype Association Tagging) is a software algorithm that allows for the identification of moderately penetrant genomic variants using cross-population genetic structures. CHAT invokes a graph theory–based algorithm to determine the haplotype phase of a population of unrelated individuals by: identifying subsets of individuals that share a region of the genome through descent; and then generating a consensus haplotype for the shared region. The SMW (Secure Medical Workspace) provisions a secure environment for access to sensitive patient data for clinical care or Institutional Review Board–approved clinical research. The open source SMW architecture uses virtualization technology (i.e., VMWare) and Data Leakage Protection (DLP) technology (i.e., WebSense) to create a secure virtual workspace coupled with the ability to prevent (or allow with a challenge and auditing by Information Technology staff) the physical removal of data from a central, secure storage environment.\n\n\n== Institutes and consortiums ==\nRENCI pioneered the establishment of a national institute, the WSSI, and two major consortiums, the iRODS Consortium and the NCDS.\n\n\n=== WSSI ===\nThe NSF-funded WSSI was established in September 2012 as a collaboration between RENCI and SESYNC. The mission of the WSSI is to \"enable and accelerate new transformative water science by concurrently transforming both the software culture and the research culture of the water science community.\" When it is fully operational, the WSSI aims to operate under the Open Community Engagement Model, which will integrate multiple NSF-funded initiatives (Synthesis Centers, Environmental Observatories, Software Sustainability Institutes, etc.) to distill data, ideas, theories, and methods and thereby provide synthetic information to address water science challenges that cannot be addressed using traditional disciplinary methods. The activities of the WSSI focus on the development of an open community and the promotion of open source and agile software development in order accelerate transformative water science research. In addition to RENCI and SESYNC, current members include the Institute for the Environment at UNC-CH, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, University of Michigan, University of Maryland, NCSA, RedHat, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and IBM.\n\n\n=== NCDS ===\nThe NCDS was established by RENCI in February 2013 as a public/private partnership of leading universities, governmental and non-profit agencies, and businesses devoted to advancing data science, which the NCDS defines as \"the systematic study of the organization and use of digital data in order to accelerate discovery, improve critical decision-making processes, and enable a data-driven economy.\" The mission of the NCDS is \"to provide the foundation needed to advance data science research, education, and economic opportunity.\" The NCDS works toward this mission by providing intellectual leadership and hosting numerous workshops, an academic-industry faculty fellowship, a Data Matters Summer Short Course series, student career events, invited talks, and summit meetings. In addition, the NCDS sponsors a Data Observatory, which provides a shared federated infrastructure for data sharing and computing. The NCDS also partners with numerous regional efforts in data science, including Datapalooza, Triangle Open Data Day, Pearl Hacks, Data4Decisions, Analytics Forward UnConference, and others. As of June 2015, the NCDS comprises 15 member organizations, with 8 based in North Carolina and 4 multinational companies with a strong presence in the Research Triangle Park, NC area.\n\n\n=== iRODS Consortium ===\nThe iRODS Consortium was founded by RENCI in December 2014 and is headquartered at RENCI, as is the main iRODS development team. The mission of the consortium is \"to ensure the sustainability of the integrated Rule-Oriented Data System (iRODS) and to further its adoption and continued evolution.\" To achieve its mission, the consortium works to develop standards for the open source iRODS technology and its future development, promote advancements for the technology, and expand the user base. The consortium also supports the development of a mission-critical, production-level version of iRODS (currently v4.1). The iRODS Consortium includes a diverse membership of iRODS user organizations from around the world. Current consortium members include RENCI, the DICE Centers at UNC-CH and the University of California, San Diego, DataDirect Networks, Seagate Technology, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cleversafe, EMC Corporation (EMC2), IBM, and NASA's Atmospheric Science Data Center.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nRADII\nADCIRC\nData4Decisions\nDataBridge\nDatapalooza\nEarthCube\nExoGENI\nHydroShare\niRODS\niRODS Consortium\nNational Hurricane Center\nNCDS\nNC TraCS\nPearl Hacks\nTriangle Open Data Day\nUNC Coastal Resilience Center", "Steven Sametz (born 1954, Westport, Connecticut) is active as both conductor and composer. He has been hailed as \"one of the most respected choral composers in America.\" Since 1979, he has been on the faculty of Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where he holds the Ronald J. Ulrich Chair in Music and is Director of Choral Activities and is founding director of the Lehigh University Choral Union. Since 1998, he has served as Artistic Director of the professional a cappella ensemble, The Princeton Singers. He is also the founding director of the Lehigh University Summer Choral Composers’ Forum. In 2012, he was named Chair of the American Choral Directors Association Composition Advisory Committee.\n\n\n== Early training, education and influences ==\nSametz's earliest piano works date from the age of six. During junior high and high school years in his native Westport, Connecticut, he began to write for choirs and chamber ensembles and undertook large-scale scoring of works for band and orchestra with encouragement of his teachers. Summer studies at the Amherst Music Center (Amherst, Maine) focused on piano, viola, voice, baritone horn and composition. He continued to compose during his undergraduate years at Yale University (BA, 1976), where his teachers included Robert Fountain (conducting) and Alejandro Planchart (early music). He spent his junior year at Yale abroad, studying conducting with Helmuth Rilling in Germany and composition with Sylvano Bussotti in Italy. He spent four summers at the Aspen Music School, studying choral and operatic conducting with Fiora Contino and voice with Jan DeGaetani. From 1976–79, he attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison, earning the Masters and Doctor of Music Arts degrees in Choral Conducting. His primary teachers included Robert Fountain (choral conducting), Catherine Comet (orchestral conducting), Carlos Moses (opera conducting) and Bruce Benward (music theory).\nLargely self-taught as a composer, Sametz's style is influenced by Gregorian chant, Renaissance polyphony, French Impressionism, the works of Igor Stravinsky and world music. His early exposure to choral singing, beginning in fifth grade, gave him a predilection for singing lines and communication of expressive text through music. Beginning with some of his earliest works (e.g.: e.e, cummings’ thy fingers make early flowers, (1972) for soprano solo and string quartet; Farewell (1972) setting Kahil Gibran's text for a cappella chorus) it is the expressive line of the text that guides the compositional process.\nSpiritual practices and world travel have contributed to Sametz's style. Raised in a Jewish tradition, he was hired in 1976 as assistant choirmaster and associate organist at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Norwalk, CT. He worked there much of his Yale undergraduate career, commuting from New Haven to Norwalk. At the same time he was being exposed Christian liturgy, he was beginning practice in Transcendental Meditation and would later study Vipassana and Zen meditation techniques. During his high school and college years, he traveled widely in Europe, studying composition briefly in Nice with Tony Aubin. During his graduate studies, he served on the musical staff of St. Paul's Church in Madison, Wisconsin, conducting a small choir devoted to performance of Gregorian chant reading from the Liber Usualis. Elements of Catholic liturgy and chant may be heard in several of Sametz's pieces: ¡O llama de amor viva! A Mystical Vision of St. John of the Cross (1987) is based largely on the Easter chant, Victimae Paschali laudes; Nevermore will the Wind (2002) and A Child’s Requiem (2014) use the Gregorian Requiem chant.\nIn the 1980s and 90s, he made three trips around the world, traveling widely in Southeast Asia, where he was influenced by the musical traditions of Japan, Thailand, and Indonesia, returning with an extensive collection of musical instruments. In many of his works there is a sense of timelessness common to Buddhist practice and Christian prayer. The combined influences of Gregorian chant, Renaissance polyphony, Impressionism and Asian music led to a style more based in timbre and overlapping melodic lines (at times aleatoric) than in harmonic motion.\n\n\n== Composition ==\nSametz has received commissions from the National Endowment for the Arts, the Connecticut Council on the Arts, and the Santa Fe music festival, creating new works for Chanticleer, The Princeton Singers, the Dale Warland Singers, The Los Angeles Master Chorale, Philadelphia Singers, Pro Arte Chamber Choir, the Santa Fe Desert Chorale, Connecticut Choral Artists, Joyful Noise and the King of Thailand. In 2013, Sametz won the Raymond and Beverly Sackler Composition Prize, administered through the University of Connecticut. In fulfillment of the award, Sametz composed the oratorio, A Child’s Requiem, in memory of the twenty-six victims slain at Sandy Hook Elementary School in 2012. The work received extensive national coverage through the CBS Evening News, NPR, ABC News, U.S. News & World Report, and Associated Press coverage. Scored for three soloists, children's chorus, child speakers, adult choir, and chamber orchestra, and based on writings by children combined with texts of Emerson, Dickinson, H.D. and Sametz, it asks the powerful question: How can we keep our children safe in a culture of violence?\nIn 2011, Sametz received one of the country's most prestigious choral commissions, the American Choral Directors Association's Raymond W. Brock Memorial Commission, to write Three Mystical Choruses for premiere by Chanticleer at the 2011 ACDA National Convention in Chicago. In 2009, Sametz's Music’s Music, commissioned by the Los Angeles Master Chorale, was premiered at Disney Hall in Los Angeles. Dr. Sametz's compositions have been heard throughout the world at the Tanglewood, Ravinia, Salzburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and Santa Fe music festivals.\nHis works first came to prominence through his collaboration with the internationally acclaimed professional ensemble, Chanticleer. Sametz's setting of ¡O llama de amor viva! A Mystical Vision of St. John of the Cross was written for Chanticleer in 1987 and featured at the Chorus America convention in 1988. The cinematic approach of this fourteen-minute work — an opening villancico yielding to a portrait of the incarceration of San Juan de la Cruz, his torture, his vision, and a return to his cell, ending as it opened with the framingvillancico — gives a key to Sametz's defining style. Each work creates its own world. In 1996, he created a work for Lehigh University Choral Arts for large chorus, orchestra of tabla and tampuras with Indian dancers and a giant puppet of Vishnu that rose amid flashpots and smoke to portray the Indian story of The Demon King. His Dudaryku – A Village Scene (2001), written for Chanticleer and The Princeton Singers, is an extended double-choir work that poignantly portrays the loss of a musician and musical life in a small Ukrainian town. These worlds, often based on myths, legends, or folk tales from across the globe, reflect in deeply personal ways on universal themes of love, loss, joy, mortality, and a transcendence of earthly cares.\nIt was with his in time of (1997), a setting of e. e. cummings’ poem, that Sametz's works came to international attention. Originally conceived as a large work for three orchestras and five choirs, it was later revised for the twelve singers of Chanticleer, in which form it was featured on their 1999 Grammy Award-winning CD, Colors of Love. There is a third scoring (recorded by The Princeton Singers and the composer) utilizing the original choral forces with chamber orchestra.\nSametz has delved into the rich field of medieval gay literature found in clerical letters and marginalia. His largest work to date, Carmina amoris (2001; revised 2010) is a choral symphony in six movements for large orchestra, choir, two soprano and tenor soloists, setting monastic love letters of Alcuin, Ausonius, and the anonymous clerical writings preserved in the Carmina Cantabrigiensia. This 60-minute work is published by E.C. Schirmer and recorded by Lehigh University Choral Arts under the direction of the composer. In 2011, the work was given at Carnegie Hall under the direction of the composer with Carmen Pelton, soprano and William Burden, tenor and the Lehigh University Choral Arts.\nReflecting the evolving history of gay civil liberties, Sametz's works speak to the struggle that has been inherent for the gay population for centuries. While Carmina amoris is his most ambitious setting of gay love texts, other compositions of his take up this theme: Dulcis amor, commissioned by the Harvard Glee Club (2004), sets a love poem of the ninth-century cleric Alcuin of York; We Two (2006–7), commissioned by the Minnesota-based male ensemble Cantus for a consortium of nine male choirs in the US and Canada, sets lines from Walt Whitman’s ground-breaking Calamus cluster from Leaves of Grass. The 2009 setting of Whitman's We Two Boys Together Clinging for baritone and tenor duet with vibraphone and violoncello was later recast as the central movement of his Not an End of Loving (2010) for 12-voice chamber choir, which was premiered and recorded by Chanticleer. Both versions are published by E.C. Schirmer.\nSametz's earliest choral-orchestral works exhibit his fascination with a wide variety of orchestral coloration. His use of Burmese gongs (muji no makotoba—Scripture without words on a text by Hakuin Ekaku), hammer dulcimer, onde martenot and cimbalon (cent fois plus ombre... on a text by Robert Desnos) lead to later experimentation with Indian tampura and tablas in his The Demon King (1996) and Shamalyo (2007), (both in collaboration with the Indian singer/writer, Arati Shah-Yukich). This sound palette is further expanded by his more recent use of electronics, using digital delay on obbligato instruments with choir. His Fantasia on Jesu, meine Freude (2009),Voices of Broken Hearts (2010) and Fantasia on Call to Remembrance (2011) all stretch the boundaries of human singing into the realm of enhanced electronic vocal production. Use of electronic enhancement was foreshadowed in his The White Raven — ballet-concerto for piano, chorus and orchestra (2005) and the violin concerto of 2006, Be/dazzled. Sametz used digital delay on six core instruments in his setting of A Child’s Requiem.\nSametz has created several ballets, from his early Arachne’s Busy Shopping Day (1987) to his setting of a Tlingit creation myth, The White Raven-ballet-concerto for piano, chorus and orchestra (2005), to the more recent Small Steps/Tiny Revolutions (2008) written for the Rioult Dance company of New York, premiered at Lehigh University and subsequently staged in Florida, Ohio and State College, PA.\nSametz's compositions are published by E.C. Schirmer Publishing, Oxford University Press, Alliance Music, Walton Music, GIA, and Steven Sametz Publications.\n\n\n== Conducting ==\nAs Artistic Director of the Princeton Singers since 1998, Sametz has recorded four CDs and led the ensemble in repertoire from the medieval era to newly composed works. Repertoire includes Messiaen's Cinq rechants, Stephen Paulus's I Love (commissioned by the Princeton Singers) and works of DuFay, Ockeghem, Josquin, Milhaud, Mahler, Tavener and many works written for them by Sametz. In 2004, The Princeton Singers collaborated with Lehigh Choral Arts in a staged version of the Bach Matthäuspassion. The Princeton Singers has been featured at conferences of the American Choral Directors Association, American Organists Guild and Chorus America.\nAs the Director of Choral Activities at Lehigh University, Sametz directs the Lehigh University Choir, Choral Union and men's Glee Club in choral-orchestral repertoire from all eras. Many of Sametz's compositions have been premiered at Lehigh. Additionally, Lehigh University groups have performed on tour at New York's Avery Fisher Hall, Carnegie Hall, the Schubertsaal in Vienna, the Berlin Philharmonic, Beijing University, the St. Petersburg Philharmonic in Russia, and the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Memorial Hall in Taipei.\nWhile still a student of Catherine Comet in graduate school, Sametz won the Redlands (CA) Orchestral Competition. He regularly conducts orchestral repertoire as well as major works for chorus and orchestra. Guest conducting appearances include the Taipei Philharmonic Foundation, the Berkshire Music Festival, the New York Chamber Symphony, the Santa Fe Desert Chorale, CONCORA, Chanticleer and the Netherlands Radio Choir. At the Santa Fe Music Festival, he conducted his own works in a program entitled \"Sametz conducts Sametz.\" He has conducted Chanticleer in the Monteverdi Vespers of 1610 in New York (in collaboration with Lehigh Choral Arts) and San Francisco.\n\n\n== Works ==\n\n\n=== Opera ===\nThe Marriage of the Table and the Chair, text by Deborah Sacarakis. A children's opera set in the wild west. Soloist, chorus, small instrumental ensemble. 1982. (unpublished.)\n\n\n=== Orchestral ===\nArachne's Busy Shopping Day (Dance Movement for Orchestra) (2 flutes doubling piccolos, alto flute; 2 oboes – second doubles English horn; 2 clarinets – second doubles bass clarinet; 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, trombone, harp, piano, percussion, strings.) 1987.\nSmall Steps, Tiny Revolutions. Ballet commissioned for performance by the Pascal Rioult Dance Company. (Flute, soprano saxophone [triples English horn & oboe], clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, piano, harp, synthesizer, percussion). 2007. Premiere Jan 26, 2008.\n\n\n=== Concerti ===\nBedazzled. Concerto for electric violin and orchestra (Fl., picc., oboe, 2 Bb clarinets, 2 Horns, 5 percussion, harp and strings) 2006.\nEarth, Wind, Fire. Concertino for two harps and orchestra. (2 flutes, 2d fl doubles picc); oboe, English horn; 2 clarinets, (2d doubles bass cl.); 2 bassoons (2d doubles contrabassoon), 2 horns, 2 trumpets, percussion, strings). Commissioned by Andrea Wittchen and The Lehigh Valley Chamber Orchestra. 2003. Revised and expanded 2010.\nOrison – A Child's Prayer Trumpet and Flute soli or other combinations of treble instruments, (e.g. two violins, violin and clarinet,etc.), strings and harp. 1999\nThe White Raven – ballet concerto for piano, orchestra and chorus. (2 flutes, 2d fl doubles picc; oboe, English horn; 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, percussion, harp, strings)Premiered April, 2005. Eugene Albulescu, piano. Text based on Tlingit creation myth.\n\n\n=== Band ===\nHome. (Based on Aka pygmy music). (3 flutes – flutes 1 and two double piccolos; oboe, 3 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, 3 saxophones, 2 trumpets, 4 horns, 3 trombones, baritone horn, tuba, percussion – 7 players). Commissioned by Paul Salerni for the Lehigh University Wind Ensemble. 1984.\n\n\n=== Chorus and orchestra ===\nAmerican Songs – Sacred and Profane. (Texts by Driscoll and Elliot) Baritone solo, large orchestra, chorus * \nA Way of Talking to A Dog You Don't Know\nBlood Love\nAt Being Buried, My Surprise (chorus only in number 3)\nCarmina amoris. (Medieval love songs). Choral Symphony in 6 movements. 2 Soprano soloists (one off-stage) and tenor solo, large orchestra and choir\nA Child’s Requiem, (in memory of the twenty-six victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting) through the Raymond and Beverly Sacker Music Prize. For two choirs, three soloists, child speakers and chamber orchestra (2014–15). Premiered 2014.\ncent fois plus ombre... Text by Robert Desnos. (Cimbalon, hammer dulcimer, harp, electric piano, onde martenot, vibraphone, marimba, harpsichord, percussion, flute, alto flute, piccolo, 2 oboes, English horn, 2 bassoons, 3 horns and off-stage horn; off-stage women's chorus (SSAA) and organ.) Commissioned for the centennial celebration of Packer Memorial Church, Lehigh University. Premiered 1987.\nColloque sentimental, text by Paul Verlaine. (Flute, oboe, clarinet, bassett horn, bass clarinet, harp, celeste, vibraphone, percussion, chorus, baritone solo, incidental SSAA soli, organ, strings, off-stage strings.) 1977.\nin time of. Text by e.e. cummings. (2 flutes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, harp, organ, SATB choir, SATB soli, 2 SSA children's choirs, divided string orchestras.) 1995. (Two other versions, see a cappella and works for chorus and small instrumental ensembles).\nmuji no makotoba (Scripture without words). Text by Hakuin Ekaku. (4 flutes-doubling piccolo, alto, and bass flutes; B-flat clarinet doubling bass clarinet, C-trumpet, piano/synthesizer, celesta, harp, percussion, SATB chorus, soprano solo, strings.) Commissioned for the 250th anniversary celebration of the city of Bethlehem, PA. 1991.\n\n\n=== Works for chorus and small instrumental ensembles or obbligato instruments ===\nAlleluia for two (or four) part choir, handbells, opt. harp. 2002 . Published by Oxford University Press.\nAlleluia-Amen SATB, organ, and brass. (optional harp and percussion)1993. Published by E.C. Schirmer.\nAngel Fire – A Christmas Anthem. Text by Peter Elliot. SATB, organ, handbells, 3 trumpets, optional harp and additional brass. Commissioned by the Cathedral Choral Society. Premiere at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., 2002\nAngelus. SATB and handbells (optional harp). Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2005.\nBonse aba (All Children Sing!). Traditional Zambian text. SA and soli with percussion instruments. Commissioned by Joyful Noise, a special needs chorus. Premiered at the Chorus America national conference. 2009.\nChild of Song for SATB chorus, alto flute, clarinet, horn, percussion and harp. Published by EC Schirmer, 2009.\nThe Choir Invisible for SATB chorus, organ, harp and percussion. Commissioned by the South Bend Chamber Choir. South Bend, Indiana. 2006.\nThe Demon King. Traditional Sanskrit text. SATB, Indian ensemble, narrators, and puppet. With Arati Shah-Yukich. Premiered by Lehigh University Choral Arts, 1996.\nDesert Voices. (Seven movements.) Native American texts. SATB, soprano solo, and chamber ensemble (Flute doubles piccolo and alto flute, clarinet, cello, harp, piano, percussion.) Commissioned for the Santa Fe Desert Chorale. Premiere Santa Fe, NM, 1993. '\nDulcis amor. Text by Alcuin. TTBB with tenor and baritone solos. Optional harp. Optional orchestration with 2 cls, 2 bssns, 4 hns and harp. Commissioned by the Harvard Glee Club. 2004.\nEchoes. Text by Gerard Manley Hopkins. (Double choir, water glasses, amplified harp and percussion.) Commissioned as a National Endowment for the Arts composer consortium grant for the Philadelphia Singers, the Dale Warland Singers, and the Washington Chamber Singers with Chanticleer. 1988.\nFantasia on “Call to Remembrance” for SATB choir and digitally delayed oboe. Commissioned for The Princeton Singeres, 2011.\nFantasia on “Jesu, meine Freude” for SATB choir and digitally delayed Barique recorder or other treble instrument. (2009)\nin time of. Text by e.e. cummings. (2 flutes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, harp, organ, SATB choir, SATB soli, 2 SSA children's choirs, 4 violins, harp, and organ.) 1995. Oxford University Press, 2002.\nLaudare. Text by Constance Carrier. SATB (with opt. SATB off-stage choir), string quartet and piano. Commissioned by Connecticut Choral Artists. Premiere November, 1999.\nLitany (For a Year). Text by Susan Campbell. Commissioned by the Alaska Chamber Singers (Anchorage, Alaska) SATB chorus and violin (2015)\nThe Maji. SATB and brass quintet. 1995. \\\\\nMusic’s Music. Text by Megan E. Freeman. (SATB-SATB choir, clarinet and harp). Premiere at Disney Hall, Los Angeles. February, 2009.\nNo More War–A Letter for Sarah. Texts by Major Sullivan Ballou and General Philip Kearney (Civil War texts). Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. (Baritone solo, chorus and string quartet). 2012\nNevermore will the wind. Text by H.D. (Hilda Doolittle). SAT-SATB; horn, percussion, harp. \\\\ Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2002\nNunc Dimittis (He Gives Us Joy). Text from Song of Simeon (Luke 2:25–32) and lines from William Blake's Songs of Experience and Songs of Innocence. (Strings, harp, percussion, organ, SATB chorus, tenor and baritone solos.) Commissioned by the Bucks County Choral Society. 1997.\nProcessional Sanctus. (Double choir, brass quintet, percussion, organ.) Premiered by Lehigh University Choral Arts, 1997.\nThe Return. Text by Gordon Edwards. (Violin, oboe, violoncello, harp, piano, percussion, SA choir, soprano solo.) Commissioned by Pro Arte Singers, New Canaan, CT. 1997.\nSanctus. (Double choir, SSA solos, 3 violins, cello, bass, organ, percussion.) Premiered by Lehigh University Choral Arts, 1997.\nThe Twenty-ninth Bather. SSA, vc., marimba. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers (2009). See also a cappella version.\nThree Biblical Love Songs (with strings, harp, opt. dulcimer in No. 2). See also a cappella version of Nos. 1 and 3, below. 2012\nDavid and Jonathan (TTBB)\nEntreat Me Not To Go From You (SSAA); also for vln and harp/dulcimer\nRise Up, My Love (SATB). [No. 3 was commissioned by The Cheyenne Chamber Chorus]\nVoices of Broken Hearts. Text by Carl Sandburg. (SSAA and digitally delayed viola or vibraphone). Commissioned by Wellesley College. 2009.\n\n\n=== Choir and organ/piano ===\ndel nacimiento (Of the Birth). Text by Saint John of the Cross. Unison choir and harmonium (organ); optional harp and violin. 1987.\nI Cannot Dance, O Lord. SSA and organ. Text by Mechtild of Magdeburg. 2004.\nKumulipo. Text on a Hawaiian creation myth. SATB or SATB-SA with organ. Commissioned for Punahao High School in honor of its alumnus, President Barack Obama. 2012\nThe Light Within. SATB and keyboard or harp. Text by Peter Elliot based on 2 Corinthians 4: 7, 16–18. Commissioned by the Calvin Institute for Christian Worship, 2003. GIA Press, 2004 '\nMagnificat. SATB and organ. Premiered by Lehigh University Choir, 1996. Oxford University Press, 2000.\nPerhaps They Are Not Stars. Innuit text. Treble choir and piano. Commissioned by the Lower Macungie Middle School. 2002 . Published by Walton Music.\nUnless the Lord Build the House. SATB Choir, treble choir, treble soloist, handbells. Commissioned by the Princeton United Methodist Church, Princeton, New Jersey. 2000.\nYou are a Letter from Christ. Text from Corinthians II 3: 2–3; additional text by the composer. Commissioned by The Texas Lutheran University Choir. Douglas Boyer, director. 2003 (also see a cappella version)\n\n\n=== A cappella choir ===\nAmo! Text by Baudri of Bourgeuil. SATB. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers, 2004. (optional harp)\nUn bacio (A Kiss). Text by Giambattista Marino from La canzona dei baci (The Book of kisses). Commissioned by CONCORA (Connecticut Choral Artists). SATB. 2015.\nA Christmas Carol. SATB-SATB. Medieval text (“Gloire be to God”). Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2007.\nThe Crocodile. Text by Lewis Carroll. TB. 1986.\nDante’s Dream. SSAA-SATB-TTBB. Text by Dante Alighieri from Il Paradiso. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2013.\nDavid and Jonathan. TTBB. (See also Three Biblical Choruses, supra). 2012\ndoth love exist? Text by D. Trout. TTBB. 2012.\nDudaryku-- A Village Scene. Traditional Ukrainian Texts. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers for performance with Chanticleer. 2001\nDulcis amor. Text by Alcuin. TTBB with tenor and baritone solos. 2004.\nEcho. Text by Christina Rossetti. Commissioned by Harmonia Chamber Singers (Buffalo, NY). 2015\nLa Eternidad. SATB. Text by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz. Commissioned by the Phoenix Bach Choir. 2004\nEveryone Sang. Text by Siegried Sassoon. SATB. Commissioned by the University of Illinois Choir.\nFive Sandburg Settings. Text by Carl Sandburg. Commissioned by the Pro Arte Chamber Singers and the Connecticut Council on the Arts. 1989.\nVaudeville Dancer\nBaby Face\nJoy\nThe Junk Man\nAlone and Not Alone.\nFarewell. SSAATTBB Written for the Staples High School (Westport, CT) Orphenians, George Weigle, direcgtor. 1972\nGabriel! A Tennessee Christmas Cantata. Text by Deborah Sakarakis. SATB. Soprano solo. Premiered Lehigh University Choir. 1987.\nGod Over All. Text by Hildebert de Lavardin (12th c.). SATB. Commissioned by Hope Lutheran Church, Cherryville, PA. 2014\nI Have Had Singing. Text from Ronald Blythe. Published by Steven Sametz Publications (SSP001). 1992. Recorded by Chanticleer on I Have Had Singing (Chanticleer Records); re-issued on Teldec Out Of This World, and Reflections. Recorded by The Princeton Singers for Arsis (Steven Sametz, conducting).\nin time of. Text by e.e. cummings. SSAAATTBB –SATTB soli version written as part of National Endowment for the Arts composer grant for Chanticleer. Premiere April 1997. Oxford University Press, 2000. Recorded by The Princeton Singers (version for chamber orchestra) and Chanticleer (a cappella Love Letters (Litteras amore). Texts from Alcuin of York and Baudri of Borgueil. SATB-SATB. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2015.\nLove Was Born Here in a Child. Text by Deborah Sacarakis. Christmas motet. SSAAATTTB. 1982.\nMindful of You. Text by Edna St. Vincent Millay. SATB choir. Commissioned by The Cavalier Voices of JT Lambert Intermediate School, East Stroudsburg, PA. Premiere 209.\nNoel. TTBB. Published Alliance Music Publications (AMP-0089) 1995. Recorded by Chanticleer on Sing We Christmas. Teldec.\nNot an End of Loving. Commissioned for Chanticleer by the Lehigh University Choral Union to celebrate the 25^th^ anniversary season. 2009.\nWhere I Become you (text by Antjie Krog)\nWe Two Boys Together Clinging (text by Walt Whitman) (see also version for tenor, bass, vibraphone and violoncello. )\nNot an End of Loving (text by Alcuin of York; translation Waddell)\n¡O llama de amor viva! A Mystical Vision of Saint John of the Cross. Two versions: SATBB and ATBBB. Commissioned for Chanticleer. 1987. Recorded by Chanticleer on With a Poet's Eye. Teldec.\nO Magnum Mysterium. SSS soli, ATB-ATB. Commissioned by Chanticleer for inclusion on their national Christmas program tour, 2013\nOn the Death of a Friend. Versions for TTBB, baritone solo, and SATB. Text by H.S. Holland. Commissioned for the Alamo City Men's Chorale, San Antonio, Texas.\nPavane for the Nursery. Text by Jay Smith. SSAA. Commissioned by Texas Lutheran University. 2013\nPeace on Earth. SATB. Text by Edward Gordon. SATB. Commissioned by Staples HS, Westport, CT. 2000\nRise Up, My Love. SATB. Commissioned by The Cheyenne Chamber Chorus. (See also Three Biblical Choruses, supra). 2012\nSeal. Text by Jeremy Driscoll. SATB choir, baritone solo. 1994\nThe Twenty-ninth Bather. SSAA. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers, 2009. See also version with small instrumental accompaniment.\nTwo Love Songs of St. John of the Cross. Text by St. John of the Cross. SSAA choir. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. Premiered 2008\nLuz y amor (Light and Love)\nMi amado (My Beloved)\nTwo Medieval Lyrics Commissioned for Chanticleer. 1995.\nThere Is No Rose Of Such Virtue SATB, soprano solo.\nGaudete SATB\nTwo poems of John Igo. SATB. (#2 with harp.) 1985.\nWill I Love You?\nI Was Drowning in Grass.\nThou Whose Birth. SATB (optional harp). Text from the Christmas Antiphons of C.A. Swinburne. Commissioned by the Choral Society of Durham. 2007\nThree Mystical Choruses American Choral Directors Association Raymond W. Brock commission, 2011 Published by E.C. Schirmer, 2011\nNino de Rosas (Child of Roses) SATB. SATB mezzo-soprano solo. Text by Jacinto de Evia. ECS 7711\nEn Kelohenu (There Is None Like Our God) Text from the Saturday morning Shabbat service. SATB-SATB, SA/SSAA, or TB/TTBB\nMẽ to tere paas me (I Am Within You) Text by Kabir SAB/SATB\nWhen He Shall Die. Text from Shakespeare. SATB. Commissioned by Central Bucks-West High School. (In memoriam Louis Botto.) Oxford University Press, 1999.\nWhen Morning Comes. Text by Kendall Harrison (WWI). TTBB. Commissioned by The Princeton Singers. 2011\ny berenjenes con queso (\"and eggplants with cheese\") Renaissance Spanish text. SATB. 1995.\nYou are a Letter from Christ. Text from Corinthians II 3: 2–3; additional text by the composer. Commissioned by The Texas Lutheran University Choir. Douglas Boyer, director. 2003 (also version for choir and keyboard)\nYou Stepped Out of Heaven. SATB. 1990.\n\n\n=== Solo Songs ===\nA Way of Talking to a Dog You Don't Know. Text by Jeremy Driscoll. Baritone (mezzo) and piano. 1994.\ndel nacimiento (Of the Birth). Text by Saint John of the Cross. High voice and harmonium (organ); optional harp and violin. 1987.\nDesert Voices. Native American texts. Solo version for high voice with instrumental ensemble (Flute,clarinet, cello, perc.) 1993.\nEleven poems from the Japanese. High voice and piano. 1990.\nI Cannot Dance, O Lord. Soprano/tenor and organ. Text by Mechtild of Magdeburg. 2004\nMaybe. Text by Carl Sandburg. High voice and piano. 1989.\nOne Voice. Text by Joseph Weiss. Medium voice and piano. 1996.\nThe Poet's Mind. High voice. 1978. With piano and horn.\nPrayers of Steel. Text by Carl Sandburg. In memoriam Jan DeGaetani. Two versions: high or low voice with piano. 1989.\nRestlessness. Text by Sametz. High voice. 1978.\nThe River Merchant’s Wife: A Letter. Text by Ezra Pound. For soprano or mezzo-soprano and piano. Orchestrated 2016.\nThree Poems of Langston Hughes. For soprano and violin. 1996.\nThe Dream Keeper\nPoem\nJoy\nTwo songs for Lent. Counter-tenor and viola. 1973.\nCor mundum crea in me (Create in Me Lord a Clean Heart)\nAverte faciem tuam (Avert Your Face)\nVoices of Broken Hearts. SSA choir and digitally delayed vibraphone. Commissioned by the Wellesley College Choir. Premiered at the American Choral Director's Association convention, February 13, 2009. Published by E.C. Schirmer.\nWe Two Boys Together Clinging. Tenor-Baritone duet, marimba/vibes, violoncello.'\ny berenjenas con queso (and eggplant with cheese). Soprano, violin, and piano. Renaissance Spanish text.\n\n\n=== Chamber music ===\nIntroduction and Tango. For 6 strings. 1985.\nPanoply. For flute, 2 synthesizers, and electric bass. 1996.\nPericolo. For woodwind quintet\n\n\n=== Arrangements ===\nAll Through the Night. SATB-SATB. 2015\nCalvary. Tenor solo and choir. Published by Walton Music, 2007.\nDance of the Hours (Ponchielli). SATB. 2012.\nEvening Prayer (from Hänsel and Gretel) SATB. 2014\nThe Guiding Light. SATB with Orchestra. Commissioned for the 6th Cycle Birthday celebration for the King of Thailand. November, 1999\nHere We Come A-Wassailing. SATB. 2013.\nThe Heroine Triumphant. Medley of 1890s Melodies. SATB. Oxford University Press, February, 2000\nIrish Lullaby for the Christ Child. Gaelic poem. SSAA, soprano solo, optional harp. 1995. Published Alliance Music Publications (AMP-0088) 1995\nKas Tie Tadi. Latvian folk song. SATB. Alliance Music Publications (AMP-0087) 1995.\nKein Feuer, Keine Kohle kann brennen so heiss. German Folksong. SATB Oxford University Press, 1999\nThe Last Rose of Summer. SATB with tenor solo. 2015\nLo How A Rose E’er Blooming (various versions composed for Lehigh University Choral Arts, 1979– ). The version based on Albert Becker's Weihnachtsmotette is published by ECS.\nNe sedi, Djemo (Bosnian Folksong) Oxford University Press, 2002\nNgam Sang Duan (Shining Moon). Thai folk song. SATB. Oxford University Press, 2000\nO Holy Night. SATB, A Solo, organ (harp opt.). 2014\nPai duli. Russian Folksong. SATB. Oxford University Press. February, 2000\nLos Pastores. Chicano Christmas songs. SATB. Published by Oxford University Press, 2002\nLa Villanella. Italian Folksong. SATB. Oxford University Press, 1999\nShall We Gather at the River. SATB with bass solo. 2016\nShenandoah. American Folksong. SSAATTBB. Oxford University Press, 2002\nSilent Night. Franz Grueber. SSATTB. 2005\nWondrous Love. Southern American folk song. SSAB (may be used for congregational singing), handbells, optional harp. Oxford University Press, 2000\n\n\n== References ==", "John Gutekunst (born April 13, 1944) is an American football coach and former player. He is currently the inside linebackers coach for North Carolina A&T State University. He served as the head football coach at the University of Minnesota from 1985 to 1991, compiling a record of 29–37–2. Gutekunst came to Minnesota in 1984 as an assistant coach and took over as interim head coach in 1985 for the Independence Bowl after Lou Holtz left the team to become the head coach at Notre Dame. Gutekunst was promoted to head coach before the next season. He has also served as an assistant coach at Duke University, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Wake Forest University, Rutgers University, the University of Rhode Island, the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and East Carolina University. He joined the East Carolina staff in October 2009, taking over for Rock Roggeman, who left on indefinite medical leave. Gutekunst is an alumnus of Duke University, where he played football and baseball.\nHis son, Brian Gutekunst, is general manager of the Green Bay Packers.\n\n\n== Head coaching record ==\n\n\n== References ==", "Duke University Hospital is a 957-acute care bed academic tertiary care facility located in Durham, North Carolina. Established in 1930, it is the flagship teaching hospital for the Duke University Health System, a network of physicians and hospitals serving Durham County and Wake County, North Carolina, and surrounding areas, as well as one of three Level I referral centers for the Research Triangle of North Carolina (the other two are UNC Hospitals in nearby Chapel Hill and WakeMed Raleigh in Raleigh).\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== 1924–1935: early years ===\nThe institution traces its roots back to 1924, six years before the opening of the hospital, when James Buchanan Duke established the Duke Endowment to transform Duke University (then known as Trinity College) into the research university it is today. In 1925, Duke bequeathed $4 million to establish the medical school, nursing school, and hospital. Two years later, in 1927, construction began on the original hospital (now known as Duke South), which opened on July 21, 1930, with 400 beds. In 1931, the hospital and medical school were officially dedicated on April 20 and the Private Diagnostic Clinic (Duke's in-house physician system) was organized on September 16. In 1935, less than five years after the hospital opened, the American Medical Association ranked Duke among the top 20 of medical schools in the country.\n\n\n=== 1936–1969: a number of firsts ===\nIn 1936, a team of physicians led by Dr. Julian Deryl Hart introduced ultraviolet light to kill germs in the operating room as a way to combat post-operative staph infections, greatly reducing the number of infections and related deaths. In the same year, the hospital established the nation's first brain tumor program, launching what would become one of the world's most renowned programs in the field of cancer treatment. In 1937, Joseph Beard developed a vaccine against equine encephalomyelitis, one of the first known vaccines to combat the mosquito-carried disease.In 1940, the hospital made its first expansion, adding a new wing to the original building. In 1946, the Division of Thoracic Surgery, today the Duke Division of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery, was organized by Josiah Charles Trent. In 1947, the Bell Research Building became the first freestanding building on the hospital campus. In 1954, the Duke Poison Control Center was organized, becoming one of the first two organized in the country.\nIn 1955, psychiatrist Ewald W. Busse established the Duke University Center for Aging, the first research center of its kind in the nation. Currently the oldest continuously operating facility in the United States, this center has pioneered long-term studies of health problems among seniors.\nIn 1956, Duke surgeons performed the first cardiac surgery using systemic hypothermia to bring a patient's body temperature down to less than 50 degrees Fahrenheit in an effort to minimize tissue damage during lengthy surgeries. With the success of this experiment, systemic hypothermia has become standard procedure in all hospitals worldwide. In 1957, the hospital and medical school were renamed Duke University Medical Center. In 1958, Thelma Ingles, a professor and chair of the Department of Medical-Surgical Nursing, developed the clinical nursing specialist program, becoming the first master's program of its kind in the United States. The establishment of the nursing specialist program paved the way for advanced clinical knowledge in the delivery and teaching of the nursing field.\nThe 1960s brought extraordinary firsts to Duke. In 1963, the first African-American student was accepted to the prestigious medical school. Two years later, in 1965, the hospital established the first physician assistant program in the country. In 1966, Duke became the first medical center in the world to offer radio consultation with physicians in developing countries. This program, called Med-Aid (short for Medical Assistance for Isolated Doctors), met the critical needs of the physicians who lacked proper treatment. That same year, the Medical Scientist Training Program, a joint program leading to simultaneous M.D. and Ph.D degrees, was established, becoming one of the first three in the nation. In 1969, the first recorded studies of human's abilities to function and work at pressures equal to a 1,000-foot (300 m) deep sea dive were conducted in the hyperbaric chamber.\n\n\n=== 1970–1989: a period of growth and expansion ===\nWith the dawn of the 1970s, Duke underwent a period of expansion that continued well into the 1980s. In December 1971, the Duke Comprehensive Cancer Center was established under the National Cancer Act. Duke's cancer center, one of the first in the nation under this groundbreaking legislation, was officially designated as a \"comprehensive\" cancer center by the National Cancer Institute in 1973. That same year, the Duke Eye Center was dedicated and opened on November 8. In 1978, the Morris Cancer Research Building opened, giving researchers a place to study and find cures for the disease.\nDuring the 1970s, the hospital also faced two distinct unionization drives aimed at uniting the unskilled service workers of Duke Hospital. The 1974 and 1978 drives both ultimately failed, and the 1980s ushered in a twenty-year low in organizing and activism at the hospital.In 1980, Duke moved into its present $94.5 million facility (Duke North) on Erwin Road, located just north of its original location. In 1985, with the emergence of AIDS bringing alarm to the medical community, Duke became one of the first two hospitals to conduct human clinical trials on AZT, the first drug to offer an improved quality of life in patients battling AIDS.\n\n\n=== 1990–present: accelerated growth, expansion, and a glance towards the future ===\nIn the 1990s, the medical research at Duke reached the forefront for detection of ailments that can be treated with a larger success rate. In 1990, Duke geneticists invented a three-minute test to screen newborns for over 30 metabolic diseases at one time. This practice has since become standard worldwide.\nIn 1992, Duke's cancer center became the first hospital to develop an outpatient bone marrow transplant program. That same year, the hospital performed its first lung and heart/lung transplants.\nThe year 1994 marked the beginning of accelerated expansion for Duke. That year, the Levine Science Research Center and the Medical Sciences Research Center were opened. In addition, there were extensive renovations of the Duke Clinic (Duke South), additions to the Morris Cancer Research Building, a new Children's Health Center, a freestanding Ambulatory Care Center, and expanded parking options for visitors.\nIn 1998, the Duke University Health System was created with newly established partnerships with Durham Regional Hospital and Raleigh Community Hospital. That same year, the National Institutes of Health partnered with Duke to offer the first joint master's of health science in clinical research degree. With this extraordinary partnership, the NIH became the first organization to offer a joint graduate degree program with a major university.\nIn 2001, the hospital was the first to establish a center dedicated exclusively to Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging.\nIn 2019, a team at the hospital became the first in the United States to transplant an adult heart into a recipient through a process known as donation after circulatory death.Duke University Hospital is still seeking life-changing breakthroughs to improve the quality of life for everyone in the world. In 2019, the hospital began a major expansion project in 2019 that will increase expand the emergency department.\n\n\n== Notable alumni ==\nHeidi Wunderli-Allenspach (born 1947), Swiss biologist and first women rector of ETH Zurich\n\n\n== See also ==\nRebecca Buckley\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nDuke University Hospital" ] }

{ "title": [ "Saksham Kulkarni", "Medha Manjrekar", "Galgale Nighale", "Allah Ke Banday", "Arati Ankalikar-Tikekar", "Little Miss Sunshine", "De Dhakka", "Cabourg Film Festival", "Crazy Kutumba", "Atul Kale", "Festival du Film de Paris" ], "text": [ "Saksham Kulkarni (Marathi: सक्षम कुलकर्णी) is an Indian actor who works in Marathi television and films.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\nPak Pak Pakaak (2005)\nShevri (2006)\nDe Dhakka (2008)\nLonavala Bypass (2009)\nShikshanachya Aaicha Gho (2010)\nAllah Ke Banday (2010)\nFakt Ladh Mhana (2011)\nKaksparsh (2012)\nLife Mein Hungama Hai (2013)\nAmhi Bolato (2014)\nGhantaa (2016)\nLaden Ala Re Ala (2017)\nZiprya (2018)\nBhai: Vyakti Ki Valli (2019)\n\n\n== Television ==\nAmbat Goad (2012-2014)\nLove Lagna Locha (2016-2018)\nPadded Ki Pushup (2018)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nhttp://www.imdb.com/name/nm2727360/\nhttp://entertainment.oneindia.in/celebs/saksham-kulkarni.html", "Medha Manjrekar (born 28 April 1967) is an Indian actress and producer in Marathi cinema, known for Natsamrat (2016), Kaksparsh (2012) and De Dhakka (2008). She played lead role opposite Nana Patekar in 2016 Marathi film Natsamrat, the highest-grossing film in Marathi cinema at the time. She is the wife of Mahesh Manjrekar.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMedha Manjrekar at IMDb", "\"Galgale Nighale\" is one of the greatest Marathi motion picture discharged in 2008. It had everything required for any Marathi motion picture to be effective. To begin with it is a comic drama motion picture. Film featured the two greatest satire performing artists Bharat Jadhav and Siddharth Jadhav in Marathi silver screen. Them two are certain shot group puller. Bharat Jadhav's Character \"Galgale\" is lifted from a mainstream play \"Sahi re Sahi\" played by Bharat himself. This play and character Galgale is among the unsurpassed top in the fame graph. So there was substantially more interest in individuals in what manner will character Galgale will advance. At that point this is Kedar shinde's film, who had splendid past record. At that point Siddharth Jadhav is in negative part first time in his vocation. At that point the film is exhibited by Zee Talkies. This one is their third motion picture after \"Sade Made Tin\", and \"De Dhakka\". Like these two motion picture Zee talkies ensured \"Galgale\" will discharge in greatest theaters in Maharashtra, which is greatest errand for any Marathi producers. So this motion picture expected to have everything in it to be fruitful engaging film. Gori Gauri Mandavakhali is the superhit song from this film Galgale Nighale sung by Vaishali Samant and Anand Shinde.", "Allah Ke Banday (transl. People of God) is a 2010 Indian Hindi-language crime drama film produced by Ravi Walia and directed by Faruk Kabir.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nAllah Ke Banday tells the tale of two 12-year-old boys (Vijay and Yakub) who grow up in the slums of India. Wanting to make a name for themselves in the mafia world, they start delivering drugs. Their friend (Zakir Hussain) dresses as a transgender, in an act where they loot people. Things go wrong when they are sent to a juvenile reformatory after being wrongly convicted for a murder. They learn life is much tougher in the reformatory than the world they came from. They are tortured by the warden and senior inmates. But instead of reforming they develop a more sinister plan in their quest for ultimate power. \n\n\n== Cast ==\nSharman Joshi as Vijay Kamble\nFaruk Kabir as Yakub\nNaseeruddin Shah as Warden\nAtul Kulkarni as Ashwani\nAnjana Sukhani as Sandhya\nRukhsar Rehman as Nirmala\nZakir Hussain as Ramesh\nVarun Bhagwat\nSaksham Kulkarni as Vitthal\nAjaz Khan as Nana chauhan\nSuhasini Mulay as Mother\nVikram Gokhale as Sheryaar\nMadan Deodhar as Vijay Kamble (childhood)\nAsif khan as don\n\n\n== Soundtrack ==\n\n\n== Accolades ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nhttp://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/503075\n\"Allah Ke Banday Preview\". Archived from the original on 5 December 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2010.\nKazmi, Nikhat (26 November 2010). \"Allah Ke Banday\". The Times Of India. Retrieved 6 December 2010.\nIndia Express\n\n\n== External links ==\nAllah Ke Banday at Bollywood Hungama\nAllah Ke Banday at NDTV\nAllah Ke Banday at IMDb", "Arati Ankalikar-Tikekar (born 27 January 1963) is an Indian classical singer who is active mostly in Marathi, Konkani and Hindi film Industry; known for singing in Agra as well as Gwalior and Jaipur style. She has received two National Film Awards for Best Female Playback Singer.\nAnkalikar-Tikekar has been credited by audio cassettes and CD recordings. She was the main playback singer for the Sham Benegal's film, Sardari Begum. She is known for her albums Tejomay Nadbrahm, Raag-Rang, and, playback for the movies Antarnaad, De dhakka, Savlee, and the hit Sardari Begum, Ek Hazarachi Note. Her daughter Swanandi Tikekar who is in her mid-twenties is an actress.\nHer Guru was, well-known Hindustani Sangeet vocalist Padmavibhushan Kishori Amonkar.\n\n\n== As a singer ==\nShe has been the main playback singer for several Marathi, Konkani as well as Hindi films, namely:\n\nSardari Begum, 1996\nSavlee\nDe Dhakka, 2008\nDil Dosti Etc\nDhusar\nSamhitha, 2013.\n\n\n=== TV appearances ===\nAnkalikar-Tikekar has made appearances on television interviews, Reality Shows and as a guest judge on music shows. The following list consists few appearances on Marathi television networks.\n\n\n== Performances ==\nAnkalikar-Tikekar has performed all over the world at prestigious venues, including the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, Canada in 2019 for the Raag-Mala Music Society of Toronto.\n\n\n== Accomplishments and awards ==\nAnkalikar-Tikekar received her first National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the Konkani cinema, Anternaad, based on the life of a classical singer for the year 2006.She received Maharashtra State Film Awards, for the Marathi Film, De Dhakka. Later, in 2013, she was awarded with National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the second time in the Marathi movie, Samhita. She is married to Indian film actor, Uday Tikekar.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nProfile at Center for the Performing Arts of India (University of Pittsburgh)\nhttp://www.itcsra.org/aom/artist_ofthe_month.asp?id=93", "Little Miss Sunshine is a 2006 American tragicomedy road film and the directorial debut of the husband-wife team of Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris. The screenplay was written by first-time writer Michael Arndt. The film stars Greg Kinnear, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Paul Dano, Abigail Breslin, and Alan Arkin, and was produced by Big Beach Films on a budget of US$8 million. Filming began on June 6, 2005, and took place over 30 days in Arizona and Southern California.\nThe film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2006, and its distribution rights were bought by Fox Searchlight Pictures for one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival. The film had a limited release in the United States on July 26, 2006, and later expanded to a wider release starting on August 18.Little Miss Sunshine was a box office success, earning $101 million, and was praised mainly for the performances, screenplay and humor. The film was nominated for four Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and won two: Best Original Screenplay for Michael Arndt and Best Supporting Actor for Alan Arkin. It also won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Feature and received numerous other accolades. The film also won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nSheryl Hoover is an overworked mother of two living in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Her gay brother, Frank, an unemployed scholar of Proust, is temporarily living with the family after having attempted suicide. Sheryl's husband Richard is a Type A personality striving to build a career as a motivational speaker and life coach. Dwayne, Sheryl's son from a previous marriage, is a Nietzsche-reading teenager who has taken a vow of silence until he can accomplish his dream of becoming a fighter pilot. Richard's foul-mouthed father, Edwin, recently evicted from a retirement home for snorting heroin, lives with the family. Olive, the daughter of Richard and Sheryl and the youngest of the Hoover family, is an aspiring beauty queen who is coached by Edwin.\nOlive learns she has qualified for the \"Little Miss Sunshine\" beauty pageant, being held in Redondo Beach, California in two days. Richard, Sheryl, and Edwin want to support her, and Frank and Dwayne cannot be left alone, so the whole family goes. Because they have little money, they go on an 800-mile road trip in their yellow Volkswagen van.\n\nFamily tensions play out along the way, amidst the aging van's mechanical problems. When the van breaks down early on, the family learns that they must push the van until it is moving at about 20 mph before it is put into gear, at which point they have to run up to the side door and jump in. Later on, the van's horn starts honking unceasingly by itself, which leads to the family being pulled over by a state trooper.\nThroughout the road trip, the family suffers numerous personal setbacks and discover their need for each other's support. Richard loses an important contract that would have jump-started his motivational business. Frank encounters the ex-boyfriend who, in leaving him for an academic rival, had prompted his suicide attempt. Edwin dies from a heroin overdose, resulting in the family smuggling the body out of a hospital and nearly having it discovered by the police. During the final leg of the trip, Dwayne discovers that he is color blind, which means he cannot become a pilot, prompting him to finally break his silence and shout his anger and disdain for his family. Olive calms him with a hug, and he immediately apologizes.\nAfter a frantic race against the clock, the family arrives at the pageant hotel, and are curtly told by a pageant organizer that they are a few minutes past the deadline. A sympathetic hired hand named Kirby instead offers to register Olive on his own time. As Olive prepares for the pageant, the family sees Olive's competition: slim, sexualized pre-teen girls with teased hair and capped teeth, performing highly elaborate dance numbers with great panache. It becomes apparent that Olive is an amateur by comparison.\nAs Olive's turn to perform in the talent portion draws near, Richard and Dwayne recognize that Olive is certain to be humiliated, and wanting to spare her feelings, run to the dressing room to talk her out of performing. Sheryl, however, insists that they \"let Olive be Olive\", and Olive goes on stage. Olive's hitherto-unrevealed dance that Edwin had taught her is revealed to be a striptease performed to a Rocasound revamp of Rick James' \"Super Freak\". Despite the other girls being over-sexualized, Olive's burlesque performance scandalizes and horrifies most of the audience and the organizers, who demand Olive be removed from the stage. Instead of removing her, one by one, the members of the Hoover family join Olive, dancing alongside her to show their support. The family completes the dance to a shocked and silent audience, save for a biker dad, Kirby and Ms. California, who cheer enthusiastically.\nThe family is next seen outside the hotel's security office where they are released on the condition that Olive never enters a beauty pageant in California ever again. Piling into the van with the horn still honking, they happily smash through the barrier of the hotel's toll booth and begin their trip home to Albuquerque.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Production ==\n\n\n=== Casting ===\n\nWhen choosing the cast for the film, directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris were assisted by casting directors Kim Davis and Justine Baddeley who had worked with them on previous music videos. The directors had initially settled on Greg Kinnear to portray Richard Hoover. However, for the character of Sheryl Hoover, they considered several actresses before deciding on Australian actress Toni Collette. Davis and Baddeley traveled to \"every English-speaking country\" to search for the actress to portray Olive Hoover, and they finally chose actress Abigail Breslin through an audition when she was six. Paul Dano was cast as Dwayne two years before production began and in preparation for portraying his character, spent a few days taking his own vow of silence. Alan Arkin, who portrayed Edwin Hoover, was initially considered too young for the role.The role of Frank, the suicidal Proust scholar, was originally written for Bill Murray, and there was also studio pressure for Robin Williams. The directing duo chose Steve Carell for the role a few months before filming began, and in an interview revealed: \"When we met with Steve Carell, we didn't know he could do this based upon what he had done. But when we met with him and talked to him about the character, the tone of the movie and the way we were approaching it, he was right on the same page with us.\" Although known to Comedy Central viewers for many years as a correspondent on the highly rated satirical news program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, at the time Carell was cast for Little Miss Sunshine, he was relatively unknown in Hollywood. Producers of the film were worried that he was not a big enough star and did not have much acting experience.\n\n\n=== Script and development ===\nThe script was written by Michael Arndt and was originally about an East Coast road trip from Maryland to Florida, but was shifted to a journey from New Mexico to California because of budget issues. Arndt started the script on May 23, 2000 and completed the first rough draft by May 26. He had initially planned on shooting the film himself by raising several thousand dollars and using a camcorder. Instead, he gave the screenplay to producers Ron Yerxa and Albert Berger who teamed up with Deep River Productions to find a potential director. Addressing the inclusion of the Fargo character Stan Grossman in the film after its release, Arndt stated that he had \"just [simply] assumed that people [the filmmakers] [had known] it was a tribute to Fargo, but that [in actuality] people didn’t realize until we started shooting\", in addition expressing gratitude towards the Coen brothers for allowing him to retain the character.The producers met directors Dayton and Faris while producing Election and in turn gave the script to them to read in 2001. The directors commented later on the script stating: \"This film really struck a chord. We felt like it was written for us.\" The script was purchased from first-time screenwriter Arndt for $250,000 by Marc Turtletaub, one of the film's producers, on December 21, 2001. Yerxa and Berger remained as producers as they were responsible for finding the directors and cinematographer, assisting in the ending re-shoot, and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival.The film was pitched to several studios, and the only interested studio was Focus Features, who wanted to film it in Canada. After the studio attempted to have the film be centered on the character Richard Hoover, and Arndt disagreed, he was fired and replaced by another writer. The new writer added several scenes, including Richard's confrontation with the character who dismisses his motivational technique business. A corporate change brought in a new studio head and Arndt was rehired when the new writer left after four weeks of rewriting the script. After two years of pre-production, Focus Features dropped the film in August 2004. Marc Turtletaub paid $400,000 to Focus Features to buy back the rights to the film and for development costs. He also paid for the $8 million budget, allowing Little Miss Sunshine to then be filmed.\n\n\n=== Filming ===\nPrincipal photography began on June 6, 2005. Filming took place over 30 days in Arizona and southern California, with scenes shot in keeping with the chronological order of the script. Arndt re-wrote the ending to the film six weeks before the film's release at the Sundance Film Festival, and this was filmed in December 2005. The film was dedicated to Rebecca Annitto, the niece of producer Peter Saraf and an extra in scenes set in the diner and the convenience store, who was killed in a car accident on September 14, 2005.\n\n\n==== Volkswagen T2 Microbus ====\n\nWhen writing the script, Arndt chose the Volkswagen T2 Microbus to use for the road trip based on his experience with the vehicle and its practicality for filming: \"I remember thinking, it's a road trip, what vehicle are you going to put them in? And [the] VW bus just seems logical, just because you have these high ceilings and these clean sight lines where you can put the camera. In the front windshield looking back and seeing everybody.\" Five VW Microbuses were used for the family car as some were modified for different filming techniques. Three of the vans had engines, and the two without were mounted on trailers. During pre-production, the cinematographer used a basic video camera and set it up at angles inside the van to determine the best locations to shoot from during filming. Many of the problems associated with the van that were included in the plot (a broken clutch, a stuck horn, and a detached door), were based on similar problems that writer Arndt experienced during a childhood trip that involved the same type of vehicle.While filming the scenes where the family pushes the van to get it started, a stunt coordinator was used to ensure the safety of the actors. In an interview, actor Greg Kinnear jokingly described how the scenes were filmed when he was driving: \"I was going like 50 miles an hour in this '71 VW van that doesn't have side airbags. Basically, you'd wait for this huge camera truck to come whizzing in front of us with the camera. 'Okay, go!' I mean, it was insanity; it's the most dangerous movie I've ever made.\" While filming the scenes in the van, the actors would at times remain in the vehicle for three or four hours a day. For scenes in which Alan Arkin's character was swearing excessively, Breslin had her headphones on and could not hear the dialogue, just like her character in the film. Only when she saw the film did she know what was being said. On July 25, 2006, Fox Searchlight Pictures invited VW bus owners to a screening at Vineland Drive-In theater in Industry, California. Over 60 of the vans were present at the screening.\n\n\n==== Pageant ====\n\nPrior to writing the script, Arndt read in a newspaper about Arnold Schwarzenegger speaking to a group of high school students and saying \"If there's one thing in this world I hate, it's losers. I despise them.\" As a result, Arndt developed his script lampooning the thought process: \"And I thought there's something so wrong with that attitude ... I wanted to ... attack that idea that in life you're going up or you're going down ... So to a degree, a child beauty pageant is the epitome of the ultimate stupid meaningless competition people put themselves through.\" Co-director Jonathan Dayton also commented on the importance of the pageant to the film: \"As far as the pageant goes, it was very important to us that the film not be about pageants. It's about being out of place, it's about not knowing where you're going to end up ...\" All the girls acting as participants in the beauty pageant, except Abigail Breslin, were veterans of real beauty pageants. They looked the same and performed the same acts as they had in their real-life pageants. To prepare for filming, the directors attended several pageants in Southern California and met with a coordinator to learn more about the pageant process. A mother of a contestant in the film claimed that the film overplayed practices that the contestants go through: \"Most pageants aren't quite like that, with shaving the girls' legs, spraying them with fake tans and putting on so much makeup.\"When Focus Features initially wanted to film in Canada, the directors opposed it, believing the costs of flying all of the pageant girls and their families would be excessive. The contestants and their families instead spent two weeks filming in a hotel in Ventura with most of the equipment and costumes being provided by the contestants' parents. To make Breslin's character the \"plump\" figure as shown in the film, she had to wear a padded suit during filming. For Olive's final scene involving her dancing routine, Breslin spent two weeks preparing with a choreographer.\n\n\n== Release ==\n\n\n=== Sundance Film Festival ===\n\nFollowing the film's premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 20, 2006, several studios placed bids; Fox Searchlight Pictures won, offering $10.5 million, plus 10% of all the gross revenues. The deal occurred less than a day after the premiere and was one of the biggest deals made in the history of the festival. The previous year's festival had the film Hustle & Flow receive $9 million from Paramount Classics and in 1999, Happy, Texas received $10 million from Miramax Films.\n\n\n=== Box office ===\nLittle Miss Sunshine initially opened in seven theaters in the U.S. in its first week, earning $498,796. On July 29, 2006, the first Saturday after its initial limited release, Little Miss Sunshine earned a $20,335 per-theater average gross. It had the highest per-theater average gross of all the films shown in the United States every day for the first 21 days of its release, until being surpassed by the IMAX film Deep Sea 3D on August 15. In its third week of release Little Miss Sunshine entered the list of top ten highest grossing American films for the week. It remained in the top ten until the 11th week of release, when it dropped to 11th place. The highest position it reached was third, which occurred in its fifth week of release. The largest number of theaters the film appeared in was 1,602. Internationally, the film earned over $5 million in Australia, $3 million in Germany, $4 million in Spain, and $6 million combined in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta. Little Miss Sunshine has had gross receipts of $59,891,098 in North America and $40,632,083 internationally for a total of $100,523,181.\n\n\n=== Home media ===\nThe DVD was released on December 19, 2006. It includes a dual-disc widescreen/full screen format, two commentary tracks, four alternate endings, and a music video by DeVotchKa. In its first week of release, DVD sales totaled $19,614,299 and it was the sixth-most sold DVD of the week. By September 16, 2008 gross domestic DVD sales totaled $55,516,832. Rentals of the film from its release through April 15, 2007 totalled $46.32 million. The film was released on Blu-ray on February 10, 2009.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Critical response ===\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 91% positive aggregate rating, based on 218 reviews, with an average rating of 7.72/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Little Miss Sunshine succeeds thanks to a strong ensemble cast that includes Greg Kinnear, Steve Carell, Toni Collette, Alan Arkin, and Abigail Breslin, as well as a delightfully funny script.\" On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 80 out of 100, based on reviews from 36 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews.\"\n\nMichael Medved gave Little Miss Sunshine four out of four, saying that \"... this startling and irresistible dark comedy counts as one of the very best films of the year ...\" and that directors Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris, the movie itself, and actors Alan Arkin, Abigail Breslin, and Steve Carell deserved Oscar nominations. Joel Siegel issued an 'A' rating, saying that \"Orson Welles would have to come back to life for this not to make my year-end Top 10 list.\" Stella Papamichael of BBC News called the film \"a winning blend of sophistication and silliness\". USA Today's Claudia Puig commented on Breslin's depiction of Olive Hoover, \"If Olive had been played by any other little girl, she would not have affected us as mightily as it did.\"Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled the film with a 'C' rating, calling the characters \"walking, talking catalogs of screenwriter index-card data\". Jim Ridley of The Village Voice called the movie a \"rickety vehicle that travels mostly downhill\" and a \"Sundance clunker\". Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail criticized the film, stating \"Though Little Miss Sunshine is consistently contrived in its characters' too-cute misery, the conclusion, which is genuinely outrageous and uplifting, is almost worth the hype.\" Anna Nimouse of National Review wrote that the film \"is praised as a 'feel-good' film, perhaps for moviegoers who like bamboo under their fingernails. If you are miserable, then Little Miss Sunshine is the film for you\". Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade (2000–2009), ranking it at #34.Roger Ebert reflected on the film's themes, writing \"Little Miss Sunshine shows us a world in which there's a form, a brochure, a procedure, a job title, a diet, a step-by-step program, a career path, a prize, a retirement community, to quantify, sort, categorize and process every human emotion or desire. Nothing exists that cannot be compartmentalized or turned into a self-improvement mantra about 'winners and losers.'\" Brian Tallerico of UGO.com also focused on the film's themes: \"Little Miss Sunshine teaches us to embrace that middle ground, acknowledging that life may just be a beauty pageant, where we're often going to be outdone by someone prettier, smarter, or just plain luckier, but if we get up on that stage and be ourselves, everything will turn out fine.\"\n\n\n=== Accolades ===\n\nLittle Miss Sunshine was nominated for and won multiple awards from numerous film organizations and festivals. It was nominated for four Academy Awards and was awarded two at the 79th Academy Awards: Michael Arndt received \"Best Original Screenplay\" and Alan Arkin received \"Best Supporting Actor\". In addition, the AFI Awards deemed it the \"Movie of the Year\", while the BAFTA Awards awarded it two awards out of six nominations with \"Best Screenplay\" for Arndt and \"Best Actor in a Supporting Role\" for Arkin. The Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards, Screen Actors Guild (SAG), and Washington D.C. Area Film Critics commended the film for its ensemble cast. Then 10-year-old Abigail Breslin was nominated for several Best Supporting Actress and Breakthrough Performance awards.\nThe Deauville Film Festival awarded the film the \"Grand Special Prize\" while the Palm Springs International Film Festival awarded it the \"Chairman's Vanguard Award\". The Independent Spirit Awards awarded it four awards out of five nominations, including \"Best Feature\" and \"Best Director\". The film's soundtrack was nominated for \"Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Picture, Television, or Other Visual Media\" at the Grammy Awards, but lost to Walk The Line. The film also had multiple nominations at the MTV Movie Awards, Satellite Awards, Chicago Film Critics Association Awards, and Golden Globe Awards, among others.\n\n\n==== Academy Awards producers controversy ====\nThere was some controversy concerning how many producers should receive an award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for their work in producing the film. In 1999, the Academy decided that up to a maximum of three producers are eligible to be included in an award for a film. The rule was implemented to prevent a large number of involved filmmakers to appear on stage when a film was receiving an award. The Producers Guild of America (PGA) has not set a limit of producers that can be honored for a film. In the case of Little Miss Sunshine, there were five producers (Marc Turtletaub, Peter Saraf, Albert Berger, Ron Yerxa, and David Friendly) and the Academy did not want to include Berger and Yerxa. The two producers were responsible for finding the script, introducing the directors to the other producers, choosing the cinematographer, assisting in the re-shoot of the ending, and helping bring the film to the Sundance Film Festival. The Academy acknowledged that the two were partners in the production process, but declared that only individual producers are recognized by the Academy. Deeming the two producers' work as a collective effort, the Academy refused to consider either Berger or Yerxa for the award. Producer David Hoberman commented on the support for honoring all five producers, stating \"If there are five people actually involved in producing a movie, there's no reason why someone who's made a good enough film to be nominated for an Academy Award should be precluded from being rewarded for the work they did.\" Lynda Obst who was affiliated with an Academy Award producer committee, also commented: \"By and large, five people don't make a movie. If this is an exception, then it's a sad situation. But you don't destroy a rule for an exception.\"The PGA had previously honored all five of the producers. Albert Berger, reacting to the Academy's decision while at a panel for the film, stated \"No matter what the Academy decided, we produced this movie.\" In June 2007, the Academy announced that they would allow exceptions for films that had more than three producers in the future, stating \"The committee has the right, in what it determines to be a rare and extraordinary circumstance, to name any additional qualified producer as a nominee.\"\n\n\n== Music ==\n\n\n=== Score ===\nThe score for Little Miss Sunshine was written by the Denver band DeVotchKa and composer Mychael Danna. Performed by DeVotchKa, much of the music was adapted from their pre-existing songs, such as \"How It Ends\", which became \"The Winner Is\", \"The Enemy Guns\" and \"You Love Me\" from the album How It Ends, and \"La Llorona\" from Una Volta.\nDirectors Dayton and Faris were introduced to DeVotchKa's music after hearing the song \"You Love Me\" on Los Angeles' KCRW radio station. The directors were so impressed with the music that they purchased iPods for cast members containing DeVotchKa albums. Mychael Danna was brought in to help arrange the pre-existing material and collaborate with DeVotchKa on new material for the film. The Little Miss Sunshine score was not eligible for Academy Award consideration due to the percentage of material derived from already written DeVotchKa songs. The DeVotchka song \"Til the End of Time\" received a nomination for a 2006 Satellite Award as \"Best Original Song\". Both DeVotchKa and Danna received 2007 Grammy nominations for their work on the soundtrack.\n\n\n=== Soundtrack ===\n\nThe soundtrack reached #42 on the \"Top Independent Albums\" and 24 on \"Top Soundtracks\" in the U.S. for 2006. It contains two songs by Sufjan Stevens (\"No Man's Land\" and \"Chicago\"), and songs by Tony Tisdale (\"Catwalkin'\") and Rick James (\"Super Freak\"). Two additional songs in the film that were written by Gordon Pogoda—\"Let It Go\" and \"You've Got Me Dancing\" (the latter of which he co-wrote with Barry Upton)—are featured during the pageant scenes near the end of the film. \"Super Freak\", the source music danced to by Olive during the pageant competition, was introduced during post-production by a suggestion from the music supervisor. Arndt's screenplay had called for Prince's song \"Peach\"; during filming, the ZZ Top song \"Gimme All Your Lovin'\" was used. For the film, \"Super Freak\" was remixed by record producer Sebastian Arocha Morton (known professionally as ROCAsound).\n\n\n==== Track listing ====\n\n\n== Musical ==\n\nA musical based on the film, with music and lyrics by William Finn and book and direction by James Lapine, was workshopped at the Sundance Institute Theatre Lab at White Oak in Yulee, Florida October 25 through November 7, 2009. It then premiered at the La Jolla Playhouse from February 15 through March 27, 2011. The cast features Hunter Foster, Malcolm Gets, Georgi James, Dick Latessa, Jennifer Laura Thompson, and Taylor Trensch.On March 11, 2011, Gets left the show. Ensemble member Andrew Samonsky took over the role of Uncle Frank, and understudy Ryan Wagner took over the role of Joshua Rose until the show closed on March 27, 2011. The musical premiered at Second Stage Theatre on October 15, 2013 (previews), and officially on November 14, 2013. The production closed on December 15, 2013. The cast features Hannah Rose Nordberg as Olive Hoover, Stephanie J. Block as Sheryl Hoover, Rory O'Malley as Frank Hoover, Wesley Taylor as Joshua Rose, Josh Lamon as Buddy, David Rasche as Grandpa Hoover, Jennifer Sanchez as Miss California and Logan Rowland as Dwayne Hoover.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nLittle Miss Sunshine at IMDb\nLittle Miss Sunshine at the TCM Movie Database\nLittle Miss Sunshine at AllMovie\nLittle Miss Sunshine at Rotten Tomatoes\nLittle Miss Sunshine at Metacritic\nLittle Miss Sunshine at Box Office Mojo", "De Dhakka is a 2008 Indian Marathi-language comedy-drama film directed by Atul Kale and Sudesh Manjrekar. Based on the American film Little Miss Sunshine (2006), the film's story revolves on a lower-class family.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nThe story revolves around the Jadhav family. Makarand (Makarand Anaspure), after spending all his wealth, has invented an auto part which he claims will drastically lower the fuel consumption of vehicles. But being from a rural background and having no formal education, he is never taken seriously. Subhanrav (Shivaji Satam), Makarand's father, leaves no opportunity to blame his son for selling all his land on failed pursuits. Sumi (Medha) is Makarand's humble second wife. While the family is going through an economic crisis, a golden opportunity is presented when Makarand's daughter is selected for the final round of a dance competition with a huge prize money. The family scrapes their last resources and leaves on a life changing journey to reach the competition venue.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nShivaji Satam as Suryabhan Jadhav\nMakarand Anaspure as Makarand Suryabhan Jadhav\nSiddhartha Jadhav as Dhanajirao (Dhanaji/Dhanya)\nMedha Manjrekar as Sumi\nSaksham Kulkarni Kisna Makrand Jadhav\nGauri Vaidya Sayali Makrand Jadhav\nSachit Patil Dance Show Host (In Mumbai)\n\n\n== Reception ==\nDe Dhakka was a success at the box office. The movie collected ₹40 million (US$530,000) on the third week.\n\n\n== Accolades ==\nArati Ankalikar-Tikekar received the Maharashtra State Film Award, the V. Shantaram Award and the Maharashtra Times Award for Best Playback Singer.\n\n\n== Remakes ==\nIt was remade in Kannada as Crazy Kutumba (2010). A Hindi remake is under production, with Sanjay Dutt will play the father character.\n\n\n== Sequel ==\nA sequel to the film, titled De Dhakka 2, was announced in 2020. It is directed by Mahesh Manjrekar and Sudesh Manjrekar, under the banner of Ameya Vinod Khopkar Entertainment and Skylink Entertainment.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nDe Dhakka at IMDb", "The Cabourg Film Festival (French: Festival du Film de Cabourg – Journées romantiques or simply Festival du Film de Cabourg) is an annual film festival held every June in Cabourg, France. Founded in 1983 by writer-journalist Gonzague Saint Bris, the festival is dedicated to films in the romantic genre and films with elements of romanticism.\n\n\n== Awards ==\n\n\n=== Competition ===\nFeature film\nGrand Prix\nShort film\nBest Short Film\nBest Director\nBest Actress\nBest Actor\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award (Prix du Public)\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premier Rendez-Vous\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize (Prix de la Jeunesse)\n\n\n=== Ciné Swann ===\nBest Feature Film (Swann d'Or du meilleur long-métrage)\nBest Director (Swann d'Or du meilleur réalisateur de long-métrage)\nBest Actress (Swann d'Or de la meilleure actrice)\nBest Actor (Swann d'Or du meilleur acteur)\nFemale Revelation (Swann d'Or de la Révélation féminine)\nMale Revelation (Swann d'Or de la Révélation masculine)\nCoup de Cœur\n\n\n== 2000 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury President: Raúl Ruiz\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Feature Film: Fidelity (La Fidélité)\nBest Actress: Sophie Marceau – Fidelity (La Fidélité)\nBest Actor: Jean-Pierre Bacri – The Taste of Others (Le Goût des Autres)\nFemale Revelation: Marion Cotillard – Blue Away to America (Du Bleu jusqu'en Amérique)\nMale Revelation: Sami Bouajila – The Adventures of Felix (Drôle de Félix)\nCoup de Foudre: Bernard Giraudeau\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: Les Aveugles\nBest Actress: Nathalie Villeneuve – Carpe Diem\nBest Actor: Gilberto Azevedo – Des morceaux de ma femme\n\n\n== 2001 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury President: Claude Pinoteau\n\nGrand Prix: Malèna directed by Giuseppe Tornatore\nSpecial mention: Why Get Married the Day the World Ends? (Pourquoi se marier le jour de la fin du Monde ?) directed by Harry Cleven\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Jean-Pierre Jeunet – Amélie (Le Fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain)\nBest Actress: Sandrine Bonnaire – Mademoiselle\nBest Actor: Mathieu Kassovitz – Amélie (Le Fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain)\nFemale Revelation: Émilie Dequenne – Brotherhood of the Wolf (Le Pacte des Loups)\nMale Revelation: Éric Caravaca – Unleaded (Sans Plomb)\nCoup de Cœur: Arielle Dombasle\nCoup de Foudre: Richard Berry\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: Jean-Fares\nBest Actress: Alice Carel – On s'embrasse ?\nBest Actor: Jean-Luc Abel – On s'embrasse ?\n\n\n== 2002 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Nina Companéez (President), Évelyne Bouix, Marie Nimier\n\nGrand Prix: Riding in Cars with Boys directed by Penny Marshall\nSpecial mention: Irène directed by Yvan Calberac\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Yvan Attal – My Wife Is an Actress (Ma femme est une actrice)\nBest Actress: Mathilde Seigner – The Girl from Paris (Une hirondelle a fait le printemps)\nBest Actor: Sergi López – Women or Children First (Les Femmes... ou les enfants d'abord...)\nFemale Revelation: Mélanie Doutey – The Warrior's Brother (Le Frère du guerrier)\nMale Revelation: Bernard Campan – Beautiful Memories (Se souvenir des belles choses)\nCoup de Cœur: Mylène Demongeot\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: J'attendrai le suivant\nBest Actress: Dinara Droukarova – Pensée assise\nBest Actor: Thomas Gaudin – J'attendrai le suivant\n\n\n== 2003 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Antoine de Caunes (President), Sacha Bourdo, Bruno Chiche, Vincent Delerm, Marie Gillain, Vincent Lannoo, Stanislas Merhar\n\nGrand Prix: Life Kills Me (Vivre me tue) directed by Jean-Pierre Sinapi\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Jean-Paul Rappeneau – Bon Voyage\nBest Actress: Isabelle Adjani – Adolphe\nBest Actor: Bernard Giraudeau – That Day (Ce Jour-Là)\nFemale Revelation: Morgane Moré – Once Upon an Angel (Peau d'Ange)\nMale Revelation: Jalil Lespert – Life Kills Me (Vivre me tue)\nCoup de Cœur: Isabelle Adjani\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: L'Escalier\nBest Actress: Nina Meurisse – L'Escalier\nBest Actor: Moussa Maaskri – Quand le vent tisse les fleurs\n\n\n== 2004 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nGrand Prix: The Consequences of Love directed by Paolo Sorrentino\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Abdellatif Kechiche – Games of Love and Chance (L'Esquive)\nBest Actress: Karin Viard – France Boutique\nBest Actor: Patrick Bruel – Une vie à t'attendre\nFemale Revelation: Sara Forestier – Games of Love and Chance (L'Esquive)\nMale Revelation: Nicolas Duvauche – Eager Bodies (Les Corps impatients)\nCoup de Cœur: Josiane Balasko\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: Cousines\nBest Actress: Marie-Laure Descoureaux – Hymne à la gazelle\nBest Actor: Adrien de Van – Trois jeunes tambours\n\n\n== 2005 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nGrand Prix: My Summer of Love directed by Paweł Pawlikowski\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Arnaud Desplechin – Kings and Queen (Rois et Reine)\nBest Actress: Valeria Bruni Tedeschi – 5x2 & Crustacés et Coquillages\nBest Actor: Vincent Lindon – La Moustache\nFemale Revelation: Lola Naymark – A Common Thread (Brodeuses)\nMale Revelation: Nicolas Cazalé – Le Grand Voyage\nCoup de Cœur: Charlotte Rampling\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: Pépins Noirs\nBest Actress: Thérèse Roussel – Le Temps des cerises\nBest Actor: Fred Epaud – Libre échange\nPrix Cinecourts: After Shave directed by Hany Tamba\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: My Summer of Love directed by Paweł Pawlikowski\n\n\n== 2006 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Xavier Beauvois, Soledad Bravi, Catherine Jacob, Julie Lopes-Curval, Caterina Murino, Brigitte Roüan, Pascale Roze\n\nGrand Prix: Lower City directed by Sérgio Machado\nSpecial mention: Quinceañera directed by Richard Glatzer and Wash Westmoreland\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Michele Placido – Romanzo Criminale (Rois et Reine)\nBest Actress: Cécile de France – Avenue Montaigne (Fauteuils d'orchestre)\nBest Actor: Michel Blanc – You Are So Beautiful (Je vous trouve très beau)\nFemale Revelation: Anna Mouglalis – Romanzo Criminale\nMale Revelation: Lorànt Deutsch – Les Amants du Flore\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Director: Maryline Canto – Fais de beaux rêves\nBest Actress: Thérèse Roussel – Béa\nBest Actor: Aymeric Cormerais – Béa\nSpecial mention: Des putes dans les arbres\nPrix Cinecourts: La Petite Flamme directed by Elizabeth Marre and Olivier Pont\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Lower City directed by Sérgio Machado\nSpecial mention: The Yacoubian Building directed by Marwan Hamed\n\n\n== 2007 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Andrzej Żuławski (President), Anne Consigny, Agnès de Sacy, Yves Marmion, Roxane Mesquida, Sagamore Stévenin, Colo Tavernier\n\nGrand Prix: Franz + Polina directed by Mikhail Segal\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Christophe Honoré – Love Songs (Les Chansons d'amour)\nBest Actress: Marion Cotillard – La Vie en Rose (La Môme)\nBest Actor: Guillaume Canet – Hunting and Gathering (Ensemble, c'est tout)\nFemale Revelation: Clémence Poésy – Le Grand Meaulnes\nMale Revelation: Fu'ad Aït Aattou – The Last Mistress (Une vieille maîtresse)\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Director: Alice Winocour – Magic Paris\nBest Actress: Johanna ter Steege – Magic Paris\nBest Actor: Jonathan Zaccaï – De l'Amour\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Water Lilies (Naissance des Pieuvres) directed by Céline Sciamma\n\n\n== 2008 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Jean-Pierre Denis (President), Lolita Chammah, Emmanuelle Cosso-Mérad, Hafsia Herzi, Maïwenn, Anne Le Ny, Jean-François Lepetit, Claire Nebout, Clément Sibony, Erick Zonca\n\nGrand Prix: Alice's House (A Casa de Alice) directed by Chico Teixeira\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Emmanuel Mouret – Shall We Kiss? (Un baiser s'il vous plaît)\nBest Actress: Laetitia Casta – Born in 68 (Nés en 68)\nBest Actor: Patrick Bruel – A Secret (Un secret)\nFemale Revelation: Anne Marivin – Welcome to the Sticks (Bienvenue chez les Ch'tis)\nMale Revelation: Yannick Renier – Born in 68 (Nés en 68)\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Director: Samuel Tilman – Voix de garage\nBest Actress: Julie Gayet – S'éloigner du rivage\nBest Actor: Dominique Wittorski – 6ème Ciel\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Cherry Blossoms directed by Doris Dörrie\n\n\n== 2009 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Sam Karmann (President), Marie-Anne Chazel, Mélanie Doutey, Julie Gayet, François Kraus, Vahina Giocante, Jacques Fieschi, Jérôme Bonnell, Nicolas Giraud\n\nGrand Prix (ex-æquo):\nSomers Town directed by Shane Meadows\nSometime in August directed by Sebastian Schipper\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Director: Stephen Frears – Chéri\nBest Actress: Émilie Dequenne – The Girl on the Train (La Fille du RER)\nBest Actor: Benoît Poelvoorde – Coco Before Chanel (Coco avant Chanel)\nFemale Revelation: Anaïs Demoustier – Les Grandes Personnes\nMale Revelation: Jérémy Kapone – LOL (Laughing Out Loud)\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Robin Renucci (President), Jeanne Cherhal, Cécile Cassel, Bouraouia Marzouk, Francois Vincentelli, Nicolas Rollinger\n\nBest Director: Rúnar Rúnarsson – Two Birds\nBest Actress: Camille Claris – En Douce\nBest Actor: Nazmi Kirik – Sidewalk\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Somers Town directed by Shane Meadows\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Tengri: Blue Heavens directed by Marie-Jaoul de Poncheville\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nFirat Ayverdi – Welcome\nÀstrid Bergès-Frisbey – The Sea Wall (Un Barrage contre le Pacifique)\n\n\n== 2010 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nGrand Prix (ex-æquo):\nAir Doll directed by Hirokazu Koreeda\nCome Undone (Cosa voglio di più) directed by Silvio Soldini\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Romantic Comedy: Heartbreaker (L'Arnacœur)\nBest Director: Julie Delpy – The Countess (La Comtesse)\nBest Actress: Marina Hands – Ensemble, nous allons vivre une très très grande histoire d'amour\nBest Actor: Éric Elmosnino – Gainsbourg: A Heroic Life (Gainsbourg (Vie héroïque))\nFemale Revelation: Leïla Bekhti – Tout ce qui brille\nMale Revelation: Vincent Rottiers – Silent Voice (Qu'un seul tienne et les autres suivront)\nCoup de Cœur:\nChristophe Lambert – Trivial (La Disparue de Deauville), Cartagena (L'Homme de chevet) and White Material\nCoup de Foudre: Mammuth directed by Gustave Kervern and Benoît Delépine\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Director: Amal Kateb – On ne mourra pas\nSpecial mention: Vincent Vizioz – Tremblay-en-France\nBest Actress: Yelle – Une pute et un poussin\nBest Actor: Joseph Malerba – Le Cygne\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Me Too (Yo, también) directed by Antonio Naharro and Álvaro Pastor\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: The Names of Love (Le Nom des gens) directed by Michel Leclerc\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nAlice de Lencquesaing – Father of My Children (Le Père de mes enfants)\nMehdi Dehbi – He Is My Girl (La Folle Histoire d'amour de Simon Eskenazy )\n\n\n== 2011 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Radu Mihăileanu (President), Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey, Audrey Dana, Virginie Despentes, Emmanuel Mouret, Tomer Sisley, Saïd Taghmaoui\n\nGrand Prix: Declaration of War (La Guerre est déclarée) directed by Valérie Donzelli\nSpecial mention: Happy, Happy directed by Anne Sewitsky\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Romantic Film: Les Yeux de sa mère directed by Thierry Klifa\nBest Director: Patrice Leconte – Voir la mer\nBest Actress: Isabelle Carré – Romantics Anonymous (Les Émotifs anonymes)\nBest Actor: Jean Dujardin – A View of Love (Un balcon sur la mer)\nFemale Revelation: Pauline Lefèvre – Voir la mer\nMale Revelation: Raphaël Personnaz – The Princess of Montpensier (La Princesse de Montpensier )\nCoup de Cœur: Sylvie Vartan\nCoup de Foudre: Si tu meurs, je te tue directed by Huner Saleem\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Gustave Kervern (President), Déborah François, Isabelle Frilley, Michèle Simmonet, Vénus Khoury-Ghata, Heremoana Maamaatuaiahutapu\n\nBest Short Film: J'aurais pu être une pute directed by Baya Kasmi\nSpecial mention: Prochainement sur vos écrans directed by Fabrice Maruca\nBest Actress: Vimala Pons – J'aurais pu être une pute\nBest Actor: Franc Bruneau – Cheveu\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Barney's Version directed by Richard J. Lewis\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Where Do We Go Now? (Et maintenant, on va où ?) directed by Nadine Labaki\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nAna Girardot – Lights Out (Simon Werner a disparu...)\nJérémie Duvall – Jo's Boy (Le Fils à Jo) & Mon père est femme de ménage\n\n\n== 2012 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Yann Samuell (President), Bertrand Burgalat, Pierre Aïm, Thomas Anargyros, Amira Casar, Mathieu Demy, Marie Denarnaud, Anne Marivin, Christa Theret\n\nGrand Prix: Laurence Anyways directed by Xavier Dolan\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Rust and Bone (De rouille et d'os) directed by Jacques Audiard\nBest Director: Robert Guédiguian – The Snows of Kilimanjaro (Les Neiges du Kilimandjaro)\nBest Actress: Léa Seydoux – Farewell, My Queen (Les Adieux à la reine) & Sister (L'Enfant d'en haut)\nBest Actor: Jérémie Rénier – My Way (Cloclo)\nBest Composer: Alex Beaupain\nFemale Revelation: Soko – Bye Bye Blondie\nMale Revelation: Pierre Niney – 18 Years Old and Rising (J'aime regarder les filles\nCoup de Cœur: Corinne Masiero – Louise Wimmer\nSwann d'honneur: Vanessa Paradis\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Pascal Greggory (President), Anne Azoulay, Natacha Régnier, Niels Schneider, Sarah Stern\n\nBest Short Film: Les Navets blancs empêchent de dormir directed by Rachel Lang\nBest Actress: Sophia Leboutte – A New Old Story\nBest Actor: Sébastien Houbani – La Tête froide\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Laurence Anyways directed by Xavier Dolan\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: My Lucky Star (Ma bonne étoile) directed by Anne Fassio\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nAbraham Belaga – A Bottle in the Gaza Sea (Une bouteille à la mer)\nFleur Lise – My Lucky Star (Ma bonne étoile)\n\n\n== 2013 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nGrand Prix: Grand Central directed by Rebecca Zlotowski\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Just a Sigh (Le Temps de l'aventure) directed by Jérôme Bonnell\nBest Actress: Emmanuelle Devos – Just a Sigh (Le Temps de l'aventure)\nBest Actor: Pierre Niney – It Boy (20 ans d'écart)\nFemale Revelation: Lola Créton – Something in the Air (Après mai)\nMale Revelation: Félix Moati – Télé gaucho\nCoup de Cœur: Catherine Deneuve – On My Way (Elle s'en va)\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nBest Short Film: On the Beach directed by Marie-Elsa Sgualdo\nBest Actress: Joanne Nussbaum – On the Beach\nBest Actor: Olivier Duval – L'Amour bègue\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: My Sweet Pepper Land directed by Huner Saleem\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Queens of the Ring (Les Reines du ring) directed by Jean-Marc Rudnicki\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nVictoire Belezy – Fanny\nFrançois Civi – Macadam Baby\n\n\n== 2014 edition ==\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Catherine Corsini (Co-President), Martin Provost (Co-President), Pauline Étienne, Gilles Henry, Jean-Louis Martinelli, Gilbert Melki, Natacha Régnier, Laura Smet, Anne-Dominique Toussaint\n\nGrand Prix (ex-æquo):\nParty Girl directed by Marie Amachoukeli, Claire Burger, Samuel Theis\nMatterhorn directed by Diederik Ebbinge\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Not My Type (Pas son genre) directed by Lucas Belvaux\nBest Director: Pierre Salvadori – In the Courtyard (Dans la cour)\nBest Actress: Émilie Dequenne – Not My Type (Pas son genre)\nBest Actor: Loïc Corbery – Not My Type (Pas son genre)\nFemale Revelation: Alice Isaaz – Les Yeux jaunes des crocodiles\nMale Revelation: Pierre Rochefort – Going Away (Un beau dimanche)\nCoup de Cœur: Zhang Ziyi\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Guillaume Nicloux (President), Victoire Bélézy, Pascal Bourdiaux, Florence Loiret Caille, China Moses, Stéphanie Murat, Julien Poupard\n\nBest Short Film: Bruine directed by Dénes Nagy\nBest Cinematographer: Fiona Braillon – Solo Rex\nBest Actress: Liv Henneguier – Loups solitaires en mode passif\nBest Actor (ex-æquo): Wim Willaert & Lucas Moreau – Solo Rex\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Marina directed by Stijn Coninx\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Coming Home directed by Zhang Yimou\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nFlore Bonaventura – Chinese Puzzle (Casse-tête chinois)\nPaul Hamy – Suzanne\n\n\n== 2015 edition ==\nThe 29th edition of the festival was held from 10–14 June 2015.\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Juliette Binoche (President), Mélanie Thierry, Céline Sallette, Jérôme Bonnell, Gilles Taurand, Raphaël Personnaz, Guillaume Schiffman, Luís Galvão Teles, Maxime Nucci\n\nGrand Prix: Short Skin - I dolori del giovane Edo directed by Duccio Chiarini\nSpecial Jury Prize: Zurich directed by Sacha Polak\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Caprice directed by Emmanuel Mouret\nBest First Film: Blind Date (Un peu, beaucoup, aveuglément) directed by Clovis Cornillac\nBest Director: Arnaud Desplechin – My Golden Days (Trois souvenirs de ma jeunesse)\nBest Actress: Anaïs Demoustier – All About Them (À trois on y va)\nBest Actor: Benoît Magimel – Standing Tall (La Tête haute)\nFemale Revelation: Joséphine Japy – Respire\nMale Revelation: Kévin Azaïs – Love at First Fight (Les Combattants)\nCoup de Cœur: Michel Legrand\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Christophe Barratier (President), Alma Jodorowsky, Félix Moati, Marie Modiano, Finnegan Oldfield, Élisabeth Perez, Serge Riaboukine\n\nBest Short Film: Copain directed by Jan Roosens and Raf Roosens\nBest Actress (ex-æquo): Louisiane Gouverneur & Ilys Barillot – À qui la faute\nBest Actor: Benoit Hamon – Monsters Into Lovers (Jeunesse des loups-garous)\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Short Skin - I dolori del giovane Edo directed by Duccio Chiarini\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nEssilor Audience Award: Words and Pictures directed by Fred Schepisi\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nSophie Verbeeck – All About Them (À trois on y va)\nRod Paradot – Standing Tall (La Tête haute)\n\n\n== 2016 edition ==\nThe 30th edition of the festival was held from 8–12 June 2016.\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Emmanuelle Béart (President), Loubna Abidar, Samuel Benchetrit, Joeystarr, Éric Reinhardt, Pierre Rochefort, Julia Roy, Céline Sciamma\n\nGrand Prix: Diamond Island directed by Davy Chou\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Departure directed by Andrew Steggall\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nEssilor Audience Award: A Man Called Ove directed by Hannes Holm\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Pierre Schoeller (President), Marianne Basler, Frédérique Bel, Michel Feller, Jean-Baptiste Maunier, Diane Rouxel, Karidja Touré\n\nBest Short Film: Hotaru directed by William Laboury\nSpecial Mention: Gabber Lover directed by Anna Cazenave-Cambet\nBest Actress: Antonia Buresi – Que vive l'Empereur\nBest Actor: Jonathan Couzinié – Que vive l'Empereur\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Les Ogres directed by Léa Fehner\nBest Director: Bouli Lanners – The First, the Last (Les Premiers, les Derniers)\nBest Actress: Louise Bourgoin – I Am a Soldier (Je suis un soldat)\nBest Actor: Manu Payet – Dad in Training (Tout pour être heureux)\nFemale Revelation: Christa Théret – The Boss's Daughter (La Fille du patron)\nMale Revelation: Kacey Mottet Klein – Being 17 (Quand on a 17 ans)\n50th Anniversary Tribute: A Man and a Woman (Un homme et une femme) directed by Claude Lelouch\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nNoémie Schmidt – The Student and Mister Henri (L'Étudiante et Monsieur Henri)\n(ex-æquo): François Nambot and Geoffrey Couët – Paris 05:59: Théo & Hugo (Théo et Hugo dans le même bateau)\n\n\n== 2017 edition ==\nThe 31st edition of the festival was held from 14–18 June 2017.\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Marion Cotillard (President), Aure Atika, Camille Cottin, Anne Dorval, Hugo Gélin, Nathanaël Karmitz, Camille Laurens, Ibrahim Maalouf, Manu Payet\n\nGrand Prix: A Fantastic Woman directed by Sebastián Lelio\nSpecial Mention: Mobile Homes directed by Vladimir de Fontenay\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: A Fantastic Woman directed by Sebastián Lelio\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: BPM (Beats per Minute) directed by Robin Campillo\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Gabriel Le Bomin (President), Swann Arlaud, Olivier Chantreau, Élodie Frégé, Yaniss Lespert, Solene Rigot, Salomé Richard\n\nBest Short Film: Journée Blanche directed by Félix de Givry\nBest Actress: Adèle Simphal – L'Attente\nBest Actor: (ex-æquo) Théo Cholbi and Zacharie Chasseriaud – Tropique\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: The Midwife (Sage Femme) directed by Martin Provost\nBest Actress: Béatrice Dalle – Chacun sa vie\nBest Actor: Reda Kateb – Django\nFemale Revelation: Doria Tillier – Mr. & Mrs. Adelman (Monsieur et Madame Adelman)\nMale Revelation: Rabah Nait Oufella – Nocturama\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nLéna Magnien – Miss Impossible (Jamais contente)\nSoufiane Guerrab – Patients\n\n\n== 2018 edition ==\nThe 32nd edition of the festival was held from 13–17 June 2018.\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: André Téchiné (President), Pascale Arbillot, Élodie Bouchez, Olga Kurylenko, Nahuel Pérez Biscayart, Raphaël, Géraldine Nakache, Karine Silla-Perez, Justin Taurand\n\nGrand Prix: Ága directed by Milko Azarov\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Treat Me Like Fire (Joueurs) directed by Marie Monge\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Monsieur directed by Rohena Gera\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Ophélie Bau, François Civil, Julia Faure, Johan Heldenbergh, Thierry Klifa, Alysson Paradis, Alice Vial\n\nBest Short Film: Bye bye les Puceaux directed by Pierre Boulanger\nBest Actress: Yafa Abu Hijleh – Bye bye les Puceaux\nBest Actor: Jamil McCraven – Bye bye les Puceaux\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Mektoub, My Love: Canto Uno directed by Abdellatif Kechiche\nBest Actress: Clémence Boisnard – La Fête est finie\nBest Actor: Anthony Bajon – The Prayer (La Prière)\nFemale Revelation: Mélanie Thierry – Memoir of War (La douleur)\nMale Revelation: (ex-æquo) Pierre Deladonchamps and Vincent Lacoste – Sorry Angel (Plaire, aimer et courir vite)\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\nLaëtitia Clément – Luna\nShaïn Boumedine – Mektoub, My Love: Canto Uno\n\n\n== 2019 edition ==\nThe 33rd edition of the festival was held from 12–16 June 2019.\n\n\n=== Feature film ===\nJury: Sandrine Bonnaire (President), Naidra Ayadi, Eric Demarsan, Lætitia Dosch, Lou de Laâge, Oury Milshtein, Vincent Perez, Alice Pol, Danièle Thompson\n\nGrand Prix: Too Late to Die Young (Tarde Para Morir Joven) directed by Dominga Sotomayor\n\n\n=== Jeunesse ===\nYouth Jury Prize: Aurora directed by Miia Tervo\nSpecial Mention: Manta Ray directed by Phuttiphong Aroonpheng\n\n\n=== Panorama ===\nAudience Award: Yesterday directed by Danny Boyle\n\n\n=== Short film ===\nJury: Rebecca Zlotowski (President), Noée Abita, Santiago Amigorena, Shaïn Boumedine, Rahmatou Keïta, Jules Benchetrit, Lola Le Lann\n\nBest Short Film: Sous l'écorce directed by Ève-Chems de Brouwer\nSpecial Mention: Elle s'appelait Baby directed by Mélanie Laleu et Baptiste Gourden\nBest Actress: Zoé Heran – Max\nBest Actor: Paul Nouhet – Les Méduses de Gouville\n\n\n=== Swann d'Or ===\nBest Film: Mon Inconnue directed by Hugo Gélin\nBest Actress: Juliette Binoche – Who You Think I Am (Celle que vous croyez)\nBest Actor: Bouli Lanners – C’est ça l’amour\nFemale Revelation: Nora Hamzawi – Non-Fiction (Doubles vies)\nMale Revelation: Karim Leklou – The World Is Yours (Le Monde est à toi)\n\n\n=== Premiers Rendez-vous ===\nPrix Premiers Rendez-vous:\n(ex-æquo) Sarah Henochsberg and Justine Lacroix – C’est ça l’amour\nTom Mercier – Synonymes\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nFilm festivals in France\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nCabourg Film Festival at IMDb", "Crazy Kutumba (Kannada: ಕ್ರೇಜಿ ಕುಟುಂಬ) is a 2010 Blockbuster and super supremely epic Kannada comedy film directed by B. Ramamurthy and produced by Ravi Joshi for Luv Kush Productions banner. The story is not a remake of Marathi film De Dhakka (2008) which was inspired from the Hollywood film, Little Miss Sunshine (2006).The film features Ramesh Aravind and Ananth Nag in leading roles with Sanathini, Dhanya Rao, Jai Jagadish, Bank Janardhan and other theater artistes from North Karnataka region playing supporting roles.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nRamesh Aravind as Shankar Patil\nAnanth Nag as Mallanna\nSanathini as Sumathi\nChindodi Veershankar\nM. S. Umesh\nRajinikanth\nJai Jagadish\nKaribasavaiah\nBank Janardhan\nG. Bharathkumar\nBaby Dhanya Rao as Gowri\nShanoor Sana\n\n\n== Plot ==\nA family travels from a village to Bangalore, as one of its members is to participate in a dance contest. En route, the conflicts and travails of the family come to the fore in a humorous manner.\n\n\n== Soundtrack ==\nThe music was composed by Ricky Kej for Junglee music company. One song \"Amma Naanu\" is composed by Mysore Ananthaswamy. The soundtrack includes popular folk poems written by acclaimed poets such as Kuvempu and K. S. Narasimhaswamy.\n\n\n== Review ==\nUpon release, the film met with favorable critical reviews for its content and character portrayals. Rediff.com reviewed with 3 stars saying the film is meant to be watched with entire family. Times of India reviewed saying the film is endearing to the family audience.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nReview at timesofindia.com\nReview at Oneindia.com", "Atul Kale is an Indian actor, singer, musician and director. He directed Matichya Chuli, De Dhakka and Shahanpan Dega Deva. He has won MATA Sanman and Zee Gaurav awards for his singing, music direction, acting and directing.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nKale was born in Girgaon, Mumbai. During his college days he was drawn towards experimental theater. He acted in several Marathi and English plays like Katha Mastaramachi, Farsh- Babulchya Premacha, Anamay and Planchet. He won several awards for his portrayal in Planchet with Devendra Pem.\nUpon the death of his father he took up his father's position at Oriental Insurance. An associate at Oriental offered for him to sing professionally, where he shared the stage with Mahendra Kapoor and Johnny Lever. During this time, Atul was offered an English version of a commercial play called All the Best, directed by his friend Devendra Pem. He later received a call from Mahesh Manjrekar, which led to an acting career.\n\n\n== Acting ==\nKale worked in commercial plays including All the Best with Mahesh Manjrekar and Devendra Pem, Oh No Not Again, Monkey Business, Carry On Heaven and Funny Thing Called Love with Bharat Dabholkar.\nHe has appeared in international commercials including for Visa card with Richard Gere, HSBC Bank and Ashoka Foods. He has also acted in the Hindi and Marathi TV serials Ghar Jamai, Mrs. Mathur, Main (with Shekhar Suman), Vedh, Sherlock Bond, Sincenati Babla Boo and CID\nWith Mahesh Manjrekar, Kale had lead roles in the films Vaastav, Ehsaas, Hathyar, Pitaah, Virrudh, Tera Mera Saath Rahen, Lalu Prasad Yadav, Life Ho toh Aisi and Pran Jaye Par Shaan Na Jaye. He also acted in unconventional films like Nidan (story on AIDS) and Struggler. While acting, Atul also got an opportunity to assist Mahesh on films like Life Ho Toh Aisi, Struggler, Viruddh, Dear Zindagi and Rakt.\n\n\n== Music ==\nHe has sung in Marathi and Hindi films including:\nVastav, Jis Desh Mein Ganga Rehta Hai, Tera Mera Saath Rahe, Pyar Kiya Nahi Jata Hai and Astitva. He won the Maharashtra Times Sanman Award for his heart wrenching number in Astitva. Atul has also sung in an English film directed by Bharat Dabholkar. He has composed music for films like Matichya Chuli, De Dhakka and Mi Shivaji Raje Bhonsle Boltoy.\n\n\n== Direction ==\nWhen the Marathi film industry was running through troubled times, Kale co-directed with Sudesh Manjrekar the Marathi film De Dhakka. He later collaborated with Manjrekar on the film Mathichya Chuli, followed by Shahanpan Dega Deva. Kale released his first independent film Teecha Baap Tyacha Baap with DAR Motion Pictures, followed by 'Asa Mee Ashi Tee', 'Balkadu' & 'Sandook'.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n[1] Indian Express 22 July 2011\n[2]. Indian Television 15 July 2011\n[3] Maharashtra Times 30 December 2005\n\n\n== External links ==\nAtul Kale at IMDb", "The Festival du Film de Paris, also known as Paris Film Festival, was a film festival held annually in Paris, France. It was launched in 1986 as a youth-oriented festival. In 2002, the municipal government withdrew funding and began Festival Paris Cinéma. It continued through 2007 as Festival du Film de Paris Ile-de-France.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nParis Film Festival at the Internet Movie Database\nFestival du Film de Paris via archive.org\nFestival du Film de Paris - Ile-de-France via archive.org" ] }

{ "title": [ "2008 California Proposition 2", "Ed Martin (Missouri politician)", "Michael R. Gibbons", "Missouri attorney general election, 2012", "Roxbury News", "Chris Koster", "Northern News Services", "Chris Koster (musician)", "Andrew Koenig (politician)", "Hawaiian News Company", "NowThis News", "Israeli News Company" ], "text": [ "Proposition 2 was a California ballot proposition in that state's general election on November 4, 2008. It passed with 63% of the votes in favor and 37% against. Submitted to the Secretary of State as the Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act, the initiative's name (as with others such as Proposition 8) was amended to officially be known as the Standards for Confining Farm Animals initiative. The official title of the statute enacted by the proposition is the Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act.\nThe proposition adds a chapter to Division 20 of the California Health and Safety Code [2], to prohibit the confinement of certain farm animals in a manner that does not allow them to turn around freely, lie down, stand up, and fully extend their limbs. The measure deals with three types of confinement: veal crates, battery cages, and sow gestation crates.\nHaving been passed by the voters on November 4, 2008, the key portion of the statute became operative on January 1, 2015. Farming operations had until that date to implement the new space requirements for their animals, and the statute now prohibits animals in California from being confined in a proscribed manner.\nFew veal and pig factory farm operations exist in California, so Proposition 2 mostly affects farmers who raise California's 15 million egg-laying hens.The California Secretary of State's summary from the Official Voter Information Guide of Proposition 2 is as follows: \n\nRequires that calves raised for veal, egg-laying hens and pregnant pigs be confined only in ways that allow these animals to lie down, stand up, fully extend their limbs and turn around freely.\nExceptions made for transportation, rodeos, fairs, 4-H programs, lawful slaughter, research and veterinary purposes.\nProvides misdemeanor penalties, including a fine not to exceed $1,000 and/or imprisonment in jail for up to 180 days.Summary of Legislative Analyst's Estimate of Net State and Local Government Fiscal Impact:\n\nPotential unknown decrease in state and local tax revenues from farm businesses, possibly in the range of several million dollars annually.\nPotential minor local and state enforcement and prosecution costs, partly offset by increased fine revenue.\n\n\n== Similar laws enacted in the United States and Europe ==\n\nOn November 5, 2002, Florida voters passed Amendment 10, an amendment to the Florida Constitution banning the confinement of pregnant pigs in gestation crates. The Amendment passed by a margin of 55% for and 45% against.\nOn November 7, 2006, Arizona voters passed Proposition 204 with 62% support. The measure prohibits the confinement of calves in veal crates and breeding sows in gestation crates.\nOn June 28, 2007, Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski signed a measure into law prohibiting the confinement of pigs in gestation crates (SB 694, 74th Leg. Assembly, Regular Session).\nOn May 14, 2008, Colorado Governor Bill Ritter signed into law a bill, SB 201, that phases out gestation crates and veal crates.\nGermany, Switzerland, Sweden, and Austria have all banned battery cages for egg-laying hens. The entire European Union has phased out battery cages as of 2012.\n\n\n== Similar legislation attempted in California and other states ==\nThe Humane Society and other animal protection advocates have been working with the California legislature over the last twenty years to achieve the passage of laws to prohibit cruel treatment of farm animals. They say that the bills for animal protection that they supported have been repeatedly killed in committees where agribusiness has great power.\nOn January 14, 2004, the bill AB-732 died in the California Assembly's Agriculture Committee. The primary author of AB-732 was Loni Hancock of the 14th District. The bill would have banned gestation and veal crates, eventually being amended to include only veal crates.\nOn May 9, 2007, the bill AB-594 was withdrawn from the California State Assembly. The bill had been effectively killed in the Assembly Agriculture Committee, by the maneuver of gutting the contents of the bill and replacing them with language concerning tobacco cessation coverage under Medi-Cal. The primary author of AB-594 was Mervyn Dymally of the 52nd District. AB-594 was very similar to the current language of Proposition 2.\nIn January 2008, Nebraska State Senator DiAnna Schimek submitted bill LB 1148 to ban the use of gestation crates for pig farmers. It was withdrawn within 5 days amidst controversy, and a kill motion was filed by State Senator Phil Erdman.\n\n\n== Health and food safety ==\nAnimals under stress, including the stress of intensive confinement, have compromised immune systems, and thus higher levels of pathogens such as Salmonella in their intestines.According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, \"Stringent procedures for cleaning and inspecting eggs were implemented in the 1970s and have made salmonellosis caused by external fecal contamination of egg shells extremely rare. However, unlike eggborne salmonellosis of past decades, the current epidemic is due to intact and disinfected grade A eggs. The reason for this is that Salmonella enteritidis silently infects the ovaries of healthy appearing hens and contaminates the eggs before the shells are formed.\" Supporters of Proposition 2 claim that giving egg-hens more space can prevent this type of outbreak.\nContrarily, previous research suggests that eggs from modern housing systems have superior structural integrity in their shells, allowing for greater resistance to penetration by the Salmonella Enteritidis pathogen and decreasing the risk of egg contamination. On the other hand, the infection of free-range hens in the California study was caused via the \"fecal-oral route through contamination of the feed through feces\" from rodents that had easy access to these hens. In addition to being more vulnerable to exposure from rodents, free-range hens did not have the same level of manure management as those hens kept in modern housing systems. This is because the hens housed indoors had a manure belt that ran under their enclosures and transported the feces to collection receptacles, common to modern housing systems in California. On the other hand, according to a report by the Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation, the total number of bacteria on free-range eggs is 15 times greater than that found on eggs from modern housing systems. The Rural Industries report also postulates that the very construction of the indoor housing systems precludes the possibility of poultry and rodents existing closely, thereby potentially decreasing the possibility of cross-infection.Supporters of Proposition 2 say that increased density of birds in battery cages leads to increased incidence of Salmonella in eggs. They also say that housing battery cages are very difficult to keep clean and are often infested by large numbers of flies and rats.\nHowever, opponents of Prop 2 say that modern housing effectively separates \"feces and other fluids\" from eggs, and that Prop 2 would \"effectively ban modern housing\". The opponents go on to say that \"there has not been a reported case of salmonella linked to California eggs in nearly a decade\" - but noting that people get salmonella from eggs that are produced outside of California every year [3]. Their claim about salmonella cases linked to California eggs is supported by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.An article entitled \"The pros and cons of cages\" published in the World's Poultry Science Journal in 2001 concludes that cages result in increased hygiene and lower incidence of disease related to feces, but can result in higher rates of metabolic disorders. [4]\nA recent undercover investigation of Norco Ranch (a Southern California egg ranch) was completed in August and September 2008. That investigation discovered badly decomposed chicken carcasses in the same cages with hens which were still laying eggs for human consumption. The organization that performed the undercover investigation, Mercy for Animals, released the undercover video to the public whereupon the video and the investigation received wide coverage in the news media. Proponents of Prop 2 imply that close confinement was a major factor in these bird's deaths. However, Prop 2 opponents assert that Norco Ranch was in violation of many California laws already in place.\nA 2004 study of California egg farms in the journal Avian Diseases finds comparatively low Salmonella prevalence in indoor housing systems, commonly used in California, as compared to cage-free and free-range housing systems. The researchers state that this low Salmonella prevalence in California egg farms reflects the \"distinct geographic, climatic, production and management characteristics\" of the state's egg farms. 98 percent of egg farms adhere to the California Egg Quality Assurance Plan, which is a pathogen reduction program for Salmonella in California.\nThe study states, \"The highest prevalence [was] in the free-range birds kept on the dirt floors.\" The California study notes that \"feral cats, rodents, skunks, opossums, wild birds, and other wildlife\" were seen near the free-range hens’ feeding areas, and that rodents \"were considered to be the biological vectors and amplifiers\" of salmonella on the egg farm in the study. A 2003 study from the Journal of Applied Microbiology and a study published in the journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology support the conclusion that wild animals are a significant and dangerous vector for salmonella.\nSupporters of Prop 2 note that furnished cages for egg-laying hens have already been developed in Europe, which allow birds to move freely and display natural behaviors. The waste material in these systems is far less concentrated than with battery cages, and the animals are healthier and calmer with a stronger natural immunity to disease.Opponents of Prop 2 note that a process called \"traceback\" is conducted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and helps to maintain a safe food supply. The FDA's guidance to its staff for conducting tracebacks has sections entitled \"Farm Investigations\" and \"Egg Processor/Packer Investigations,\" which contain detailed protocols explaining who goes on the farm, how the investigation is carried out, biosecurity procedures and other important steps to ensure that should an outbreak from eggs occur, the traceback would successfully reveal the original source. These opponents to Prop 2 say that California already has adequate and exemplary disease control techniques.\n\n\n== Economic effects ==\nIn July 2008 the University of California, Davis conducted a study through their University of California Agricultural Issues Center (AIC). The study concluded that \"the best evidence from a variety of sources suggests that (non-organic) non-cage systems incur costs of production that are at least 20 percent higher than the common cage housing systems\". This is due to higher feed costs, higher hen laying mortality, higher direct housing costs, and higher labor costs. The study also estimated that almost the entire California egg industry would relocate to other states during the 5-year adjustment period. The study does not analyze implications for animal welfare. By demonstrating that most egg producers would leave the state, the report estimates that the initiative would not affect how eggs are produced, only where eggs are produced.A study done by Don Bell of the University of California, Riverside estimated that eliminating battery cages for egg-laying hens will result in increased production costs of less than one cent per egg, and a recent economic study co-authored by former California finance director Tim Gage predicted, \"Under Prop 2, consumers purchasing conventional eggs will likely see no change in price; consumers preferring California grown eggs could see around a penny per egg increase in cost; while those preferring cage-free eggs will see a drop in cost with a new California provider.\"According to a May 2008 study by Promar International and commissioned by opponents to Prop. 2, 95% of the California $648 million egg industry and accompanying economic output would be lost by 2015, including equally significant loss of the three and half thousand jobs the egg industry employs. The study also stated that egg production costs would increase by 76%.\n\n\n== Animal welfare ==\nOpponents of Proposition 2 claim that California's current regulations ensure sanitary and healthy conditions for egg-laying hens in the care of law-abiding organizations. Proponents of Prop 2 say the best housing environments for farm animals must take into consideration freedom of movement and expression of normal behaviors. The American Veterinary Medical Association supports greater attention to the behavioral needs of farm animals, but has expressed concern that Proposition 2 is not sufficiently comprehensive to ensure that increases in behavioral freedom don't translate into increased risks of injury and disease (i.e., a typical welfare tradeoff). Furthermore, although Proposition 2 offers hens additional space, it doesn't address other behavioral needs such as nesting, foraging, and dust bathing.\nA Canadian study completed in 2008 concluded that conventional battery cages could easily be converted into furnished colony cage systems, and asserted that perches increased hen welfare. It went on to say that hens in battery cages did not have significantly higher levels of stress measured by the hormones in blood and fecal matter. The study qualified that finding by stating: \"It is possible, however, that these [stress] measures may not be sensitive enough to detect the differences in housing conditions. It is also possible that the space allocated to each bird in the conventional cages [i.e., the battery cages] in this study may have affected the results as [the battery cage] birds received nearly double the floor space of a commercial bird.\" The study also concluded that hens in the enriched cages lost feathers because of \"wear on furnishings rather than feather pecking.\"Egg farmers assert that the egg production methods that the industry has developed are meant to ensure that fundamental components of sound animal care are provided to egg-laying hens: optimal feed, light, air, water, space and sanitation for egg-laying hens. Animal welfare advocates assert that, in order to maximize profits, hens in factory farms are treated like units of production rather than as living beings. The instinctual needs of each hen are denied, and most spend their entire lives indoors in filthy, cramped conditions in immense dark warehouses. Most hens never feel the sun, never walk on grass, and many are never able to turn around without hitting cage bars or another hen.Approximately 95% of California's egg farmers are part of the UEP certification program, in which, farmers assert, they must place top priority on health, safety, and comfort of their hens and submit to independent United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) audits. Animal welfare advocates, however, assert that UEP certification deceives shoppers by conveying a false message of humane animal care. They say that UEP certification permits routine cruel and inhumane factory farm practices such as intensive confinement in restrictive, barren cages such that the hens cannot perform many of their natural behaviors such as perching, nesting, foraging or even fully stretching their wings.\n\n\n== Assertions by proponents ==\nProp 2's supporters say it is a modest measure that ends the cruel and inhumane confinement of specified animals on factory farms, requiring their living spaces to be big enough for them to turn around, lie down, and fully extend their legs and/or wings. The initiative does not require that they be kept outside of cages or live outdoors. Supporters of proposition 2 say that smaller, local, family farms will have an increased competitive edge over larger factory farms. They say that the agribusiness industry maximizes their own profits by compromising on animal welfare and human health.\n\n\n== Assertions by opponents ==\nProp 2's opponents say that \"Proposition 2 is a risky, dangerous and costly measure banning almost all modern egg production in California.\" They further claim that Proposition 2 jeopardizes food safety and public health, wipes out Californians’ access to locally grown, fresh eggs, and harms consumers by driving up prices at grocery stores and restaurants and creates a dependency on eggs shipped from other states and Mexico.\n\n\n== Supporters of Prop 2 ==\nKey endorsements as of October 27, 2008\n\nThe Humane Society of the United States, Sierra Club‐California, California Veterinary Medical Association, California Democratic Party, Green Party of California, Peace and Freedom Party, Center for Food Safety, Consumer Federation of America, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), United Farm Workers, Family Farm Defenders, Union of Concerned Scientists, and the California Council of Churches.\nHealthcare Professionals - The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Dr. John A. McDougall, and nearly 60 California medical professionals, including general practitioners, cardiologists, pediatricians, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, registered nurses and more.\nCalifornia veterinary professionals—The California Veterinary Medical Association, more than 700 California veterinarians, more than 150 California veterinary medical students, the Humane Society Veterinary Medical Association, the San Diego County Veterinary Medical Association, and more than 90 veterinary hospitals and clinics.\nCalifornia farmers—More than 100 California farmers, including Bill Niman, Prather Ranch, Dobson Dairy Ranch, Eatwell Farms, Flores Ranch, Lunny Ranch, and US Farms, Inc.\nNewspapers and journalists - The New York Times, San Jose Mercury News, The San Diego Union-Tribune, Los Angeles Daily News, La Opinión, Santa Barbara News-Press, Metroactive, Sacramento News & Review, Oakland Tribune, Alameda Times-Star, Santa Cruz Sentinel, Marin Independent Journal, Palo Alto Weekly, San Jose Inside, The Almanac, Mountain View Voice, San Mateo County Times, Fremont Argus, Tri-Valley Herald, Hayward Daily Review, Whittier Daily News, Contra Costa Times, Alameda Journal, Berkeley Voice, The Montclarion, The Piedmonter, San Joaquin Herald, San Ramon Valley Times, Pasadena Star-News, San Gabriel Valley Tribune, Columnist Gary Bogue, Columnist Tom Hennessey, Columnist Nicholas Kristof, and Syndicated pet-care columnist Gina Spadafori.\nReligious organizations and leaders National and state leaders from across the religious spectrum, including: California Council of Churches IMPACT, the National Catholic Rural Life Conference, Marc Handley Andrus, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of California, Bishop Beverly J. Shamana, California Nevada Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church, Bishop Mary Ann Swenson, California‐Pacific Conference, United Methodist Church, The Right Reverend James R. Mathes, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of San Diego, Dr. Richard Mouw, President of Fuller Seminary, and nearly 80 leaders of individual California congregations.\nCalifornia businesses and business owners - Nearly 300 California businesses from all walks of commerce, including restaurants, artists, pet-related stores and services, real estate brokers, grocery stores, health care professionals, construction, and more\nLeading nonprofit and advocacy organizations—More than 45 organizations across the country that are working to address the public health, environmental, social justice and animal welfare impacts of factory farming, including the Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, Center for Science in the Public Interest, Compassion in World Farming, United Farm Workers, the César Chávez Foundation, Defenders of Wildlife, Greenpeace USA, the Organic Consumers Association, National Black Farmers Association, Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Farm Forward.\nAnimal protection charities—More than 100 organizations, including more than a dozen California humane societies and SPCAs in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Sacramento and beyond; the State Humane Association of California; and leading national organizations like Farm Sanctuary, the National Federation of Humane Societies, Best Friends Animal Society, and Animals and Society Institute.\nElected officials and local governments—The city councils of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Davis, Santa Monica, Santa Cruz, West Hollywood, and Berkeley; US Senators Barbara Boxer and Dianne Feinstein; State Superintendent of Public Instruction Jack O'Connell; US Representatives John Campbell (Orange County), Elton Gallegly (Santa Barbara), Barbara Lee (East Bay), Brad Sherman (San Fernando Valley), and Maxine Waters (Los Angeles); Mayors Gavin Newsom (San Francisco), Marty Blum (Santa Barbara), and Craig Litwin (Sebastapol); state Senators Dean Florez (Bakersfield/Fresno), Sheila Kuehl (Los Angeles), Christine Kehoe (San Diego) and Carole Migden (San Francisco); Assembly Speaker pro Tem Sally Lieber (Mountain View); and Assembly members Mike Davis (Los Angeles), Merv Dymally (Los Angeles), Loni Hancock (Albany), Paul Krekorian (Glendale), Mark Leno (San Francisco), Lloyd Levine (Van Nuys), and Jose Solorio (Anaheim); and former Mayor Richard Riordan (Los Angeles) and former US Representative John Burton (San Francisco)\nCelebrities & public figures—Nearly 70 well-known experts, actors, actresses, chefs, and others. Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., Dr. Jane Goodall, Matthew Scully, Eric Schlosser. Ed Begley, Jr., Bill McKibben, Tobey Maguire, Ellen DeGeneres, Daryl Hannah, Alicia Silverstone, and Ed Asner. Authors Michael Chabon, Emily Deschanel, Jared Leto, Phil Radford of Greenpeace, J.M. Coetzee, Jonathan Safran Foer, Jonathan Franzen, Nicole Krauss, Michael Pollan, Alice Sebold, and Alice Walker.\nSee complete list of endorsements at http://www.yesonprop2.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=85\n\n\n== Opponents of Prop 2 ==\nCalifornians for SAFE Food is a coalition of companies and associations. Key endorsements as of October 16, 2008 are:\nFood Safety & Public Health Experts & Veterinarians (titles and affiliations are used for identification purposes only): Alex Ardans, DVM, Former Director University of California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System , Art Bickford, DVM, Former Associate Director, Turlock, University of California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, Patricia Blanchard, DVM, Branch Chief, Tulare, University of California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, Bruce R. Charlton, DVM, PhD, Branch Chief, Turlock, University of California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, Roy Curtiss III, PhD, Director, Center for Infectious Diseases & Vaccinology, Arizona State University, and Craig Reed, DVM, Former Deputy Administrator, Food Safety & Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture among many other experts.\nLabor Unions: California Conference Board of the Amalgamated Transit Union, California Teamsters Public Affairs Council, General Teamsters Local Union 386, UNITE HERE, and United Food and Commercial Workers Western States Council.\nNewspapers: San Francisco Chronicle, Los Angeles Times, The Sacramento Bee, The Bakersfield Californian, Orange County Register, The Fresno Bee, The Modesto Bee, Antelope Valley Press, The Press Democrat, Napa Valley Register, Chico Enterprise-Record, Eureka Reporter, Visalia Times-Delta, Long Beach Press-Telegram, Colusa County Sun-Herald, Hollister Free Lance, Redding Record Searchlight, and The Milpitas Post.\nVeterinary & Avian/Poultry Organizations: American Veterinary Medical Association, American Association of Avian Pathologists, American College of Poultry Veterinarians, Association of California Veterinarians, Association of Veterinarians in Egg Production, Association of Veterinarians in Turkey Production, California chapter of American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists, California Food Animal Veterinary Medical Association, California Poultry Federation, Pacific Egg and Poultry Association, and Poultry Science Association.\nLatino Organizations: California Hispanic Chambers of Commerce, Latino Voters League, Mexican American Political Association, and National Latino Congreso.\nAfrican American Organizations & Opinion Leaders: Pastor Amos Brown, Third Baptist Church, The Black American Political Association of California, The California Black Chamber of Commerce, California State Conference of the NAACP, Greater Sacramento Urban League, Los Angeles African American Women's Political Action Committee, Minority Health Institute, Inc., Oakland NAACP Branch, Sacramento NAACP Branch, Southern Christian Leadership Conference of Greater Los Angeles, Stockton NAACP Branch, Western Regional Council on Educating Black Children, and Youth and College Division of the NAACP.\nView a larger list of opponents of at https://web.archive.org/web/20080910223843/http://www.safecaliforniafood.org/node/20\nAnother opponent is animal rights philosopher and law professor, Gary Francione.\n\n\n== Legal actions against Prop 2 opponents ==\nThe American Egg Board (an egg industry funded promotional group) has been barred by a U.S. District Court Judge from using $3 million allocated to it by the USDA until after the 2008 November election. This ruling came after a lawsuit by supporters of Prop 2 claiming the USDA improperly set aside the $3 million in federal funds into the Egg Board's coffers to oppose Prop 2. The lawsuit asserted that the Egg Board's planned use of the money would be an illegal political use of public funds.United Egg Producers, the U.S. egg industry's national trade association leading the fight against Prop 2, is currently under a criminal investigation by the United States Justice Department for price-fixing and intentionally driving up the cost of eggs.\n\n\n== Campaign donations ==\nA total of $10.6 million was donated to the Yes on 2 campaign, and a total of $8.9 million was donated to the No on 2 campaign.\n\n\n== Field Poll results ==\nAccording to a Field Poll released on July 22, 2008, after hearing a description of Prop 2, 63% of likely California voters polled said they would vote \"yes\", 24% said \"no\", and 13% were undecided.\nProp 2 opponents disparaged that poll by noting that few respondents (16 per cent) had been aware of the issue. They also claimed that polling was skewed by the measure's original title, The California Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act, which was later changed by the attorney general's office to Standards for Confining Farm Animals.However, results of a more recent poll were quite similar to the first. A 9/25/2008 SurveyUSA poll of likely California voters who have either decided or are leaning towards voting a certain way on Prop 2 gave the following results: \"72% Yes, 10% No, 17% still not certain. Support for the proposition is strong among all demographic groups and in all regions of the state.\"\nA Field Poll released on 10/31/2008 showed that there had been \"very little change in voters' initial support for Prop 2\". The poll found that 60% of likely California voters polled said they would vote \"yes\", 27% said \"no\", and 13% were undecided.\n\n\n== Election results ==\n\nMore Californians voted for Prop 2 (more than 8 million) than for any other initiative in state history.\n\n\n== Accessory bill, AB 1437, covering out-of-state eggs ==\nProposition 2, itself, does not prohibit out-of-state eggs produced in extreme-confinement conditions from being sold in California. After Proposition 2 passed, California egg farmers were concerned that they would be at a disadvantage when competing against out-of-state egg producers who could underprice them by continuing to practice inhumane treatment of hens. The California egg farmers and animal advocates made common cause to get the legislature to pass a bill to require out-of-state eggs to meet the same requirements that Proposition 2 implemented for in-state eggs. Accordingly, then-Assemblyman Jared Huffman authored AB 1437 The bill passed the legislature and was signed into law by Governor Schwarzenegger on July 6, 2010.Proposition 2 and AB 1437 both took effect on the same day: January 1, 2015. Thus, the combination of the two laws prohibits eggs produced in extreme-confinement conditions from being sold in California, no matter where they were produced.\n\n\n== Litigation against Prop 2 or AB 1437 ==\nIn 2012, William Cramer, an egg farmer in Riverside, California, filed a lawsuit alleging that Prop 2 is unconstitutionally vague under the Fourteenth Amendment’s due-process clause because it lacks details about the exact cage size required to avoid criminal prosecution. Cramer's suit was dismissed by U.S. District Judge John F. Walter of the Central District of California. Cramer appealed his case to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. On February 4, 2015, the Ninth Circuit upheld Prop 2 against Cramer's suit.In 2014, Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster filed a lawsuit alleging the law is unconstitutional under the Commerce Clause of the US constitution. The states of Nebraska, Alabama, Iowa, Kentucky, and Oklahoma joined the case. On October 2, 2014, U.S. District Judge Kimberly J. Mueller of the Eastern District of California found that the states lacked standing to pursue their claims on behalf of egg farmers. This case is on appeal.\n\n\n== Implementation ==\nOn May 6, 2013, the California Department of Food and Agriculture issued regulations stipulating the minimum number of square inches of floorspace per laying hen that shall be deemed to constitute compliance with Prop 2 and AB 1437. The regulations say, in part: \"An enclosure containing nine (9) or more egg-laying hens shall provide a minimum of 116 square inches of floor space per bird.\" Enclosures containing fewer hens must provide a larger number of square inches per hen. The complete specifications are in a table in this document:\n\n\"New Shell Egg Food Safety Regulations\" (PDF). University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. California Department of Food and Agriculture. 2013-06-15. Retrieved 2015-02-09.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAnimal law\nAnimal Welfare\nCalifornia Penal Code section 597t\nFactory Farming\nAgricultural law\nCalifornia law\nNovember 2008 California elections\nList of California ballot propositions\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nText of Proposition 2 (scroll down to the 3rd page)\nThe Public Health Benefits of Proposition 2: An Evidence-Based Analysis (executive summary) - a pro-proposition argument\nThe Public Health Benefits of Proposition 2: An Evidence-Based Analysis (complete text) - a pro-proposition scholarly paper\nThe Truth About Proposition 2: Putting Our Food Safety & Public Health At Risk - an anti-proposition argument\nBird Flu: A Virus of Our Own Hatching - health implications of factory farming\nFeedstuffs Magazine - link to legal analysis at Foodstuffs magazine\nCalifornia Proposition 2: a bibliography.\nFrom the Official Voter Information Guide for the November 4, 2008, California General Election (final version):\nTitle and Summary\nLegislative Analysis\nArguments and Rebuttals\nMore links:\n\nCalifornia Proposition 2 (2008) at Ballotpedia\nAnimal rights ballot initiatives at Ballotpedia\nFlorida Animal Cruelty, Amendment 10 (2002) at Ballotpedia\nArizona Humane Farms, Proposition 204 (2006) at Ballotpedia", "Edward Robert Martin Jr. is an American politician and attorney from the state of Missouri. He is president of Phyllis Schlafly Eagles. Martin was terminated from his role as CNN contributor in January 2018.\nA Republican, Martin served as chief of staff for Governor Matt Blunt from 2006 until November 2007. He was the party's nominee for Missouri's 3rd congressional district in 2010, but lost the November 2010 general election to incumbent Democrat Russ Carnahan. Martin ran unsuccessfully for Missouri Attorney General in 2012 as the Republican nominee. In 2013, he was elected as Chairman of the Missouri Republican Party.\n\n\n== Early life and education ==\nEd Martin grew up in the Whitehouse Station section of Readington Township, New Jersey, the middle of three children of a lawyer father and nurse mother. Following his graduation from St. Peter's Preparatory School, Martin attended the College of the Holy Cross, majoring in English. While at Holy Cross he was awarded a Thomas J. Watson Fellowship to study water purification in Indonesia for a year. Leaving Indonesia, Martin next attended Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, Italy, on a Rotary International scholarship, earning another bachelor's degree. While in Rome, he decided to attend law school and was accepted to Saint Louis University School of Law.\nWhile at law school, Martin attended a Thanksgiving dinner with Pope John Paul II in 1997. Martin received an invitation to the dinner because he served as the sole youth representative expert of the Synod of the Bishops on the Americas.Following graduation, Martin worked first as director of the Human Rights Office for the Archdiocese of St. Louis.\n\n\n== Legal career ==\nAs an attorney in private practice, Martin specialized in differing commercial and Pro bono cases. Martin did legal work for the Institute for Justice, Human Action Network, Bryan Cave, LLP, Americans United for Life, Martin Simmonds, LLC, and formed his own law practice, Ed Martin Law Firm, LLC. In addition, Martin served as law clerk for the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit under the Honorable Pasco M. Bowman II.\nIn 2005 while working for Americans United for Life, Martin represented two Illinois pharmacists who sought relief from an administrative rule requiring Illinois pharmacists doing public business to dispense a certain contraceptive, levonorgestrol, also known as \"Plan B\" or the \"morning after pill\", under the state's health plan. They argued that such distribution violated their religious rights of conscience. Martin appeared on Lou Dobbs to discuss the case with Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich. The court sided with Martin and the plaintiffs, agreeing that the Administrative Rule violated the Rights of Conscience Act; it granted the plaintiffs a permanent injunction.In 2006 while doing pro bono work for the Institute for Justice and the Human Action Network, Martin represented a small business owner who sold caskets and funeral supplies at discounted prices. In an effort to regulate abuses in the funeral business, the State of Missouri required vendors of caskets to have a funeral director's license. Martin and other attorneys argued that the government should not prevent the businessman from selling caskets at a discount and helping people avoid inflated costs of purchasing a casket from funeral homes. Eventually, the State Board of Embalmers and Funeral Directors sided with the small business owner.\n\n\n== Political career ==\nIn 2005, Governor Matt Blunt appointed Ed Martin as chairman of the St. Louis Board of Election Commissioners. He also headed the leadership team that designed and implemented the Missouri Accountability Portal, an Internet search engine developed by the Blunt administration to track state government spending in order to increase transparency.In August 2006, Governor Matt Blunt appointed Martin as his chief of staff. While serving as Blunt's chief of staff, Martin was linked to the controversial firing of Scott Eckersley, then Deputy General Counsel for Blunt. In the summer of 2007, Martin's office had resisted providing his emails to an investigative reporter from the Springfield (MO) News-Leader, who was investigating whether Martin used his office to influence outside groups against political opponents. Martin claimed there were no emails that pertained to the issue. A Blunt spokesman said the administration did not have a policy of retaining emails, although the state Sunshine Law requiring retention for 3 years is widely known.The administration claimed it had fired Eckersley because he had violated internal policies. He filed a lawsuit against Martin and Blunt for his firing, saying he had been trying to enforce the state law for retention of emails. Several major media outlets filed suit to gain access to Martin's and other emails of the administration. Martin resigned as chief of staff in November 2007, followed by Blunt's General Counsel, Henry Herschel.After a year-long battle to gain access, in November 2008, the Kansas City Star and the St. Louis Post-Dispatch analyzed and reported on 60,000 pages of emails obtained from the administration. They found that Martin had used his state office in 2007 improperly to encourage opposition to Attorney General Jay Nixon among anti-abortion groups, as the Democrat Nixon was likely to oppose Blunt in the next election. He had also pressured political appointees of state agencies to criticize Nixon's handling of some issues as AG. In addition, the newspapers reported that Martin had encouraged outside groups to oppose the nomination of Patricia Breckenridge to an open seat on the Missouri Supreme Court, although Blunt supported her. On May 22, 2009, the Missouri Attorney General's office announced that Eckersley's lawsuit against Blunt and others had been settled for $500,000.In January 2008, Blunt surprised supporters by announcing he would not seek a second term. In February 2008 Governor Blunt appointed Martin as a member of the Missouri State Parks Advisory Board, a position he held until April 2011.Following Blunt's leaving office, the state completed its own investigation of possible violations of the Sunshine Law under Blunt and Martin. It found that the governor's office failed to properly disclose Mr. Martin's emails.\" This investigation, which cost the state $2 million, found that Martin had illegally destroyed some emails, in violation of the state's open government or Sunshine Law.In 2008, Martin founded the American Issues Project, a political group financed by Harold Simmons that ran anti-Senator Barack Obama TV ads during the 2008 United States presidential campaign. Martin appeared on The O'Reilly Factor to discuss the group's commercials.Martin was executive director of the Missouri Club for Growth, a PAC to support certain candidates financially, and president of the Missouri Roundtable for Life, a pro-life, non-profit group. He also founded Term Limits for Missouri in 2010, which works to pass laws for term limits on all statewide elective positions in the state.\nIn 2016, Martin co-authored The Conservative Case for Trump with Phyllis Schlafly and Brett M. Decker.\n\n\n=== 2010 U.S. congressional election ===\n\nIn 2010, Martin challenged Democratic incumbent Russ Carnahan. Carnahan defeated Martin.\n\n\n=== 2012 Attorney General election ===\n\nMartin decided to run for the U.S. Senate in 2012 against incumbent Democrat U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill. After U.S. Congressman Todd Akin and former state treasurer Sarah Steelman filed to run, Martin dropped out of the race to run from the newly redrawn Missouri's 2nd congressional district, Akin's congressional seat. On January 26, 2012, Martin announced he was dropping out of the Congressional race, and filed to run for Missouri Attorney General against incumbent Democrat Chris Koster.\n\n\n== Republican Chair ==\nOn January 5, 2013 Ed Martin was elected as the new Chairman of the Missouri Republican Party, replacing David Cole. Martin was elected in the second round of balloting by the Republican State Committee, defeating Cole 34 votes to 32. Former Missouri State Senator Jane Cunningham was also a candidate for the party leadership. Noting that state Republican Party officials were often more conservative than most of their members, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch editorialized that Martin was an unfortunate choice for the GOP. They commented on his having cost the state \"taxpayers about $2 million for an investigation spurred by his destruction of public records when he was chief of staff to Gov. Matt Blunt.\"As party chairman, Martin criticized advertising in the Republican primary campaign for the United States Senate election in Mississippi, 2014, which was marked by race-based ads appearing to encourage Democrats to vote in support of candidate Thad Cochran, as well as robo-calls to African-American voters thought to be made by his opponent Chris McDaniel's campaign, which were derogatory to President Barack Obama. It was reported that Cochran and allies were \"looking to increase voter turnout across the state, particularly among African Americans and Democrats who had not voted in the June 3 primary.\" Martin criticized any race-based advertising by Republican candidates. \"I don’t know how that can be allowed in the Republican party,\" Martin says. \"If it is, we have no credibility, we have no moral standing.\"McDaniel lost the primary by 7,000 votes but refused to concede, marring party efforts to prepare for the general election. In addition, Martin made a motion to censure Barbour at the annual RNC August summer meeting in Chicago. This effort fizzled, but the issue was discussed in member meetings. Henry Barbour is the nephew of former Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour.\n\n\n== Electoral history ==\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nEd Martin is married to Carol Martin, a physician who works in St. Louis County.\nEd's younger brother James T. Martin is a career Marine officer, promoted to Lt. Colonel in 2013. He wrote The Development of Marine Corps Junior Officers during the Interwar Period and its Relevance Today.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCampaign website\n\nProfile at Vote Smart\nFinancial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission\nCampaign contributions at OpenSecrets.org", "Michael R. Gibbons is a former Republican member of the Missouri Senate, representing the 15th District from 2001 to 2009. He served as President pro tempore. Previously he was a member of the Missouri House of Representatives from 1993 through 2000. In 2008 he ran for Missouri Attorney General, losing to the Democratic nominee Chris Koster. \nHe is a graduate of Westminster College, Missouri and of the Saint Louis University School of Law. He has held a number of public leadership positions, including Deputy Mayor of Kirkwood, Minority Caucus Chair and Assistant Floor Leader of the Missouri House of Representatives, and Chair of the Ways and Means Committee and Majority Floor Leader in the Missouri State Senate.\nHe resides in Kirkwood, Missouri, and is an active Episcopalian. He married Elizabeth Weddell in 1988, and they have two children, Danny and Meredith.\n\n\n== References ==\nOfficial Manual, State of Missouri, 2005-2006. Jefferson City, MO: Secretary of State.\n\n\n== External links ==\nMichael Gibbons for Attorney General official campaign website\nMissouri Senate - Michael Gibbons official government website\nProject Vote Smart - Michael R. Gibbons profile\nFollow the Money - Michael R Gibbons\n2006 2004 2000 1998 1996 campaign contributions", "The Missouri attorney general election of 2012 was held on November 6, 2012, alongside the presidential and gubernatorial elections. The current Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster, a Democrat, won re-election for a second full term against Republican attorney Ed Martin.", "The Roxbury News is an independent video news company based in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The company is best known for producing news videos covering various city council and school board meetings, as well as Pennsylvania political and governmental events.The raw footage for the videos are recorded by freelance video teams hired by Roxbury. The editing and production is performed at company's office on State Street in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, adjacent to the steps of the Pennsylvania State Capitol. The videos generally appear on the Roxbury News website, YouTube, and other video sharing sites.\n\n\n== Impact of new stories ==\nOne of Roxbury News' famous videos, \"Papenfuse X-mas Gift List,\" contains footage of former Harrisburg Authority board member Eric Papenfuse reading a list of mock Christmas gifts for city officials. The contents of the video were reported by the Central Penn Business Journal. The Central Penn Business Journal used footage from another Roxbury video as evidence to question the official story behind the firing of longtime Harrisburg Authority financial adviser Bruce Barnes. The Central Penn Business Journal, relying on the Roxbury News footage, noted that the firing happened shortly after Eric Papenfuse raised questions about a $27,000 bill from Barnes' firm. In another popular video, a Harrisburg School District board member excoriates a critic for making personal attacks on the District Superintendent.In 2008, The Philadelphia Inquirer used Roxbury's footage from the 2006 \"Bonusgate\" trials in its coverage of the event.\n\n\n== Grand jury subpoena ==\nRoxbury News was among the media outlets, including the AP, The Morning Call, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Philadelphia Daily News, The Citizens' Voice, that were subpoenaed to answer questions about their reports on the a grand jury investigation into political corruption surrounding the Mount Airy Casino Resort. Roxbury said that his company had \"one or two\" videos related to the grand jury testimony in question, but wasn't sure how helpful his testimony could be, saying \"I don't know what they think I could offer them. The information is readily available.\" In July 2008, James Roxbury testified at a closed hearing before Dauphin County Judge Todd Hoover regarding the case. Roxbury's attorney, Adam Klein, told the Associated Press that his client had \"cooperated without compromising his rights under either the Constitution or the Shield Law.\" On July 17, 2008 Judge Hoover quashed all 15 subpoenas, including the one for Roxbury News.\n\n\n== Account hack and burglary ==\nOn January 13, 2008, apparent hackers compromised Roxbury's YouTube account and deleted all but 1 of 160 news videos stored on that site. On the only video not deleted, the hackers left a message saying \"You should just quit...I've seen better work from an autistic 4th grader with an eye patch on and no hands to even operate the camera, so yeah i guess you can see by now how much your life is a joke.\" In a video response, Roxbury offered a $1,000 bounty for information leading to the identification of the perpetrators and noted that he was working with YouTube administrators officials and law enforcement officials on the matter. James Roxbury said that \"We feel this has to be a criminal activity. We know the videos must be getting to somebody,\" and was able to restore the videos from backup sources.In July 2008, the Roxbury News office was burglarized, with thousands of dollars in audio visual equipment missing, including three 40-inch monitors, and two high-definition Panasonic HDX200 cameras, and other accessories. Because data storage units containing backups of his news videos were not touched, Roxbury did not believe the burglary was politically motivated.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nRoxbury News\nRoxbury News on Youtube", "Chris Koster (born August 31, 1964) is an American lawyer and politician who served as the 41st Attorney General of Missouri, from 2009 to 2017. Before he was elected attorney general, he had served in the Missouri Senate as a Republican until August 1, 2007, when he switched to the Democratic Party.He was the Democratic nominee for Governor of Missouri in the 2016 election in which he was defeated by Republican nominee Eric Greitens in the general election. After leaving politics in 2017, Koster joined the St. Louis-based Centene Corporation as Senior Vice President of Corporate Services.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\n\n=== Early life and education ===\nBorn and raised in St. Louis, Missouri, Koster received a liberal arts Bachelor's degree from the University of Missouri - Columbia in 1987 and his Juris Doctorate from the University of Missouri - Columbia School of Law in 1991. Koster would go on to earn a Masters in Business Administration from Washington University in St. Louis in 2002.\n\n\n=== Early career ===\nFrom 1991 through 1993, Koster served as an Assistant Attorney General for the Office of the Missouri Attorney General. In 1993 until 1994, he practiced law with the law firm of Blackwell Sanders in Kansas City, Missouri.During his term(s) in the State Senate, Koster practiced law with the law firm of Tim Dollar in Kansas City, Missouri.\n\n\n== Political career ==\n\n\n=== Cass County (MO) Prosecuting Attorney ===\nIn 1994, Koster sought election for Prosecuting Attorney for Cass County, Missouri as Democrat. Successful in this bid, he was subsequently re-elected in 1998 and 2002 by wide margins, serving through his election in 2004 to the Missouri Senate.\n\n\n=== Missouri Senate ===\nKoster was first elected to the Missouri Senate in 2004 as a Republican. He represented Missouri's 31st Senatorial District, which consists of Cass, Johnson, Bates and Vernon counties. During his time in the Missouri General Assembly, Koster played key roles in the debates over stem cell research, tort reform, and the elimination of Medicaid fraud. In 2006, he carried legislation in the Senate that overhauled Missouri’s eminent domain laws. He served on these Senate committees:\n\nEconomic Development, Tourism, and Local Government\nJudiciary and Civil and Criminal Jurisprudence\nPensions, Veterans' Affairs and General Laws\nCommerce, Energy and the Environment\nAgriculture, Conservation, Parks and Natural ResourcesKoster championed legislation for Truth in the Missouri Court System, and proposed a bill (SB55) that aimed to eliminate paternity fraud. On August 1, 2007, Koster made Missouri political history when he announced that he was leaving the Missouri Republican Party to become a Democrat. Citing his longstanding differences with the Republican Party on issues like stem cell research, workers' rights, and the non-partisan court plan, Koster said that the Missouri Republican Party had become too beholden to the extreme right-wing to lead the state of Missouri. He said, \"Today, Republican moderates are all but extinct.\"Before his change of parties, Koster was chairman of the Republican Caucus, the majority party's fourth-ranking position in the Missouri State Senate.\n\n\n=== Attorney General ===\n\nOn August 5, 2008, Koster narrowly defeated State Representative Margaret Donnelly in the Democratic primary for the nomination for Missouri Attorney General. Koster won despite accusations that his campaign violated state law in raising money from multiple committees. He also survived the disclosure that he played a supporting role in a plagiarism episode that damaged Attorney General William L. Webster’s campaign for governor in 1992. Fresh out of law school, Koster worked for Webster, a Republican, as an assistant state attorney general. His campaign was not easily won because he had to overcome the label of \"opportunist\" as a result of switching parties during the '08 election. He then went on to defeat Republican State Senator Mike Gibbons in the general election, 52.83% to 47.17%. He was sworn in as attorney general on January 12, 2009, succeeding Jay Nixon.\n\nKoster is an advocate of the death penalty, and as of July 2013, there were 21 inmates on death row in Missouri whose executions he was pressing the Supreme Court of Missouri to expedite. After the 21 inmates filed suit before the state Supreme Court against the Missouri Department of Corrections over the use of the drug propofol used in lethal injections, concerning cruel and unusual punishment, the state Supreme Court temporarily halted the further use of the death penalty until the case had been ultimately decided. With Missouri law allowing for the use of other forms of the death penalty in cases where lethal injection is not available, Koster has advocated the use of gas chambers to execute Missouri prisoners.In 2012, after Koster's staff of 56 moved to a portion of the Broadway Building in Jefferson City, a $3.2 million request was made for \"repairs, replacements and improvements\" on two floors, \"to include interior demolition, construction of new interior finishes, upgrades to the HVAC and electrical systems, new furniture, fixtures and equipment.\" Koster's own office is in the Supreme Court Building. \"Funding the proposed renovation would not come from general revenue, but rather about $400,000 in administrative allowances that accompany federal grants, and about $2.8 million from the Merchandising Practices Revolving Fund. Money recovered by the state in consumer fraud cases goes into the fund, which is available to pay expenses of the attorney general's office.\"Koster supports same-sex marriage, but defended his state's former constitutional ban on it because voters approved it.Koster's office defended U.S. District Judge Catherine D. Perry after she denied a motion for temporary restraining orders on six police officers enforcing a \"5-second rule\" that required demonstrators to move every five seconds or face arrest in Ferguson, Missouri, citing the need for law enforcement's protection of property and the availability of a \"free-speech zone\". However, at the time of this ruling, the free speech zone was off-limits to the public. This \"5-second rule\" was later determined to be unconstitutional by a different federal judge.In October 2014, a California judge dismissed a lawsuit Koster filed, rejecting the arguments of six states that challenged California's prohibition on the sale of eggs laid by caged hens kept in conditions more restrictive than those approved by California voters in a 2008 ballot initiative, Proposition 2. Judge Kimberly Mueller ruled that the states lacked legal standing to sue on behalf of their residents and that Koster and other plaintiffs were representing only the interests of egg farmers, rather than \"a substantial statement of their populations\". According to the Kansas City Star. Koster's office spent more than $83,000 on the failed lawsuit.\n\n\n=== 2016 gubernatorial election ===\n\nAs his second term as attorney general was coming to an end, Koster was running for governor. He easily won the August 2 Democratic primary and faced Republican Eric Greitens in the November 8 general election. He lost the general election with 45.4% of the vote to Greitens' 51.3%.\n\n\n== Controversies ==\nIn 2008, Koster's ex-wife Rebecca Bowman Nassikas donated $200,000 to a dormant political committee, Missourians for Honest Leadership, which paid $187,500 to purchase air time and produce television ads in an effort to oppose Koster's candidacy for Missouri Attorney General.A 2012 audit by state Auditor Tom Schweich criticized Koster for his practice of awarding contingency fee contracts to law firms that had donated hundreds of thousands of dollars to his campaign.In October 2014, House Speaker Tim Jones announced plans to investigate charges that Koster took actions in office that were designed to benefit campaign contributors. News coverage revealed that The Simmons Firm had donated two $50,000 checks to Koster's campaign in 2013 only months after Koster filed a lawsuit against Republic Services over its underground fire at the Bridgeton Landfill (Simmons subsequently won a nearly $7 million settlement from Republic in a class-action lawsuit).; that Koster had ended an inquiry focusing on the company 5-hour Energy after conversations with a lobbyist for the company who was also a Koster contributor; and that Koster had negotiated an agreement with Pfizer, another campaign contributor, to pay Missouri $750,000 in connection with a multistate investigation of illegal marketing practices, about $350,000 less than what the state would have collected had it participated in a joint negotiation with other states, and attended a Pfizer convention as a speaker and guest during the settlement negotiation.Koster ultimately said that he would no longer accept gifts from lobbyists. In Missouri, it is legal for elected officials to accept unlimited campaign contributions and gifts from lobbyists, and despite his position on lobbying reform, Koster rejects the idea of placing limits on the amount of money a corporation or a wealthy individual could contribute to a campaign. He instead suggests adding more transparency to the existing system.\n\n\n== Electoral history ==\n\n\n=== As Attorney General ===\n\n\n=== As state senator ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\nOfficial Manual, State of Missouri, 2005-2006. Jefferson City, MO: Secretary of State.\n\n\n== External links ==\nGubernatorial campaign website\nMissouri Office of the Attorney General official website\nMissouri State Legislature - Senator Chris Koster official government website\nBiography Sponsored Bills Co-Sponsored Bills\nProject Vote Smart - Senator Chris Koster (MO) profile\nFollow the Money - Chris Koster\n2008 campaign contributions for Attorney General\n2006 2004 campaign contributions for State Senate", "NNSL Media (Northern News Services LTD) is a news and media company based in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories. It is one of the few remaining independent newspaper companies in Canada, producing all-original content with little to no reliance on syndicated news. NNSL publishes seven different papers weekly: Kivalliq News, Inuvik Drum, Dehcho Drum, Yellowknifer (Wednesday and Friday editions), News/North (Northwest Territories News/North and Nunavut News/North).\nIn February 2021, it was reported that Black Press, a Canadian publisher of over 170 newspapers in Canada and the United States, was attempting to purchase NNSL. According to the report NNSL had been on sale for over a year.\n\n\n== References ==", "Chris Koster is a Canadian rock singer, songwriter, and musician, who has been active both as a solo artist and as a member of the band The Glorious Sons.\n\n\n== Career ==\nChris Koster is an experimental singer-songwriter based in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. With influences said to range from Trent Reznor to The Beatles, his musical style encompasses many genres and moods, from 'soft' pop songs to charged metal numbers. Performing on keyboard, guitar and vocals, Koster continues in the solo artist tradition of the likes of Gary Numan and Prince – self-contained and self-produced.For his two albums, Secrets of the Lonely and Sex, Love & Morality, Koster played the majority of the instruments; however, he invited his band The Lonely to contribute to a few songs. He toured extensively from 2005 to the present.He is the brother of Dave \"Billy Ray\" Koster, a longtime member of the road crew for The Tragically Hip.\n\n\n== Secrets of the Lonely (2004) ==\nKoster's first album, on The Orange Record Label, was recorded and self-produced at The Tragically Hip's studio in Loyalist, Ontario, Ontario.\n\n\n=== Track listing ===\nAll songs written by Chris Koster, except where noted:\n\n\"Camouflage\" – 4:04\n\"Catastrophizing\" – 3:37\n\"If U See Me (When I'm Like This\" – 3:53\n\"Wartime Romance\" – 4:25\n\"The Alarmist (Don't Worry)\" – 4:59\n\"Love In The Western World\" – 4:08\n\"Sufferville\" – 5:44\n\"Honestly\" – 2:17\n\"When U Were Mine\" (Prince) – 4:58\n\"Secrets of the Lonely\" – 4:57\n\"In This Life\" – 3:13\n\"Sincerity Blues\" – 1:01\n\"Mary Ann\" – 4:13\n\"I Don't Care (Anymore)\" – 4:08\n\"In This Life\" – 6:05CreditsThe album credits are as follows:\nChris Koster – Lyricist\nLindsey Hilliard – Violin\nMichael Olsen – Cello\nAaron Holmberg – Producer\nMark Makowy – Producer\nByron Wong – Producer, Photography, Processing\n\n\n== Sex, Love & Morality (2008) ==\nSex, Love & Morality, with its first single \"Heavy Hearted\" on The Orange Record Label in October 2007, was Koster's second album. The music is granular, complex and multi-layered but also remarkably accessible and memorable. One reason for this progression was his relationship with producer Bob Ezrin. \"He helped me hone my craft,\" says Koster, \"he really pushed me to do something different and challenged me\".\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nChris Koster Official Website", "Andrew P. Koenig (born December 21, 1982) is an American politician who since 2017 has served in the Missouri Senate. Koenig is a former member of the Missouri House of Representatives as well as a small business owner. He represented the 88th district from 2009 to 2012 and the 99th district, which includes Manchester, Twin Oaks, Valley Park, and parts of Fenton, from 2013 to 2017. Koenig was elected in 2017 and re-elected in 2020 to serve as the State Senator from the 15th district.\n\n\n== Early life and career ==\nKoenig graduated from Marquette High School, which is in Chesterfield, in 2001. He later went to Lindenwood University with a scholarship in cross country. He majored in Business Administration and Minored in philosophy.He has co-owned a paint company with his father since 1997. He is also the owner of a construction company which focuses on roofing and painting. In addition, he is also a licensed insurance adjuster.\n\n\n== Political career ==\nIn 2008, Koenig successfully ran to represent the 88th district in the Missouri House of Representatives. In the Republican primary, he defeated Shamed Dogan and Chris Howard with 44.4% of the vote. Koenig was unopposed in the general election. In his 2010 reelection campaign, he was opposed in the primary by Ryan B. Meyer. Koenig won the primary with 88.4% of the vote and then was unopposed in the general election. He was one of 35 state representatives to sign a \"no new taxes\" pledge. Koenig won a third term in 2012 with 59.2% of the vote, against Democrat William Pinkston. He won a fourth term in 2014 with 63.5% of the vote, against Democrat William Pinkston. In 2016 he was elected as State Senator from the 15th District, defeating Rick Stream in the Republican primary 53.1% to 46.9%, and Democrat Stephen Eagleton 61.1% to 38.9%.\n\n\n=== Committee assignments ===\nHealth and Pensions (Vice-Chairman)\nJudiciary and Civil and Criminal Jurisprudence\nSeniors, Families and Children\nSmall Business and Industry\nWays and Means (Chairman)\nJoint Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect\nJoint Committee on Education\nJoint Committee on Public Employee Retirement (Vice-Chairman)\nJoint Committee on Tax Policy\n\n\n=== Abortion Legislation ===\nAs a state senator, Koenig has sponsored or co-sponsored a number of bills to restrict legal abortions, 7 as of the 2019 session. Notably, Koenig is opposed to exceptions for rape or incest. Bills sponsored include 'heartbeat' legislation banning abortions after a heartbeat is detected and a blanket ban on abortions after 8 weeks, including for Down Syndrome. In the 2019 session, Koenig was responsible for handling the passage of HB 126 in the State Senate, a bill which bans abortions after 8 weeks in all cases except medical emergency with penalties of 5-15 years in prison.\n\n\n=== Promoting Creation Science/Intelligent Design in public schools ===\nAs a representative, Koenig made several legislative attempts to inject creation science into the public school Science curricula, specifically in the fields of Biology and Chemistry. On May 15, 2015, the Koenig-sponsored House Bill No. 486 was allowed to die in committee after the Legislature adjourned. Bill No. 486, which was introduced as an Amendment to Section A. Chapter 170, RSMo in the First Regular Session of the 98th General Assembly of the Missouri State House of Representatives, proposed allowing teachers the freedom to introduce \"differences of opinion about controversial issues, including biological and chemical evolution.\" Key to this provision was language preventing responsible educational authorities from intervening in the teaching of creationist ideals presented as scientific inquiry.\nAccording to the National Center for Science Education, Koenig was the sponsor of similar bills, namely: HB 1587 in 2014, HB 179 in 2013, HB 1276 in 2012, and HB 195 in 2011. All failed. Koenig also cosponsored House Bill 1472 in 2014, requiring equal time for \"intelligent design\" in Missouri's public schools, including introductory courses at colleges and universities. He cosponsored the similar HB 291 in 2013 and HB 1227 in 2012; both failed.\n\n\n== Electoral history ==\n\n\n=== State Senate ===\n\n\n=== State Representative ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial Missouri House of Representatives profile\nInterest Group Ratings\nCampaign Finance Information", "The Hawaiian News Company was a printer, publisher and bookbinder in Hawaii. It had offices in Honolulu in the Young Building on Bishop Street, and on Merchant Street. It was the only representative in Hawaii of the American Type Founders Company. The company provided services, such as book binding, and sold products, such as printing devices. It carried paper stock for billheads, noteheads, commercial bond, news, cover, book, cardboard, as well as envelopes, society stationery and cards. New books arrived by steamer. The magazine and general news department carried a variety of titles, with subscriptions available for magazines published in the United States, Canada or Europe. In addition, the company sold musical instruments, sheet music, and records.John Harris Soper arrived in Honolulu in 1886 and acquired the business of J.M. Oat, Jr. & Co., a stationery store and newspaper company, which he incorporated as the Hawaiian News Company on August 1, 1891, becoming its president. In 1897, his son, John Frederick, became the company manager. In 1920, the company merged with Thrum's Limited, becoming Hawaiian News and Thrum's Limited. Five years later, it became the Honolulu Paper Company.\n\n\n== References ==", "NowThis News is a progressive social media-focused news organization founded in 2012. The company posts short (in most cases 15 seconds long) news videos and hyperpartisan content.\n\n\n== History ==\nNowThis News was founded by Huffington Post co-founder and former chairman Kenneth Lerer and former Huffington Post CEO Eric Hippeau in September 2012.NowThis originally focused exclusively on social media platforms such as Facebook, having announced in 2015 that it would not have a homepage. By 2018, it had changed this position.\n\nOn December 8, 2015, NowThis News raised $16.2m in Series D funding. By this time, the company has said that 68% of its audience were millennials between the ages of 18–34. It was announced that this funding would be used to launch more focused channels.Former Channel 4 News head of digital Jon Laurence joined as Deputy Editor in January 2018.The editor-in-chief is Ed O'Keefe who previously was the executive producer at ABC News Digital. NowThis News produces about 50 segments per day and receives about 15 to 20 million views per month.In June 2020, numerous accusations of sexual misconduct were levied at NowThis associate producer Jackson Davis after being re-tweeted by Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. NowThis News suspended Davis and, following an external investigation, removed him from the company.\n\n\n== Content ==\nNowThis News' videos are primarily emotion-driven in order to generate views and shares.An analysis from BuzzFeed News found that NowThis News was the most popular left-leaning site on Facebook between 2015 and 2017, and, along with Occupy Democrats, accounted for half of the 50 top posts on Facebook.In 2015, NowThis News published a conspiracy theory which claimed that CNN deleted a poll of Facebook users asserting that most participants thought that Bernie Sanders beat Hillary Clinton in the first Democratic presidential debate. NowThis News created a video titled \"It looks like CNN is trying to help Hillary look good, even if that means deleting polls.\" However, PolitiFact found that CNN did not delete the poll in question and in fact displayed the results of the poll during its broadcast and also published the poll on its Facebook page. The claim was rated as \"Pants on Fire\" false by PolitiFact.After Donald Trump was elected president in 2016, NowThis News posted a clip of CNN commentator Van Jones giving a speech about the election results on their social media. The posted clip generated over 23 million views on Facebook, and NowThis News included its own logo in the upper corner, not CNN's. CNN accused NowThis News of violating their intellectual property rights and stated that video \"was used without attribution or permission\" and they were \"exploring [their] options with regards to NowThis, Facebook and Twitter.\" NowThis News removed the clip from their Facebook, though it remained on their Twitter.During the 2016 presidential election, NowThis News repeatedly claimed that Donald Trump lied about Bill Clinton signing the North American Free Trade Agreement using videos posted on Facebook and YouTube. PolitiFact found that Bill Clinton did in fact sign the final version of the North American Free Trade Agreement as Trump had stated, and rated the claim false.In September 2019, NowThis News tweeted out that \"Republicans in North Carolina used a 9/11 memorial to trick Democrats into missing a key vote,\" which was later shared by senator Elizabeth Warren. PolitiFact rated the claim false and discovered only one Democrat was at a 9/11 memorial during the time North Carolina Republicans held a controversial budget vote. NowThis News did not correct their claim.In January 2020, NowThis News removed a segment of a video they posted where a George Washington University student falsely claimed that Holocaust diarist Anne Frank did not die in a concentration camp (Frank died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in either February or March of 1945).\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "Israeli News Company (Hebrew: חֵבְרָת הַחדָשוֹת הישראלית‎ - \"Hevrat HaHadashot HaYisra'elit\"), which is shortly called \"The News Company\" (\"חברת החדשות\" - Hevrat HaHadashot) and also known as חדשות ערוץ 2 lit. \" [Israeli] channel 2 news\", or חדשות 2 lit. \"News 2\") is an Israeli company producing the Prime time news program on the Israeli commercial Channel 2, and most of its current affairs and news programs and items for that commercial channel." ] }

{ "title": [ "Highlands Mall", "14th Street (Washington, D.C.)", "Bank", "Apache Plaza", "Saint Nicholas' Church, Shanghai", "The Shoppes at Trexler", "Bay Plaza Shopping Center", "Bletchingley Castle", "Del Monte Center", "Dollar Tree", "Terra Alta Bank", "Virginia Square Shopping Center" ], "text": [ "Highlands Mall is a former shopping mall in Harrison Township, Pennsylvania that operates today as an open-air shopping center. It opened in 1977 and closed in 2006, reopening after its redevelopment in 2008.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Beginnings ===\nHighlands Mall came to fruition after Crown American had decided to expand its shopping center along Freeport Road in the Harrison Township village of Natrona Heights. The center, which opened in 1972, up to that point, had housed only two tenants, which were actually one and the same. Johnstown-based Gee Bee Department Stores, operated a discount department store in one half of the building, and a grocery store in the other half. Because this location was one of the regional chain's more profitable stores, the concept of the mall came in tandem with a proposed expansion of Gee Bee.\nFor this time period, there was no indoor shopping mall serving the Alle-Kiski Valley region. The closest malls up to this point in time were the Butler Mall in Butler, Pennsylvania; Monroeville Mall in Monroeville, Pennsylvania; Greengate Mall in Greensburg, Pennsylvania; Northway Mall in Ross Township; and Eastland Mall in North Versailles.\nGee Bee served as the mall's anchor tenant, with the mall being constructed on the north end of the shopping center, which housed the department store half of Gee Bee. The mall opened in the fall of 1977 with the following tenants: a new Gee Bee furniture store, Pearle Vision, First Federal of Pittsburgh, J&S Pizza, General Nutrition Center, National Record Mart, Waldenbooks, and Hallmark. The mall also featured a game room with coin-operated video games and pinball machines, pay toilets, a courtyard wishing well fountain, and a snack stand featuring hot pretzels.\n\n\n=== Decline ===\nThe earliest signs of decline of Highlands Mall came with the decline of business for Gee Bee. The retailer closed its grocery business around 1985-1986 and the supermarket half of the store was replaced when Penn-Traffic opened a Bi-Lo Supermarket in this location. Because the supermarket was separately owned, a former common entrance between both the co-owned supermarket and department store was sealed.\nAt around this same time, Gee Bee had sold its mall furniture store business to Freight Liquidators, but as the transition in business was relatively seamless, it went unnoticed.\nTowards the conclusion of the 1980s, Heights Plaza, the mall's competitor which had been operating since the 1950s, underwent a major facelift in an attempt to attract new tenants, and as an incentive, offered those already in the Highlands Mall a cheaper rate. The first tenants to pack up were National Record Mart and Radio Shack, two of the mall's more popular stores.\nIn 1990, Gee Bee, citing a decline from more powerful national competitors, declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The retailer successfully emerged from bankruptcy, and in May 1992, was sold to Value City. Value City operated at the Highlands Mall location until 2001, when it finally closed, citing a lack of business justifying it to stay open.\nWith no anchor tenant for the first time in over 30 years, other businesses at the mall continued to close, leaving the mall a shadow of its former self. Some smaller tenants rented former store space for offices, but the mall now offered very little in the way of choices for retail shoppers. Because of few cars outside the mall, it was assumed during the mall's last few years that it had been closed for some time.\n\n\n=== Demolition ===\nMichael Joseph Development purchased the mall property in early 2005. They announced later that year that the mall would be demolished and redeveloped, though it would still retain its original name. The new Highlands Mall features stores such as Wal-Mart, Roomful Express Furniture (the succeeding company of Freight Liquidators) and some smaller arcade style stores. Demolition began on Wednesday, February 22, 2006, and Roomful Express, the first store at the newly redeveloped site, opened in January 2008. Roomful Express closed in 2010.\nAs of June 2019, Freedom Square Diner, Dunham's Sports, Wines and Spirits, GameStop, The Gold Buyers of Pittsburgh, Sally Beauty, GNC, and Walmart are occupying the mall. Residing in front of the mall are a Tractor Supply, Taco Bell, O'Reilly Auto Parts, First Commonwealth Bank, and a Goodwill.\n\n\n== Sources ==\nHighlands Mall still open for business - The Tribune Review\nHighlands Mall to be razed in February - The Tribune Review\nWal-Mart plans supercenter at Highlands site - The Tribune Review\nHighlands Mall passes into history - The Tribune Review\nShopping center rings up revitalization - The Tribune Review", "14th Street NW/SW is a street in Northwest and Southwest quadrants of Washington, D.C., located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) west of the U.S. Capitol. It runs from the 14th Street Bridge north to Eastern Avenue.\nNorthbound U.S. Route 1 runs along 14th Street from the bridge to Constitution Avenue, where it turns east with US 50. US 1 southbound previously used 15th Street NW due to the ban on left turns from westbound Constitution Avenue to 14th Street, but it now uses the Ninth Street Tunnel, five blocks to the east. 14th Street crosses the National Mall and runs near the White House and through the western side of Washington's Logan Circle neighborhood.\nBecause it connects to one of the main bridges crossing the Potomac River into Virginia, 14th Street has always been a major transportation corridor. It was the location of one of the first streetcar lines, and today it is the location of several afternoon carpooling \"slug lines\", which allow commuters to meet the high-occupancy vehicle requirements of I-395, the Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway.\n\n\n== History ==\nIn the middle of the 20th century, 14th Street NW near the intersection of P Street was home to many car dealerships and was known as \"auto row\". The Casino Royal at 14th and H Streets was one of the city's most popular nightclubs.\nThe street was the location of race riots in 1968 after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.In the 1980s, a portion of 14th Street became known primarily for its red-light district. Many strip clubs and massage parlors were concentrated roughly between New York Avenue and K Street, while prostitutes plied their trade around Logan Circle. However, rising land values eventually pushed out the adult businesses. The Source Theatre, founded by Bart Whiteman, was given some credit for the area's revival. Whiteman stood outside the theater to escort people inside in order to make them feel safer. The opening of a Whole Foods Market at 14th and P Streets in 2000 is also considered a major turning point for the neighborhood.With the gentrification of the neighborhoods through which it passes – particularly downtown, Logan Circle, the U Street Corridor, and Columbia Heights – 14th Street is now known for live theater, art galleries, and trendy restaurants. Moreover, while the nominal center of the city's gay life is still Dupont Circle, the Washington Blade called 14th Street between U Street and Massachusetts Avenue (Thomas Circle) the best place to see and be seen. As of 2012, the center of gravity had shifted and Logan Circle was voted \"DC's gay neighborhood.\"14th Street, especially south of Florida Avenue, is rapidly gentrifying and now known as one of the preeminent dining destinations in the Greater Washington area. In a nine-month period alone between 2012 and 2013, 24 new restaurants opened on 14th Street. In a two-year span, almost every block of 14th between Rhode Island and Florida Avenues had a major residential redevelopment project scheduled, adding more than 1,200 housing units and 85,000 square feet (7,900 m2) of retail.\n\n\n== Landmarks ==\n\n\n== Transit service ==\nFourteenth Street has been a major transit route ever since the Capital Traction Company streetcar line was built around the turn of the 20th century. The successor to that line is the Metrobus 14th Street Line—routes 52 & 54.\n\n\n=== Rail ===\n\nThere are two Metrorail stations on 14th Street (the U Street station is one block east, at 13th and U Streets NW and is considered the most convenient stop to visit the heart of 14th St between P and V Sts NW):\n\nMcPherson Square \nColumbia Heights \n\n\n=== Bus ===\n\n\n==== Metrobus ====\nThe following Metrobus routes travel along the street (listed from south to north):\n\n11Y (Eye St. NW to the 14th Street Bridge)\n16C (Independence Ave to the 14th Street Bridge)\n16E (Franklin Square to the 14th Street Bridge)\n52 (Takoma or 14th St & Colorado Ave. to L'Enfant Plaza)\n54 (Takoma to Metro Center)\n59 (Takoma to Federal Triangle)\nE4 (Military Rd. to Kennedy St.)\n\n\n==== DC Circulator ====\nThe DC Circulator's Woodley Park–Adams Morgan–McPherson Square Metro bus line travels along 14th Street between Columbia Heights and Franklin Square.\n\n\n== References ==", "A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets.\nBecause banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalised a system known as fractional reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords.\nBanking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but in many ways functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties – notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs, and the Rothschilds – have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590).\n\n\n== History ==\n\nThe concept of banking may have begun in ancient Assyria and Babylonia with merchants offering loans of grain as collateral within a barter system. Lenders in ancient Greece and during the Roman Empire added two important innovations: they accepted deposits and changed money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows evidence of money lending.\nThe present era of banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th-century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici set up one of the most famous Italian banks, the Medici Bank, in 1397. The Republic of Genoa founded the earliest-known state deposit bank, Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), in 1407 at Genoa, Italy.Fractional reserve banking and the issue of banknotes emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the goldsmiths of London, who possessed private vaults, and who charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued receipts certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods.\nGradually the goldsmiths began to lend the money out on behalf of the depositor, and promissory notes (which evolved into banknotes) were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. Thus by the 19th century we find \"[i]n ordinary cases of deposits of money with banking corporations, or bankers, the transaction amounts to a mere loan or mutuum, and the bank is to restore, not the same money, but an equivalent sum, whenever it is demanded\".\nand \"[m]oney, when paid into a bank, ceases altogether to be the money of the principal (see Parker v. Marchant, 1 Phillips 360); it is then the money of the banker, who is bound to return an equivalent by paying a similar sum to that deposited with him when he is asked for it.\"\n\nThe goldsmith paid interest on deposits. Since the promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith's customers were repayable over a longer time-period, this was an early form of fractional reserve banking. The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money\nbacked by the goldsmith's promise to pay,\nallowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of default. Thus the goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit.\n\nThe Bank of England originated the permanent issue of banknotes in 1695. The Royal Bank of Scotland established the first overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century Lubbock's Bank had established a bankers' clearing house in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The Rothschilds pioneered international finance on a large scale, financing the purchase of shares in the Suez canal for the British government in 1875.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\nThe word bank was taken into Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banca, meaning \"table\", from Old High German banc, bank \"bench, counter\". Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.\n\n\n== Definition ==\n\nThe definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages for more information.\nUnder English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking by conducting current accounts for their customers, paying cheques drawn on them and also collecting cheques for their customers.\n\nIn most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is structured or regulated.\nThe business of banking is in many common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases, the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:\n\n\"banking business\" means the business of receiving money on current or deposit account, paying and collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers, the making of advances to customers, and includes such other business as the Authority may prescribe for the purposes of this Act; (Banking Act (Singapore), Section 2, Interpretation).\n\"banking business\" means the business of either or both of the following:receiving from the general public money on current, deposit, savings or other similar account repayable on demand or within less than [3 months] ... or with a period of call or notice of less than that period;\npaying or collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers.Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques .\n\n\n=== Standard business ===\n\nBanks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs).\nBanks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.\nBanks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account.\nBanks can create new money when they make a loan. New loans throughout the banking system generate new deposits elsewhere in the system. The money supply is usually increased by the act of lending, and reduced when loans are repaid faster than new ones are generated. In the United Kingdom between 1997 and 2007, there was an increase in the money supply, largely caused by much more bank lending, which served to push up property prices and increase private debt. The amount of money in the economy as measured by M4 in the UK went from £750 billion to £1700 billion between 1997 and 2007, much of the increase caused by bank lending. If all the banks increase their lending together, then they can expect new deposits to return to them and the amount of money in the economy will increase. Excessive or risky lending can cause borrowers to default, the banks then become more cautious, so there is less lending and therefore less money so that the economy can go from boom to bust as happened in the UK and many other Western economies after 2007.\n\n\n=== Range of activities ===\nActivities undertaken by banks include personal banking, corporate banking, investment banking, private banking, transaction banking, insurance, consumer finance, trade finance and other related.\n\n\n=== Channels ===\n\nBanks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:\n\nBranch, in-person banking in a retail location\nAutomated teller machine banking adjacent to or remote from the bank\nBank by mail: Most banks accept cheque deposits via mail and use mail to communicate to their customers\nOnline banking over the Internet to perform multiple types of transactions\nMobile banking is using one's mobile phone to conduct banking transactions\nTelephone banking allows customers to conduct transactions over the telephone with an automated attendant, or when requested, with a telephone operator\nVideo banking performs banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video and audio connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller machine) or via a video conference enabled bank branch clarification\nRelationship manager, mostly for private banking or business banking, who visits customers at their homes or businesses\nDirect Selling Agent, who works for the bank based on a contract, whose main job is to increase the customer base for the bank\n\n\n=== Business models ===\nA bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.\nThis difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance.\nIn the past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions.\n\nFirst, this includes the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for \"one-stop shopping\" by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability).\nSecond, they have expanded the use of risk-based pricing from business lending to consumer lending, which means charging higher interest rates to those customers that are considered to be a higher credit risk and thus increased chance of default on loans. This helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and offers credit products to high risk customers who would otherwise be denied credit.\nThird, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, prepaid cards, smart cards, and credit cards. They make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with underdeveloped financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home).However, with the convenience of easy credit, there is also an increased risk that consumers will mismanage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest charges and fees charged to cardholders, and transaction fees to retailers who accept the bank's credit and/or debit cards for payments.This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.Recently, as banks have been faced with pressure from fintechs, new and additional business models have been suggested such as freemium, monetisation of data, white-labeling of banking and payment applications, or the cross-selling of complementary products.\n\n\n=== Products ===\n\n\n==== Retail ====\nSavings account\nRecurring deposit account\nFixed deposit account\nMoney market account\nCertificate of deposit (CD)\nIndividual retirement account (IRA)\nCredit card\nDebit card\nMortgage\nMutual fund\nPersonal loan\nTime deposits\nATM card\nCurrent accounts\nCheque books\nAutomated Teller Machine (ATM)\nNational Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT)\nReal Time Gross Settlement (RTGS)\n\n\n==== Business (or commercial/investment) banking ====\nBusiness loan\nCapital raising (equity / debt / hybrids)\nRevolving credit\nRisk management (foreign exchange (FX)), interest rates, commodities, derivatives\nTerm loan\nCash management services (lock box, remote deposit capture, merchant processing)\nCredit services\n\n\n== Capital and risk ==\nBanks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of equity, retained earnings and subordinated debt.\nAfter the 2007-2009 financial crisis, regulators force banks to issue Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when the capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalisation gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement.Some of the main risks faced by banks include:\n\nCredit risk: risk of loss arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised.\nLiquidity risk: risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss (or make the required profit).\nMarket risk: risk that the value of a portfolio, either an investment portfolio or a trading portfolio, will decrease due to the change in value of the market risk factors.\nOperational risk: risk arising from the execution of a company's business functions.\nReputational risk: a type of risk related to the trustworthiness of the business.\nMacroeconomic risk: risks related to the aggregate economy the bank is operating in.The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet. The categorisation of assets and capital is highly standardised so that it can be risk weighted.\n\n\n== Banks in the economy ==\n\n\n=== Economic functions ===\nThe economic functions of banks include:\n\nIssue of money, in the form of banknotes and current accounts subject to cheque or payment at the customer's order. These claims on banks can act as money because they are negotiable or repayable on demand, and hence valued at par. They are effectively transferable by mere delivery, in the case of banknotes, or by drawing a cheque that the payee may bank or cash.\nNetting and settlement of payments – banks act as both collection and paying agents for customers, participating in interbank clearing and settlement systems to collect, present, be presented with, and pay payment instruments. This enables banks to economise on reserves held for settlement of payments since inward and outward payments offset each other. It also enables the offsetting of payment flows between geographical areas, reducing the cost of settlement between them.\nCredit intermediation – banks borrow and lend back-to-back on their own account as middle men.\nCredit quality improvement – banks lend money to ordinary commercial and personal borrowers (ordinary credit quality), but are high quality borrowers. The improvement comes from diversification of the bank's assets and capital which provides a buffer to absorb losses without defaulting on its obligations. However, banknotes and deposits are generally unsecured; if the bank gets into difficulty and pledges assets as security, to raise the funding it needs to continue to operate, this puts the note holders and depositors in an economically subordinated position.\nAsset liability mismatch/Maturity transformation – banks borrow more on demand debt and short term debt, but provide more long term loans. In other words, they borrow short and lend long. With a stronger credit quality than most other borrowers, banks can do this by aggregating issues (e.g. accepting deposits and issuing banknotes) and redemptions (e.g. withdrawals and redemption of banknotes), maintaining reserves of cash, investing in marketable securities that can be readily converted to cash if needed, and raising replacement funding as needed from various sources (e.g. wholesale cash markets and securities markets).\nMoney creation/destruction – whenever a bank gives out a loan in a fractional-reserve banking system, a new sum of money is created and conversely, whenever the principal on that loan is repaid money is destroyed.\n\n\n== Bank crisis ==\n\nBanks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans).\nBanking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks have emerged for the banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s.\n\n\n=== Size of global banking industry ===\nAssets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008/2009 financial year to a record US$96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to US$115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalisation. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008/2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment banking totalled US$66.3 billion in 2009, up 12% on the previous year.The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the US, resulting in a large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China's top 4 banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC:18000+, BOC:12000+, CCB:13000+, ABC:24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches.\nJapan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches – more than double the 15,000 branches in the UK.\n\n\n=== Mergers and acquisitions ===\nBetween 1985 and 2018 banks engaged in around 28,798 mergers or acquisitions, either as the acquirer or the target company. The overall known value of these deals cumulates to around 5,169 bil. USD. In terms of value, there have been two major waves (1999 and 2007) which both peaked at around 460 bil. USD followed by a steep decline (-82% from 2007 until 2018).\nHere is a list of the largest deals in history in terms of value with participation from at least one bank:\n\n\n== Regulation ==\n\nCurrently, commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.\n\nUsually, the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order – although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.\nUnlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries, this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank.\n\nBanking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer – defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.\nThe law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:\n\nThe bank account balance is the financial position between the bank and the customer: when the account is in credit, the bank owes the balance to the customer; when the account is overdrawn, the customer owes the balance to the bank.\n\nThe bank agrees to pay the customer's checks up to the amount standing to the credit of the customer's account, plus any agreed overdraft limit.\n\nThe bank may not pay from the customer's account without a mandate from the customer, e.g. a cheque drawn by the customer.\n\nThe bank agrees to promptly collect the cheques deposited to the customer's account as the customer's agent and to credit the proceeds to the customer's account.\n\nAnd, the bank has a right to combine the customer's accounts since each account is just an aspect of the same credit relationship.\n\nThe bank has a lien on cheques deposited to the customer's account, to the extent that the customer is indebted to the bank.\n\nThe bank must not disclose details of transactions through the customer's account – unless the customer consents, there is a public duty to disclose, the bank's interests require it, or the law demands it.\n\nThe bank must not close a customer's account without reasonable notice, since cheques are outstanding in the ordinary course of business for several days.These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and/or create new rights, obligations, or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship.\nSome types of financial institutions, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.\nThe requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:\n\nMinimum capital\nMinimum capital ratio\n'Fit and Proper' requirements for the bank's controllers, owners, directors, or senior officers\nApproval of the bank's business plan as being sufficiently prudent and plausible.\n\n\n== Different types of banking ==\n\nBanks' activities can be divided into:\n\nretail banking, dealing directly with individuals and small businesses;\nbusiness banking, providing services to mid-market business;\ncorporate banking, directed at large business entities;\nprivate banking, providing wealth management services to high-net-worth individuals and families;\ninvestment banking, relating to activities on the financial markets.Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by the government, or are non-profit organisations.\n\n\n=== Types of banks ===\n\nCommercial banks: the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. After the Great Depression, the U.S. Congress required that banks only engage in banking activities, whereas investment banks were limited to capital market activities. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term \"commercial bank\" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations or large businesses.\nCommunity banks: locally operated financial institutions that empower employees to make local decisions to serve their customers and partners.\nCommunity development banks: regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to under-served markets or populations.\nLand development banks: The special banks providing long-term loans are called land development banks (LDB). The history of LDB is quite old. The first LDB was started at Jhang in Punjab in 1920. The main objective of the LDBs is to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production. The LDBs provide long-term finance to members directly through their branches.\nCredit unions or co-operative banks: not-for-profit cooperatives owned by the depositors and often offering rates more favourable than for-profit banks. Typically, membership is restricted to employees of a particular company, residents of a defined area, members of a certain union or religious organisations, and their immediate families.\nPostal savings banks: savings banks associated with national postal systems.\nPrivate banks: banks that manage the assets of high-net-worth individuals. Historically a minimum of US$1 million was required to open an account, however, over the last years, many private banks have lowered their entry hurdles to US$350,000 for private investors.\nOffshore banks: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.\nSavings banks: in Europe, savings banks took their roots in the 19th or sometimes even in the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative; in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure. Nowadays, European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings products, credits, and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks by their broadly decentralised distribution network, providing local and regional outreach – and by their socially responsible approach to business and society.\nBuilding societies and Landesbanks: institutions that conduct retail banking.\nEthical banks: banks that prioritize the transparency of all operations and make only what they consider to be socially responsible investments.\nA direct or internet-only bank is a banking operation without any physical bank branches. Transactions are usually accomplished using ATMs and electronic transfers and direct deposits through an online interface.\n\n\n=== Types of investment banks ===\nInvestment banks \"underwrite\" (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues, trade for their own accounts, make markets, provide investment management, and advise corporations on capital market activities such as mergers and acquisitions.\nMerchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade finance. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provide capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike venture caps, they tend not to invest in new companies.\n\n\n=== Combination banks ===\n\nUniversal banks, more commonly known as financial services companies, engage in several of these activities. These big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also distribute insurance – hence the term bancassurance, a portmanteau word combining \"banque or bank\" and \"assurance\", signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by the same corporate entity.\n\n\n=== Other types of banks ===\nCentral banks are normally government-owned and charged with quasi-regulatory responsibilities, such as supervising commercial banks, or controlling the cash interest rate. They generally provide liquidity to the banking system and act as the lender of last resort in event of a crisis.\nIslamic banks adhere to the concepts of Islamic law. This form of banking revolves around several well-established principles based on Islamic laws. All banking activities must avoid interest, a concept that is forbidden in Islam. Instead, the bank earns profit (markup) and fees on the financing facilities that it extends to customers.\n\n\n== Challenges within the banking industry ==\n\n\n=== United States ===\n\nThe United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialised and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC.: 236  National banks have one primary regulator – the OCC.\nEach regulatory agency has its own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere.\nThe Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing.\nIn addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with an increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands-on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States.\nThe changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders.\nThe management of the banks’ asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today's economic environment. Loans are a bank's primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions.\n\nThere are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of “good times.” The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are discovered. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs.\nBanks also face a host of other challenges such as ageing ownership groups. Across the country, many banks’ management teams and boards of directors are ageing. Banks also face ongoing pressure from shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, cheque cashing services, credit card companies, etc.\nAs a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and have become big players in such activities.\nAnother major challenge is the ageing infrastructure, also called legacy IT. Backend systems were built decades ago and are incompatible with new applications. Fixing bugs and creating interfaces costs huge sums, as knowledgeable programmers become scarce.\n\n\n=== Loan activities of banks ===\nTo be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:\nPassbook or ordinary deposit accounts – permit any amount to be added to or withdrawn from the account at any time.\nNOW and Super NOW accounts – function like checking accounts but earn interest. A minimum balance may be required on Super NOW accounts.\nMoney market accounts – carry a monthly limit of preauthorised transfers to other accounts or persons and may require a minimum or average balance.\nCertificate accounts – subject to loss of some or all interest on withdrawals before maturity.\nNotice accounts – the equivalent of certificate accounts with an indefinite term. Savers agree to notify the institution a specified time before withdrawal.\nIndividual retirement accounts (IRAs) and Keogh plans – a form of retirement savings in which the funds deposited and interest earned are exempt from income tax until after withdrawal.\nChecking accounts – offered by some institutions under definite restrictions.\nAll withdrawals and deposits are completely the sole decision and responsibility of the account owner unless the parent or guardian is required to do otherwise for legal reasons.\nClub accounts and other savings accounts – designed to help people save regularly to meet certain goals.\n\n\n== Types of accounts ==\n\nBank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. The bank credits a credit account to increase its balance, and debits a credit account to decrease its balance.The customer debits his or her savings/bank (asset) account in his ledger when making a deposit (and the account is normally in debit), while the customer credits a credit card (liability) account in his ledger every time he spends money (and the account is normally in credit). When the customer reads his bank statement, the statement will show a credit to the account for deposits, and debits for withdrawals of funds. The customer with a positive balance will see this balance reflected as a credit balance on the bank statement. If the customer is overdrawn, he will have a negative balance, reflected as a debit balance on the bank statement.\n\n\n=== Brokered deposits ===\nOne source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or \"hot money\" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.\n\n\n=== Custodial accounts ===\nCustodial accounts are accounts in which assets are held for a third party. For example, businesses that accept custody of funds for clients prior to their conversion, return, or transfer may have a custodial account at a bank for these purposes.\n\n\n== Globalisation in the banking industry ==\nIn modern times there have been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities.\nHowever, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalised as some other industries. In the US, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle–Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe, the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation.\nOne reason the banking industry has not been fully globalised is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small businesses and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in since the corporation's financial information is available around the globe.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nGuardian Datablog – World's Biggest BanksBanking, Banks, and Credit Unions from UCB Libraries GovPubs\n\nA Guide to the National Banking System (PDF). Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Washington, D.C. Provides an overview of the national banking system of the US, its regulation, and the OCC.", "Apache Plaza was a former shopping center, located in St. Anthony, Minnesota, a small suburb of Minneapolis. It opened in 1961 as one of the first enclosed shopping centers in the US, and closed in 2004.", "St Nicholas Church was a Russian Orthodox Church in the former French Concession of Shanghai at 16 rue Corneille, now known as Gāolán Lù. Formerly the building was home to a French restaurant on the ground floor called Ashanti and a Spanish one in the basement called La Boca. As of August 2016, the building has fallen into disrepair, and is partly occupied by a coffee bar named Kinloch Coffee. It has been a protected monument since 1994.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe building was built in 1932 on the initiative of White Russians in Shanghai, refugees of the revolution of 1917, especially General Glebov. It was consecrated in 1937 in honour of St Nicholas, patron saint of the former Russian Emperor, Nicholas II. The church was closed in 1949, when Europeans left following the Chinese Civil War. It was first converted into a warehouse and then a laundry. During the Expo 2010, its loft was reconsecrated to allow Russian Orthodox services to be held there.", "The Shoppes at Trexler (formerly Trexler Mall) is an open-air shopping center and former enclosed community shopping mall in Trexlertown, Pennsylvania, United States. The mall used to serve the western suburbs of Allentown, such as Trexlertown.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe Trexler Mall opened in 1973, and was not immediately successful due to it being built before the surrounding suburbs had developed sufficiently, though as time went on the mall became fairly popular and successful. Its original anchors were a Grant City discount store, a Lane department store, and an A&P Food Market. Just three years after opening, Grant City closed as part of the W.T. Grant company's bankruptcy liquidation in 1976. The former Grant City was then leased to Hess's Department Stores of Allentown. Business in the mall was hurt in 1985 due to a weeks-long strike by Laneco employees. The next major change occurred in 1988, when A&P switched banners into a Super Fresh grocery store. Super Fresh later closed in 1993 due to \"extremely poor sales\" that were attributed to competition from a much newer and larger Redner's Warehouse Market that had opened down the street in 1990. In 1994, what remained of the Hess's department store chain was sold off. Hess's trademarks and most of its remaining stores, including the Trexler Mall location, were purchased by The Bon-Ton Stores, Inc of York, PA and were rebranded with the Bon-Ton name in 1995. By 1995, the Lane department store at Trexler Mall had closed, leaving Bon-Ton as the only anchor tenant. That same year, however, Giant food stores signed a 20-year lease and began demolishing the former Super Fresh store; a brand new Giant supermarket opened at the site in 1996. The former site of Lane became home to a flea market for some time, then by 2002 it had been leased out to the Health Center at Trexlertown, which is part of the Lehigh Valley Health Network.In 2002, the owners of the mall sought approval from local officials to redevelop much of the mall interior to make way for a new Kohl's department store, with a lawyer for the mall owners declaring \"We're going through, as the professionals like to say, the de-malling of the Trexler Mall\". Over the course of the next year, the Kohl's opened and the remainder of the mall was converted into a strictly open-air strip mall called The Shoppes at Trexler. In 2011, Giant supermarket left the Shoppes at Trexler to open a new facility adjacent to the former mall. Marshalls opened in the former Giant in 2012, though the space was later subdivided so that half would remain Marshalls while the other half became HomeGoods. On January 31, 2018, it was announced that The Bon-Ton would be closing as part of a plan to close 42 stores nationwide. The store closed in April 2018. Until it was repainted in early 2018, a water tower behind the plaza remained painted with the words \"Trexler Mall\" despite the fact that the mall had been defunct for about 15 years prior. In 2020, the former site of The Bon-Ton will become Urban Air Adventure Park, an indoor amusement park.\n\n\n== Trivia ==\nThe Trexler Mall had a unique L-shape; the enclosed mall spanned between the original anchors Grant City and Laneco, while a section of outdoor strip mall connected Grant City to A&P at an irregular angle.\nThe former mall apparently has three different names. While the pylon sign for the plaza refers to it as \"The Shoppes at Trexler\", the water tower behind the mall that formerly read \"Trexler Mall\" was repainted in 2018 and now reads \"The Shops at Trexlertown\". Meanwhile, the owners of the property, Cedar Realty Trust, continue to list the property as the \"Trexler Mall\" on their portfolio.\nLaneco, a local chain of stores in eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey, typically operated stores that functioned as a combination of both a department store and a food market. However, the Lane department store at the Trexler Mall was a rare instance of a Laneco store that lacked a food market, likely due to the presence of A&P at the same mall.\nThe Trexler Mall Coin Laundry, currently located in the rear of the shopping center, has been a tenant in the mall since 1981.\nThe Trexler Mall was one of only two malls in the Lehigh Valley area that permitted smoking inside by 1995; the other was the Richland Mall of Quakertown. Coincidentally, the Richland Mall has also since been converted to a strictly open-air shopping plaza.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\"Commercial Real Estate - Trexler Mall - Northwest Real Estate Properties\". cedarrealtytrust.com. Retrieved 2014-01-25.", "Bay Plaza Shopping Center is a shopping center on the south side of Co-op City, Bronx, New York City. In addition to various department stores and shops, such as Macy's, JCPenney, Staples, Kmart, Saks Off 5th (formerly Barnes & Noble), and Old Navy, it has a multiplex movie theater, several restaurants, a fitness club, and some office space. Constructed from 1987 to 1988 by Prestige Properties, the shopping center is located between Bartow and Baychester Avenues, just outside Sections 4 and 5 of Co-op City, on an open lot that was the site of the Freedomland U.S.A. amusement park between 1960 and 1964. The Bay Plaza Shopping Center is the largest shopping center in New York City. Since opening over 25 years ago, it has become extremely successful, the center claims to hold some of the highest performing stores on a per-square-foot basis for many national retailers.\n\n\n== Expansion ==\nThe Mall at Bay Plaza is expansion project of Bay Plaza Shopping Center. The 780,000 square feet (72,000 m2) center encloses a fashion mall with stores like JCPenney, Macy's and over 100 specialty stores and food court as well as a 1,800-car parking garage. It opened on August 14, 2014. The Mall at Bay Plaza is the first enclosed anchored fashion mall opened in the New York City area in almost 40 years after Queens Center opened in 1973. The developer hired the Los Angeles-based architectural firm Altoon & Porter Architects as the builder, and also hired Aurora Contractors — a New York-based firm — as Construction Manager.\nThe mall, which is located at the Hutchinson River Parkway and I-95, has helped grow what is already the city’s largest shopping center (now 1,300,000 square feet (120,000 m2)) to approximately 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m2) upon its summer 2014 completion. A new 160,000 square feet (15,000 m2), three-level Macy’s and the existing 150,000 square feet (14,000 m2) JCPenney anchors the development, which also has a 1,800-car parking garage. An H&M store, the first in the borough, opened in the mall. It created more than 2,000 construction jobs and 1,700 permanent jobs. It costs US$65 million.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMall at Bay Plaza", "Bletchingley Castle is a ruined castle and set of earthworks partly occupied by three buildings. The Scheduled Ancient Monument is directly beside the Greensand Way below it to the south in the village of Bletchingley in Surrey. The site's tower standing from c.1170 to 1264 had a panorama from one of the narrower parts of the Greensand Ridge, which runs from mid-Kent to south-west Surrey.\n\n\n== History ==\nLate in the 12th century a rectangular tower was built on an earlier enclosure of earthworks by Richard Fitz Gilbert, founder of the de Clare family. In 1170 on the way to Canterbury the four knights responsible for assassinating Thomas Becket stopped here. Such a tower would have provided a complete look-out from the Greensand Ridge, which itself provided a relatively reliably dry but not foot or hoof-wearing east-west route.In the 1260s the castle was besieged and taken by royal forces. The tower was destroyed.The remains of the masonry defences point to mid-12th-century work and indicate a masonry castle of the time of King Stephen, a period during which many such strongholds were erected. The Surrey branch of the medieval noble Clare family lived in the village and sided with the barons during the disputes with the Crown in the 13th century, and in the wars of 1263–4 it was, so far as is recorded, for the first and only time was the scene of military operations. Simon de Montfort, accompanied by Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, marched by here on his way to attack the king's army on the coast. Although the barons won a victory at Lewes, the Royalists having seized de Clare's family Tonbridge Castle pounced upon his London force who had been driven from the field and were retreating the way they had come, and are said to have taken and dismantled Blechingley Castle, an operation which might have been disastrous for the barons had they been beaten at Lewes. H. E. Malden states with citations: \"it is probable, however, that the castle was not totally destroyed by this comparatively small force, but that, having once been dismantled, it fell into neglect and became gradually ruined. John Aubrey, writing about 1697, mentions 'one piece of wall of 5 foot thick' as still remaining. Manning, in the early 19th century, says the foundations were still visible.\"\n\n\n=== Owners ===\nThe land on which the castle had stood became separated from the manor (to the north), and appears to have been held in the 16th century by a Cholmeley, who also held land called Unwins (a name seen in certain later place names in the parish), which lay close by the site below the hill. According to Manning the site afterwards belonged to a Drake family, who assumed the name of Brockman in the late 18th century. In 1793 James Drake Brockman sold it to John Kenrick, whose brothers, Matthew and Jarvis, afterwards held in turn. It belonged to this family when Edward Wedlake Brayley wrote about the county. After Mr. James Norris, who built Castle Hill about 1860 it belonged to a Mr. Partridge.The castle as such became part of the grounds of the house Castle Hill — it was home of Mr. A. P. Brandt in 1911.\n\n\n== Ruins ==\nThe site has been quite overgrown for many years but vegetation does not cover part of the minority of materials that remain, as walls, doorways and arches.\nSpecifically, one outer ditch has been partially infilled and the site has been indented by foundation-laying, associated water pipes, drain, electricity cable and access road for the 19th century construction of the Castle Hill home and now separately owned Stable House and Garden Cottage near the centre of the large mound, its ringwork and bailey (fortification) at Bletchingley survives well and \"large areas, especially within the ringwork, lie apparently undisturbed\". The survival of part of a Norman domestic building is a rarity and one which adds to the castle's broad diversity of features. The potential of the monument for the recovery of further evidence of the date and manner of occupation of the castle is high. As a result of the small-scale excavations, archaeological documentation has been compiled.An extract from the schedule monument determination is:\nThe monument includes a castle of the Norman period which comprises an inner near-circular enclosure, or ringwork, and an outer enclosure, or bailey. The ringwork is defined by a massive ditch on the northern and eastern sides which still survives to a depth of over 6m. On the inner edge is an earthen bank or rampart which stands to between 1.4 and 2.4m above the level of the land in the interior. The ditch is spanned on the NE side by a causeway 3m wide which marks the original access route into the inner part of the castle. The bank and ditch of the ringwork gives way on the south side to the steep natural slope of the hill, while on the western side it has been partially levelled to make room for a large Victorian house. The main building within the ringwork was a house some 24m square. Its undercroft survives in places to a height of 2.5m beneath rubble from the house's collapse. The house had living quarters on the first floor, to which access was gained via stairs at the NW and SE corners. The house has been partially excavated, but the north-eastern half remains uninvestigated. The outer defences comprise a bank and ditch which surround the ringwork on all sides except the south, although they have been levelled on the western side. To the north and east the bank survives to a maximum height of 1.6m and averages 7m across. Between the inner and outer defences was the bailey, where ancillary buildings such as stables and storage huts were sited.\nTowards the north-west is a small mound which may mark the site of a barbican.\n\n\n== Notes and references ==\nNotes \nReferences\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nTurner, Dennis (1986–87), \"Bletchingley Castle excavation. Part III\" (PDF), Surrey Archaeological Society Buletin, 216: 3–4\nTurner, Dennis (1996), \"The Norman owners of Blechingley Castle: a review\" (PDF), Surrey Archaeological Collections, 83: 37–56\nTurner, Dennis (2014), \"The later owners of Bletchingley Castle\" (PDF), Surrey Archaeological Collections, 98: 175–190", "Del Monte Shopping Center, also known as Del Monte Center, is an open-air shopping center located in Monterey, California. Del Monte Center is the largest shopping center on the Monterey Peninsula and has the only department store in a 22-mile radius. Del Monte Center was designed by architect John Carl Warnecke, built by Williams and Burrows Construction Company and originally opened in 1967 but expanded and renovated in 1987. The shopping center encompasses 675,000 square feet (62,700 m2) of retail space including 85 stores, one department store (Macy's), Whole Foods Market, restaurants (California Pizza Kitchen, P.F. Chang's China Bistro, Pizza My Heart, Islands Fine Burgers & Drinks, Subway, Chipotle Mexican Grill, Starbucks and Lalla Grill), a gym and spa (Energia) and a thirteen screen Century Theatres. Petco was added in 2004, replacing Stroud's. The existing theater complex moved in 2006, with the former complex becoming a furniture store for Macy's.In 2007, Del Monte Center started a major renovation project which included the addition of several new high-end retailers. Banana Republic opened in Fall 2007, with Pottery Barn and Williams Sonoma following in the spring of 2008. This renovation also included a new restaurant, P.F. Chang's China Bistro, which replaced Marie Callender's. The first Apple retail store in the Monterey region opened at Del Monte Center on August 9, 2008. Other new stores include Lucky Brand Jeans, Hollister Co., Lucy and most recently Pandora Jewelry.\nOn January 6, 2021, Macy's announced that the Macy's furniture store would be closing in April 2021 as part of a plan to close 46 stores nationwide.The center is owned by American Assets Trust.\n\n\n== Community events ==\nThe Del Monte Center hosts a number of community events throughout the year. These include Musical Marketplace, a series of concerts that raise money for charity, and the weekly Monterey Bay Community Farmers Market every Sunday morning.\n\n\n== Location ==\nThe Del Monte Center is located at the intersection of Highways 1 & 68, Munras Avenue and Soledad Drive in Monterey.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Website ==\nOfficial website", "Dollar Tree, formerly known as Only $1.00, is an American multi-price-point chain of discount variety stores. Headquartered in Chesapeake, Virginia, it is a Fortune 500 company and operates 15,115 stores throughout the 48 contiguous U.S. states and Canada. Its stores are supported by a nationwide logistics network of twenty four distribution centers. Additionally, the company operates stores under the name of Dollar Bills, as well as a multi-price-point variety chain under the Family Dollar banner.\nDollar Tree competes in the dollar store and low-end retail markets. Each Dollar Tree stocks a variety of products including national, regional, and private-label brands. Departments found in a Dollar Tree store include health and beauty, food and snacks, party, seasonal décor, housewares, glassware, dinnerware, household cleaning supplies, candy, toys, gifts, gift bags and wrap, stationery, craft supplies, teaching supplies, automotive, electronics, pet supplies, and books. Most Dollar Tree stores also sell frozen foods and dairy items such as milk, eggs, pizza, ice cream, frozen dinners, and pre-made baked goods. In August 2012, the company began accepting manufacturer's coupons at all of its store locations.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Early years ===\nIn 1953, K. R. Perry opened a Ben Franklin variety store in Norfolk, Virginia, which later became known as K&K 5&10. \nIn 1970, K. R. Perry, Doug Perry, and Macon Brock started K&K Toys in Norfolk, Virginia. This mall concept grew to over 130 stores on the East Coast.In 1986, Doug Perry, Macon Brock, and Ray Compton started another chain store called Only $1.00 with five stores, one in Georgia, one in Tennessee, and three in Virginia. The expansion of dollar stores was continued alongside K&K Toys stores, mostly in enclosed malls.In 1991, the corporation made a decision to focus exclusively on the expansion of dollar stores after selling K&K stores to KB Toys, owned by Melville Corporation.\n\n\n=== 1990s ===\nIn 1993, the name Only $1.00 was changed to Dollar Tree Stores to address what could be a multi-price-point strategy in the future, and part equity interest was sold to SKM partners, a private equity firm.Brock and the co-founders of Dollar Tree got the idea for the company from another retailer known as Everything's A Dollar, which went bankrupt in the 1990s.On March 6, 1995, Dollar Tree, Inc. went public on the NASDAQ exchange at $15 a share, with a market cap then calculated at $225 million.\nIn 1996, Dollar Tree acquired Dollar Bill$, Inc., a Chicago-based chain of 136 stores.\nIn 1997, the company opened its first distribution center and its new store support center, both located in Chesapeake, Virginia.\nIn 1998, Dollar Tree acquired 98-Cent Clearance Centers in California.\nIn 1999, Dollar Tree acquired Only $One stores based in New York state. That same year, the company opened its second distribution center in Olive Branch, Mississippi.\n\n\n=== 2000s ===\n\nIn 2000, Dollar Tree acquired Dollar Express, a Philadelphia-based company, and also built a new distribution center in Stockton, California. In 2001, the company opened two additional distribution centers, in Savannah, Georgia, and Briar Creek, Pennsylvania. In 2003, Dollar Tree acquired Salt Lake City, Utah-based Greenbacks, Inc., and opened a new distribution center in Marietta, Oklahoma.\nIn 2004, Dollar Tree opened its first store in North Dakota which marked its operation of stores in all 48 contiguous states. The company also opened new distribution centers in Joliet, Illinois, and Ridgefield, Washington.\nIn 2006, Dollar Tree celebrated its 20th year of retailing at a $1.00 price point, opened its 3,000th store, and acquired 138 DEAL$ stores, previously owned by SUPERVALU INC.\nIn 2007, Dollar Tree expanded its Briar Creek Distribution Center, crossed the $4 billion sales threshold, and had a market capitalization of $3.29 billion. In 2008, Dollar Tree earned a place in the Fortune 500. By the close of 2009, the company opened a store in Washington, D.C., and purchased a new distribution center in San Bernardino, California.\nIn 2009, Dollar Tree redesigned its website with a new e-commerce platform. DollarTree.com sells Dollar Tree merchandise in larger quantities to individuals, small businesses, and organizations. The company also advertises in-store events, specials, seasonal promotions, and featured products through the site and users can locate a retail store, research information about Dollar Tree, and view product recalls. Dollar Tree also recently added customer ratings and reviews and customer stories to the site.\n\n\n=== 2010s ===\n\nIn 2010, the corporation opened its 4,000th chain store and acquired 86 Canadian Dollar Giant stores which are based in Vancouver, British Columbia. The stores are operated in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario. These are the first retail locations outside of the United States operated by Dollar Tree.\nIn 2011, Dollar Tree achieved total sales of $6.63 billion, opened 278 new stores, and completed a 400,000 square-foot expansion of its distribution center in Savannah, Georgia.\nIn 2012, Dollar Tree opened another 345 new stores and exceeded $7 billion in sales, with an end-of-the-year market cap at $9.13 billion.\nOn July 28, 2014, Dollar Tree announced that it was offering $9.2 billion for the purchase of competitor chain store Family Dollar. On August 18, 2014, Dollar General lodged a competing bid of $9.7 billion for Family Dollar. The bid was rejected on August 20, 2014, by the Family Dollar board, which said it would proceed with the deal with Dollar Tree.In January 2015, Dollar Tree announced plans to divest 300 stores in order to appease US regulators scrutinizing its proposed takeover of Family Dollar stores.In June 2015, the firm agreed to sell 330 stores to private equity company Sycamore Partners as part of the approval process for its $8.5 billion takeover of Family Dollar.The company was ranked 134 on the 2018 Fortune 500 list of the United States corporations by revenue.In March 2019, as part of its reposition plan, Dollar Tree announced that it will close up to 390 Family Dollar stores along with renovating 1,000 other locations.\n\n\n=== 2020s ===\nOn March 3, 2021, it was announced that Dollar Tree had quietly introduced a combination Family Dollar/Dollar Tree store concept with the first one opening in late 2019. Dollar Tree has opened and operated nearly 50 locations by the end of 2020, primarily in small towns with populations of just a few thousand people.On September 28, 2021, CEO Michael Wytinski, citing increased shipping and labor costs squeezing profit margins, announced that some prices will be rising above $1, possibly to as much as $1.50.\n\n\n== Business strategy ==\n\nDollar Tree is classified as an extreme discount store. It claims to be able to achieve this because their buyers \"work extremely hard to find the best bargains out there\", and it has \"great control over the tremendous buying power at the dollar price-point\". Its prices are primarily designed to attract financially disadvantaged customers, but it has also become popular within immigrant communities.\n\n\n=== Family Dollar bidding ===\nOn July 28, 2014, Dollar Tree announced that a deal had been reached and approved by both parties to purchase Family Dollar for $8.5 billion plus acquisition of the $1 billion in debt currently held by Family Dollar. The deal came in the month following activist investor and major shareholder Carl Icahn's demand that Family Dollar be promptly put up for sale. After their reported deal had been struck, Dollar General entered the bidding, surpassing Dollar Tree's offer, with a $9.7 billion bid on August 18, 2014. On August 20, 2014, Family Dollar rejected the Dollar General bid, saying it was not a matter of price, but concerns over antitrust issues that had convinced the company and its advisers that the deal could not be concluded on the terms proposed. The Family Dollar board had been analyzing potential antitrust issues that could arise from doing a deal with Dollar General, since the start of the year a statement from CEO Howard Levine outlined.\n\n\n== Canada ==\nDollar Tree stores in Canada sell items for C$1.25 or less. On October 11, 2010, Dollar Tree announced its acquisition of Dollar Giant, originally incorporated in 2001 in Vancouver, Canada, for $52 million. At the time of the acquisition, Dollar Giant had about 85 retail outlets in the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Ontario. Approximately 30 of its retail locations are in British Columbia, making it the second largest dollar store chain in that province. It was Canada's fourth largest operator of dollar stores. Dollar Tree has since rebranded all of its Dollar Giant stores to Dollar Tree; these were the first retail locations outside of the United States operated by Dollar Tree. The company now operates 227 stores across Canada, concentrated in Western Canada and Ontario. Dollar Tree Canada's merchandising team is located in Mississauga, Ontario, while its corporate office remains in Burnaby in Greater Vancouver.\n\n\n== Recalls ==\nThe Consumer Product Safety Commission lists several recalls for products sold at Dollar Tree stores. The recalled products include salsa jars with broken glass inside them, hot-melt mini glue guns (recalled in January 2008) which could short circuit and cause burns, and candle sets (recalled in February 2004) which could produce excessive flame.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nBusiness data for Dollar Tree:", "Terra Alta Bank, also known as The History House, is a historic bank building located at Terra Alta, Preston County, West Virginia. It was built in 1893, and is a three-story, six bay wide brick Italianate style commercial building. It has a cast iron storefront on the first floor of the main facade and metal window surrounds on the upper floors. The roof line of the building has a decorative bracketed cast iron cornice on three sides. The bank occupied the building until 1991, after which it was partly occupied by a local historical society.It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe History House website", "The Virginia Square Shopping Center in Arlington County, Virginia, United States opened in early 1952, to complement the adjoining Kann's-Virginia store. At opening, the 15-store center included a Giant supermarket, People's Drug, Fanny Farmer candy, L. Frank Co. women's apparel, Jonas men's apparel, the Bo Peep Shop, and Mary Baynes Gift Shop. An F.W. Woolworth variety store also operated at the center. Following the 1975 closure of the Kann's-Virginia and Kimel's Furniture Store, the center entered into a period of decline. In March 1986, the Virginia Square retail landmark Mary Baynes Gift Shop closed its doors. Redevelopment of the Center, talked about for almost a decade, finally commenced in Summer 1988, when the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation demolished the old center and erected a new satellite office and other buildings on the site.The Virginia Square–GMU station on the Washington Metro is named after the shopping center.\n\n\n== References ==" ] }

{ "title": [ "Athletic nickname", "Holly High School", "Timberline High School (Lacey, Washington)", "Blue+Jay", "Hoplite", "Al Gore", "Timberline High School (Boise, Idaho)", "Timberline High School (Weippe, Idaho)", "Miami Maniac", "Central High School (Memphis, Tennessee)", "Bond County Community Unit School District 2", "Blue+%28color%29", "John Greig (basketball)", "Herndon High School (Kansas)" ], "text": [ "The athletic nickname, or equivalently athletic moniker, of a university or college within the United States is the name officially adopted by that institution for at least the members of its athletic teams. Typically as a matter of engendering school spirit, the institution either officially or unofficially uses this moniker of the institution's athletic teams also as a nickname to refer to people associated with the institution, especially its current students, but also often its alumni, its faculty, and its administration as well. This practice at the university and college tertiary higher-education level has proven so popular that it extended to the high school secondary-education level in the United States and in recent years even to the primary-education level as well.\n\n\n== Themes ==\nIn the United States, multiple recurring themes have appeared over time for choosing a school's athletic nickname. In almost all cases, the institution chooses an athletic nickname with an overtly positive goal in mind, where that goal reflects the character of the institution—either a previously established characteristic or a characteristic hoped for as a goal henceforth.\n\n\n=== Abstract concept ===\nOften by choosing an abstract concept as its athletic moniker, the institution wants to inspire its student-athletes on and off the field to achieve success that the abstract concept represents. Examples: Cornell Big Red, Stanford Cardinal, UIC Flames, Tulane Green Wave.\n\n\n=== Animal ===\n\nOften by choosing an animal, the school wants to emphasize the instillation of fear of losing athletic competitions to the institution's teams, such as through an especially fierce or stealthy animal. When the school chooses an animal as its athletic nickname, usually in the plural or as a collective noun for a group of that animal, then typically, the school has that animal (in the singular) as its mascot, either specifically named with a proper noun or generically referred to without a proper noun. Examples: Michigan Wolverines, Oregon Ducks, Princeton Tigers, Iowa Hawkeyes, California Golden Bears, Minnesota Golden Gophers, Texas Longhorns.\n\n\n=== Collection ===\nOften by choosing a collection that represents a summary of the institution's students or of its history. Such a collection may refer to an ethnicity; a profession; religious designation, such as saints; or other groupings of people. A portion of athletic monikers that fall into this collection category started originally as derogatory epithets from others, but as an act of defiance, the school embraced the term as a rallying cry to overcome the term's negative origin. Because a collection is hard to represent or iconify, when a school chooses a collection as its athletic nickname, the school typically chooses a related but different mascot that symbolizes that collection. Examples: Notre Dame Fighting Irish, Oklahoma Sooners, Purdue Boilermakers, Illinois Fighting Illini, Texas A&M Aggies\n\n\n=== Hero or archetype ===\nA small number of schools choose an archetypical heroic person as their official athletic nickname. This person may be a graduate of the school who is viewed as embodying the school's mission or an archetypal person who is symbolic of the school's area, such as the West Virginia University Mountaineer. In religiously affiliated schools, this person may be a historical person in the religion who has been bestowed an official designation in that religion, such as a saint in Roman Catholic or Orthodox Christianity.\n\n\n=== Native American likeness ===\n\nLikenesses to Native Americans were at one time widely popular athletic monikers, especially for schools that adopted them in the 19th or early 20th century. In recent years, some Native American organizations have protested the unlicensed use of likenesses of Native Americans related to team names, team logos, athletic monikers, cheerleaders, and cheering techniques. The granting of overtly expressed written licenses by Native American organizations to use likenesses of Native Americans in these ways is rare, although not unheard of. In one notable example, two major groups of the Seminole nation, the Seminole Tribe of Florida and Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, have expressly given Florida State University permission to use the nickname \"Seminoles\" and certain Seminole imagery. Central Michigan University has a similar arrangement with the Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe to use the name \"Chippewas\".\nBecause of protests from some Native American organizations, some schools have changed their athletic moniker and mascot and cheering practices without significant objection once the issue was raised, especially if such offense toward a group of people was viewed as incompatible with that school's stated mission or if the threat of legal action was too burdensome. Other schools or their student bodies have defended their use of Native American likenesses, especially if the institution views the use of Native American likenesses as respectful or so intimately tied with history to be inseparable from the institution, such as if the name of institution derives from the name of a tribe. Still other schools have embarked on a series of failed attempts to find a replacement.\n\n\n=== Common and uncommon names ===\n\nOften, certain nicknames (animals and some abstract concepts, such as Giants, Broncos, or Wildcats) become very common. However, some nicknames are unique to that school/team such as Illini, Demon Deacons or Fords.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of college sports team nicknames\nLists of nicknames – nickname list articles on Wikipedia\n\n\n== References ==", "Holly High School (HHS) is a public high school for grades 9–12 located in Holly, Michigan. It provides secondary education for students living in Holly, Davisburg, Springfield Township, Rose Township, and White Lake Township. Its official mascot is the Broncho and its colors are red, white, and grey. In 1952, Holly High School opted to change the spelling of its mascot from Bronco to Broncho since the spelling was commonly used. Holly High School is the only high school in the Holly Area School District. The current high school, built in 1999 in Holly Township, Michigan, replaced a high school building that had been built down the street in 1958. The 1958 building, which has for its official address 920 East Baird Street, became a middle school but today is home to Karl Richter Community Center and Holly Area Schools' administrative offices and had, in return, replaced a 1910s school building on College Street, today the site of a church.\nIn recent years, Holly High School has taken advantage of school closures to invite displaced students of closed schools to attend HHS in order for their families to relocate to the Holly area. Because of this HHS has welcomed former students of Flint Central, Pontiac Central and, most recently, Flint Northern High School.\n\n\n== Performing arts ==\nThe Holly High School band program consists of marching band and color guard during the fall season and concert/symphony band during the winter and spring seasons.\nThe Holly High School Main Street Show Choir is also active and performs year-round, as does the Holly High School Concert Choir.\n\n\n== Notable alumni ==\nJim Ray, former Major League Baseball pitcher for Houston Astros and Detroit Tigers.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHolly High School Website", "Timberline High School is a comprehensive public secondary school in Lacey, Washington. Opened in 1970 and part of North Thurston Public Schools, its school colors are green and gold and the mascot is a blazer.\nTimberline primarily receives students from Komachin Middle School. At one point the school building was also home to the experimental high school, New Century High School. Timberline's original floor plan was open, similar to the Juanita concept; the original building was fully demolished during the 2007–08 school year.\n\n\n== Notable alumni ==\nEd Murray, Mayor of Seattle Elected Mayor of Seattle in 2013\nTom Dutra, Seattle Sounders FC goalkeeper coach\nRon Holmes, NFL defensive end\nJeff Monson, wrestler; 2x Gold Medalist (99' and 05') ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championships, current mixed martial artist formerly for the Ultimate Fighting Championship\nJonathan Stewart, NFL running back\n\n\n== History ==\nThe original building was completed in 1970. During the first week of school in 1970, the 700 students that attended met in the gym because it was the only completed part of the building.\nThe school building had an open-concept design and the class schedule was a flexible modular one, based on 15-minute increments. Nearly all instruction was individualized.\nThe first major change to scheduling was in the 1976-77 school year, which had a more traditional 7-period schedule. In 1978, it was changed to a 6-period schedule. The math department was the last to conduct primarily individualized instruction, doing so until the 1982-1983 school year.\nMajor changes to the building took place in 1980 with a $3.3 million construction project. Some classes were held in portables until spring 1981. The construction included the Language-Arts building, auto shop, graphics and journalism areas, weight room and wrestling addition, and the student commons.\nDuring the 1985-86 school year, the softball and soccer fields were added. In 1987, the all-weather track was completed. In 2000, the swimming pool was renovated.\nIn 1989, the heating and air conditioning systems were updated.\nIn 2006, voters approved a $66 million fund to build a new main building, and in 2008, the new building was opened and the old main building demolished later that year.\n\n\n== See also ==\nNorth Thurston High School\nRiver Ridge High School\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nNorth Thurston Public Schools", "", "Hoplites (HOP-lytes) (Ancient Greek: ὁπλίτης) were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed with spears and shields. Hoplite soldiers used the phalanx formation to be effective in war with fewer soldiers. The formation discouraged the soldiers from acting alone, for this would compromise the formation and minimize its strengths. The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens – propertied farmers and artisans – who were able to afford a linen armour or a bronze armour suit and weapons (estimated at a third to a half of its able-bodied adult male population). Most hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training. Some states maintained a small elite professional unit, known as the epilektoi (\"chosen\") since they were picked from the regular citizen infantry. These existed at times in Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse, among others. Hoplite soldiers made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies.In the 8th or 7th century BC, Greek armies adopted the phalanx formation. The formation proved successful in defeating the Persians when employed by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC during the First Greco-Persian War. The Persian archers and light troops who fought in the Battle of Marathon failed because their bows were too weak for their arrows to penetrate the wall of Greek shields that comprised the phalanx formation. The phalanx was also employed by the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC and at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC during the Second Greco-Persian War.\nThe word hoplite (Greek: ὁπλίτης hoplitēs; pl. ὁπλῖται hoplitai) derives from hoplon (ὅπλον, plural hopla ὅπλα), referring to the hoplite's shield. In the modern Hellenic Army, the word hoplite (Greek: oπλίτης) is used to refer to an infantryman.\n\n\n== Warfare ==\n\nThe fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. Limited manpower did not allow most Greek city-states to form large armies which could operate for long periods because they were generally not formed from professional soldiers. Most soldiers had careers as farmers or workers and returned to these professions after the campaign. All hoplites were expected to take part in any military campaign when called for duty by leaders of the state. The Lacedaemonian citizens of Sparta were renowned for their lifelong combat training and almost mythical military prowess, while their greatest adversaries, the Athenians, were exempted from service only after the age of 60. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns and often resulted in the campaign season being restricted to one summer.Armies generally marched directly to their destination, and in some cases the battlefield was agreed to by the contestants in advance. Battles were fought on level ground, and hoplites preferred to fight with high terrain on both sides of the phalanx so the formation could not be flanked. An example of this was the Battle of Thermopylae, where the Spartans specifically chose a narrow coastal pass to make their stand against the massive Persian army. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days.\nWhen battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. The battlefield would be flat and open to facilitate phalanx warfare. These battles were usually short and required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, when cavalry was present, its role was restricted to protection of the flanks of the phalanx, pursuit of a defeated enemy, and covering a retreat if required. Light infantry and missile troops took part in the battles but their role was less important. Before the opposing phalanxes engaged, the light troops would skirmish with the enemy's light forces, and then protect the flanks and rear of the phalanx.\nThe military structure created by the Spartans was a rectangular phalanx formation. The formation was organized from eight to ten rows deep and could cover a front of a quarter of a mile or more if sufficient hoplites were available. The two lines would close to a short distance to allow effective use of their spears, while the psiloi threw stones and javelins from behind their lines. The shields would clash and the first lines (protostates) would stab at their opponents, at the same time trying to keep in position. The ranks behind them would support them with their own spears and the mass of their shields gently pushing them, not to force them into the enemy formation but to keep them steady and in place. The soldiers in the back provided motivation to the ranks in the front being that most hoplites were close community members. At certain points, a command would be given to the phalanx or a part thereof to collectively take a certain number of steps forward (ranging from half to multiple steps). This was the famed othismos.\n\nAt this point, the phalanx would put its collective weight to push back the enemy line and thus create fear and panic among its ranks. There could be multiple such instances of attempts to push, but it seems from the accounts of the ancients that these were perfectly orchestrated and attempted organized en masse. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, sometimes chased by psiloi, peltasts, or light cavalry.\nIf a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome aspis, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family (becoming a ripsaspis, one who threw his shield). To lessen the number of casualties inflicted by the enemy during battles, soldiers were positioned to stand shoulder to shoulder with their hoplon. The hoplites' most prominent citizens and generals led from the front. Thus, the war could be decided by a single battle. Victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the \"Custom of the Greeks\".\n\nIndividual hoplites carried their shields on their left arm, protecting themselves and the soldier to the left. This meant that the men at the extreme right of the phalanx were only half-protected. In battle, opposing phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy's right flank. It also meant that, in battle, a phalanx would tend to drift to the right (as hoplites sought to remain behind the shield of their neighbour). The most experienced hoplites were often placed on the right side of the phalanx, to counteract these problems. According to Plutarch's Sayings of Spartans, \"a man carried a shield for the sake of the whole line\".The phalanx is an example of a military formation in which single combat and other individualistic forms of battle were suppressed for the good of the whole. In earlier Homeric, dark age combat, the words and deeds of supremely powerful heroes turned the tide of battle. Instead of having individual heroes, hoplite warfare relied heavily on the community and unity of soldiers. With friends and family pushing on either side and enemies forming a solid wall of shields in front, the hoplite had little opportunity for feats of technique and weapon skill, but great need for commitment and mental toughness. By forming a human wall to provide a powerful defensive armour, the hoplites became much more effective while suffering fewer casualties. The hoplites had a lot of discipline and were taught to be loyal and trustworthy. They had to trust their neighbours for mutual protection, so a phalanx was only as strong as its weakest elements. Its effectiveness depended on how well the hoplites could maintain this formation in combat, and how well they could stand their ground, especially when engaged against another phalanx. The more disciplined and courageous the army, the more likely it was to win. Often engagements between various city-states of Greece would be resolved by one side fleeing after their phalanx had broken formation.\n\n\n== Equipment ==\n\n\n=== Body armour ===\nEach hoplite provided his own equipment. Thus, only those who could afford such weaponry fought as hoplites. As with the Roman Republican army it was the middle classes who formed the bulk of the infantry. Equipment was not standardized, although there were doubtless trends in general designs over time, and between city-states. Hoplites had customized armour, the shield was decorated with family or clan emblems, although in later years these were replaced by symbols or monograms of the city states. The equipment might be passed down in families, as it was expensive to manufacture.\nThe hoplite army consisted of heavy infantrymen. Their armour, also called panoply, was sometimes made of full bronze for those who could afford it, weighing nearly 32 kilograms (70 lb), although linen armor now known as linothorax was more common since it was cost-effective and provided decent protection. The average farmer-peasant hoplite could not afford any armor and typically carried only a shield, a spear, and perhaps a helmet plus a secondary weapon. The richer upper-class hoplites typically had a bronze cuirass of either the bell or muscled variety, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as greaves and other armour. The design of helmets used varied through time. The Corinthian helmet was at first standardized and was a successful design. Later variants included the Chalcidian helmet, a lightened version of the Corinthian helmet, and the simple Pilos helmet worn by the later hoplites. Often the helmet was decorated with one, sometimes more horsehair crests, and/or bronze animal horns and ears. Helmets were often painted as well. The Thracian helmet had a large visor to further increase protection. In later periods, linothorax was also used, as it is tougher and cheaper to produce. The linen was 0.5-centimetre (0.20 in) thick.\n\nBy contrast with hoplites, other contemporary infantry (e.g., Persian) tended to wear relatively light armour, wicker shields, and were armed with shorter spears, javelins, and bows. The most famous are the Peltasts, light-armed troops who wore no armour and were armed with a light shield, javelins and a short sword. The Athenian general Iphicrates developed a new type of armour and arms for his mercenary army, which included light linen armour, smaller shields and longer spears, whilst arming his Peltasts with larger shields, helmets and a longer spear, thus enabling them to defend themselves more easily against hoplites. With this new type of army he defeated a Spartan army in 392 BC. The arms and armour described above were most common for hoplites.\n\n\n=== Shield ===\nHoplites carried a large concave shield called an aspis (often referred to as a hoplon), measuring between 80–100 centimetres (31–39 in) in diameter and weighing between 6.5–8 kilograms (14–18 lbs). This large shield was made possible partly by its shape, which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder. The hoplon shield was assembled in three layers: the center layer was made of thick wood, the outside layer facing the enemy was made of bronze, and leather comprised the inside of the shield. The revolutionary part of the shield was the grip. Known as an Argive grip, it placed the handle at the edge of the shield, and was supported by a leather fastening (for the forearm) at the centre. These two points of contact eliminated the possibility of the shield swaying to the side after being struck, and as a result soldiers rarely lost their shields. This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield, as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the phalanx. The large hoplon shields, designed for pushing ahead, were the most essential equipment for the hoplites.\n\n\n=== Spear ===\nThe main offensive weapon used was a 2.5–4.5-metre (8.2–14.8 ft) long and 2.5-centimetre (1 in) in diameter spear called a doru, or dory. It was held with the right hand, with the left hand holding the hoplite's shield. Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents, they were held in an overhand position ready to strike. The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a sauroter (\"lizard-killer\") which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them. In addition to being used as a secondary weapon, the sauroter doubled to balance the spear, but not for throwing purposes. It is a matter of contention, among historians, whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm. Held underarm, the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control, and vice versa. It seems likely that both motions were used, depending on the situation. If attack was called for, an overarm motion was more likely to break through an opponent's defence. The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage. When defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be 'couched' under the shoulder for maximum stability. An overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the aspis and doru if the shield wall had broken down, while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one's neighbours in the battle-line. Hoplites in the rows behind the lead would almost certainly have made overarm thrusts. The rear ranks held their spears underarm, and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles. This was an effective defence against missiles, deflecting their force.\n\n\n=== Sword ===\nHoplites also carried a sword, mostly a short sword called a xiphos, but later also longer and heavier types. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if or when their spears were broken or lost, or if the phalanx broke rank. The xiphos usually had a blade around 60 centimetres (24 in) long; however, those used by the Spartans were often only 30–45 centimetres long. This very short xiphos would be very advantageous in the press that occurred when two lines of hoplites met, capable of being thrust through gaps in the shieldwall into an enemy's unprotected groin or throat, while there was no room to swing a longer sword. Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the Peloponnesian War. Hoplites could also alternatively carry the kopis, a heavy knife with a forward-curving blade.\n\n\n== Theories on the transition to fighting in the phalanx ==\n\nDark age warfare transitioned into hoplite warfare in the 8th century BC. Historians and researchers have debated the reason and speed of the transition for centuries. So far 3 popular theories exist:\n\n\n=== Gradualist theory ===\nDeveloped by Anthony Snodgrass, the Gradualist Theory states that the hoplite style of battle developed in a series of steps as a result of innovations in armour and weaponry. Chronologically dating the archeological findings of hoplite armour and using the findings to approximate the development of the phalanx formation, Snodgrass claims that the transition took approximately 100 years to complete from 750–650 BC. The progression of the phalanx took time because as the phalanx matured it required denser formations that made the elite warriors recruit Greek citizens. The large amounts of hoplite armour needed to then be distributed to the populations of Greek citizens only increased the time for the phalanx to be implemented. Snodgrass believes, only once the armour was in place that the phalanx formation became popular.\n\n\n=== Rapid adoption theory ===\nThe Rapid Adaptation model was developed by historians Paul Cartledge and Victor Hanson. The historians believe that the phalanx was created individually by military forces, but was so effective that others had to immediately adapt their way of war to combat the formation. Rapid Adoptionists propose that the double grip hoplon shield that was required for the phalanx formation was so constricting in mobility that once it was introduced, dark age, free flowing warfare was inadequate to fight against the hoplites only escalating the speed of the transition. Quickly, the phalanx formation and hoplite armour became widely used throughout Ancient Greece. Cartledge and Hanson estimate the transition took place from 725–675 BC.\n\n\n=== Extended gradualist theory ===\n\nDeveloped by Hans Van Wees, the Extended Gradualist theory is the most lengthy of the three popular transition theories. Van Wees depicts iconography found on pots of the Dark Ages believing that the foundation of the phalanx formation was birthed during this time. Specifically, he uses an example of the Chigi Vase to point out that hoplite soldiers were carrying normal spears as well as javelins on their backs. Matured hoplites did not carry long-range weapons including javelins. The Chigi vase is important for our knowledge of the hoplite soldier because it is one if not the only representation of the hoplite formation, known as the phalanx, in Greek art. This led Van Wees to believe that there was a transitional period from long-range warfare of the Dark Ages to the close combat of hoplite warfare. Some other evidence of a transitional period lies within the text of Spartan poet Tyrtaios, who wrote, \"…will they draw back for the pounding [of the missiles, no,] despite the battery of great hurl-stones, the helmets shall abide the rattle [of war unbowed]\". At no point in other texts does Tyrtaios discuss missiles or rocks, making another case for a transitional period in which hoplite warriors had some ranged capabilities. Extended Gradualists argue that hoplite warriors did not fight in a true phalanx until the 5th century BC. Making estimations of the speed of the transition reached as long as 300 years, from 750–450 BC.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Ancient Greece ===\n\nThe exact time when hoplite warfare was developed is uncertain, the prevalent theory being that it was established sometime during the 8th or 7th century BC, when the \"heroic age was abandoned and a far more disciplined system introduced\" and the Argive shield became popular. Peter Krentz argues that \"the ideology of hoplitic warfare as a ritualized contest developed not in the 7th century [BC], but only after 480, when non-hoplite arms began to be excluded from the phalanx\". Anagnostis Agelarakis, based on recent archaeo-anthropological discoveries of the earliest monumental polyandrion (communal burial of male warriors) at Paros Island in Greece, unveils a last quarter of the 8th century BC date for a hoplitic phalangeal military organization.The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was tied to the rise and fall of the city-state. As discussed above, hoplites were a solution to the armed clashes between independent city-states. As Greek civilization found itself confronted by the world at large, particularly the Persians, the emphasis in warfare shifted. Confronted by huge numbers of enemy troops, individual city-states could not realistically fight alone. During the Greco-Persian Wars (499–448 BC), alliances between groups of cities (whose composition varied over time) fought against the Persians. This drastically altered the scale of warfare and the numbers of troops involved. The hoplite phalanx proved itself far superior to the Persian infantry at such conflicts as the Battle of Marathon, Thermopylae, and the Battle of Plataea.\n\nDuring this period, Athens and Sparta rose to a position of political eminence in Greece, and their rivalry in the aftermath of the Persian wars brought Greece into renewed internal conflict. The Peloponnesian War was on a scale unlike conflicts before. Fought between leagues of cities, dominated by Athens and Sparta respectively, the pooled manpower and financial resources allowed a diversification of warfare. Hoplite warfare was in decline. There were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive. Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, and non-set piece tactics. These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the number of casualties. In the Persian war, hoplites faced large numbers of skirmishers and missile-armed troops, and such troops (e.g., peltasts) became much more commonly used by the Greeks during the Peloponnesian War. As a result, hoplites began wearing less armour, carrying shorter swords, and in general adapting for greater mobility. This led to the development of the ekdromos light hoplite.\nMany famous personalities, philosophers, artists, and poets fought as hoplites.According to Nefiodkin, fighting against Greek heavy infantry during the Greco-Persian Wars inspired the Persians to introduce scythed chariots.\n\n\n=== Sparta ===\n\nSparta is one of the most famous city-states, along with Athens, which had a unique position in ancient Greece. Contrary to other city states, the free citizens of Sparta served as hoplites their entire lives, training and exercising in peacetime, which gave Sparta a professional standing army. Often small, numbering around 6000 at its peak to no more than 1000 soldiers at lowest point, divided into six mora or battalions, the Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity. Military service was the primary duty of Spartan men, and Spartan society was organized around its army.\n\nMilitary service for hoplites lasted until the age of 40, and sometimes until 60 years of age, depending on a man's physical ability to perform on the battlefield.\n\n\n=== Macedonia ===\n\nLater in the hoplite era, more sophisticated tactics were developed, in particular by the Theban general Epaminondas. These tactics inspired the future king Philip II of Macedon, who was at the time a hostage in Thebes, also inspired the development of new type of infantry, the Macedonian phalanx. After the Macedonian conquests of the 4th century BC, the hoplite was slowly abandoned in favour of the phalangite, armed in the Macedonian fashion, in the armies of the southern Greek states. Although clearly a development of the hoplite, the Macedonian phalanx was tactically more versatile, especially used in the combined arms tactics favoured by the Macedonians. These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), after which Athens and its allies joined the Macedonian empire.\nWhile Alexander's army mainly fielded Pezhetairoi (= Foot Companions) as his main force, his army also included some classic hoplites, either provided by the League of Corinth or from hired mercenaries. Beside these units, the Macedonians also used the so-called Hypaspists, an elite force of units possibly originally fighting as hoplites and used to guard the exposed right wing of Alexander's phalanx.\n\n\n=== Hoplite-style warfare outside Greece ===\n\nHoplite-style warfare was influential, and influenced several other nations in the Mediterranean. Hoplite warfare was the dominant fighting style on much of the Italian Peninsula until the early 3rd century BC, employed by both the Etruscans and the Early Roman army, though scutum infantry had existed for centuries and some groups fielded both. The Romans later standardized their fighting style to a more flexible maniple organization, which was more versatile on rough terrain like that of the Apennines. Roman equipment also changed, trading spears for swords and heavy javelins (pilum). In the end only the triarii would keep a long spear (hasta) as their main weapon. The triarii would still fight in a traditional phalanx formation. Though this combination or similar was popular in much of Italy, some continued to fight as hoplites. Mercenaries serving under Pyrrhus of Epirus or Hannibal (namely Lucanians) were equipped and fought as hoplites.\nEarly in its history, Ancient Carthage also equipped its troops as Greek hoplites, in units such as the Sacred Band of Carthage. Many Greek hoplite mercenaries fought in foreign armies, such as Carthage and Achaemenid Empire, where it is believed by some that they inspired the formation of the Cardaces. Some hoplites served under the Illyrian king Bardylis in the 4th century. The Illyrians were known to import many weapons and tactics from the Greeks.\nThe Diadochi imported the Greek phalanx to their kingdoms. Though they mostly fielded Greek citizens or mercenaries, they also armed and drilled local natives as hoplites or rather Macedonian phalanx, like the Machimoi of the Ptolemaic army.\n\n\n=== Hellenistic period ===\n\nThe Greek armies of the Hellenistic period mostly fielded troops in the fashion of the Macedonian phalanx. Many armies of mainland Greece retained hoplite warfare. Besides classical hoplites Hellenistic nations began to field two new types of hoplites, the Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai. They developed when Greeks adopted the Galatian Thureos shield, of an oval shape that was similar to the shields of the Romans, but flatter. The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword and, if needed, javelins. While the Thorakitai were similar to the Thureophoroi, they were more heavily armoured, as their name implies, usually wearing a mail shirt. These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== General bibliography ===\nCrowley, Jason. The Psychology of the Athenian Hoplite: The Culture of Combat in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012 (hardcover, ISBN 1-107-02061-1).\nGoldsworthy, A. K. \"The Othismos, Myths and Heresies: The Nature of Hoplite Battle\", War in History, Vol. 4, Issue 1. (1997), pp. 1–26.\nHanson, Victor Davis. The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-394-57188-6); New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-506588-3); Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-21911-2).\nHanson, Victor Davis. Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece (Biblioteca Di Studi Antichi; 40). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-21025-5; paperback, ISBN 0-520-21596-6).\nHanson, Victor Davis. The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20935-4).\nKagan, Donald, and Gregory Viggiano. Men of Bronze: Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013. Web.\nKrentz, Peter. \"Fighting by the Rules: The Invention of the Hoplite Agôn\", Hesperia, Vol. 71, No. 1. (2002), pp. 23–39.\nO'Connell, Robert L., Soul of the Sword. Simon and Schuster, 2002, ISBN 0-684-84407-9.\nRoisman, Joseph, and translated by J. C. Yardley, Ancient Greece from Homer to Alexander (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2011) ISBN 1-4051-2776-7\nCartledge, P. \"Hoplites and Heroes: Sparta's Contribution to the Technique of Ancient Warfare\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies vol. 97 (1977): 11–27.\n\n\n== External links ==\nAssociation of Greek Hoplites Historic Studies Club \"KORYVANTES\"\nPerseus Digital Library database:\nvases\nstatues\ncoins\nSparta Pages – web page on Sparta and the Hoplite.\nThe Phalanx Hoplite\nClassical Greek Shield Patterns", "Albert Arnold Gore Jr. (born March 31, 1948) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th vice president of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under president Bill Clinton. Gore was the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election, losing to George W. Bush in a very close race after a Florida recount.\nGore was an elected official for 24 years. He was a representative from Tennessee (1977–1985) and from 1985 to 1993 served as a senator from that state. He served as vice president during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001, defeating incumbents George H. W. Bush and Dan Quayle in 1992, and Bob Dole and Jack Kemp in 1996. The 2000 presidential election was one of the closest presidential races in history. Gore and his running mate Joe Lieberman won the popular vote, but after a controversial election dispute over a Florida recount (settled by the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled 5–4 in favor of Bush), he lost the election to Republican opponent George W. Bush in the Electoral College.\nAfter his term as vice-president ended in 2001, Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist, whose work in climate change activism earned him (jointly with the IPCC) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. Gore is the founder and current chair of The Climate Reality Project, the co-founder and chair of Generation Investment Management, the now-defunct Current TV network, a member of the Board of Directors of Apple Inc. and a senior adviser to Google. Gore is also a partner in the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins, heading its climate change solutions group. He has served as a visiting professor at Middle Tennessee State University, Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, Fisk University and the University of California, Los Angeles. He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute.Gore has received a number of awards that include the Nobel Peace Prize (joint award with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007), a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album (2009) for his book An Inconvenient Truth, a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV (2007), and a Webby Award (2005). Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award winning (2007) documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006, as well as its 2017 sequel An Inconvenient Sequel: Truth to Power. In 2007, he was named a runner-up for Time's 2007 Person of the Year. In 2008, Gore won the Dan David Prize for Social Responsibility.\n\n\n== Early life and education ==\n\nGore was born on March 31, 1948, in Washington, D.C., the second of two children of Albert Gore Sr., a U.S. Representative who later served for 18 years as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee, and Pauline (LaFon) Gore, one of the first women to graduate from Vanderbilt University Law School. Gore is a descendant of Scots Irish immigrants who first settled in Virginia in the mid-17th-century and moved to Tennessee after the Revolutionary War. His older sister Nancy LaFon Gore died of lung cancer.During the school year he lived with his family in The Fairfax Hotel in the Embassy Row section in Washington D.C. During the summer months, he worked on the family farm in Carthage, Tennessee where the Gores grew tobacco and hay and raised cattle.Gore attended St. Albans School, an independent college preparatory day and boarding school for boys in Washington, D.C. from 1956 to 1965, a prestigious feeder school for the Ivy League. He was the captain of the football team, threw discus for the track and field team and participated in basketball, art, and government. He graduated 25th in a class of 51, applied to one college, Harvard University, and was accepted.\n\n\n== Harvard, the Vietnam War, journalism, and Vanderbilt (1965–1976) ==\n\n\n=== Harvard ===\nGore enrolled in Harvard College in 1965; he initially planned to major in English and write novels but later decided to major in government. On his second day on campus, he began campaigning for the freshman student government council and was elected its president.Gore was an avid reader who fell in love with scientific and mathematical theories, but he did not do well in science classes and avoided taking math. During his first two years, his grades placed him in the lower one-fifth of his class. During his sophomore year, he reportedly spent much of his time watching television, shooting pool and occasionally smoking marijuana. In his junior and senior years, he became more involved with his studies, earning As and Bs. In his senior year, he took a class with oceanographer and global warming theorist Roger Revelle, who sparked Gore's interest in global warming and other environmental issues. Gore earned an A on his thesis, \"The Impact of Television on the Conduct of the Presidency, 1947–1969\", and graduated with an A.B. cum laude in June 1969.\n\nGore was in college during the era of anti Vietnam War protests. He was against that war, but he disagreed with the tactics of the student protest movement. He thought that it was silly and juvenile to use a private university as a venue to vent anger at the war. He and his friends did not participate in Harvard demonstrations. John Tyson, a former roommate, recalled that \"We distrusted these movements a lot ... We were a pretty traditional bunch of guys, positive for civil rights and women's rights but formal, transformed by the social revolution to some extent but not buying into something we considered detrimental to our country.\" Gore helped his father write an anti war address to the Democratic National Convention of 1968 but stayed with his parents in their hotel room during the violent protests.\n\n\n=== Military service ===\n\nWhen Gore graduated in 1969, he immediately became eligible for the military draft. His father, a vocal anti Vietnam War critic, was facing a reelection in 1970. Gore eventually decided that enlisting in the Army would be the best course between serving his country, his personal values and interests. Although nearly all of his Harvard classmates avoided the draft and service in Vietnam, Gore believed if he found a way around military service, he would be handing an issue to his father's Republican opponent. According to Gore's Senate biography, \"He appeared in uniform in his father's campaign commercials, one of which ended with his father advising: 'Son, always love your country'.\" Despite this, Gore Sr. lost the election to an opponent who vastly out-fundraised him. This opponent was later found by the Watergate commission to have accepted illegal money from Nixon's operatives.Gore has said that his other reason for enlisting was that he did not want someone with fewer options than him to go in his place. Actor Tommy Lee Jones, a former college housemate, recalled Gore saying that \"if he found a fancy way of not going, someone else would have to go in his place\". His Harvard advisor, Richard Neustadt, also stated that Gore decided, \"that he would have to go as an enlisted man because, he said, 'In Tennessee, that's what most people have to do.' \" In addition, Michael Roche, Gore's editor for The Castle Courier, stated that \"anybody who knew Al Gore in Vietnam knows he could have sat on his butt and he didn't.\"After enlisting in August 1969, Gore returned to the anti war Harvard campus in his military uniform to say goodbye to his adviser and was \"jeered\" at by students. He later said he was astonished by the \"emotional field of negativity and disapproval and piercing glances that ... certainly felt like real hatred\".Gore had basic training at Fort Dix from August to October, and then was assigned to be a journalist at Fort Rucker, Alabama. In April 1970, he was named Rucker's \"Soldier of the Month\".His orders to be sent to Vietnam were \"held up\" for some time and the Gore family suspected that this was due to a fear by the Nixon administration that if something happened to him, his father would gain sympathy votes. He was finally shipped to Vietnam on January 2, 1971, after his father had lost his seat in the Senate during the 1970 Senate election, becoming one \"of only about a dozen of the 1,115 Harvard graduates in the Class of '69 who went to Vietnam\". Gore was stationed with the 20th Engineer Brigade in Bien Hoa and was a journalist with The Castle Courier. He received an honorable discharge from the Army in May 1971. As of 2021, he is the only politician to have won a nationwide election who has served in Vietnam.Of his time in the Army, Gore later stated, \"I didn't do the most, or run the gravest danger. But I was proud to wear my country's uniform.\" He also later stated that his experience in Vietnam\n\ndidn't change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake, but it struck me that opponents to the war, including myself, really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of South Vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom. Coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something I was naively unprepared for.\n\n\n=== Vanderbilt and journalism ===\nGore was \"dispirited\" after his return from Vietnam. NashvillePost.com noted that, \"his father's defeat made service in a conflict he deeply opposed even more abhorrent to Gore. His experiences in the war zone don't seem to have been deeply traumatic in themselves; although the engineers were sometimes fired upon, Gore has said he didn't see full-scale combat. Still, he felt that his participation in the war was wrong.\"Although his parents wanted him to go to law school, Gore first attended Vanderbilt University Divinity School (1971–72) on a Rockefeller Foundation scholarship for people planning secular careers. He later said he went there in order to explore \"spiritual issues\", and that \"he had hoped to make sense of the social injustices that seemed to challenge his religious beliefs\".In 1971, Gore also began to work the night shift for The Tennessean as an investigative reporter. His investigations of corruption among members of Nashville's Metro Council resulted in the arrest and prosecution of two councilmen for separate offenses.In 1974, he took a leave of absence from The Tennessean to attend Vanderbilt University Law School. His decision to become an attorney was a partial result of his time as a journalist, as he realized that, while he could expose corruption, he could not change it. Gore did not complete law school, deciding abruptly, in 1976, to run for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives when he found out that his father's former seat in the House was about to be vacated.\n\n\n== Congress (1977–1993) ==\n\nGore began serving in the U.S. Congress at the age of 28 and stayed there for the next 16 years, serving in both the House (1977–1985) and the Senate (1985–1993). Gore spent many weekends in Tennessee, working with his constituents.\n\n\n=== House and Senate ===\n\nAt the end of February 1976, U.S. Representative Joe L. Evins unexpectedly announced his retirement from Congress, making Tennessee's 4th congressional district seat, to which he had succeeded Albert Gore Sr. in 1953 open. Within hours after The Tennessean publisher John Seigenthaler Sr. called him to tell him the announcement was forthcoming, Gore decided to quit law school and run for the House of Representatives:\n\nGore's abrupt decision to run for the open seat surprised even himself; he later said that \"I didn't realize myself I had been pulled back so much to it.\" The news came as a \"bombshell\" to his wife. Tipper Gore held a job in The Tennessean 's photo lab and was working on a master's degree in psychology, but she joined in her husband's campaign (with assurance that she could get her job at The Tennessean back if he lost). By contrast, Gore asked his father to stay out of his campaign: \"I must become my own man,\" he explained. \"I must not be your candidate.\"\nGore won the 1976 Democratic primary for the district with \"32 percent of the vote, three percentage points more than his nearest rival\", and was opposed only by an independent candidate in the election, recording 94 percent of the overall vote. He went on to win the next three elections, in 1978, 1980 and 1982, where \"he was unopposed twice and won 79 percent of the vote the other time\". In 1984, Gore successfully ran for a seat in the U.S. Senate, which had been vacated by Republican Senate Majority Leader Howard Baker. He was \"unopposed in the Democratic Senatorial primary and won the general election going away\", despite the fact that Republican President Ronald Reagan swept Tennessee in his reelection campaign the same year. Gore defeated Republican senatorial nominee Victor Ashe, subsequently the mayor of Knoxville, and the Republican-turned-Independent, Ed McAteer, founder of the Christian right Religious Roundtable organization that had worked to elect Reagan as president in 1980.\n\nDuring his time in Congress, Gore was considered a \"moderate\" once referring to himself as a \"raging moderate\" opposing federal funding of abortion, voting in favor of a bill which supported a moment in silence in schools, and voting against a ban on interstate sales of guns. In 1981, Gore was quoted as saying with regard to homosexuality, \"I think it is wrong\", and \"I don't pretend to understand it, but it is not just another normal optional life style.\" In his 1984 Senate race, Gore said when discussing homosexuality, \"I do not believe it is simply an acceptable alternative that society should affirm.\" He also said that he would not take campaign funds from gay rights groups. Although he maintained a position against homosexuality and gay marriage in the 1980s, Gore said in 2008 that he thinks \"gay men and women ought to have the same rights as heterosexual men and women...to join together in marriage.\" His position as a moderate (and on policies related to that label) shifted later in life after he became Vice President and ran for president in 2000.During his tenure in the House, Gore voted in favor of the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday. While Gore initially did not vote on the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 in January 1988, he voted to override President Reagan's veto the following March. Gore voted against the nomination of William Rehnquist as Chief Justice of the United States, as well as the nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas to the U.S. Supreme Court.\nDuring his time in the House, Gore sat on the Energy and Commerce and the Science and Technology committees, chairing the Science Committee's Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations for four years. He also sat on the House Intelligence Committee and, in 1982, introduced the Gore Plan for arms control, to \"reduce chances of a nuclear first strike by cutting multiple warheads and deploying single-warhead mobile launchers\". While in the Senate, he sat on the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, the Rules and Administration, and the Armed Services Committees. In 1991, Gore was one of ten Democrats who supported the Gulf War.Gore was considered one of the Atari Democrats, given this name due to their \"passion for technological issues, from biomedical research and genetic engineering to the environmental impact of the \"greenhouse effect\". On March 19, 1979, he had become the first member of Congress to appear on C-SPAN. During this time, Gore co-chaired the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future with Newt Gingrich. In addition, he has been described as having been a \"genuine nerd, with a geek reputation running back to his days as a futurist Atari Democrat in the House. Before computers were comprehensible, let alone sexy, the poker-faced Gore struggled to explain artificial intelligence and fiber-optic networks to sleepy colleagues.\" Internet pioneers Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn noted that,\n\nas far back as the 1970s, Congressman Gore promoted the idea of high-speed telecommunications as an engine for both economic growth and the improvement of our educational system. He was the first elected official to grasp the potential of computer communications to have a broader impact than just improving the conduct of science and scholarship ... the Internet, as we know it today, was not deployed until 1983. When the Internet was still in the early stages of its deployment, Congressman Gore provided intellectual leadership by helping create the vision of the potential benefits of high speed computing and communication.\nGore introduced the Supercomputer Network Study Act of 1986. He also sponsored hearings on how advanced technologies might be put to use in areas like coordinating the response of government agencies to natural disasters and other crises.As a Senator, Gore began to craft the High Performance Computing Act of 1991 (commonly referred to as \"The Gore Bill\") after hearing the 1988 report Toward a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by UCLA professor of computer science, Leonard Kleinrock, one of the central creators of the ARPANET (the ARPANET, first deployed by Kleinrock and others in 1969, is the predecessor of the Internet). The bill was passed on December 9, 1991, and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Gore referred to as the \"information superhighway\".After joining the House of Representatives, Gore held the \"first congressional hearings on the climate change, and co-sponsor[ed] hearings on toxic waste and global warming\". He continued to speak on the topic throughout the 1980s. In 1990, Senator Gore presided over a three-day conference with legislators from over 42 countries which sought to create a Global Marshall Plan, \"under which industrial nations would help less developed countries grow economically while still protecting the environment\".\n\n\n=== Son's 1989 accident and first book ===\nOn April 3, 1989, Al, Tipper and their six-year-old son Albert were leaving a baseball game. Albert ran across the street to see his friend and was hit by a car. He was thrown 30 feet (9 m) and then traveled along the pavement for another 20 feet (6 m). Gore later recalled: \"I ran to his side and held him and called his name, but he was motionless, limp and still, without breath or pulse.... His eyes were open with the nothingness stare of death, and we prayed, the two of us, there in the gutter, with only my voice.\" Albert was tended to by two nurses who happened to be present during the accident. The Gores spent the next month in the hospital with Albert. Gore also commented: \"Our lives were consumed with the struggle to restore his body and spirit.\" This event was \"a trauma so shattering that [Gore] views it as a moment of personal rebirth\", a \"key moment in his life\" which \"changed everything\".In August 1991, Gore announced that his son's accident was a factor in his decision not to run for president during the 1992 presidential election. Gore stated: \"I would like to be President.... But I am also a father, and I feel deeply about my responsibility to my children.... I didn't feel right about tearing myself away from my family to the extent that is necessary in a Presidential campaign.\" During this time, Gore wrote Earth in the Balance, a text that became the first book written by a sitting U.S. Senator to make The New York Times Best Seller list since John F. Kennedy's Profiles in Courage.\n\n\n== First presidential run (1988) ==\n\nGore campaigned for the Democratic Party nomination for President of the United States against Joe Biden, Gary Hart, Dick Gephardt, Paul Simon, Jesse Jackson, and Michael Dukakis (who eventually won the Democratic nomination). Gore carried seven states in the primaries, finishing third overall.\nAlthough Gore initially denied that he intended to run, his candidacy was the subject of speculation: \"National analysts make Sen. Gore a long-shot for the Presidential nomination, but many believe he could provide a natural complement for any of the other candidates: a young, attractive, moderate Vice Presidential nominee from the South. He currently denies any interest, but he carefully does not reject the idea out of hand.\" At the time, he was 39 years old, making him the \"youngest serious Presidential candidate since John F. Kennedy\".CNN noted that, \"in 1988, for the first time, 12 Southern states would hold their primaries on the same day, dubbed \"Super Tuesday\". Gore thought he would be the only serious Southern contender; he had not counted on Jesse Jackson.\" Jackson defeated Gore in the South Carolina Primary, winning, \"more than half the total vote, three times that of his closest rival here, Senator Albert Gore Jr. of Tennessee\". Gore next placed great hope on Super Tuesday where they split the Southern vote: Jackson winning Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and Virginia; Gore winning Arkansas, North Carolina, Kentucky, Nevada, Tennessee, and Oklahoma. Gore was later endorsed by New York City Mayor Ed Koch who made statements in favor of Israel and against Jackson. These statements cast Gore in a negative light, leading voters away from Gore who received only 10% of the vote in the New York Primary. Gore then dropped out of the race. The New York Times said that Gore also lost support due to his attacks against Jackson, Dukakis, and others.Gore was eventually able to mend fences with Jackson, who supported the Clinton-Gore ticket in 1992 and 1996, and campaigned for the Gore-Lieberman ticket during the 2000 presidential election. Gore's policies changed substantially in 2000, reflecting his eight years as vice president.\n\n\n== 1992 presidential election ==\nGore was initially hesitant to be Bill Clinton's running mate for the 1992 United States presidential election, but after clashing with the George H. W. Bush administration over global warming issues, he decided to accept the offer. Clinton stated that he chose Gore due to his foreign policy experience, work with the environment, and commitment to his family.Clinton's choice was criticized as unconventional because rather than picking a running mate who would diversify the ticket, Clinton chose a fellow Southerner who shared his political ideologies and who was nearly the same age as Clinton. The Washington Bureau Chief for The Baltimore Sun, Paul West, later suggested that, \"Al Gore revolutionized the way Vice Presidents are made. When he joined Bill Clinton's ticket, it violated the old rules. Regional diversity? Not with two Southerners from neighboring states. Ideological balance? A couple of left-of-center moderates. ... And yet, Gore has come to be regarded by strategists in both parties as the best vice presidential pick in at least 20 years.\"Clinton and Gore accepted the nomination at the Democratic National Convention on July 17, 1992. Known as the Baby Boomer Ticket and the Fortysomething Team, The New York Times noted that if elected, Clinton and Gore, at ages 45 and 44 respectively, would be the \"youngest team to make it to the White House in the country's history\". Theirs was the first ticket since 1972 to try to capture the youth vote. Gore called the ticket \"a new generation of leadership\".The ticket increased in popularity after the candidates traveled with their wives, Hillary and Tipper, on a \"six-day, 1,000-mile bus ride, from New York to St. Louis\". Gore also debated the other vice presidential candidates, Dan Quayle, and James Stockdale. The Clinton-Gore ticket beat the Bush-Quayle ticket, 43%–38%.\n\n\n== Vice Presidency (1993–2001) ==\n\nAl Gore served as vice president during the Clinton Administration. Clinton and Gore were inaugurated on January 20, 1993. At the beginning of the first term, they developed a \"two-page agreement outlining their relationship\". Clinton committed himself to regular lunch meetings; he recognized Gore as a principal adviser on nominations and appointed some of Gore's chief advisers to key White House staff positions. Clinton involved Gore in decision-making to an unprecedented degree for a vice president. Through their weekly lunches and daily conversations, Gore became the president's \"indisputable chief adviser\".However, Gore had to compete with First Lady Hillary for President Clinton's influence, starting when she was appointed to the health-care task force without Gore's consultation. Vanity Fair wrote that President Clinton's \"failure to confide in his vice president was a telling sign of the real pecking order\", and reported \"it was an open secret that some of Hillary's advisers...nurtured dreams that Hillary, not Gore, would follow Bill in the presidency\".Gore had a particular interest in reducing \"waste, fraud, and abuse in the federal government and advocated trimming the size of the bureaucracy and the number of regulations\". During the Clinton Administration, the U.S. economy expanded, according to David Greenberg (professor of history and media studies at Rutgers University) who said that \"by the end of the Clinton presidency, the numbers were uniformly impressive. Besides the record-high surpluses and the record-low poverty rates, the economy could boast the longest economic expansion in history; the lowest unemployment since the early 1970s; and the lowest poverty rates for single mothers, black Americans, and the aged.\"According to Leslie Budd, author of E-economy: Rhetoric or Business Reality, this economic success was due, in part, to Gore's continued role as an Atari Democrat, promoting the development of information technology, which led to the dot-com boom (c. 1995–2001). Clinton and Gore entered office planning to finance research that would \"flood the economy with innovative goods and services, lifting the general level of prosperity and strengthening American industry\". Their overall aim was to fund the development of, \"robotics, smart roads, biotechnology, machine tools, magnetic-levitation trains, fiber-optic communications and national computer networks. Also earmarked [were] a raft of basic technologies like digital imaging and data storage.\" Critics claimed that the initiatives would \"backfire, bloating Congressional pork and creating whole new categories of Federal waste\".During the election and his term as vice president, Gore popularized the term Information Superhighway, which became synonymous with the Internet, and he was involved in the creation of the National Information Infrastructure. Gore first discussed his plans to emphasize information technology at UCLA on January 11, 1994, in a speech at The Superhighway Summit. On March 29, 1994, Gore made the inaugural keynote to a Georgetown University symposium on governmental reform with a lecture entitled, \"The new job of the federal executive\". Gore spoke on how technology was changing the nature of government, public administration, and management in general, noting that while in the past deep hierarchical structures were necessary to manage large organizations, technology was offering more accurate and streamlined access to information, thus facilitating flatter management structures. He was involved in a number of projects including NetDay '96 and 24 Hours in Cyberspace. The Clinton–Gore administration also launched the first official White House website in 1994 and subsequent versions through 2000. During 1993 and early 1994, Gore was tapped by the administration to advocate for the adoption of the Clipper Chip, a technology developed by the National Security Agency designed to provide for law enforcement access to encrypted communications. After political and technical objections, the initiative was essentially dropped.\n\nGore was also involved in environmental initiatives. He launched the GLOBE program on Earth Day '94, an education and science activity that, according to Forbes magazine, \"made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment\". In 1998, Gore began promoting a NASA satellite (Deep Space Climate Observatory) that would provide a constant view of the Earth, marking the first time such an image would have been made since The Blue Marble photo from the 1972 Apollo 17 mission. During this time, he also became associated with Digital Earth.Gore negotiated and strongly supported the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gasses, but said upon his return that the administration would not submit the treaty to the Senate for ratification until it was amended to include \"meaningful participation by key developing nations\", The Senate had previously passed unanimously (95–0) the Byrd–Hagel Resolution (S. Res. 98), which declared opposition to any greenhouse gas treaty which would limit US emissions without similar limits on third-world countries such as China. The Clinton administration left office three years later without having submitted the treaty for ratification.\nIn 1996, Gore became involved in a \"Chinagate\" campaign finance controversy over his attendance at an event at the Buddhist Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California. In an interview on NBC's Today the following year, Gore said, \"I did not know that it was a fund-raiser. I knew it was a political event, and I knew there were finance people that were going to be present, and so that alone should have told me, 'This is inappropriate and this is a mistake; don't do this.' And I take responsibility for that. It was a mistake.\" A U.S. Department of Justice investigation into the fund-raising activities had uncovered evidence that Chinese agents sought to direct contributions from foreign sources to the Democratic National Committee (DNC) before the 1996 presidential campaign. The Chinese embassy in Washington, D.C. was used for coordinating contributions to the DNC. FBI agents were denied the opportunity to ask President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore questions during Justice Department interviews in 1997 and 1998 and were only allowed to take notes. In March 1997, Gore had to explain phone calls which he made to solicit funds for Democratic Party for the 1996 election. In a news conference, Gore stated that, \"all calls that I made were charged to the Democratic National Committee. I was advised there was nothing wrong with that. My counsel tells me there is no controlling legal authority that says that is any violation of any law.\" The phrase \"no controlling legal authority\" was criticized by columnist Charles Krauthammer, who stated: \"Whatever other legacies Al Gore leaves behind between now and retirement, he forever bequeaths this newest weasel word to the lexicon of American political corruption.\" Robert Conrad Jr. was the head of a Justice Department task force appointed by Attorney General Janet Reno to investigate Gore's fund-raising controversies. In Spring 2000, Conrad asked Reno to appoint an independent counsel to continue the investigation. After looking into the matter, Reno judged that the appointment of an independent counsel was unwarranted.\n\nDuring the 1990s, Gore spoke out on a number of issues. In a 1992 speech on the Gulf War, Gore stated that he twice attempted to get the U.S. government to pull the plug on support to Saddam Hussein, citing Hussein's use of poison gas, support of terrorism, and his burgeoning nuclear program, but was opposed both times by the Reagan and Bush administrations. In the wake of the Al-Anfal Campaign, during which Hussein staged deadly mustard and nerve gas attacks on Kurdish Iraqis, Gore cosponsored the Prevention of Genocide Act of 1988, which would have cut all assistance to Iraq. The bill was defeated in part due to intense lobbying of Congress by the Reagan-Bush White House and a veto threat from President Reagan. In 1998, at a conference of APEC hosted by Malaysia, Gore objected to the indictment, arrest and jailing of Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad's longtime second-in-command Anwar Ibrahim, a move which received a negative response from leaders there. Ten years later, Gore again protested when Ibrahim was arrested a second time, a decision condemned by Malaysian foreign minister Datuk Seri Dr Rais Yatim.Soon afterward, Gore also had to contend with the Lewinsky scandal, which involved an affair between President Clinton and a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Gore initially defended Clinton, whom he believed to be innocent, stating, \"He is the president of the country! He is my friend ... I want to ask you now, every single one of you, to join me in supporting him.\" After Clinton was impeached, Gore continued to defend him stating, \"I've defined my job in exactly the same way for six years now ... to do everything I can to help him be the best president possible.\"\n\n\n== Second presidential run (2000) ==\n\nThere was talk of a potential run in the 2000 presidential race by Gore as early as January 1998. Gore discussed the possibility of running during a March 9, 1999, interview with CNN's Late Edition with Wolf Blitzer. In response to Wolf Blitzer's question: \"Why should Democrats, looking at the Democratic nomination process, support you instead of Bill Bradley\", Gore responded:\n\nI'll be offering my vision when my campaign begins. And it will be comprehensive and sweeping. And I hope that it will be compelling enough to draw people toward it. I feel that it will be. But it will emerge from my dialogue with the American people. I've traveled to every part of this country during the last six years. During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet. I took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country's economic growth and environmental protection, improvements in our educational system.\n\nFormer UCLA professor of information studies Philip E. Agre and journalist Eric Boehlert argued that three articles in Wired News led to the creation of the widely spread urban legend that Gore claimed to have \"invented the Internet\", which followed this interview. In addition, computer professionals and congressional colleagues argued in his defense. Internet pioneers Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn stated that \"we don't think, as some people have argued, that Gore intended to claim he 'invented' the Internet. Moreover, there is no question in our minds that while serving as Senator, Gore's initiatives had a significant and beneficial effect on the still-evolving Internet.\" Cerf would later state: \"Al Gore had seen what happened with the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956, which his father introduced as a military bill. It was very powerful. Housing went up, suburban boom happened, everybody became mobile. Al was attuned to the power of networking much more than any of his elective colleagues. His initiatives led directly to the commercialization of the Internet. So he really does deserve credit.\" In a speech to the American Political Science Association, former Republican Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Newt Gingrich also stated: \"In all fairness, it's something Gore had worked on a long time. Gore is not the Father of the Internet, but in all fairness, Gore is the person who, in the Congress, most systematically worked to make sure that we got to an Internet, and the truth is—and I worked with him starting in 1978 when I got [to Congress], we were both part of a \"futures group\"—the fact is, in the Clinton administration, the world we had talked about in the '80s began to actually happen.\" Finally, Wolf Blitzer (who conducted the original 1999 interview) stated in 2008 that: \"I didn't ask him about the Internet. I asked him about the differences he had with Bill Bradley ... Honestly, at the time, when he said it, it didn't dawn on me that this was going to have the impact that it wound up having, because it was distorted to a certain degree and people said they took what he said, which was a carefully phrased comment about taking the initiative and creating the Internet to—I invented the Internet. And that was the sort of shorthand, the way his enemies projected it and it wound up being a devastating setback to him and it hurt him, as I'm sure he acknowledges to this very day.\"Gore himself would later poke fun at the controversy. In 2000, while on the Late Show with David Letterman he read Letterman's Top 10 List (which for this show was called, \"Top Ten Rejected Gore – Lieberman Campaign Slogans\") to the audience. Number nine on the list was: \"Remember, America, I gave you the Internet, and I can take it away!\" In 2005 when Gore was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award \"for three decades of contributions to the Internet\" at the Webby Awards he joked in his acceptance speech (limited to five words according to Webby Awards rules): \"Please don't recount this vote.\" He was introduced by Vint Cerf who used the same format to joke: \"We all invented the Internet.\" Gore, who was then asked to add a few more words to his speech, stated: \"It is time to reinvent the Internet for all of us to make it more robust and much more accessible and use it to reinvigorate our democracy.\"During a speech that he gave on June 16, 1999, in Carthage, Tennessee, Gore formally announced his candidacy for president. His major theme was the need to strengthen the American family. He was introduced by his eldest daughter, Karenna Gore Schiff. In making the speech, Gore also distanced himself from Bill Clinton, who he stated had lied to him. Gore was \"briefly interrupted\" by AIDS protesters claiming Gore was working with the pharmaceutical industry to prevent access to generic medicines for poor nations and chanting \"Gore's greed kills.\" Additional speeches were also interrupted by the protesters. Gore responded, \"I love this country. I love the First Amendment ... Let me say in response to those who may have chosen an inappropriate way to make their point, that actually the crisis of AIDS in Africa is one that should command the attention of people in the United States and around the world.\" Gore also issued a statement saying that he supported efforts to lower the cost of the AIDS drugs, provided that they \"are done in a way consistent with international agreements\".While Bill Clinton's job-approval ratings were around 60%, an April 1999 study by the Pew Research Center for the People found that respondents suffered from \"Clinton fatigue\" where they were \"tired of all the problems associated with the Clinton administration\" including the Lewinsky scandal and impeachment. Texas Governor and likely Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush was leading Gore 54% to 41% in polls during that time. Gore's advisers believed that the \"Lewinsky scandal and Bill's past womanizing...alienated independent voters—especially the soccer moms, who stood for traditional values\". Consequently, Gore's presidential campaign \"veered too far in differentiating himself from Bill and his record and had difficulty taking advantage of the Clinton administration's legitimate successes\". In addition, Hillary's candidacy for the open Senate seat in New York exacerbated the \"three-way tensions evident in the White House since 1993\", as \"not only was Hillary unavailable as a campaigner, she was poaching top Democratic fund-raisers and donors who would normally concentrate on the vice president\". In one instance \"Hillary insisted on being invited [to a Los Angeles fundraiser for the vice president]—over the objections of the event's organizers\", where the First Lady \"shocked the vice president's supporters by soliciting donations for herself in front of Tipper\".Gore faced an early challenge by former New Jersey senator Bill Bradley. Bradley was the only candidate to oppose Gore and was considered a \"fresh face\" for the White House. Gore challenged Bradley to a series of debates which took the form of \"town hall\" meetings. Gore went on the offensive during these debates leading to a drop in the polls for Bradley. In the Iowa caucus the unions pledged their support to Gore, despite Bradley spending heavily in that state, and Bradley was much embarrassed by his two to one defeat there. Gore went on to capture the New Hampshire primary 53-47%, which had been a must-win state for Bradley. Gore then swept all of the primaries on Super Tuesday while Bradley finished a distant second in each state. On March 9, 2000, after failing to win any of the first 20 primaries and caucuses in the election process, Bradley withdrew his campaign and endorsed Gore. Gore eventually went on to win every primary and caucus and, in March 2000 even won the first primary election ever held over the Internet, the Arizona Presidential Primary. By then, he secured the Democratic nomination.On August 13, 2000, Gore announced that he had selected Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut as his vice presidential running mate. Lieberman became \"the first person of the Jewish faith to run for the nation's second-highest office\". Many pundits saw Gore's choice of Lieberman as further distancing him from the scandals of the Clinton White House. Gore's daughter, Karenna, together with her father's former Harvard roommate Tommy Lee Jones, officially nominated Gore as the Democratic presidential candidate during the 2000 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, California. Gore accepted his party's nomination and spoke about the major themes of his campaign, stating in particular his plan to extend Medicare to pay for prescription drugs and to work for a sensible universal health-care system. Soon after the convention, Gore hit the campaign trail with running mate Joe Lieberman. Gore and Bush were deadlocked in the polls. They participated in three televised debates. While both sides claimed victory after each, Gore was critiqued as either too stiff, too reticent, or too aggressive in contrast to Bush.\n\n\n=== Recount ===\nOn election night, news networks first called Florida for Gore, later retracted the projection, and then called Florida for Bush, before finally retracting that projection as well. Florida's Republican Secretary of State, Katherine Harris, eventually certified Florida's vote count. This led to the Florida election recount, a move to further examine the Florida results.The Florida recount was stopped a few weeks later by the U.S. Supreme Court. In the ruling, Bush v. Gore, the Justices held that the Florida recount was unconstitutional and that no constitutionally valid recount could be completed by the December 12 deadline, effectively ending the recounts. This 7–2 vote ruled that the standards the Florida Supreme Court provided for a recount were unconstitutional due to violations of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and further ruled 5–4 that no constitutionally valid recount could be completed by the December 12 deadline. This case ordered an end to recounting underway in selected Florida counties, effectively giving George W. Bush a 537 vote victory in Florida and consequently Florida's 25 electoral votes and the presidency. The results of the decision led to Gore winning the popular vote by approximately 500,000 votes nationwide, but receiving 266 electoral votes to Bush's 271 (one District of Columbia elector abstained). On December 13, 2000, Gore conceded the election. Gore strongly disagreed with the Court's decision, but in his concession speech stated that, \"for the sake of our unity as a people and the strength of our democracy, I offer my concession.\"\n\n\n== Post-Vice Presidency (2001–present) ==\n\nBill Clinton and Gore had maintained an informal public distance for eight years, but they reunited for the media in August 2009. Clinton had arranged for the release of two female journalists who were being held hostage in North Korea. The women were employees of Gore's Current TV. In May 2018, he was included as a member of the Indian Government committee to coordinate year long celebrations of Mahatma Gandhi's 150th birth anniversary from October 2, 2019.\n\n\n=== Criticism of Bush ===\nBeginning in 2002, Gore began to publicly criticize the Bush administration. In a September 23 speech that he gave before the Commonwealth Club of California, Gore criticized Bush and Congress for the rush to war prior to the outbreak of hostilities in Iraq. He compared this decision to the Persian Gulf War (which Gore had voted for) stating, \"Back in 1991, I was one of a handful of Democrats in the United States Senate to vote in favor of the resolution endorsing the Persian Gulf War ... But look at the differences between the resolution that was voted on in 1991 and the one this administration is proposing that the Congress vote on in 2002. The circumstances are really completely different [...] in 1991, Iraq had crossed an international border, invaded a neighboring sovereign nation and annexed its territory. Now by contrast in 2002, there has been no such invasion.\" In a speech given in 2004, during the presidential election, Gore accused George W. Bush of betraying the country by using the 9/11 attacks as a justification for the invasion of Iraq. The next year, Gore gave a speech which covered many topics, including what he called \"religious zealots\" who claim special knowledge of God's will in American politics. Gore stated: \"They even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith.\" After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Gore chartered two planes to evacuate 270 people from New Orleans and criticized the Bush administration's response to the hurricane. In 2006, Gore criticized Bush's use of domestic wiretaps without a warrant. One month later, in a speech given at the Jeddah Economic Forum, Gore criticized the treatment of Arabs in the U.S. after 9/11 stating, \"Unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it's wrong ... I do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country.\" Gore's 2007 book, The Assault on Reason, is an analysis of what Gore refers to as the \"emptying out of the marketplace of ideas\" in civic discourse during the Bush administration. He attributes this phenomenon to the influence of television and argues that it endangers American democracy. By contrast, Gore argues, the Internet can revitalize and ultimately \"redeem the integrity of representative democracy\". In 2008, Gore argued against the ban of same-sex marriage on his Current TV website, stating, \"I think that gay men and women ought to have the same rights as heterosexual men and women to make contracts, have hospital visiting rights, and join together in marriage.\" In a 2009 interview with CNN, Gore commented on former Vice President Dick Cheney's criticism of the Obama administration. Referring to his own previous criticism of the Bush administrations, Gore stated: \"I waited two years after I left office to make statements that were critical, and then of the policy ... You know, you talk about somebody that shouldn't be talking about making the country less safe, invading a country that did not attack us and posed no serious threat to us at all.\"While Gore has criticized Bush for his Katrina response, he has not spoken publicly about his part in the evacuation of 270 patients on September 3 & 4, 2005, from Charity Hospital in New Orleans to Tennessee. On September 1, Gore was contacted by Charity Hospital's Neurosurgeon Dr. David Kline, who had operated on his son Albert, through Greg Simon of FasterCures. Kline informed Gore and Simon of the desperate conditions at the hospital and asked Gore and Simon to arrange relief. On Gore's personal financial commitment, two airlines each provided a plane with one flight later underwritten by Larry Flax. The flights were flown by volunteer airline crews and medically staffed by Gore's cousin, retired Col. Dar LaFon, and family physician Dr. Anderson Spickard and were accompanied by Gore and Albert III. Gore used his political influence to expedite landing rights in New Orleans.\n\n\n=== Presidential run speculation ===\n\nPeople were speculating that Gore would be a candidate for the 2004 presidential election (a bumper sticker, \"Re-elect Gore in 2004!\" was popular). On December 16, 2002, however, Gore announced that he would not run in 2004. While Gore seriously considered challenging Bush in 2004, the 9/11 attacks and the subsequent stratospheric rise in President Bush's popularity as a result of his response to these attacks were strong factors in Gore's December 2002 decision not to run again in 2004. Despite Gore taking himself out of the race, a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to draft him into running. The draft movement, however, failed to convince Gore to run.The prospect of a Gore candidacy arose again between 2006 and early 2008 in light of the upcoming 2008 presidential election. Although Gore frequently stated that he had \"no plans to run\", he did not reject the possibility of future involvement in politics which led to speculation that he might run. This was due in part to his increased popularity after the release of the 2006 documentary, An Inconvenient Truth. The director of the film, Davis Guggenheim, stated that after the release of the film, \"Everywhere I go with him, they treat him like a rock star.\" After An Inconvenient Truth was nominated for an Academy Award, Donna Brazile (Gore's campaign chairwoman from his 2000 campaign) speculated that Gore might announce a possible presidential candidacy during the Oscars. During the 79th Academy Awards ceremony, Gore and actor Leonardo DiCaprio shared the stage to speak about the \"greening\" of the ceremony itself. Gore began to give a speech that appeared to be leading up to an announcement that he would run for president. However, background music drowned him out and he was escorted offstage, implying that it was a rehearsed gag, which he later acknowledged. After An Inconvenient Truth won the Academy Award for Best Documentary, speculation increased about a possible presidential run. Gore's popularity was indicated in polls which showed that even without running, he was coming in second or third among possible Democratic candidates Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, and John Edwards. Grassroots draft campaigns also developed with the hope that they could encourage Gore to run. Gore, however, remained firm in his decision and declined to run for the presidency.Interest in having Gore run for the 2016 presidential election arose in 2014 and again in 2015, although he did not declare any intention to do so.\n\n\n=== Involvement in presidential campaigns ===\n\nAfter announcing he would not run in the 2004 U.S. presidential election, Gore endorsed Vermont governor Howard Dean in December 2003, weeks before the first primary of the election cycle. He was criticized for this endorsement by eight Democratic contenders particularly since he did not endorse his former running mate Joe Lieberman (Gore preferred Dean over Lieberman because Lieberman supported the Iraq War and Gore did not). Dean's campaign soon became a target of attacks and eventually failed, with Gore's early endorsement being credited as a factor. In The New York Times, Dean stated: \"I actually do think the endorsement of Al Gore began the decline.\" The Times further noted that \"Dean instantly amplified his statement to indicate that the endorsement from Mr. Gore, a powerhouse of the establishment, so threatened the other Democratic candidates that they began the attacks on his candidacy that helped derail it.\" Dean's former campaign manager, Joe Trippi, also stated that after Gore's endorsement of Dean, \"alarm bells went off in every newsroom in the country, in every other campaign in the country\", indicating that if something did not change, Dean would be the nominee. Later, in March 2004, Gore endorsed John Kerry and gave Kerry $6 million in funds left over from his own unsuccessful 2000 bid. Gore also opened the 2004 Democratic National Convention.During the 2008 primaries, Gore remained neutral toward all of the candidates which led to speculation that he would come out of a brokered 2008 Democratic National Convention as a \"compromise candidate\" if the party decided it could not nominate one. Gore responded by stating that these events would not take place because a candidate would be nominated through the primary process. Senator Ted Kennedy had urged Gore to endorse Senator Barack Obama though Gore declined. When Obama became the presumptive Democratic nominee for president on June 3, 2008, speculation began that Gore might be tapped for the vice presidency. On June 16, 2008, one week after Hillary Clinton had suspended her campaign, Gore endorsed Obama in a speech given in Detroit, Michigan which renewed speculation of an Obama-Gore ticket. Gore stated, however, that he was not interested in being Vice President again. On the timing and nature of Gore's endorsement, some argued that Gore waited because he did not want to repeat his calamitous early endorsement of Howard Dean during the 2004 presidential election. On the final night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention, shortly before Obama delivered his acceptance address, Gore gave a speech offering his full support. Such support led to new speculation after Obama was elected president during the 2008 presidential election that Gore would be named a member of the Obama administration. This speculation was enhanced by a meeting held between Obama, Gore, and Joe Biden in Chicago on December 9, 2008. However, Democratic officials and Gore's spokeswoman stated that during the meeting the only subject under discussion was the climate crisis, and Gore would not be joining the Obama administration. On December 19, 2008, Gore described Obama's environmental administrative choices of Carol Browner, Steven Chu, and Lisa Jackson as \"an exceptional team to lead the fight against the climate crisis\".Gore repeated his neutrality eight years later during the Democratic presidential primaries of 2016 until endorsing Hillary Clinton on July 25, 2016, the first day of that year's Democratic National Convention. Gore appeared with her at a rally on Miami Dade College's Kendall Campus on October 11, 2016.\n\n\n=== Environmentalism ===\n\nGore has been involved with environmental issues since 1976 when as a freshman congressman, he held the \"first congressional hearings on the climate change, and co-sponsor[ed] hearings on toxic waste and global warming\". He continued to speak on the topic throughout the 1980s, and is still prevalent in the environmental community. He was known as one of the Atari Democrats, later called the \"Democrats' Greens, politicians who see issues like clean air, clean water and global warming as the key to future victories for their party\".In 1990, Senator Gore presided over a three-day conference with legislators from over 42 countries which sought to create a Global Marshall Plan, \"under which industrial nations would help less developed countries grow economically while still protecting the environment\". In the late 1990s, Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which called for the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. He was opposed by the Senate, which passed unanimously (95–0) the Byrd–Hagel Resolution (S. Res. 98), which stated the sense of the Senate was that the United States should not be a signatory to any protocol that did not include binding targets and timetables for developing as well as industrialized nations or \"would result in serious harm to the economy of the United States\".In 2004, Gore co-launched Generation Investment Management, a company for which he serves as Chair. A few years later, Gore would also found the Alliance for Climate Protection, an organization which eventually founded the We Campaign. Gore would also become a partner in the venture capital firm, Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, heading that firm's climate change solutions group. He also helped to organize the Live Earth benefit concerts. In 2010, he attended WE Day (Vancouver, Canada), a WE Charity event.\n\nIn 2013, Gore became a vegan. He had earlier admitted that \"it's absolutely correct that the growing meat intensity of diets across the world is one of the issues connected to this global crisis – not only because of the [carbon dioxide] involved, but also because of the water consumed in the process\" and some speculate that his adoption of the new diet is related to his environmentalist stance. In a 2014 interview, Gore said \"Over a year ago I changed my diet to a vegan diet, really just to experiment to see what it was like. ... I felt better, so I've continued with it and I'm likely to continue it for the rest of my life.\"Gore's An Inconvenient Sequel: Truth to Power, a sequel to his 2006 film, An Inconvenient Truth, premiered at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. The film documents his continuing efforts to battle climate change.A \"Climate and Health Summit\" which was originally going to be held by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, was cancelled without warning in late January 2017. A few days later, Gore revived the summit, which was held by the Climate Reality Project without the support of the CDC.\n\n\n=== Criticism against Gore ===\nA conservative Washington, D.C. think tank and a Republican member of Congress, among others, have claimed that Gore has a conflict-of-interest for advocating for taxpayer subsidies of green-energy technologies in which he has a personal investment. Additionally, he has been criticized for his above-average energy consumption in using private jets, and in owning multiple, very large homes, one of which was reported in 2007 as using high amounts of electricity. Gore's spokesperson responded by stating that the Gores use renewable energy which is more expensive than regular energy and that the Tennessee house in question has been retrofitted to make it more energy-efficient.Data in An Inconvenient Truth have been questioned. In a 2007 court case, a British judge said that while he had \"no doubt ...the film was broadly accurate\" and its \"four main scientific hypotheses ...are supported by a vast quantity of research\", he upheld nine of a \"long schedule\" of alleged errors presented to the court. He ruled that the film could be shown to schoolchildren in the UK if guidance notes given to teachers were amended to balance out the film's one-sided political views. Gore's spokesperson responded in 2007 that the court had upheld the film's fundamental thesis and its use as an educational tool. In 2009, Gore described the British court ruling as being \"in my favor\".In the late 1980s and 1990s, Gore was criticized for his involvement in asking the EPA for less strict pollution controls for the Pigeon River.Gore was also criticized when in 2012 he sold his television channel Current TV for around $100 million to Al Jazeera, a media company founded by Qatar, a nation largely dependent on income from the fossil fuel industry.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nGore met Mary Elizabeth \"Tipper\" Aitcheson at his St. Albans senior prom in 1965. She was from the nearby St. Agnes School. Tipper followed Gore to Boston to attend college, and they married at the Washington National Cathedral on May 19, 1970.They have four children; Karenna Gore (b. 1973), Kristin Carlson Gore (b. 1977), Sarah LaFon Gore (b. 1979) and Albert Arnold Gore III (b. 1982).In June 2010 (shortly after purchasing a new home), the Gores announced in an e-mail to friends that after \"long and careful consideration\" they had made a mutual decision to separate. In May 2012, it was reported that Gore started dating Elizabeth Keadle of Rancho Santa Fe, California.\n\n\n== Awards and honors ==\n\nGore is the recipient of a number of awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize (together with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) in 2007, a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV in 2007, a Webby Award in 2005, the Dan David Prize in 2008 and the Prince of Asturias Award in 2007 for International Cooperation. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2008. He also starred in the 2006 documentary An Inconvenient Truth, which won an Academy Award for Best Documentary in 2007 and wrote the book An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It, which won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 2009.\n\n\n== Selected publications ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nBoard of Trustees at World Economic Forum\nOfficial website\nAl Gore at IMDb\n\nBiography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress\nFinancial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission\nAl Gore at TED \nAppearances on C-SPAN\nAl Gore on Nobelprize.org including his Nobel Lecture December 10, 2007", "Timberline High School is a three-year public secondary school in Boise, Idaho. Opened in August 1998, it is the fourth and newest traditional high school in the Boise School District, serving its southeast portion. Originally opened as Les Bois Junior High in 1994, it was expanded and the junior high was rebuilt at a different location. The school colors are royal blue, silver, and black and the mascot is a wolf.\n\n\n== Athletics ==\nTimberline competes in athletics in IHSAA Class 5A in the Southern Idaho Conference (5A) (SIC).\n\n\n=== State titles ===\nBoys\n\nSoccer (3): fall 2001, 2014, 2015\nBaseball (6): 1999, 2000, 2004, 2010, 2013, 2015\nHockey (1): 2019Girls\n\nSoccer (2): fall 2007, 2008 \nBasketball (1): 2003 \nSoftball (2): 2005, 2009 \nGolf (1): 2006 \nTennis (3): 2016, 2018, 2019\n\n\n== Academics ==\nTimberline High School has a successful program for the National Science Bowl competition, earning a second place finish in the 2019 Western Idaho Regional competition and winning the 2020 Western Idaho Regional competition.\nStudents have tracked and studied a group of wild wolves, called the Timberline pack, since 2003. The biologists who track the pack noticed its den in the Boise National Forest was empty in the spring of 2020. The Idaho Department of Fish and Game wolf mortality list showed that pups were killed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services branch. The federal agents killed the pups in order to force the adult wolves to relocate and to reduce the predators' population as they can pose a threat to wildlife and livestock.\n\n\n== Notable graduates ==\nJeret Peterson, freestyle skier: silver medalist in aerials, 2010 Winter Olympics, class of 2000\nNate Potter, professional American football player\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nTimberline Wolves Athletics", "Timberline Schools are a combined elementary and secondary school in Clearwater County, Idaho. Midway between Weippe and Pierce on Highway 11, the schools are operated by the Orofino Joint School District #171, headquartered to the west in Orofino. The school colors are black and gold, and the mascot is a Spartan.The school was originally established as a high school. In 1969, a merger of the high schools of the two towns, which dissolved the long-time athletic rivalry between the Pierce Foresters and Weippe Gorillas. In 1979, the Pierce elementary building was built near the high school. In 2007, the Pierce and Weippe elementary schools combined at Timberline. After Timberline opened, the gorilla mascot stayed in Weippe until the junior high closed and moved to Timberline in 1989. A gorilla caricature and large \"W\" adorn the 76-foot (23 m) high water tower in Weippe in the WHS school colors, red and black. Painted over in 2002, it returned five years later after extended civic debate.One of five schools in the school district, THS currently enrolls 70 students in grades 9–12, and about 80 in kindergarten through sixth grade. The school is located only 8 miles from Pierce, Idaho—the oldest city in Idaho.\n\n\n== Athletics ==\nTimberline competes in athletics in IHSAA Class 1A in the White Pine League.\nThe Weippe Gorillas won two state titles in boys basketball, in 1961 and 1969.\n\n\n=== Venues ===\nThe athletic facilities on the THS campus include the gymnasium and weight room. The outdoor athletic venues include the football field and a track.\n\n\n=== State titles ===\nBoys\n\nBasketball (2): (A, now 1A) 1961; (A-4, now 1A) 1969 (both as Weippe H.S.)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nHistoric Sites and Antiques: Pierce Idaho", "The Miami Maniac, often shortened to The Maniac, is the official mascot of the University of Miami Baseball program. Although Sebastian the Ibis is the official mascot of most University of Miami sports, the Maniac is the only mascot which performs at Hurricane baseball games. Created in 1982 by visionary College Baseball Hall of Fame head coach Ron Fraser in 1982 and originally performed by John Routh, the Miami Maniac has been a constant at Mark Light Field ever since. Some believe that the mascot idea was modeled after the original Orofino High School Maniacs, from the small town of Orofino, Idaho. The Maniac mascot was used there many decades prior, and has been the target of much scrutiny due to the high school's proximity adjacent to an Idaho State mental hospital. More recently, the mascot received national attention after Idaho State officials proposed adding the Maniac mascot to an Idaho vehicle license plate. \nAlthough primarily associated with the Miami Hurricanes' baseball team, the Maniac has performed at other sporting events including minor league baseball games and the College World Series. In 1985, the Maniac was \"married\" in a wedding broadcast to a national television audience on ESPN. The maniac has an anthropomorphic body with and sports orange fur on most of his body with patches of green on his head and nose. He usually wears a University of Miami baseball jersey with the number 1/2 on it.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe history of the Miami Maniac starts out at the University of South Carolina. An undergraduate student named John Routh had helped create the South Carolina Gamecocks' mascot Cocky. Routh's performance as Cocky at Gamecock baseball games had made such a favorable impression that he was invited to the 1981 College World Series to perform as the Series' official mascot. One of the coaches at the World Series that year was University of Miami head coach Ron Fraser. Fraser was always looking for opportunities to promote Hurricane baseball and college baseball in general and decided to create a mascot specifically for Hurricane baseball.The following year, Fraser and a major University donor helped create the Miami Maniac. They decided to introduce the Maniac during the Miami-FSU series that year and invited Routh down from South Carolina to show students how to work a crowd. At the end of the season, which was the Hurricanes' first World Series Championship, Fraser offered Routh a permanent position as Assistant Director of Marketing which included performing as both the Miami Maniac and Sebastian the Ibis. Routh had just graduated from South Carolina and accepted the position. During his tenure at the University, Routh created many of the cheers now associated with University of Miami athletics- the \"C-A-N-E-S... Canes!\" cheer was originally one he developed in character as the Maniac which was eventually picked up on by fans at Miami Hurricane football games.\n\n\n== Wedding ==\nIn March 1985, the Miami Maniac was \"married\" to Mrs. Maniac, who was performed by Nancy Vasquez, in a ceremony during a game between the Hurricanes and the Maine Black Bears. The fourteen-minute ceremony was broadcast in its entirety live to a national audience on ESPN. and was conducted by longtime Miami Hurricane baseball and football announcer Jay Rokeach. Sebastian the Ibis, the mascot of other Miami Hurricane sporting events, was the Maniac's best man. Others in attendance included the Budweiser Bud Man, McDonald's Grimace, and McGruff the Crime Dog.\n\n\n== Other events ==\nIn addition to performing at Miami Hurricane baseball games and other university functions, the Maniac also performs at other sporting events and charity events. The Maniac has appeared at various minor league baseball games throughout Florida and has entertained in 49 states as well as Europe and Japan.From 1983 through 1991, the Maniac was the official mascot of the NCAA Division 1 College World Series in Omaha, Nebraska, although the character had to wear a neutral jersey during each series to avoid favoritism towards the 'Canes when they were a participant.\n\n\n== Appearance ==\nThe Miami Maniac is anthropomorphic with fur that is primarily orange with flashes of green, which are the Hurricanes' official colors. During most University of Miami games, the Maniac will wear a Hurricane baseball jersey, although he has been known to dress in other outfits for special occasions, such as during the 1988 Winter Olympics in which he \"performed\" a different winter sport each night.\n\n\n== References ==", "Central High School is a public high school (grades 9-12) in Memphis, Tennessee, United States. Since it was founded in the early 1900s and is considered the first high school in Memphis; Central is often called \"THE\" High School. It is a part of the Shelby County Optional School system where it is recognized as a school specializing in college preparatory programs. The principal is Gregory McCullough. Central's mascot is the Warrior and the school colors are green and gold. For recognition as the successor to Memphis High School, the first high school in Memphis, Central High's football team, rather than having artwork denoting the \"Warrior\" mascot, simply has a capital \"H\", for THE High School\n\n\n== History ==\nCentral High was built in 1911 by the Memphis Board of Education, when the current building was erected on Raleigh Avenue, now called Bellevue Blvd. It is in the Jacobean Revival architecture style, with corner pavilions on the west facade, and rusticated surrounds on the upper story windows. Though there have been additions, the school retains is architectural integrity. Central High's building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 17, 1982.\n\n\n== Academics ==\nCentral High School offers a traditional program of academics as well as an Optional College Preparatory Program. Honors and Advanced Placement courses are offered.\n\n\n== Demographics ==\nIn 2014, 405 students received diplomas. ACT composite scores for the 2014-2015 school year were 18.1 vs 19.8 for the state and 21.1 national.\n\n\n== Extra-curricular activities, clubs and organizations ==\nCentral High School is has clubs in foreign language, volunteer service, and honor societies. Central's extracurricular activities include:\n\n\n== Notable alumni ==\nAvron Fogelman - Memphis businessman\nAlex Chilton - musician of the Box Tops – “The Letter” - would have been CHS '69, but dropped out when The Letter became a hit\nArt Tait - American football player in the National Football League (NFL)\nBette Greene - CHS ’52; author “Summer of My German Soldier”\nKemmons Wilson - creator of the Holiday Inn\nCharles W. Burson - CHS '62; legal counsel and chief of staff to Vice-President Al Gore\nGeorge Barnes alias Machine Gun Kelly\nTerry Manning - music producer, photographer\nWilliam Sanderson - CHS ’62; \"Larry\" on the Newhart show\nJohn Farris - CHS ’55; author “Harrison High”, a fictional account of Central High\nWilliam G. Leftwich, Jr. - Marine killed in Vietnam\nWilliam F. Barnes - football coach at UCLA\nPeter Taylor - short-story writer and novelist\nLester Hudson - professional basketball player\nWilliam Poduska - CHS '55; electrical engineer, businessman, and professor\nEdward L. Stanton III - United States Attorney & federal judicial nominee\nMargaret Valiant - musician, folklorist, ethnomusicologist and activist\nJon Wells - CHS '76; alias \"Thunder Paws\", former drummer for Black Oak Arkansas (recorded on Ready As Hell)\nKey Glock- CHS' 15 - music artist and rapper signed to Paper Route Empire\nPooh Shiesty - CHS'18 rapper and music artist\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCHS History", "Bond County Community Unit School District 2 is a unified school district based in Greenville, a city located in central Bond County, Illinois that serves as its county seat. Today, the district is composed of five schools; Greenville Elementary School, a NASA Explorer school that serves grades Pre-K through 5; Pocahontas Elementary School, which serves grades Pre-K through 8; Sorento Elementary School, which serves grades K-8; Greenville Junior High School, a school that means to bridge Greenville Elementary and Greenville High by serving grades 6-8; and lastly, Greenville High School, of which all the schools ultimately feed into, serving grades 9-12. The superintendent of the school district is Melanie Allyn; the principal of Greenville Elementary is Scott Pasley, the principal of Pocahontas Elementary is Eric Swingler, the principal of Sorento Elementary is Bill Carpenter, the principal of Greenville Junior High is Gary Brauns, and the principal of Greenville High is Wendy Porter. Respectively, the mascot Greenville Elementary is the rocket; of Pocahontas, it is the Indian. The mascot of Greenville Junior High is the blue jay, the mascot of Sorento Elementary is the greyhound, and the mascot of Greenville High is the Comet.Bond County Community Unit School District 2 provides information to prevent bullying and harassment via its main page. It also runs several extracurricular programs, such as chorus and a track and field athletic team.\n\n\n== External links ==\nBond County Community Unit School District 2 Web Site Main Page\nBond County Community Unit School District 2 School Directory\n\n\n== References ==", "", "John W. Greig (born April 28, 1961 in Sacramento, California) is a retired American basketball player, formerly in the National Basketball Association (NBA). A 6'7\" (2.01 m) and 210 lb (95 kg) small forward, Greig played competitively at Timberline High School in Lacey, Washington and played college basketball at Wenatchee Valley Community College and at the University of Oregon. He is also Tate Kuykendall's uncle.\nGreig was selected in the third round of the 1982 NBA Draft (65th overall) by the Seattle SuperSonics but played only 9 games for them in the 1982–83 season, averaging 2.1 points and 0.7 rebounds per game. He also played professionally in Switzerland, France and Spain.Presently Greig resides in Sammamish in Seattle, Washington and is a sports agent. In the past he has represented Ruben Douglas, the fifth-leading scorer in New Mexico Lobos men's basketball history, former NBA player Pops Mensah-Bonsu, and more recently he represents Sacramento Kings forward DeMarcus Cousins.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nCollege & NBA stats @ basketballreference.com", "Herndon High School is a former high school located in Herndon, Kansas, U.S., which served students in grades 9-12. Herndon High School was the only high school within the city limits of Herndon, Kansas. The school colors were blue and yellow and the school mascot was a Beaver. The average annual enrollment was approximately 200 students from several communities. Herndon High School was established in either 1912 or 1915. A new building was erected in the spring of 1917 because of the growing population of the city. In 1923, Herndon High School became Herndon Rural High School District #2. The school was rebuilt in 1949 and classes were held at St. Mary's High School. Classes resumed at the rebuilt high school in 1950. This remained until the fall of 2003 when the decision was made to consolidate with Atwood USD #318. The new district that was formed is now Unified School District #105 and Rawlins County Junior-Senior High School.\n\n\n== Extracurricular activities ==\n\n\n=== Athletics ===\nThe extracurricular activities offered at Herndon High School were small and limited due to the school's small size. The Beavers competed as a 1A school, the smallest classification in Kansas according to the Kansas State High School Activities Association. Throughout its history, Herndon won a few state championships in various sports. Due to the consolidation of Herndon High School, Rawlins County Junior-Senior High School history is seen as a continuation of Herndon High in terms of athletics.\n\n\n=== State Championships ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nSchool Website" ] }

{ "title": [ "Asger Ostenfeld", "Nils Foss", "Ludwig A. Colding", "Erling Foss", "Isaac M. St. John", "Danish resistance movement", "Anker Engelund", "François Mitterrand", "Kristian Hindhede", "Erik Reitzel", "Erling Selvig" ], "text": [ "Asger Skovgaard Ostenfeld (13 October 1866 – 23 September 1931) was a Danish civil engineer who specialized in the theory of steel and reinforced concrete structures. He is now considered to be the founding father of the theory of structures in Denmark.\n\n\n== Biography ==\nOstenfeld was born in Hvirring near Horsens in Jutland in 1866. From 1900, he was professor of applied mechanics and steel structures at the Technical University of Denmark. In 1894, he designed the Langelinie Bridge at Østerport Station which at the time was the largest structure in Denmark built by a Danish engineer. In 1926, he was instrumental in creating Denmark's first Theory of Structures Laboratory which he later directed. Ostenfeld published a number of textbooks on the theory of structure which were widely read outside Denmark.\n\n\n== Deformation method ==\nAround 1920, Ostenfeld extended Axel Bendixsen's method of deformations together with the force method creating the dual concept of the method of deformations. His method represented significant progress in that \"it enables previously analysed structural elements so to speak, to be built on\". This is achieved through the introduction of rigidly fixed members for the obstruction of joint rotations. It allows the complete frame to be divided into finite elements.\n\n\n== Principal works ==\nTeknisk Elektricitetslære (1st edition 1898, 4th edition 1924)\nTeknisk Statik I (3rd edition 1920)\nTeknisk Statik II (2nd edition 1913)\nJernkonstruktioner I (3rd edition 1921)\nJernkonstruktioner II (2nd edition 1917)\nJernkonstruktioner III (2nd edition 1923)\nJernbetonbroer (2nd edition 1920)\nDie Deformationsmethode (1926)\nExzentrisch beanspruchte Säulen III beliebige Exzentrizität, Versuche mit Holz- und Stahlsäulen, Copenhagen, 1931.Also contributions to Danish and foreign journals on Deformationsmetode, Aabne Broers Sidestivhed, Beregning af Søjler.\n\n\n== References ==", "Nils Foss (11 May 1928 – 16 May 2018) was a Danish civil engineer and business executive. He was the founder of Foss A/S, a Danish family owned company, established in 1956. The Nils Foss Excellence Prize is named after him. \n\n\n== Early life and education ==\nFoss was born into a family of well-known civil engineers in Copenhagen. His paternal grandfather, Alexander Foss, had been a co-owner and central figure in FLSmidth from 1887. Foss attended Gentofte Statsskole and graduated as a civil engineer from the Technical University of Denmark in 1952.\n\n\n== Career ==\nAfter his graduation, Foss was initially employed at Torben Søderberg in Denmark as Sales engineer. Thereafter he went to the United States where he worked for Tracerlab Inc in Boston and Donner Scientific Co. in California.\nAfter his return to Denmark, in 1956, he founded FOSS Electric A/S (now FOSS Analytical A/S), with his father Erling Foss. He was CEO of FOSS until 1968, where after he was CEO of the Danish company F.L. Smidth from 1969–1976. In 1981 he returned to FOSS as CEO and in 1990 he passed the reins to his son Peter Foss.\nFor a period of time he was active in the Board of the Danish Conservative Party, during which time he was a strong supporter of Danish membership of the European Union.\nDuring 1989–1996 Nils Foss was Chairman of the Danish charity Dansk Flygtningehjælp. He is also the co-founder and Chairman of the Danish American Business Forum (DABF) from 1997–2002; and Danish-Chinese Business Forum (DCBF) where he held the position of Chairman from 2006–2012.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nFoss was married to the artist Dorthe Foss. They had three children, the sons Peter and Nils Christian Foss and the daughter Pernille Foss. All three children are board members of Foss Analytics. Foss was active in the Conservative People's Party. He was chairman of Dansk Flygtningehjælp from 1989 to 1996.\n\n\n== References ==", "Ludwig August Colding (13 July 1815 – 21 March 1888) was a Danish civil engineer and physicist who articulated the principle of conservation of energy contemporaneously with, and independently of, James Prescott Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer though his contribution was largely overlooked and neglected.\n\n\n== Life ==\nBorn in Holbæk, Denmark, his father, Andreas Christian, had been an officer in the Danish privateer service. Ludwig's mother, Anna Sophie, was the daughter of a clergyman and imbued the household with a deeply religious sentiment. Around the time of Ludwig's birth, his father retired from seafaring and took up a position as a farm manager. He seems to have been particularly unsuited to such a profession and this, together with the upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars in Denmark, subjected the young Ludwig to a rather irregular childhood and schooling.Hans Christian Ørsted was an old family friend and arranged for Colding to serve an apprenticeship under a craftsman in Copenhagen, Colding achieving the status of journeyman in 1836. Ørsted had, by this stage, become something of a mentor to the young Colding and encouraged him to enroll at the Copenhagen Polytechnic Institute. The Institute had been founded at Ørsted's initiative and he offered continual advice and support to the young Colding. At the polytechnic Colding showed the most undaunted diligence and the most conscientious precision and in 1839 Ørsted engaged Colding to assist on some exacting measurements of the release of heat by compressed water.Colding graduated in 1841 and worked as a teacher before being appointed inspector of roads and bridges in Copenhagen in 1845. Colding's importance and influence grew until he was appointed state engineer for Copenhagen in 1857. He oversaw a vast range of public housing, transport, lighting and sanitation projects and gained a high reputation throughout Denmark and internationally. He retired from professional engineering in 1886.\n\n\n== Scientific work ==\nColding found time for private scientific work in fluid mechanics, hydrology, oceanography and meteorology as well as electromagnetism and thermodynamics. He was largely responsible for founding the Danish Meteorological Institute in 1872. However, he is best remembered for what he himself termed the \"principle of imperishability of the forces of nature.\" Colding was influenced by D'Alembert's principle of \"lost forces\", by Hans Christian Ørsted, by the Naturphilosophie to which Ørsted subscribed and by his own religious upbringing.\n My first thought concerning the imperishability of the forces of nature I have ... borrowed from the view that the forces of nature must be related to the spiritual in nature, to the eternal reason as well as to the human soul. Thus it was the religious philosophy of life that led me to the concept of the imperishability of forces. By this line of reasoning I became convinced that just as it is true that the human soul is immortal, so it must also surely be a general law of nature that the forces of nature are imperishable. \nColding first fulfilled his ambition to work alongside Ørsted, who was conducting experiments on the compressibility of water, in 1839. He summarised this work with a review of other data on compression and friction of various materials in his first published scientific paper. In this work, he went on to state that \"the quantities of heat evolved are, in every case, proportional to the lost moving forces\" though he did not calculate a mechanical equivalent of heat as Joule was to do in the same year.With Ørsted's support, a further series of quantitative experiments was sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, culminating in a report in 1847. By 1850, Colding had obtained a value for the mechanical equivalent of heat, some 14% lower than the modern value (4.1860 J·cal−1) at a time when Joule had measured 4.159 J·cal−1. A subsequent calculation by Colding in 1852 yielded a value only 3% below modern values.\n\n\n== Works ==\n1856: \"Scientific reflections on the relationship between intellectual life’s activity and the general forces of nature\"\n1863: On the History of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy, Philosophical Magazine Series 4, 27: 56–64 via Biodiversity Heritage Library\n1871: On the Universal Powers of Nature and their Mutual Dependence, Philosophical Magazine, Series 4, 42: 1–20\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nColding's thermodynamic work was neglected both in his native Denmark and internationally though, from an historical perspective, he seems to deserve no less credit in the development of the concept of energy than Joule or Mayer. However, his contributions to meteorology and the built environment of Copenhagen are notable in themselves.\n\n\n== Honours ==\nElected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1875.\nCross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog, (1886)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nCaneva, K. L. (1997a). \"Colding, Ørsted and the meaning of force\" (PDF). Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences. 28:1 (1): 1–138. doi:10.2307/27757788. JSTOR 27757788.\nCaneva, K. L. (1997b). \"Physics and Naturphilosophie: A Reconnaissance\". History of Science. 35: 35–106. Bibcode:1997HisSc..35...35C. doi:10.1177/007327539703500102. S2CID 162141344.\nCaneva, K. L. (2007) \"Ørsted's presentation of others\" in Brain, R. M.; et al. (2007). Hans Christian Ørsted and the Romantic Legacy in Science. Ideas, Disciplines, Practices. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 241. Dordrecht. pp. 273–338.\nChristensen, D. C. (2013). Hans Christian Ørsted. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 552–9. ISBN 978-0-19-966926-4.\nDahl, P.F. (1972). Ludwig Colding and the Conservation of Energy Principle: Experimental and Philosophical Contributions. New York: Johnson Reprint.\nVinding, P. (1934) \"Colding, Ludvig August\", in Dansk Biografisk Leksikon, V (Copenhagen), 377-383\n\n\n== External links ==\nLudwig Colding at Hmolpedia", "Erling Christian Foss (25 February 1897 – 15 June 1982) was a Danish civil engineer, famous for his contributions to the Danish resistance movement. As a result of contacts with Ebbe Munck and the Danish army's intelligence service, he became involved with the resistance at an early stage of the German occupation of Denmark. In September 1943, he became a member of the Danish Freedom Council representing De Frie Danske.\nIn February 1944, he took up a mission in Stockholm involving arms deliveries to the resistance and negotiations to have Denmark recognised as an Ally. He sent regular reports to Christmas Møller who draw on them for BBC broadcasts to Denmark.After the war, he became active in the Danish Conservative Party, supporting membership of NATO and relations with West Germany.\n\n\n== References ==", "Isaac Munroe St. John (November 19, 1827 – April 7, 1880) was a Confederate States Army brigadier general during the American Civil War. He was a lawyer, newspaper editor and civil engineer before the Civil War and a civil engineer after the Civil War. As a civil engineer, he worked for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company (mainly in Maryland) and the Blue Ridge Railroad Company in South Carolina before the Civil War. After the war, he worked for the Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington Railroad in Kentucky; the city of Louisville, Kentucky; and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Company (mainly in Virginia and West Virginia).\n\n\n== Early life ==\nIsaac M. St. John was born on November 19, 1827 in Augusta, Georgia. He moved to New York, New York with his parents, Isaac Richards St. John and Abigail Richardson Munroe St. John, and attended Poughkeepsie Collegiate School. He graduated from Yale University in 1845 and became a lawyer. In 1847, St. John became the editor of the Baltimore Patriot. He was a civil engineer with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company between 1848 and 1855. He then moved to South Carolina where he became a civil engineer and chief of construction for the Blue Ridge Railroad Company between 1855 and 1861.\n\n\n== American Civil War service ==\nIsaac M. St. John began the Civil War as a private in the Fort Hill Guards of South Carolina in April 1861. By October 3, 1861, he was an engineer in the Army of the Peninsula. By April 1862, he was Brigadier General John B. Magruder's chief engineer at Yorktown, Virginia in the Peninsula Campaign with the rank of captain. On April 18, 1862, St. John became the Chief of the Bureau of Nitre and Mining, an assignment which he held until February 16, 1865. In this position, he produced crucial ordnance supplies, including gunpowder and metals, for the Confederate Army, even as the Union blockade of Southern ports became increasingly effective. Among other things, he found limestone caves containing saltpeter in the southern Appalachian Mountains. He was appointed major, CSA artillery, September 26, 1862 and lieutenant colonel, CSA, Nitre and Mining Corps, May 28, 1863.St. John resigned from the Nitre and Mining Bureau on January 31, 1864 because the Confederate Senate accused him of protecting draft dodgers. His resignation was refused and the charge was proven untrue. He was promoted to colonel on June 15, 1864.On February 16, 1865, by special act of the Confederate Congress, St. John was promoted to brigadier general and was appointed commissary general of subsistence because of his procurement skills. He relieved some supply problems through direct acquisitions but his innovations came too late in the war to make a significant impact.St. John was paroled at Thomasville, Georgia about June 1, 1865 and was promptly pardoned on June 19, 1865, after having taken the oath of amnesty on June 18.\n\n\n== Aftermath ==\nAfter the war, St. John was chief engineer for the Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington Railroad from 1866 to 1869. Then, he was city engineer for two years with city of Louisville, Kentucky. He became a civil engineer for the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and ultimately the head of its Mining and Engineering Department.Isaac Munroe St. John died April 7, 1880 at The Greenbrier at White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. He is buried at Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, Virginia.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nList of American Civil War Generals (Confederate)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nBoatner, Mark Mayo, III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: McKay, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8129-1726-0. First published 1959 by McKay.\nEicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8047-3641-1.\nHall, James O. \"St. John, Isaac Munroe\" in Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 978-0-06-273116-6.\nHeidler, David S. and Jeanne T. Heidler. \"St. John, Issac Munroe.\" In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. ISBN 978-0-393-04758-5. pp. 1846–1847.\nMcPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-19-503863-7.\nSifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8160-1055-4.\nThomas, Emory M. The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. ISBN 978-0-06-014252-0..\nWarner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. ISBN 978-0-8071-0823-9.", "The Danish resistance movements (Danish: Den danske modstandsbevægelse) were an underground insurgency to resist the German occupation of Denmark during World War II. Due to the initially lenient arrangements, in which the Nazi occupation authority allowed the democratic government to stay in power, the resistance movement was slower to develop effective tactics on a wide scale than in some other countries.\nMembers of the Danish resistance movement were involved in underground activities, ranging from producing illegal publications to spying and sabotage. Major groups included the communist BOPA (Danish: Borgerlige Partisaner, Civil Partisans) and Holger Danske, both based in Copenhagen. Some small resistance groups such as the Samsing Group and the Churchill Club also contributed to the sabotage effort. Resistance agents killed an estimated 400 Danish Nazis, informers and collaborators until 1944. After that date, they also killed some German nationals.\nIn the postwar period, the Resistance was supported by politicians within Denmark and there was little effort to closely examine the killings. Studies were made in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, and people learned that there was sometimes improvised and contingent decision making about the targets, with some morally ambiguous choices. Several important books and films have been produced on this topic.\n\n\n== Nonviolent resistance: 1940-1943 ==\n\n\n=== The \"model protectorate\" ===\nDuring the invasion of Denmark on April 9, 1940 and subsequent occupation, the Danish king and government chose not to flee the country and instead collaborated with the German authorities who allowed the Danish government to remain in power. The Germans had reasons to do so, especially as they wanted to showcase Denmark as a \"model protectorate\", earning the nickname the Cream Front (German: Sahnefront), due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products. As the democratically elected Danish government remained in power, Danish citizens had less motivation to fight the occupation than in countries where the Germans established puppet governments, such as Norway or France. The police also remained under Danish authority and led by Danes.\nDaily life in Denmark remained much the same as before the occupation. The Germans did make certain changes: imposing official censorship, prohibiting dealings with the Allies, and stationing German troops in the country. The Danish government actively discouraged violent resistance because it feared a severe backlash from the Germans against the civilian population.\n\n\n=== Resistance groups ===\nImmediately after the occupation began, isolated attempts were made to set up resistance and intelligence activities. Intelligence officers from the Danish army, known as the \"Princes,\" began channeling reports to London allies as early as April 13, 1940. Soon afterwards, Ebbe Munck, a journalist from Berlingske Tidende, arranged to be transferred to Stockholm. From there he could more easily report to and communicate with the British.Following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 the Germans banned the Danish Communist Party and had the Danish police arrest its members. Those members who either avoided arrest or later escaped thus went underground and created resistance cells. From October 1942, they published a clandestine newspaper, Land og Folk (\"Land and People\"), based on the previous Communist Party newspaper, Arbejderbladet, which was distributed widely across the country. Circulation grew to 120,000 copies per day by the end of the occupation. At the beginning of 1943, the cells were centrally coordinated under BOPA (Borgerlige Partisaner - Civil Partisans), which also began to plan acts of sabotage.\nAs time went on, many other insurgent groups formed to oppose the occupation. These included the Hvidsten group, which received weapons parachuted by the British, and Holger Danske, which was successful in organizing sabotage activities and the assassinations of collaborators. The Churchill club, one of the first resistance groups in Denmark, was a group of eight schoolboys from Aalborg. They performed some 25 acts of sabotage against the Germans, destroying Nazi German assets with makeshift grenades and stealing Nazi German weapons.\nWhen the Germans forced the Danish government to sign the anti-Comintern pact, a large protest broke out in Copenhagen.The number of Danish Nazis was low before the war, and this trend continued throughout the occupation. This was confirmed in the 1943 parliamentary elections, in which the population voted overwhelmingly for the four traditional parties, or abstained. The latter option was widely interpreted as votes for the Danish Communist Party. The election was a disappointment for the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark (DNSAP) and German Reichsbevollmächtigter. Dr. Werner Best abandoned plans to create a government under Danish Nazi leader Frits Clausen, due to Clausen's lack of public support.\nIn 1942-43, resistance operations gradually shifted to more violent action, most notably acts of sabotage. Various groups succeeded in making contacts with the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) which began making airdrops of agents and supplies. There were not many drops until August 1944, but they increased through the end of the occupation.\n\n\n=== Military intelligence operations ===\nOn 23 April 1940, members of Danish military intelligence established contacts with their British counterparts through the British diplomatic mission in Stockholm. The first intelligence dispatch was sent by messenger to the Stockholm mission in the autumn of 1940. This evolved into regular dispatches of military and political intelligence, and by 1942-43, the number of dispatches had increased to at least one per week. In addition, an employee of Danmarks Radio was able to transmit short messages to Britain through the national broadcasting network.\nThe intelligence was gathered mostly by officers in the Danish army and navy; they reported information about political developments, the location and size of German military units, and details about the Danish section of the Atlantic Wall fortifications. In 1942, the Germans demanded the removal of the Danish military from Jutland, but intelligence operations continued. It was carried out by plainclothes personnel or by reserve officers, since this group was not included in the evacuation order. Following the liberation of Denmark, Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery described the intelligence gathered in Denmark as \"second to none\".\n\n\n== Violent resistance: 1943-1945 ==\n\nAs the years went by, the number of acts of sabotage and violence grew. In 1943, the number grew dramatically, to the point that the German authorities became dissatisfied with the Danish authorities' handling of the situation. At the end of August, the Germans took over full administration in Denmark, which allowed them to deal with the population as they wished. Policing became easier for the Nazis, but more and more people became involved with the movement because they were no longer worried about protecting the Danish government.\nIn particular, the Danish Freedom Council was set up in September 1943, bringing together the various resistance groups in order to improve their efficiency and resolve. An underground government was established. Allied governments, who had been skeptical about Denmark's commitment to fight Germany, began recognising it as a full ally.Due to concerns about prisoners and information held in Gestapo headquarters at the Shellhus in the centre of Copenhagen, the resistance repeatedly requested a tactical RAF raid on the headquarters to destroy records and release prisoners. Britain initially turned down the request due to the risk of civilian casualties, but eventually launched Operation Carthage, a very low-level raid by 20 de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bombers, escorted by 30 P-51 Mustang fighters. The raid succeeded in destroying the headquarters, releasing 18 prisoners of the Gestapo, and disrupting anti-resistance operations throughout Denmark. However, 125 civilians lost their lives due to the errant bombing of a nearby boarding school.\n\n\n== Actions ==\n\nIn 1943, the movement scored a great success in rescuing all but 500 of Denmark's Jewish population of 7,000-8,000 from being sent to the Nazi concentration camps by helping transport them to neutral Sweden, where they were offered asylum. The Danish resistance movement has been honoured as a collective at Yad Vashem in Israel as being part of the \"Righteous Among the Nations\". They were honoured as a collective rather than as individuals at their own request.Another success was the disruption of the Danish railway network in the days after D-Day, which delayed the movement of German troops to France as reinforcements.\nBy the end of the war, the organized resistance movement in Denmark had scored many successes. It is believed to have killed nearly 400 persons (the top official number is 385) from 1943 through 1945, who were Danish Nazis, informers or collaborators thought to pose a threat to the Resistance, or Danes working for the Gestapo. The rationale behind the executions was discussed, and several accounts by participants said a committee identified targets, but no historic evidence of this system has been found. In the postwar period, while the killings were criticized, they were also defended by such politicians as Frode Jakobsen and Per Federspiel.\n\nThe movement lost slightly more than 850 members, in action, in prison, in Nazi concentration camps, or (in the case of 102 resistance members) executed following a court-martial.\nThe Danish National Museum maintains the Museum of Danish Resistance in Copenhagen.\nSince the late 20th century, there has been more discussion about the morality of some of the killings carried out by the resistance, sparked by a TV series about the death of Jane Horney, a Danish citizen killed at sea in what Frode Jakobsen defended as an act of war.With the 60th anniversary of the end of the war, the issue was re-examined in two new studies: Stefan Emkjar's Stikkerdrab and Peter Ovig Knudsen's Etter drabet, \"the first profound approaches into the topic.\" Both authors used veterans of the resistance movement, and covered the sometimes contingent, improvised nature of some of the actions. It suggested that some of the noted Bent Faurschou-Hviid (Flammen)'s executions may have been mistakenly directed by a double agent. Knudsen's work was adapted as a 2-hour documentary film, With the Right to Kill (2003), which was shown on TV and later released in theaters. These works have contributed to a national discussion on the topic. Flame and Citron (Flammen og Citronen, 2008) is a fictionalized drama film based on historic accounts of the two prominent Danish resistance fighters, directed by Ole Christian Madsen. It portrays some of the moral ambiguity of their actions.\n\n\n== Prominent members ==\n\n\n== Strategic result ==\nThe extent to which the Danish resistance played an important strategic role in the war has been the subject of much discussion. Immediately after the war and until about 1970, the vast majority of accounts overrated the degree to which the resistance had been effective in battling against the Germans by acts of sabotage and by providing key intelligence to the Allies. More recently, however, after re-examining the archives, historians concur that, while the resistance provided a firm basis for moral support and paved the way for post-war governments, the strategic effect during the occupation was limited. The Germans did not need to send reinforcements to suppress the movement, and garrisoned the country with a comparatively small number of Wehrmacht troops. The resistance did not enter into active combat. Even the overall importance of Danish intelligence in the context of Ultra is questionable.In his history, No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance 1940-1945 (2002), Knud Jespersen examined the relationship between British Intelligence and the Danish Resistance. He quoted a report from SHAEF stating that the resistance in Denmark. \n\n\"caused strain and embarrassment to the enemy...[and a] striking reduction in the flow of troops and stores from Norway [that] undoubtedly had an adverse effect on the reinforcements for the battles East and West of the Rhine.\"Examining the British archives, Jespersen also found a report concluding \"that the overall effect of Danish resistance was to restore national pride and political unity.\" He agreed that this was the movement's most important contribution to the nation.\n\n\n== Representation in other media ==\n\n\n=== Books ===\nCarol Matas's 1987 and 1989 novels Lisa and Jesper presented fictionalized accounts of Danish resistance missions.\nKen Follett's 2002 suspense novel Hornet Flight presents a fictionalized account of early Danish resistance.\nStefan Emkjar's Stikkerdrab (Killing of Informers: The Resistance Movements' Liquidation of Danes during the Occupation, 2000) and Peter Øvig Knudsen's Etter drabet (Following the Death: Reports of the Resistance Liquidations, 2001), were both non-fiction studies of the resistance, published before the 60th anniversary of the end of the war.\nNumber the Stars (1989), children's historical fiction novel by Lois Lowry, won the Newbery Medal.\nBarry Clemson's alternative history novel, Denmark Rising (2009), imagines a Denmark that implemented a total resistance to the Nazis via strategic nonviolence.\nPovl Falk-Jensen's Holger Danske - Afdeling Eigils sabotager og stikkerlikvideringer under Besættelsen (2010), Danish resistance member Povl Falk-Jensen's memoir. Povl Falk-Jensen was a leading member of the Danish resistance group Holger Danske during World War II and responsible for eleven executions of informers or collaborators.\nH. George Frederickson's 1997 text The Spirit of Public Administration compares the response of the bureaucracy in Denmark to other European nations to the rise of the Nazi party and Adolf Hitler.\nAage Bertelsen's \"October '43\" (1954) An autobiographical account of the Jewish escape to Sweden in 1943, written by a prominent member of the Danish resistance. Originally written in Danish, but translated into other languages. Author not to be confused with famous Danish painter Aage Bertelsen.\n\n\n=== Film ===\nThe Twentieth Century with Walter Cronkite: episode Sabotage. CBS approximately 1960. Black and white.\nFlame and Citron (Flammen og Citronen) (2008) is a drama film based on two prominent Danish resistance fighters,; it is directed by Ole Christian Madsen.\nMiracle at Midnight (1998), American made-for-TV movie about the rescue of the Jews in Denmark, starring Sam Waterston and Mia Farrow, featuring neighbors helping a family escape to Sweden.\nThe Boys from St. Petri, a 1991 Danish drama film.\nThe Only Way, A 1970 war drama film about the rescue of the Danish Jews starring Jane Seymour.\nThis Life (Hvidstengruppen) (2012) is a Danish drama film based on the activities of the Hvidsten Group.\nWith the Right to Kill (Med ret til at dræbe, 2003), is a documentary adapted from the 2001 book by journalist Peter Øvig Knudsen and directed by Morten Henriksen; it explores the liquidation of nearly 400 people by the Resistance during World War II from 1943 through 1945. It won a Robert Award in 2004 for best full-length documentary.\nOmvej til friheden (Detour to freedom), a made-for-TV documentary movie about two Jewish families attempting to flee to neutral Sweden and featuring actual Jewish survivors and members of the Danish resistance.\nLand of Mine, a 2015 Danish film nominated for Oscar for Best Foreign Film, about young German POWs clearing Nazi beach mines. Director: Martin Zandvliet from IMDB.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\"Denmark 1943\", a song by Fred Small on his album I Will Stand Fast\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAckerman, Peter and Jack DuVall. A Force More Powerful. New York: Palgrave, 2000. ISBN 0-312-24050-3\nHæestrup, Jørgen. Secret Alliance - A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940-45. Vols I, II & III. Odense University Press, 1976-77. ISBN 87-7492-168-1, ISBN 87-7492-194-0 & ISBN 87-7492-212-2.\nJespersen, Knud J. V. No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance 1940-1945. Odense, University Press of Southern Denmark. ISBN 87-7838-691-8\nLampe, David (1957). The Danish Resistance. New York: Ballantine Books.\nMoore, Bob (editor). Resistance in Western Europe (esp. Chapter on Denmark by Hans Kirchoff), Oxford : Berg, 2000, ISBN 1-85973-279-8.\nBesættelsens Hvem Hvad Hvor (Who What Where of the Occupation), Copenhagen, Politikens Forlag, 3rd revised edition, 1985. ISBN 87-567-4035-2.\nReilly, Robin. Sixth Floor: The Danish Resistance Movement and the RAF Raid on Gestapo Headquarters March 1, 2002.\nStenton, Michael. Radio London and Resistance in Occupied Europe, Oxford University Press. 2000. ISBN 0-19-820843-X\nVoorhis, Jerry. \"Germany and Denmark: 1940-45\", Scandinavian Studies 44:2, 1972.\nZimmerman, Susan, Prisoner of the Gestapo: Freed by Words, Warfare History Network, 20 March 2019\n\n\n== External links ==\nDanish resistance movement – description of its activity to save Jews' lives at the Holocaust, at Yad Vashem website", "Anker Dolleris Engelund (30 May 1889 – 6 June 1961) was a Danish civil engineer and university professor.\n\n\n== Career ==\nIn 1928, he became professor of building statics at the Technical University of Denmark. He became rector of the technical university (1941–1959), during the period of the university's expansion at Østervold. Despite restricted admissions, the university still did not have sufficient space and Engelund was responsible for developing plans for further expansion. This resulted in a decision in 1958 to move the university to Lyngby. Anker Engelunds Vej at the university Lyngby campus is named after him. Engelund developed the idea of creating the Danish Ingeniørakademi - The Engineering Academy, where there would be less emphasis on the theoretical aspects of engineering, and shorter courses. He was responsible for setting up a Danish inspection body to inspect welds in load-bearing structures and pressure vessels (1940).\nEngelund was responsible for the design work on:\n\nKing Christian X Bridge (1930)\nStorstrøm Bridge (1937)\nVilsund Bridge\nQueen Alexandrine Bridge (1943).\n\n\n== External links ==\nBiography and photograph at PAST\nFurther photograph\nAnker Engelund at Structurae", "François Marie Adrien Maurice Mitterrand (26 October 1916 – 8 January 1996) was a French statesman who served as President of France from 1981 to 1995, the longest time in office in the history of France. As First Secretary of the Socialist Party, he was the first left-wing politician to assume the presidency under the Fifth Republic.\nReflecting family influences, Mitterrand started political life on the Catholic nationalist right. He served under the Vichy Regime during its earlier years. Subsequently he joined the Resistance, moved to the left, and held ministerial office several times under the Fourth Republic. Mitterrand opposed Charles de Gaulle's establishment of the Fifth Republic. Although at times a politically isolated figure, he outmanoeuvered rivals to become the left's standard bearer in the 1965 and 1974 presidential elections, before being elected president in the 1981 presidential election. He was re-elected in 1988 and remained in office until 1995.\nMitterrand invited the Communist Party into his first government, which was a controversial decision at the time. In the event, the Communists were boxed in as junior partners and, rather than taking advantage, saw their support erode. They left the cabinet in 1984. Early in his first term, he followed a radical left-wing economic agenda, including nationalisation of key firms, but after two years, with the economy in crisis, he reversed course. He pushed a socially liberal agenda with reforms such as the abolition of the death penalty, the 39-hour work week, and the end of a government monopoly in radio and television broadcasting. His foreign and defense policies built on those of his Gaullist predecessors, except as regards their reluctance to support European integration, which he reversed. His partnership with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl advanced European integration via the Maastricht Treaty, but he reluctantly accepted German reunification. During his time in office, he was a strong promoter of culture and implemented a range of costly \"Grands Projets\". He is the only French President to ever have named a female Prime Minister, Édith Cresson, in 1991. Mitterrand was twice forced by the loss of a parliamentary majority into \"cohabitation governments\" with conservative cabinets led, respectively, by Jacques Chirac (1986–1988), and Édouard Balladur (1993–1995). Less than eight months after leaving office, he died from the prostate cancer he had successfully concealed for most of his presidency.\nBeyond making the French Left electable, François Mitterrand presided over the rise of the Socialist Party to dominance of the left, and the decline of the once-mighty Communist Party (as a share of the popular vote in the first presidential round, the Communists shrank from a peak of 21.27% in 1969 to 8.66% in 1995, at the end of Mitterrand's second term).\n\n\n== Family ==\nFrançois Marie Adrien Maurice Mitterrand was born on 26 October 1916 in Jarnac, Charente, the son of Joseph Mitterrand and Yvonne Lorrain. His family was devoutly Catholic and conservative. His father worked as an engineer for the Compagnie Paris Orléans railway. He had three brothers, Robert, Jacques, and Philippe, and four sisters, Antoinette, Marie-Josèphe, Colette, and Geneviève.\nMitterrand's wife, Danielle Mitterrand (née Gouze, 1924–2011), came from a socialist background and worked for various left-wing causes. They married on 24 October 1944 and had three sons: Pascal (10 June – 17 September 1945), Jean-Christophe, born in 1946, and Gilbert, born on 4 February 1949. He also had two children as results of extra-marital affairs: an acknowledged daughter, Mazarine (born 1974), with his mistress Anne Pingeot, and an unacknowledged son, Hravn Forsne (born 1988), with Swedish journalist Chris Forsne.François Mitterrand's nephew Frédéric Mitterrand is a journalist, Minister of Culture and Communications under Nicolas Sarkozy (and a supporter of Jacques Chirac, former French President), and his wife's brother-in-law Roger Hanin was a well-known French actor.\n\n\n== Early life ==\n\nFrançois Mitterrand studied from 1925 to 1934 in the Collège Saint-Paul in Angoulême, where he became a member of the Jeunesse Etudiante Chrétienne (JEC), the student organisation of Action catholique. Arriving in Paris in autumn 1934, he then went to the École Libre des Sciences Politiques until 1937, where he obtained his diploma in July of that year. François Mitterrand took membership for about a year in the Volontaires nationaux (National Volunteers), an organisation related to François de la Rocque's far-right league, the Croix de Feu; the league had just participated in the 6 February 1934 riots which led to the fall of the second Cartel des Gauches (Left-Wing Coalition).Contrary to some reports, François Mitterrand never became a formal member of the French Social Party (PSF) which was the successor to the Croix de Feu and may be considered the first French right-wing mass party. However, he did write news articles in the L'Echo de Paris newspaper, which was close to the PSF. He participated in the demonstrations against the \"invasion métèque \" in February 1935 and then in those against law teacher Gaston Jèze, who had been nominated as juridical counsellor of Ethiopia's Negus, in January 1936.\nWhen François Mitterrand's involvement in these conservative nationalist movements was revealed in the 1990s, he attributed his actions to the milieu of his youth. He furthermore had some personal and family relations with members of the Cagoule, a far-right terrorist group in the 1930s.François Mitterrand then served his conscription from 1937 to 1939 in the 23rd régiment d'infanterie coloniale. In 1938, he became the best friend of Georges Dayan, a Jewish socialist, whom he saved from anti-Semitic aggressions by the national-royalist movement Action française. His friendship with Dayan caused Mitterrand to begin to question some of his nationalist ideas. Finishing his law studies, he was sent in September 1939 to the Maginot line near Montmédy, with the rank of Sergeant-chief (infantry sergeant). He became engaged to Marie-Louise Terrasse (future actress and television presenter Catherine Langeais) in May 1940, when she was 16, but she broke it off in January 1942. Following an observation of Nazi concentration camps at the end of World War II, François Mitterrand became an agnostic.\n\n\n== Second World War ==\nFrançois Mitterrand's actions during World War II were the cause of much controversy in France during the 1980s and 1990s.\n\n\n=== Prisoner of War: 1940–1941 ===\nFrançois Mitterrand was at the end of his national service when the war broke out. He fought as an infantry sergeant and was injured and captured by the Germans on 14 June 1940. He was held prisoner at Stalag IXA near Ziegenhain (today part of Schwalmstadt, a town near Kassel in Hesse). François Mitterrand became involved in the social organisation for the POWs in the camp. He claims this, and the influence of the people he met there, began to change his political ideas, moving him towards the left. He had two failed escape attempts in March and then November 1941 before he finally escaped on 16 December 1941, returning to France on foot. In December 1941 he arrived home in the unoccupied zone controlled by the French. With help from a friend of his mother he got a job as a mid-level functionary of the Vichy government, looking after the interests of POWs. This was very unusual for an escaped prisoner, and he later claimed to have served as a spy for the Free French Forces.\n\n\n=== Work in France under the Vichy administration: 1941–1943 ===\nFrançois Mitterrand worked from January to April 1942 for the Légion française des combattants et des volontaires de la révolution nationale (Legion of French combatants and volunteers of the national revolution) as a civil servant on a temporary contract. François Mitterrand worked under Jean-Paul Favre de Thierrens who was a spy for the British secret service. He then moved to the Commissariat au reclassement des prisonniers de guerre (Service for the orientation of POWS). During this period, François Mitterrand was aware of Thierrens's activities and may have helped in his disinformation campaign. At the same time, he published an article detailing his time as a POW in the magazine France, revue de l'État nouveau (the magazine was published as propaganda by the Vichy Regime).\n\nFrançois Mitterrand has been called a \"Vichysto-résistant\" (an expression used by the historian Jean-Pierre Azéma to describe people who supported Marshal Philippe Pétain, the head of the Vichy Regime, before 1943, but subsequently rejected the Vichy Regime).From spring 1942, he met other escaped POWs Jean Roussel, Max Varenne, and Dr. Guy Fric, under whose influence he became involved with the resistance. In April, François Mitterrand and Fric caused a major disturbance in a public meeting held by the collaborator Georges Claude. From mid-1942, he sent false papers to POWs in Germany and on 12 June and 15 August 1942, he joined meetings at the Château de Montmaur which formed the base of his future network for the resistance. From September, he made contact with Free French Forces, but clashed with Michel Cailliau, General Charles de Gaulle's nephew (and de Gaulle's candidate to head-up all POW-related resistance organizations). On 15 October 1942, François Mitterrand and Marcel Barrois (a member of the resistance deported in 1944) met Marshal Philippe Pétain along with other members of the Comité d'entraide aux prisonniers rapatriés de l'Allier (Help group for repatriated POWs in the department of Allier). By the end of 1942, François Mitterrand met Pierre Guillain de Bénouville, an old friend from his days with La Cagoule. Bénouville was a member of the resistance groups Combat and Noyautage des administrations publiques (NAP).\nIn late 1942, the non-occupied zone was invaded by the Germans. François Mitterrand left the Commissariat in January 1943, when his boss Maurice Pinot, another vichysto-résistant, was replaced by the collaborator André Masson, but he remained in charge of the centres d'entraides. In the spring of 1943, along with Gabriel Jeantet, a member of Marshal Pétain's cabinet, and Simon Arbellot (both former members of La Cagoule), François Mitterrand received the Order of the Francisque (the honorific distinction of the Vichy Regime).\nDebate rages in France as to the significance of this. When François Mitterrand's Vichy past was exposed in the 1950s, he at first denied having received the Francisque (some sources say he was designated for the award, but never received the medal because he went into hiding before the ceremony took place). Socialist Resistance leader Jean Pierre-Bloch says that François Mitterrand was ordered to accept the medal as cover for his work in the resistance. Pierre Moscovici and Jacques Attali remain skeptical of François Mitterrand's beliefs at this time, accusing him of having at best a \"foot in each camp\" until he was sure who the winner would be. They noted François Mitterrand's friendship with René Bousquet and the wreaths he was said to have placed on Pétain's tomb in later years (see below) as examples of his ambivalent attitude.In 1994, while President of France, François Mitterrand maintained that the roundup of Jews who were then deported to death camps during the war was solely the work of \"Vichy France\", an entity distinct from France: \"The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible.\" This position was refuted by President Jacques Chirac in 1995 who stated that it was time that France faced up to its past and he acknowledged the role of the state – \"4,500 policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis\" – in the Holocaust. He added that the \"criminal folly of the occupiers was seconded by the French, by the French State\".President Emmanuel Macron was even more specific as to the State's responsibility for the 1942 Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of 13,000 Jews for deportation to concentration camps. It was indeed \"France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death.\" It was done by \"French police collaborating with the Nazis\", he said on 16 July 2017. \"It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it’s convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie.\n\n\n=== Full engagement in resistance: 1943–1945 ===\nFrançois Mitterrand built up a resistance network, composed mainly of former POWs. The POWs National Rally (Rassemblement national des prisonniers de guerre, RNPG) was affiliated with General Henri Giraud, a former POW who had escaped from a German prison and made his way across Germany back to the Allied forces. In 1943 Giraud was contesting with de Gaulle for the leadership of the French Resistance.\nFrom the beginning of 1943, François Mitterrand had contacts with a powerful resistance group called the Organisation de résistance de l'armée (ORA), organised by former French military personnel. From this time on, François Mitterrand could act as a member of the ORA, moreover he set up his own RNPG network with Pinot in February and he obtained funding for his own network. In March, François Mitterrand met Henri Frenay, who encouraged the resistance in France to support François Mitterrand over Michel Cailliau. 28 May 1943, when François Mitterrand met with Gaullist Philippe Dechartre, is generally taken as the date François Mitterrand split with Vichy. According to Dechartre, the meeting on 28 May 1943 was set up because \"there were three movements [of Résistance:] […] the Gaullist, the communist, and one from support centers […] hence I was assigned the mission to prepare what would be called afterwards the merger [of the three movements].\"During 1943, the RNPG gradually changed from providing false papers to information-gathering for France libre. Pierre de Bénouville said, \"François Mitterrand created a true spy network in the POW camps which gave us information, often decisive, about what was going on behind the German borders.\" On 10 July François Mitterrand and Piatzook (a militant communist) interrupted a public meeting in the Salle Wagram in Paris. The meeting was about allowing French POWs to go home if they were replaced by young French men forced to go and work in Germany (in French this was called \"la relève\"). When André Masson began to talk about \"la trahison des gaullistes\" (the Gaullist treason), François Mitterrand stood up in the audience and shouted him down, saying Masson had no right to talk on behalf of POWs and calling la relève a \"con\" (i.e., something stupid). Mitterrand avoided arrest as Piatzook covered his escape.In November 1943 the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) raided a flat in Vichy, where they hoped to arrest François Morland, a member of the resistance. \"Morland\" was François Mitterrand's cover name. He also used Purgon, Monnier, Laroche, Captain François, Arnaud et Albre as cover names. The man they arrested was Pol Pilven, a member of the resistance who was to survive the war in a concentration camp. François Mitterrand was in Paris at the time.\nWarned by his friends, François Mitterrand escaped to London aboard a Lysander plane on 15 November 1943 (piloted by then-Squadron Leader Lewis Hodges). He promoted his movement to the British and American Authorities, but he was sent to Algiers, where he met de Gaulle, by then the uncontested leader of the Free French. The two men clashed, de Gaulle refused to jeopardize the Resistance by including a movement that gathered information from POWs. Later Mitterrand refused to merge his group with other POW movements if de Gaulle's nephew Cailliau was to be the leader. Under the influence of Henri Frenay, de Gaulle finally agreed to merge his nephew's network and the RNPG with Mitterrand in charge. Thus the RNPG was listed in the French Force organization from spring 1944.\nFrançois Mitterrand returned to France by boat via England. In Paris, the three Resistance groups made up of POWs (Communists, Gaullists, RNPG) finally merged as the POWs and Deportees National Movement (Mouvement national des prisonniers de guerre et déportés, MNPGD) and Mitterrand took the lead. In his memoirs, he says that he had started this organisation while he was still officially working for the Vichy Regime. From 27 November 1943 Mitterrand worked for the Bureau central de renseignements et d'action. In December 1943 François Mitterrand ordered the execution of Henri Marlin (who was about to order attacks on the \"Maquis\") by Jacques Paris and Jean Munier, who later hid out with François Mitterrand's father.\nAfter a second visit to London in February 1944, François Mitterrand took part in the liberation of Paris in August; he took over the headquarters of Commissariat général aux prisonniers de guerre (general office for POW, the ministry he was working for), immediately he took up the vacant post of secretary general of POWs. When de Gaulle entered Paris following the Liberation, he was introduced to various men who were to be part of the provisional government. Among them was François Mitterrand, when they came face to face, de Gaulle is said to have muttered: \"You again!\" He dismissed François Mitterrand 2 weeks later.\nIn October 1944 François Mitterrand and Jacques Foccart developed a plan to liberate the POW and concentration camps. This was called operation Vicarage. On the orders of de Gaulle, in April 1945 François Mitterrand accompanied General Lewis as the French representative at the liberation of the camps at Kaufering and Dachau. By chance Mitterrand discovered his friend and member of his network, Robert Antelme, suffering from typhus. Antelme was restricted to the camp to prevent the spread of disease, but François Mitterrand arranged for his \"escape\" and sent him back to France for treatment.\n\n\n== Fourth Republic ==\n\n\n=== Rise in politics: 1946–54 ===\n\nAfter the war François Mitterrand quickly moved back into politics. At the June 1946 legislative election, he led the list of the Rally of the Republican Lefts (Rassemblement des gauches républicaines, RGR) in the Western suburb of Paris, but he was not elected. The RGR was an electoral entity composed of the Radical Party, the centrist Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance (Union démocratique et socialiste de la Résistance, UDSR) and several conservative groupings. It opposed the policy of the \"Three-parties alliance\" (Communists, Socialists and Christian Democrats).\nIn the November 1946 legislative election, he succeeded in winning a seat as deputy from the Nièvre département. To be elected, he had to win a seat at the expense of the French Communist Party (PCF). As leader of the RGR list, he led a very anti-communist campaign. He became a member of the UDSR party. In January 1947, he joined the cabinet as War Veterans Minister. He held various offices in the Fourth Republic as a Deputy and as a Minister (holding eleven different portfolios in total), including as a mayor of Château-Chinon from 1959 to 1981.\nIn May 1948 François Mitterrand participated in the Congress of The Hague, together with Konrad Adenauer, Winston Churchill, Harold Macmillan, Paul-Henri Spaak, Albert Coppé and Altiero Spinelli. It originated the European Movement.\nAs Overseas Minister (1950–1951), François Mitterrand opposed the colonial lobby to propose a reform program. He connected with the left when he resigned from the cabinet after the arrest of Morocco's sultan (1953). As leader of the progressive wing of the UDSR, he took the head of the party in 1953, replacing the conservative René Pleven.\nIn June 1953 François Mitterrand attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Seated next to the elderly Princess Marie Bonaparte, he reported having spent much of the ceremony being psychoanalyzed by her.\n\n\n=== Senior minister during the Algerian War: 1954–58 ===\nAs Interior Minister in Pierre Mendès-France's cabinet (1954–1955), François Mitterrand had to direct the response to the Algerian War of Independence. He claimed: \"Algeria is France.\" He was suspected of being the informer of the Communist Party in the cabinet. This rumour was spread by the former Paris police prefect, who had been dismissed by him. The suspicions were dismissed by subsequent investigations.\nThe UDSR joined the Republican Front, a centre-left coalition, which won the 1956 legislative election. As Justice Minister (1956–1957), François Mitterrand allowed the expansion of martial law in the Algerian conflict. Unlike other ministers (including Mendès-France), who criticised the repressive policy in Algeria, he remained in Guy Mollet's cabinet until its end. As Minister of Justice, he had a role in 45 executions of the Algerian natives, recommending President René Coty to reject clemency in 80% of the cases, an action he later came to regret. François Mitterrand's role in confirming the death sentences of FLN rebels convicted by French courts of terrorism and later in abolishing the death penalty in 1981 led the British writer Anthony Daniels (writing under his pseudonym of Theodore Dalrymple) to accuse François Mitterrand of being an unprincipled opportunist, a cynical politician who proudly confirmed death sentences of FLN terrorists in the 1950s when it was popular and who only came to champion abolishing the death penalty when this was popular with the French people.As Minister of Justice he was an official representative of France during the wedding of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and actress Grace Kelly. Under the Fourth Republic, he was representative of a generation of young ambitious politicians. He appeared as a possible future Prime Minister.\n\n\n== Opposition during the Fifth Republic ==\n\n\n=== Crossing the desert: 1958–64 ===\n\nIn 1958, François Mitterrand was one of the few to object to the nomination of Charles de Gaulle as head of government, and to de Gaulle's plan for a Fifth Republic. He justified his opposition by the circumstances of de Gaulle's comeback: the 13 May 1958 quasi-putsch and military pressure. In September 1958, determinedly opposed to Charles de Gaulle, François Mitterrand made an appeal to vote \"no\" in the referendum over the Constitution, which was nevertheless adopted on 4 October 1958. This defeated coalition of the \"No\" was composed of the PCF and some left-wing republican politicians (such as Pierre Mendès-France and François Mitterrand).\nThis attitude may have been a factor in François Mitterrand's losing his seat in the 1958 elections, beginning a long \"crossing of the desert\" (this term is usually applied to de Gaulle's decline in influence for a similar period). Indeed, in the second round of the legislative election, François Mitterrand was supported by the Communists but the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) refused to withdraw its candidate. This division caused the election of the Gaullist candidate. One year later, he was elected to represent Nièvre in the Senate, where he was part of the Group of the Democratic Left. At the same time, he was not admitted to the ranks of the Unified Socialist Party (Parti socialiste unifié, PSU) which was created by Mendès-France, former internal opponents of Mollet and reform-minded former members of the Communist Party. The PSU leaders justified their decision by referring to his non-resignation from Mollet's cabinet and by his past in Vichy.\n\nAlso in that same year, on the Avenue de l'Observatoire in Paris, François Mitterrand claimed to have escaped an assassin's bullet by diving behind a hedge, in what became known as the Observatory Affair. The incident brought him a great deal of publicity, initially boosting his political ambitions. Some of his critics claimed, however, that he had staged the incident himself, resulting in a backlash against François Mitterrand. He later said he had earlier been warned by right-wing deputy Robert Pesquet that he was the target of an Algérie française death squad and accused Prime Minister Michel Debré of being its instigator. Before his death, Pesquet claimed that François Mitterrand had set up a fake attempt on his life. Prosecution was initiated against François Mitterrand but was later dropped. Nonetheless, the Observatory Affair cast a lasting shadow over François Mitterrand's reputation. Years later in 1965, when François Mitterrand emerged as the challenger to de Gaulle in the second round of the presidential elections, de Gaulle was urged by an aide to use the Observatory Affair to discredit his opponent. \"No, and don't insist\" was the General's response, \"It would be wrong to demean the office of the Presidency, since one day he [Mitterrand] may have the job.\"François Mitterrand visited China in 1961, during the worst of the Great Chinese Famine, but denied the existence of starvation.\n\n\n=== Opposition to De Gaulle: 1964–71 ===\n\nIn the 1962 election, François Mitterrand regained his seat in the National Assembly with the support of the PCF and the SFIO. Practicing left unity in Nièvre, he advocated the rallying of left-wing forces at the national level, including the PCF, in order to challenge Gaullist domination. Two years later, he became the president (chairman) of the General Council of Nièvre. While the opposition to De Gaulle organized in clubs, he founded his own group, the Convention of Republican Institutions (Convention des institutions républicaines, CIR). He reinforced his position as a left-wing opponent to Charles de Gaulle in publishing Le Coup d'État permanent (The permanent coup, 1964), which criticized de Gaulle's personal power, the weaknesses of Parliament and of the government, the President's exclusive control of foreign affairs, and defence, etc.\nIn 1965, François Mitterrand was the first left-wing politician who saw the presidential election by universal suffrage as a way to defeat the opposition leadership. Not a member of any specific political party, his candidacy for presidency was accepted by all left-wing parties (the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), French Communist Party (PCF), Radical-Socialist Party (PR) and Unified Socialist Party (PSU)). He ended the cordon sanitaire of the PCF which the party had been subject to since 1947. For the SFIO leader Guy Mollet, Mitterrand's candidacy prevented Gaston Defferre, his rival in the SFIO, from running for the presidency. Furthermore, François Mitterrand was a lone figure, so he did not appear as a danger to the left-wing parties' staff members.\nDe Gaulle was expected to win in the first round, but François Mitterrand received 31.7% of the vote, denying De Gaulle a first-round victory. François Mitterrand was supported in the second round by the left and other anti-Gaullists: centrist Jean Monnet, moderate conservative Paul Reynaud and Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour, an extreme right-winger and the lawyer who had defended Raoul Salan, one of the four generals who had organized the 1961 Algiers putsch during the Algerian War.\nFrançois Mitterrand received 44.8% of votes in the second round and de Gaulle, with the majority, was thus elected for another term, but this defeat was regarded as honourable, for no one was really expected to defeat de Gaulle. François Mitterrand took the lead of a centre-left alliance: the Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left (Fédération de la gauche démocrate et socialiste, FGDS). It was composed of the SFIO, the Radicals and several left-wing republican clubs (such the CIR of François Mitterrand).\n\nIn the legislative election of March 1967, the system where all candidates who failed to pass a 10% threshold in the first round were eliminated from the second round favoured the pro-Gaullist majority, which faced a split opposition (PCF, FGDS and centrists of Jacques Duhamel). Nevertheless, the parties of the left managed to gain 63 seats more than previously for a total of 194. The Communists remained the largest left-wing group with 22.5% of votes. The governing coalition won with its majority reduced by only one seat (247 seats out of 487).\nIn Paris, the Left (FGDS, PSU, PCF) managed to win more votes in the first round than the two governing parties (46% against 42.6%) while the Democratic Centre of Duhamel got 7% of votes. But with 38% of votes, de Gaulle's Union for the Fifth Republic remained the leading French party.During the May 1968 governmental crisis, François Mitterrand held a press conference to announce his candidacy if a new presidential election was held. But after the Gaullist demonstration on the Champs-Elysées, de Gaulle dissolved the Assembly and called for a legislative election instead. In this election, the right wing won its largest majority since the Bloc National in 1919.\nFrançois Mitterrand was accused of being responsible for this huge legislative defeat and the FGDS split. In 1969, François Mitterrand could not run for the Presidency: Guy Mollet refused to give him the support of the SFIO. The left wing was eliminated in the first round, with the Socialist candidate Gaston Defferre winning a humiliating 5.1 percent of the total vote. Georges Pompidou faced the centrist Alain Poher in the second round.\n\n\n=== Socialist Party leader: 1971–81 ===\nAfter the FGDS's implosion, François Mitterrand turned to the Socialist Party (Parti socialiste or PS). In June 1971, at the time of the Epinay Congress, the CIR joined the PS, which had succeeded the SFIO in 1969. The executive of the PS was then dominated by Guy Mollet's supporters. They proposed an \"ideological dialogue\" with the Communists. For François Mitterrand, an electoral alliance with the Communists was necessary to rise to power. With this in mind, François Mitterrand obtained the support of all the internal opponents to Mollet's faction and was elected as the first secretary of the PS. At the 1971 congress, he declared: \"Whoever does not accept the break with the established order, with capitalist society, cannot be an adherent of the Socialist Party.\"In June 1972, François Mitterrand signed the Common Programme of Government with the Communist Georges Marchais and the Left Radical Robert Fabre. With this programme, he led the 1973 legislative campaign of the \"Union of the Left\".\n\nAt the 1974 presidential election, François Mitterrand received 43.2% of the vote in the first round, as the common candidate of the left. He faced Valéry Giscard d'Estaing in the second round. During the national TV debate, Giscard d'Estaing criticised him as being \"a man of the past\", due to his long political career. François Mitterrand was narrowly defeated by Giscard d'Estaing, François Mitterrand receiving 49.19% and Giscard 50.81%.\nIn 1977, the Communist and Socialist parties failed to update the Common Programme, then lost the 1978 legislative election. While the Socialists took the leading position on the left, by obtaining more votes than the Communists for the first time since 1936, the leadership of François Mitterrand was challenged by an internal opposition led by Michel Rocard who criticized the programme of the PS as being \"archaic\" and \"unrealistic\". The polls indicated Rocard was more popular than François Mitterrand. Nevertheless, François Mitterrand won the vote at the Party's Metz Congress (1979) and Rocard renounced his candidacy for the 1981 presidential election.\nFor his third candidacy for presidency, François Mitterrand was not supported by the PCF but only by the PS. François Mitterrand projected a reassuring image with the slogan \"the quiet force\". He campaigned for \"another politics\", based on the Socialist programme 110 Propositions for France, and denounced the performance of the incumbent president. Furthermore, he benefited from divisions in the right-wing majority. He obtained 25.85% of votes in the first round (against 15% for the PCF candidate Georges Marchais), then defeated President Giscard d'Estaing in the second round, with 51.76%. He became the first left-wing politician elected President of France by universal suffrage.\n\n\n== Presidency ==\n\n\n=== First term: 1981–1988 ===\n\nIn the presidential election of 10 May 1981, François Mitterrand became the first socialist President of the Fifth Republic, and his government became the first left-wing government in 23 years. He named Pierre Mauroy as Prime Minister and organised a new legislative election. The Socialists obtained an absolute parliamentary majority, and four Communists joined the cabinet.\n\n\n==== Economic policy ====\nThe beginning of his first term was marked by a left-wing economic policy based on the 110 Propositions for France and the 1972 Common Programme between the Socialist Party, the Communist Party and the Left Radical Party. This included several nationalizations, a 10% increase in the SMIC (minimum wage), a 39-hour work week, 5 weeks holiday per year, the creation of the solidarity tax on wealth, an increase in social benefits, and the extension of workers' rights to consultation and information about their employers (through the Auroux Act). The objective was to boost economic demand and thus economic activity (Keynesianism), but the stimulative fiscal policy implemented by the Mauroy government was in contradiction with the constrained monetary policy implemented by the Bank of France. However, unemployment continued to grow, and the franc was devalued three times.Old age pensions were raised by 300 francs per month to 1,700 francs for a single person and to 3,700 francs for a couple, while health insurance benefits were made more widely available to unemployed persons and part-time employees. Housing allocations for the low-paid were raised by 25% in 1981, and in the two years following May 1981 family allowances were increased by 44% for families with 3 children and by 81% for families with 2 children. In 1981, the purchasing power of social transfers went up by 4.5% and by 7.6% in 1982. In addition, the minimum wage (which affected 1.7 million employees) was increased by 15% in real terms between May 1981 and December 1982.Major efforts were made to improve access to housing and health care, while the government also attempted to tackle working-class under-achievement in schools by reinforcing the comprehensive system, modernising the curriculum and reducing streaming. As a means of increasing political participation, the government increased the financial allowances of local politicians, who also became entitled to paid leave from their jobs to attend courses in public administration. Allowances for the handicapped were improved, while improvements were also made in the pay and conditions for those serving in the army. A decree of January 1982 provided for \"solidarity contracts\" whereby firms would be subsidised for introducing part-time work or early retirement if they also allowed the creation of new jobs, while a decree of March 1982 provided employees with the right to retire at the age of 60 on 50% of average earnings during their 10 best years of employment. In 1983, legislation was passed to encourage greater equality in the private sector. Firms now had to make an annual report on the training opportunities and employment conditions for women and present a statistical analysis of their position in the firm, whilst the works committee had to ensure that equality promoting measures are taken. In addition, a new benefit was introduced for unemployed workers who had exhausted their eligibility for unemployment insurance. In December 1982, a law was passed that restored to workers the right to elect administrators to social security funds, which had been eliminated by Charles De Gaulle in 1967.François Mitterrand continued to promote the new technologies initiated by his predecessor Valéry Giscard d'Estaing: the TGV high speed train and the Minitel, a pre-World Wide Web interactive network similar to the web. The Minitel and the Paris-Lyon TGV line were inaugurated only a few weeks after the election. In addition, Government grants and loans for capital investment for modernisation were significantly increased.François Mitterrand passed the first decentralization laws, the Defferre Act.\nAfter two years in office, François Mitterrand made a substantial u-turn in economic policies, with the March 1983 adoption of the so-called \"tournant de la rigueur\" (austerity turn). Priority was given to the struggle against inflation in order to remain competitive in the European Monetary System. Although there were two periods of mild economic reflation (first from 1984 to 1986 and again from 1988 to 1990), monetary and fiscal restraint was the essential policy orientation of François Mitterrand's presidency from 1983 onwards. Nevertheless, compared to the OECD average, fiscal policy in France remained relatively expansionary during the course of the two François Mitterrand presidencies.\n\n\n==== Social policy ====\nIn 1983, all members of the general pension scheme obtained the right to a full pension at the age of 60 payable at a rate of half the reference wage in return for 37.5 years contribution. The government agreed at the same time to improve the pension position of some public sector employees and to increase the real value of the minimum pension. In addition, later negotiations brought retirement at 60 years into the occupational schemes although the financial terms for doing so could only be agreed for a 7-year period. A comparison between 1981 and 1986 showed that the minimum state pension had increased by 64% for a couple and by 81% for one person. During that same period, family allowances had increased by 71% for three children and by 112% for two children. In addition, the single-parent allowance for mothers or fathers with one child had been increased by 103% and for two or more children by 52% for each child\nIn order to mark the importance of the problems of the elderly, the government appointed a Secretary of State (attached to the Ministry of Social Affairs and National Solidarity) to carry special responsibility for them, and in an effort to try to relate policy to the felt needs of the elderly, it set up a central advisory committee to examine social policy from their point of view and carry out special studies and enquiries. This body became especially concerned with monitoring the attempts at coordination and encouraging policies which were aimed at helping he elderly stay at home instead of entering residential care.In the field of health care, some prescription charges were abolished, hospital administration was decentralised, workers' rights in the health service were reaffirmed, and equipment was provided for researchers. From 1983 onwards, wage-earners who had contributed to a pension fund for 37.5 years became eligible to retire on a full pension. This right was extended to the self-employed in 1984 and to farmers in 1986. People who had retired at the age of 60 were, however, not initially eligible for reductions on public transport until they reached the age of 65. The qualifying age for these reductions was, however, reduced to 62 in 1985. A number of illegal immigrants had their position regularized under the Socialists and the conditions pertaining to residence and work permits were eased. Educational programmes were implemented to help immigrant communities, while immigrants were allowed the right to free association. The Socialist government also opened up talks with the authorities in some of the main countries of origin, easing nationality rules in the public sector, associating representatives of migrant groups with public authority work, and established an Immigrants Council in 1984.\nAlthough the income limit for allowances varied according to the position of the child in the family and the number of dependent children, these ceilings were made more favourable in cases where both parents were working or where a single parent was in charge and were linked to changes in wage levels. Those taking parental leave to care for three or more children (provided that they fulfilled the rules for eligibility) also received certain benefits in kind, such as a non-taxable, non-means-tested benefit and priority on vocational training courses. A new boost was also given to research into family problems including an interest in the effects of changing family structures, of women’s employment and the impact of local social policies on family life. In addition, while a law on equal opportunities in employment was passed in July 1983 which prohibited all forms of unequal treatment regardless of the circumstances, together with providing for positive action plans to be established in major companies. In January 1984, a decree was made granting state aid to companies which implemented equality plans for staff. That same year, a law was passed that gave the regional Caissess des Allocations Familiales the task of collecting unpaid alimony, initially for lone parents and subsequently for remarried or cohabiting mothers.In the field of education, more resources were devoted to the educational system, with the education budgets of 1982, 1983, and 1984 increased by approximately 4% to 6% per year above the rate of inflation. From 1981 to 1983, the corps of teachers was increased by 30,000. Authorization was restored for a number of advanced undergraduate and graduate programmes which the previous centre-right minister Saunier-Seite had rejected on grounds of economy and \"rationalization\" of resources. Numerous initiatives were carried out such as the teaching of civics, the reintroduction of the teaching of French history and geography at the primary level, the introduction of new professional degrees, a partnership between schools and enterprises, and the introduction of computers in classrooms. Priority areas were set up in 1981 as part of a systematic effort to combat underachievement in schools, while technical education was encouraged. In addition, nursery education was expanded, while efforts by the Socialists to promote joint research between industry and the research agencies increased the number of such contracts by a half each year between 1982 and 1985, with a 29% increase in joint patents. The baccalauréat professionnel, introduced in 1985, enabled holders of a Brevet d'études professionnelles (or in some cases of a Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle) to continue for another two years and study for the baccalauréat.François Mitterrand abolished the death penalty as soon as he took office (via the Badinter Act), as well as the \"anti-casseurs Act\" which instituted collective responsibility for acts of violence during demonstrations. He also dissolved the Cour de sûreté, a special high court, and enacted a massive regularization of illegal immigrants. Tighter regulations on the powers of police to stop, search and arrest were introduced, and the \"loi sécurité et liberté\" (a controversial public order act) was repealed. In addition, the legal aid system was improved.In 1984, a law was passed to ensure that divorced women who were not in receipt of maintenance would be provided with assistance in recovering the shortfall in their income from their former husband. By 1986, particular attention was being focused on assisting women in single-parent families to get back into employment, in recognition of the growing problems associated with extra-marital births and marital breakdown. Parental leave was extended to firms with 100 employees in 1981 (previously, parental leave provision had been made in 1977 for firms employing at least 200 employees) and subsequently to all employees in 1984. From 1984 onwards, married women were obliged to sign tax returns, men and women were provided with equal rights in managing their common property and that of their children, and in 1985 they became responsible for each other’s debts.\nChildcare facilities were also expanded, with the number of places in crèches rising steadily between 1981 and 1986. In addition, the minimum wage was significantly increased. From 1981 to 1984, the SMIC rose by 125%, while prices went up by only 75% during that same period. Various measures were also introduced to mitigate the effects of rising unemployment. Between 1981 and 1986, there had been just over 800,000 young people placed on special work schemes, 800,000 early retirements, 200,000 enterprise allowance successes, and 30,000 retrained workers from declining industrial sectors.\n\n\n==== Cultural policy ====\nWith respect to cultural policies, grants were allocated to non-profit associations and community cultural initiatives, Mitterrand liberalized the media, created the CSA media regulation agency, and authorized pirate radio and the first private TV (Canal+), giving rise to the private broadcasting sector.\nIn terms of the theatre, some transfer of resources was made from the subsidy of the national theatres to the support for theatre companies which did not necessarily have an institutional home. A significant investment was made in music education with the creation of 5 new music schools in the departements and the revamping of the Conservatoire National de la Musique at Lyon, while the range and capacity of performance facilities in Paris was considerably increased, with the Cite Musicale de la Villette and the Opera de la Bastille allowing for specialist performance in a way that was lacking in Paris previously, and a 2,000 seat concert hall called le Zenith, which was designed primarily for rock music concerts but adapted for all uses.\nThe Socialists continued the policies of their predecessors with the Grand Louvre project and the opening of the Picasso Museum at the Hotel Sale, while the museum budget was quadrupled and particular sums were set aside for the first time for large regional projects including the establishment of a number of new museums in the provinces such as the Ecomuseum at Chartres and the Museum of Prehistory at Carnac. A Fonds Regional des Acquisitions was established to assist provincial museums in the purchase of works of art, while the state actively continued an existing policy of encouraging bequests in lieu of death duties.\nLibraries and publishing benefited from new thinking and an injection of funds, while aid to authors and publishers was restructured and book prices were fixed once again, with the objective being to assist smaller publishing houses and specialist bookshops. The network of regional lending libraries was significantly reinforced, while financial assistance was provided for the export of French books. In addition, archaeology, ethnography and historical buildings and monuments all benefited from the general increase in resources.\n\n\n==== Domestic difficulties ====\nThe Left lost the 1983 municipal elections and the 1984 European Parliament election. At the same time, the Savary Bill, to limit the financing of private schools by local communities, caused a political crisis. It was abandoned and Mauroy resigned in July 1984. Laurent Fabius succeeded him, and the Communists left the cabinet.\nIn terms of foreign policy, François Mitterrand did not significantly deviate from his predecessors and he continued nuclear weapons testing in the South Pacific in spite of protests from various peace and environmentalist organizations. In 1985, French agents sank the Greenpeace-owned ex-trawler Rainbow Warrior while it was docked in Auckland, New Zealand which the group had used in demonstrations against nuclear tests, whaling, and seal hunting. One Greenpeace member was killed, and when news broke of the event, a major scandal erupted that led to the resignation of Defense Minister Charles Hernu. France subsequently paid reparations of 1.8 million USD to Greenpeace.\n\n\n==== First Cohabitation ====\nBefore the 1986 legislative campaign, proportional representation was instituted in accordance with the 110 Propositions. It did not prevent, however, the victory of the Rally for the Republic/Union for French Democracy (RPR/UDF) coalition. François Mitterrand thus named the RPR leader Jacques Chirac as Prime Minister. This period of government, with a President and a Prime Minister who came from two opposite coalitions, was the first time that such a combination had occurred under the Fifth Republic, and came to be known as \"Cohabitation\".Chirac mostly handled domestic policy while François Mitterrand concentrated on his \"reserved domain\" of foreign affairs and defence. However, several conflicts erupted between the two. In one example, François Mitterrand refused to sign executive decrees of liberalization, obliging Chirac to pass the measures through parliament instead. François Mitterrand also reportedly gave covert support to some social movements, notably the student revolt against the university reform (Devaquet Bill). Benefiting from the difficulties of Chirac's cabinet, the President's popularity increased.\nWith the polls running in his favor, François Mitterrand announced his candidacy in the 1988 presidential election. He proposed a moderate programme (promising \"neither nationalisations nor liberalisation\") and advocated a \"united France,\" and laid out his policy priorities in his \"Letter to the French People.\" He obtained 34% of the votes in the first round, then faced Chirac in the second, and was re-elected with 54% of the votes. François Mitterrand thus became the first President to be elected twice by universal suffrage.\n\n\n=== Second term: 1988–1995 ===\n\n\n==== Domestic policy ====\nAfter his re-election, he named Michel Rocard as Prime Minister, in spite of their poor relations. Rocard led the moderate wing of the PS and he was the most popular of the Socialist politicians. François Mitterrand decided to organize a new legislative election. The PS obtained a relative parliamentary majority. Four centre-right politicians joined the cabinet.\nThe second term was marked by the creation of the Insertion Minimum Revenue (RMI), which ensured a minimum level of income to those deprived of any other form of income; the restoring of the solidarity tax on wealth, which had been abolished by Chirac's cabinet; the institution of the Generalized social tax; the extension of parental leave up to the child's third birthday; the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy; the 1990 Gayssot Act on hate speech and Holocaust denial; the Besson law of 1990; the Mermaz Law of 1989;, the introduction of a private childcare allowance; the Urban Orientation Law of 1991; the Arpaillange Act on the financing of political parties; the reform of the penal code; the Matignon Agreements concerning New Caledonia; the Evin Act on smoking in public places; the extension of the age limit for family allowances to 18 years in 1990; and the 1989 Education Act which, amongst other measures, obliged local authorities to educate all children with disabilities. Several large architectural works were pursued, in what would become known as the Grands Projets of François Mitterrand with the building of the Louvre Pyramid, the Channel Tunnel, the Grande Arche at La Défense, the Bastille Opera, the Finance Ministry in Bercy, and the National Library of France. On 16 February 1993, President François Mitterrand inaugurated in Fréjus a memorial to the wars in Indochina.\nBut the second term was also marked by rivalries within the PS and the split of the Mitterrandist group (at the Rennes Congress, where supporters of Laurent Fabius and Lionel Jospin clashed bitterly for control of the party), the scandals about the financing of the party, the contaminated blood scandal which implicated Laurent Fabius and former ministers Georgina Dufoix and Emond Hervé, and the Elysée wiretaps affairs.\n\n\n==== Second Cohabitation ====\nDisappointed with Rocard's apparent failure to enact the Socialists' programme, François Mitterrand dismissed Michel Rocard in 1991 and appointed Édith Cresson to replace him. She was the first woman to become Prime Minister in France, but proved a costly mistake due to her tendency for making acerbic and racist public remarks. After the Socialists experienced heavy losses in the 1992 regional elections, Cresson resigned from office. Her successor Pierre Bérégovoy promised to fight unemployment and corruption but he could not prevent the catastrophic defeat of the left in the 1993 legislative election. The Socialist Party suffered a crushing defeat with the right-wing parties winning 485 seats to the left's 92. He killed himself on 1 May 1993.\nFrançois Mitterrand named the former RPR Finance Minister Edouard Balladur as Prime Minister. The second \"cohabitation\" was less contentious than the first, because the two men knew they were not rivals for the next presidential election. By this point, François Mitterrand was nearly 80 years old and suffering from cancer in addition to the shock of his friend François de Grossouvre's suicide. His second and last term ended after the 1995 presidential election in May 1995 with the election of Jacques Chirac. Socialist candidate Lionel Jospin lost the presidential election.\nOverall, as President, François Mitterrand maintained the \"basic characteristic of a strong welfare base underpinned by a strong state.\" A United Nations Human Development report concluded that, from 1979 to 1989, France was the only country in the OECD (apart from Portugal) in which income inequalities did not get worse. During his second term as president, however, the gap between rich and poor widened in France, with both unemployment and poverty rising in the awake of the economic recession of 1991–1993. According to other studies, though, the percentage of the French population living in poverty (based on various criteria) fell between the mid-Eighties and the mid-Nineties.\n\n\n=== Foreign policy ===\n\nAccording to Wayne Northcutt, certain domestic circumstances helped shape Mitterrand's foreign policy in four ways: he needed to maintain a political consensus; he kept an eye on economic conditions; he believed in the nationalistic imperative for French policy; and he tried to exploit Gaullism and its heritage that is on political advantage.\n\n\n==== East/West relations ====\nFrançois Mitterrand supported closer European collaboration and the preservation of France's unique relationship with its former colonies, which he feared were falling under \"Anglo-Saxon influence.\" His drive to preserve French power in Africa led to controversies concerning Paris' role during the Rwandan genocide.Despite François Mitterrand's left-wing affiliations, the 1980s saw France becoming more distant from the USSR, especially following events such as the expulsion of 47 Soviet diplomats and their families from the country in 1982 after they were accused of large-scale industrial and military espionage. François Mitterrand also sharply criticized the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as well as the country's nuclear weapons buildup. When François Mitterrand visited the USSR in November 1988, the Soviet media claimed to be 'leaving aside the virtually wasted decade and the loss of the Soviet-French 'special relationship' of the Gaullist era'.Nevertheless, François Mitterrand was worried by the rapidity of the Eastern bloc's collapse. He was opposed to German reunification but came to see it as unavoidable. He was opposed to the swift recognition of Croatia and Slovenia, which he thought would lead to the violent implosion of Yugoslavia.France participated in the Gulf War (1990–1991) with the U.N. coalition.\n\n\n==== European policy ====\n\nHe initially opposed further membership, fearing the Community was not ready and it would water it down to a free trade area.François Mitterrand supported the enlargement of the Community to include Spain and Portugal (which both joined in January 1986). In February 1986 he helped the Single European Act come into effect. He worked well with his friend Helmut Kohl and improved Franco-German relations significantly. Together they fathered the Maastricht Treaty, which was signed on 7 February 1992. It was ratified by referendum, approved by just over 51% of the voters.\nBritish Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was against a German reunification and also against the then discussed Maastricht Treaty.\nWhen Helmut Kohl, then German Chancellor, asked François Mitterrand to agree to reunification (France was one of the four Allies who had to agree to the Two Plus Four-treaty), François Mitterrand told Kohl he accepted it only in the event Germany would abandon the Deutsche Mark and adopt the Euro. Kohl accepted this package deal (including without talking to Karl Otto Pöhl, then President of the Bundesbank).That year, he also established the Mitterrand doctrine, a policy of not extraditing convicted far-left terrorists of the years of lead such as Cesare Battisti to Italy, due to the alleged non-conformity of Italian legislation to European standards of rule of law, in particular the anti-terrorism laws passed by Italy in the 1970s and 1980s. When the European Court of Human Rights finally ruled against the François Mitterrand doctrine, the policy had already led to most of the criminals never being punished for their crimes.\n\n\n==== 1990 speech at La Baule ====\nResponding to a democratic movement in Africa after the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall, he made his La Baule speech in June 1990 which tied development aid to democratic efforts from former French colonies, and during which he opposed the devaluation of the CFA Franc. Seeing an \"East wind\" blowing in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, he stated that a \"Southern wind\" was also blowing in Africa, and that state leaders had to respond to the populations' wishes and aspirations by a \"democratic opening\", which included a representative system, free elections, multipartyism, freedom of the press, an independent judiciary, and abolition of censorship. Claiming that France was the country making the most important effort concerning development aid, he announced that the least developed countries (LDCs) would henceforth receive only grants from France, as opposed to loans (in order to combat the massive increase of Third World debt during the 1980s). He likewise limited the interest rate to 5% on French loans to intermediate-income countries (that is, Ivory Coast, Congo, Cameroon and Gabon).\nHe also criticized interventionism in sovereign matters, which was according to him only another form of \"colonialism\". However, according to François Mitterrand, this did not imply lessened concern on the part of Paris for its former colonies. François Mitterrand thus continued with the African policy of de Gaulle inaugurated in 1960, which followed the relative failure of the 1958 creation of the French Community. All in all, François Mitterrand's La Baule speech, which marked a relative turning point in France's policy concerning its former colonies, has been compared with the 1956 loi-cadre Defferre which was responding to anti-colonialist feelings.African heads of state themselves reacted to François Mitterrand's speech at most with indifference. Omar Bongo, President of Gabon, declared that he would rather have \"events counsel him;\" Abdou Diouf, President of Senegal, said that, according to him, the best solution was a \"strong government\" and a \"good faith opposition;\" the President of Chad, Hissène Habré (nicknamed the \"African Pinochet\") claimed that it was contradictory to demand that African states should simultaneously carry on a \"democratic policy\" and \"social and economic policies which limited their sovereignty\", in a clear allusion to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank's \"structural adjustment programs\". Hassan II, the king of Morocco, said for his part that \"Africa was too open to the world to remain indifferent to what was happening around it\", but that Western countries should \"help young democracies open out, without putting a knife under their throat, without a brutal transition to multipartyism.\"All in all, the La Baule speech has been said to be on one hand \"one of the foundations of political renewal in Africa French speaking area\", and on the other hand \"cooperation with France\", this despite \"incoherence and inconsistency, like any public policy\".\n\n\n==== Discovery of HIV ====\nControversy surrounding the discovery of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) was intense after American researcher Robert Gallo and French scientist Luc Montagnier both claimed to have discovered it. The two scientists had given the new virus different names. The controversy was eventually settled by an agreement (helped along by the mediation of Dr Jonas Salk) between President Ronald Reagan and François Mitterrand which gave equal credit to both men and their teams.\n\n\n==== Apology to the Huguenots ====\nIn October 1985, to commemorate the tricentenary of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, François Mitterrand gave a formal apology to the descendants of Huguenots around the world. At the same time, a special postage stamp was released in their honour. The stamp states that France is the home of the Huguenots (\"Accueil des Huguenots\"). Hence their rights were finally recognised.\n\n\n==== Co-Prince of Andorra ====\nOn 2 February 1993, in his capacity as co-prince of Andorra, François Mitterrand and Joan Martí Alanis, who was Bishop of Urgell and therefore Andorra's other co-prince, signed Andorra's new constitution, which was later approved by referendum in the principality.\n\n\n=== Death ===\nFrançois Mitterrand died in Paris on 8 January 1996 at the age of 79 from prostate cancer, a condition he and his doctors had concealed for most of his presidency (see section on \"Medical Secrecy\" below). A few days before his death, he was joined by family members and close friends for a \"last meal\" that attracted controversy because, in addition to other gourmet dishes, it included the serving of roast ortolan bunting, a small wild songbird that is a protected species whose sale was and remains illegal in France.\n\n\n=== Funeral ===\nA requiem mass was held at Notre-Dame cathedrale Paris celebrated by Cardinal Lustiger in the presence of UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, EU President Jacques Santer and representatives from 170 countries. 61 heads of state were presented.François Mitterrand's grave is in Jarnac.\nWorld leaders who attended François Mitterrand's funeral included:\n\n\n== Prime Ministers during presidency ==\nAs of 2021, François Mitterrand has had the most prime ministers during the regime of the 5th Republic.\n\n\n== Controversies ==\n\n\n=== Medical secrecy ===\nFollowing his death, a controversy erupted when his former physician, Dr Claude Gubler, wrote a book called Le Grand Secret (\"The Grand Secret\") explaining that François Mitterrand had false health reports published since November 1981, hiding his cancer. François Mitterrand's family then prosecuted Gubler and his publisher for violating medical confidentiality.\n\n\n=== Urba ===\nThe Urba consultancy was established in 1971 by the Socialist Party to advise Socialist-led communes on infrastructure projects and public works. The Urba affair became public in 1989 when two police officers investigating the Marseille regional office of Urba discovered detailed minutes of the organisation's contracts and division of proceeds between the party and elected officials. Although the minutes proved a direct link between Urba and graft activity, an edict from the office of François Mitterrand, himself listed as a recipient, prevented further investigation. The François Mitterrand election campaign of 1988 was directed by Henri Nallet, who then became Justice Minister and therefore in charge of the investigation at national level. In 1990 François Mitterrand declared an amnesty for those under investigation, thus ending the affair. Socialist Party treasurer Henri Emmanuelli was tried in 1997 for corruption offences, for which he received a two-year suspended sentence.\n\n\n=== Wiretaps ===\nFrom 1982 to 1986, François Mitterrand established an \"anti-terror cell\" installed as a service of the President of the Republic. This was an unusual set-up, since such law enforcement missions against terrorism are normally left to the National Police and Gendarmerie, run under the cabinet and the Prime Minister, and under the supervision of the judiciary. The cell was largely staffed by members of these services, but it bypassed the normal line of command and safeguards. 3000 conversations concerning 150 people (7 for reasons judged to be contestable by the ensuing court process) were recorded between January 1983 and March 1986 by this anti terrorist cell at the Elysée Palace. In one of its first actions, the cell was involved in the \"Irish of Vincennes\" affair, in which it appeared that members of the cell had planted weapons and explosives in the Vincennes apartment of three Irish nationals who were arrested on terrorism charges. Most markedly, it appears that the cell, under illegal presidential orders, obtained wiretaps on journalists, politicians and other personalities who may have been an impediment for François Mitterrand's personal life. The illegal wiretapping was revealed in 1993 by Libération; the case against members of the cell went to trial in November 2004.It took 20 years for the 'affaire' to come before the courts because the instructing judge Jean-Paul Vallat was at first thwarted by the 'affaire' being classed a defence secret, but in December 1999 la Commission consultative du secret de la défense nationale declassified part of the files concerned. The Judge finished his investigation in 2000, but it still took another four years before coming on 15 November 2004 before the 16th chamber of the Tribunal correctionnel de Paris. 12 people were charged with \"atteinte à la vie privée\" (breach of privacy) and one with selling computer files. 7 were given suspended sentences and fines and 4 were found not guilty.\nThe affair finally ended before the Tribunal correctionnel de Paris with the court's judgement on 9 November 2005. 7 members of the President's anti-terrorist unit were condemned and François Mitterrand was designated as the \"inspirator and essentially the controller of the operation.\"The court's judgement revealed that François Mitterrand was motivated by keeping elements of his private life secret from the general public, such as the existence of his illegitimate daughter Mazarine Pingeot (which the writer Jean-Edern Hallier, was threatening to reveal), his cancer which had been diagnosed in 1981, and the elements of his past in the Vichy Régime which were not already public knowledge. The court judged that certain people were tapped for \"obscure\" reasons, such as Carole Bouquet's companion, a lawyer with family in the Middle East, Edwy Plenel, a journalist for le Monde who covered the Rainbow Warrior story and the Vincennes Three affair, and the lawyer Antoine Comte. The court declared \"Les faits avaient été commis sur ordre soit du président de la République, soit des ministres de la Défense successifs qui ont mis à la disposition de (Christian Prouteau) tous les moyens de l'État afin de les exécuter\" (translation: these actions were committed following orders from the French President or his various Defence Ministers who gave Christian Prouteau full access to the state machinery so he could execute the orders) The court stated that François Mitterrand was the principal instigator of the wire taps (l'inspirateur et le décideur de l'essentiel) and that he had ordered some of the taps and turned a blind eye to others and that none of the 3000 wiretaps carried out by the cell were legally obtained.On 13 March 2007 the Court of Appeal in Paris awarded a symbolic €1 in damages to the actress Carole Bouquet and €5000 to Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-Michel Beau for breach of privacy.The case was taken to the European Court of Human Rights, which gave judgement on 7 June 2007 that the rights of free expression of the journalists involved in the case were not respected.\nIn 2008 the French state was ordered by the courts to give Jean-Edern Hallier's family compensation.\n\n\n=== Rwanda ===\n\nParis assisted Rwanda's president Juvénal Habyarimana, who was assassinated on 6 April 1994 while travelling in a Dassault Falcon 50 given to him as a personal gift of François Mitterrand. Through the offices of the 'Cellule Africaine', a Presidential office headed by François Mitterrand's son, Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, he provided the Hutu regime with financial and military support in the early 1990s. With French assistance, the Rwandan army grew from a force of 9,000 men in October 1990 to 28,000 in 1991. France also provided training staff, experts and massive quantities of weaponry and facilitated arms contracts with Egypt and South Africa. It also financed, armed and trained Habyrimana's Presidential Guard. French troops were deployed under Opération Turquoise, a military operation carried out under a United Nations (UN) mandate. The operation is currently the object of political and historical debate.\n\n\n=== Bombing of the Rainbow Warrior ===\n\nOn 10 July 1985, the Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace vessel, was in New Zealand preparing to protest against French nuclear testing in the South Pacific when two explosions sank the ship, resulting in the death of freelance photographer Fernando Pereira. The New Zealand government called the bombing the first terrorist attack in the country. In mid-1985, French Defence Minister Charles Hernu was forced to resign after New Zealand authorities arrested DGSE (French intelligence services) agents who confessed to planting the explosives and later pleaded guilty.\nOn the twentieth anniversary of the sinking, it was revealed that François Mitterrand had personally authorised the mission. Admiral Pierre Lacoste, the former head of the DGSE, made a statement saying Pereira's death weighed heavily on his conscience. Television New Zealand (TVNZ) also sought access to the court video recording hearing where two French agents pleaded guilty, which they won a year later.\n\n\n== Political career ==\nPresident of the French Republic: 1981–1995. Reelected in 1988.\nGovernmental functions\n\nMinister of Veterans and War Victims: 1947–1948\nSecretary of State for Information: July–September 1948\nSecretary of State for Presidency of Council: 1948–1949\nMinister of Overseas and Colonies: 1950–1951\nMinister of State: January–March 1952\nMinister for Council of Europe: June–September 1953\nMinister of Interior: 1954–1955\nMinister of State, minister of Justice: 1956–1957Elected positions\nNational Assembly of France\nMember of the National Assembly of France for Nièvre: 1946–1958 / 1962–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Elected in 1946, reelected in 1951, 1956, 1962, 1967, 1968, 1973, 1978.\nSenate of France\nSenator of Nièvre: 1959–1962 (resignation, reelected member of the National Assembly of France in 1962). Elected in 1959.\nGeneral Council\nPresident of the General Council of Nièvre: 1964–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Reelected in 1967, 1970, 1973, 1976, 1979.\nGeneral councillor of Nièvre: 1949–1981 (resignation). Reelected in 1955, 1961, 1967, 1973, 1979.\nMunicipal Council\nMayor of Château-Chinon (Ville): 1959–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Reelected in 1965, 1971, 1977.\nMunicipal councillor of Château-Chinon (Ville): 1959–1981 (resignation). Reelected in 1965, 1971, 1977.\nPolitical function\nFirst Secretary (leader) of the Socialist Party: 1971–1981 (resignation, became President of the French Republic in 1981). Reelected in 1973, 1975, 1977, 1979.\n\n\n== Honours ==\n\n\n=== France ===\n Grand Master of the Legion of Honour\n Grand Master of the Ordre national du Mérite\n\n\n=== Foreign honours ===\n Czech Republic : Order of the White Lion I class (1999, posthumously)\n Finland : Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (1983)\n Iceland: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Falcon (12 April 1983)\n Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (July 1982)\n Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (1991)\nNorway: Grand Cross of The Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav (1984)\n Portugal: Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (29 September 1983)\n Portugal: Grand Collar of the Order of Liberty (28 October 1987)\n Poland: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland (1991)\n South Africa: Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope in 1994\n Spain: Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (10 July 1982)\n Sweden: Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (11 May 1984)\n United Kingdom: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (See List)\n Philippines: Raja of the Order of Sikatuna (11 July 1989)\n\n\n== Vexillology and heraldry ==\nPresident François Mitterrand had chosen a tree half oak half olive-tree as symbol for his presidential flag.\nPresident François Mitterrand received from King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden a coat of arms linked to the reception of the Order of the Seraphim, which reproduces this symbol.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBell, David. François Mitterrand: A Political Biography (Polity, 2005).\nBell, David S. \"The Essence of Presidential Leadership in France: Pompidou, Giscard, Mitterrand, and Chirac as Coalition Builders.\" Politics & Policy 30#2 (2002): 372-396.\nBell, David S. \"François Mitterrand: the President as 'Political Artist'.\" in David S. Bell and John Gaffney, eds. The Presidents of the French Fifth Republic (2013): 136+\nBell, David. Presidential Power in Fifth Republic France (2000) pp 149–74.\nCogan, Charles. \"Mitterrand, France, and NATO: the European transition.\" Journal of Transatlantic Studies (2011) 9#3 pp: 257–267.\nCole, Alistair. François Mitterrand: A Study in Political Leadership, London, Routledge, 1994, ISBN 0-415-07159-3.\nFriend, Julius W. \"François Mitterrand: All Sins Forgiven?.\" French Politics and Society (1996): 28–35. in JSTOR\nFriend, Julius Weis. Seven Years in France: François Mitterrand and the Unintended Revolution, 1981–1988 (Westview Press, 1989).\nLaughland, John. The Death of Politics: France Under Mitterrand (1994).\nMaclean, Mairi, ed. The Mitterrand Years: Legacy and Evaluation (1998), essays by experts.\nRoss, George. \"Machiavelli Muddling Through: The Mitterrand Years and French Social Democracy.\" French Politics and Society (1995): 51–59. in JSTOR\nRoss, George, Stanley Hoffmann, and Sylvia Malzacher, eds The Mitterrand experiment: continuity and change in modern France (Oxford University Press, USA, 1987).\nShort, Philip. Mitterrand: A Study in Ambiguity, London, Bodley Head, 2014; published in the United States as A Taste for Intrigue: The Multiple Lives of François Mitterrand\nWilsford, David, ed. Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe: A Biographical Dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 323–32\n\n\n== External links ==\nLouvre inauguration speech by Mitterrand\nFrançois Mitterrand Institute\nFrench President Poll (01/2006)\n\"Mitterrand's Legacy\" (1996) in The Nation\nSource of quoted article\nAppearances on C-SPAN", "Kristian Hindhede (surname pronounced as hin-d-her)(19 August 1891 – 8 January 1969) was a Danish civil engineer and industrialist. He was a son of the physician and nutritionist Mikkel Hindhede.\nIn the 1920s, Kristian Hindhede pioneered the use of ready-mix concrete trucks with a horizontal rotating drum mixer. He is described as the inventor of this vehicle in the Danish Who's Who Kraks Blå Bog. As early as 1916, Stephen Stepanian of Columbus, Ohio, developed a self-discharging motorized transit mixer that was the predecessor of the modern ready-mix concrete truck, but the patent that Stepanian filed in 1916 was rejected in 1919. The poor quality of motor trucks at the time was a problem for inventors.\nHindhede's company A/S De danske Betonfabrikker (later renamed KH Beton) evolved into Unicon A/S, Scandinavia's largest supplier of ready-mix concrete. It was acquired by Aalborg Portland in 1927.\n\n\n== External links ==\nHistory of Unicon", "Erik Reitzel (10 May 1941 – 6 February 2012) was a Danish civil engineer who started work in 1964 and was for many years a professor at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and at the Technical University of Denmark, in the disciplines of bearing structures and structural design.His research enabled him to discover the fundamental correlation between fracture, minimal structures and growth. This discovery makes it possible to obtain considerable savings in construction materials. Erik Reitzel is the author of books and articles on the outcomes of his research and on their practical application.Several prizes have been awarded to Erik Reitzel in Denmark and abroad for his research and work on architectural minimal structures, as well as for interesting and original solutions to major engineering projects. It was for this reason that he was awarded the Légion d’honneur at the request of French President François Mitterrand. In 1988 he was awarded the Nykredit Architecture Prize.Since 1971, Erik Reitzel, in partnership with his wife Inge Reitzel, has been a consultant engineer.\n\n\n== First prize projects ==\nWith various architects, he has participated in competitions and won several prizes, for example: \n\nThe New Parliament (Riksdag) in Stockholm, 1972\nGrande Arche in Paris, 1983; originally planned as an International Communications Centre\nThe urban plan for Husarviken, in Stockholm, 1988\nThe Danish Pavilion at Expo 92 in Seville, 1989\nCopenhagen Business School, Frederiksberg, Denmark\nVästra City in Stockholm, 1997\n\n\n== Realised projects ==\nHe has designed constructions in collaboration with various companies, cf. [1] for example: \n\nGrande Arche in Paris\nThe lift tower for Grande Arche\nAn exhibition platform in the Louvre, Paris\nThe lattice dome for Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre\nChurch at Gammel Holte (Denmark)\nThe glass pyramid for the House of Industry in Copenhagen\nA spiral-shaped bridge in the Sophienholm Park, at Kongens Lyngby (Denmark)\nA greenhouse built like a meccano system at Virum (Denmark)\nThe quasi crystal structure for the Technical University of Denmark\nThe Symbolic Globe at UNESCO, Paris\nThe royal bridge on Esrum Lake (Denmark)\nThe transport over 2 kilometres of the Terminal VL 39 building from the Kastrup Airport to Maglebylille (Denmark)\n\n\n== Publications ==\nThe Symbolic Globe UNESCO Publishing, Paris 2006. ISBN 92-3-104028-6 and ISBN 978-92-3-104028-3\nStructural Design of tall Buildings with a minimal Risk of Collapse CIB-CTBUH Proceedings to the international conference on Tall Buildings 2003, Kuala Lumpur, Publication 290, 2003. ISBN 9834128304\nThe Society seen through a Civil Engineer’s Glasses Danish Civil and Structural Science and Engineering. 2003. ISBN 8798988700\nFra sæbebobler til store bygninger (from soap bubbles to great buildings) chapter in VIDENSKABERFREMTIDEN, Villum Kann Rasmussen Fonden og Experimentarium 2003. ISBN 8798928503\nHur Nya Former Kan Uppstå (on designing new structures) Arkitekttidningen nr. 9, Stockholm 2001\nLes forces dont resultent quelques monuments Parisiens de la Fin du XXe siècle LE POUVOIR ET LA VILLE À L’ÉPOQUE MODERNE ET CONTEMPORAINE, Sorbonne 2001. ISBN 2747526100\nDe la rupture à la structure Colloque franco-danois sur Représentation de l'espace, répartition dans l'espace - sur différentes manières d'habiter, 2000. ISBN 8798781707\nGrundtræk af Bærende Konstruktioner i Arkitekturen (Bearing structures in Architecture) together with the architect Hans Friis Mathiasen, Kunstakademiets Arkitektskoles Forlag, 1999. ISBN 8787136260\nTectonics in Practice Communication at the European conference, Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, 1996\nMusikk og Konstruktjoner (Music and Structures) Article in the book: Tversnit av et Øjeblik, Oslo 1992. ISBN 8254701032\nRupture - Structure Conférence internationale sur l'Ingénieur et l'Art, Aix-en-Provence, France, 1991\nKonkurrence om Tête Défense, Paris, og projektets videre bearbejdning (the competition on Tête Défense) Arkitekten no 23, 1984\nLe Cube ouvert. Structures and foundations International conference on tall buildings. Singapore, 1984. ISBN 9971840421\nSpild og ressourcer (waste and resources) The National Museum of Denmark, 1980. ISBN 8748002763\nFra brud til form (From Fracture to Form) Polyteknisk Forlag, 1979. ISBN 8750204939\nTusindårig tradition (about the church of Gammel Holte) Ingeniøren no 49,1978\nEnergi, boliger, byggeri together with the architect Hans Friis Mathiasen, Fremad 1975. ISBN 8755705995\nOm materialeøkonomiske konstruktioner og brudlinier (minimal structures and fracture lines) Bygningsstatiske meddelelser no 2, 1975\nMaterialeøkonomiske Konstruktioner (Minimal Structures), Arkitekten no 21, 1971\n\n\n== Film ==\nThe Invisible Forces (55 minutes) producer: JJ – Film. Premiere in Paris 2002, arte 2006\nLa Sonate de la Rupture (7 minutes) producer: JJ-Film, 2000\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nhttp://www.grandearche.com/tourisme/le-monument.html\nhttp://www.eri.dk\nhttp://www.unesco.org/visit/uk/notices/reitzel.htm\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719124706/http://www.jjfilm.dk/produktioner/dokumentar/de_usynlige_kraefter/\nhttp://kubaba.univ-paris1.fr/auteurs/n_o_p_q_r_s/reitzel.htm", "Erling Christian Øverland Selvig (born 23 August 1931) is a Norwegian legal scholar and judge.\n\nHe was born in Egge as a son of manager Sverre Arthur Birger Selvig (1892–1968) and Sigfrid Øverland (1900–1984). He finished his secondary education in Levanger in 1950 and graduated with the cand.jur. degree at the University of Oslo in 1957. He was hired as a research assistant in the same year, and in 1959 he took the Master of Comparative Law degree at the University of Michigan. His first marriage lasted from 1957 to 1981, the second to deputy under-secretary of state Kirsten Ullbæk Petersen (born 1950) started in 1984.He was a research fellow from 1959 and docent from 1964, and took the dr.juris degree in 1968 on the thesis Det såkalte husbondsansvar. From 1968 to 2001 he was a professor at the University of Oslo, and he also served as dean of the Faculty of Law from 1989 to 1994. He headed the Scandinavian Institute of Maritime Law from 1973 to 1988. Notable works include The Freight Risk, Fra transportrettens og kjøpsrettens grenseland (2nd edition 1975) and Kjøpsrett (3rd edition 2006).He chaired a transport committee in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development from 1973 to 1978, was an ad hoc judge in the EFTA Court from 1997 to 2001 as well as an arbitration court judge in Norway. He has chaired several committees delivering Norwegian Official Reports. From 1986 to 2002 he was the chairman of the board of the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway.He holds an honorary degree at Stockholm University and was decorated as a Commander of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 2003.\n\n\n== References ==" ] }

{ "title": [ "1972+Nixon+visit+to+China", "Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca", "Gul Bardhan", "Alexei Ratmansky", "Lucien Petipa", "Guangzhou Ballet", "National Ballet of China", "Enkel Zhuti", "Vladislav Lantratov", "Valery Lagunov", "Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet", "Albania", "Julie Alix de la Fay" ], "text": [ "", "Ballet Folklórico de Honduras Oro Lenca is a Honduran folkloric ballet troupe in La Esperanza. It was founded in 2008 and presents dances and costumes that reflect the traditional culture of Honduras. This dance troupe hosts an annual folk dance festival, El Grande de Grandes, and represents Honduran culture internationally. It also mentors nascent dance groups in villages, towns, and cities of Honduras. In November 2015, the National Congress of Honduras designated Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación (cultural heritage of the nation), and subsequently designated Ambassadors of Art and Culture by executive decree.The original name of the group was Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca. In 2016, the group was registered in Honduras as a non-profit organization under its current name of Ballet Folklórico de Honduras Oro Lenca. In the name, Oro Lenca (Lenca Gold) references the indigenous Lenca people that enrich the culture of Intibucá. The dance group's performances, relating to Honduran and indigenous dance and culture, are meant to resurrect and sustain the historical indigenous, creole and colonial traditions of the region. Ballet Folklórico refers to traditional dance in Honduras that began its resurgence in the 1950s, initiated by the work of Honduran folklorist and native son of La Esperanza, Rafael Manzanares Aguilar.\n\n\n== History ==\nBallet Folklórico Oro Lenca was founded on December 18, 2008 in La Esperanza under the direction of Professor Johann Serén Castillo. The group initially consisted of 10 couples, and performed for the first time on May 1, 2009 in the House of Culture of La Esperanza. The group made its national debut on 21 June of the same year in the Feria Juniana, in the industrial capital of San Pedro Sula. The group continued to mature artistically, and in 2011 it won the Grand Prize in The Gran Pereke, which at that time was the largest dance festival in Honduras. In August 2013 the group obtained first place in Proyección Folklórico Jade 2013 in the National Theater Manuel Bonilla. By 2013 when it finished its first five years, Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca had performed over 90 distinct dances in more than 500 performances.On October 29, 2011 members of Oro Lenca staged a new national folk festival, El Grande de Grandes. This annual festival has grown to become the preeminent folk dance festival in Honduras attracting dance groups from all regions of Honduras. Participation has increased each year so that the festival has become an influential event in the national fabric of dance in Honduras. In 2013 La Esperanza was declared The Capital of Creole Folklore by executive decree of the Secretariat for Culture, Arts and Sports in tribute to Rafael Manzanares, officially commemorated with designation of the festival El Grande de Grandes to occur annually on the last Saturday of July. During the 2014 edition of the festival, 35 dance groups composed of 600 dancers performed, and in the 2015 edition, 50 dance groups encompassing nearly 1,500 dancers performed.\nIn September 2012, Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca began representing the country abroad, with their first annual tour for Honduran and Central American Independence Day events in Washington, D.C. In the 2012 tour they performed at the Independence Day festival organized by the Honduran Embassy. They also performed at the Organization of American States (OAS), at the World Bank headquarters, and in cultural festivals in Virginia, the District of Columbia, and Maryland. They have continued these tours in succeeding years. In November 2014, a delegation of dancers went to Chile to participate in the international festival Puerto de San Antonio. In June 2015, a dance delegation performed a repertoire of 50 dances recognized by the National Office of Folklore along with their own choreographies in Mexico City, Temascalcingo, Atizapan de Zaragoza, Tultitlan, and Orizba, and Saltillo, and represented Honduras in the Festival Mundial Tierra del Sol and the Second Festival Internacional de Orizaba\".\n On Saturday the 20th of February 2016, by special invitation of the Honduran Embassy in Nicaragua, members of the group performed at El Evento Cultural II in La Plaza de Los Colores, in Puerto Salvador Allende, Managua, Nicaragua.\n\n\n== Performances ==\nThe group specializes in dances and costumes characteristic of the towns and villages of its home region of Intibucá, in the highlands of Honduras. Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca draws its inspiration from the stories and traditions of the indigenous, colonial, and creole background of La Esperanza and Intibucá. The group works hard to re-infuse folk traditions in the local communities and their festivities. Many of their performances are in the parks, community centers and streets from which these traditions arose. Their dancers and the audiences include people whose grandparents participated in dance wearing the same costumes that Oro Lenca has resurrected.\nAs characteristic of folk art, the dances document the life and stories in traditional communities. These are stories of harvests, religious celebrations, courtship between young men and women, folk tales, illness and death, often mixed with whimsy and humor. While much of their dance concentrates on these roots, the group also experiments by mixing traditional choreographies with modern Latin forms, such as salsa and merengue, that are currently popular in Honduras. Some of their performances include a progression of all forms to span the history of Honduras from its indigenous roots to a modern society in the Americas. The presentations sometimes include only a few dances as part of a larger program or can extend up to a couple of hours on stage before a large audience.\nBallet Folklórico Oro Lenca performs not only in their local region, but also in other communities and cities in Honduras. The group often responds to requests to provide dance workshops for dance groups, especially newly forming groups, in other communities, such as Ocotepeque and Naranjito. Annually, they have helped Hispanic prisoners incarcerated in the United States celebrate their traditions. In January 2016 The Explorers Network filmed an indigenous dance performed by Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca as part of their special production La Ruta Lenca to the Golfo de Fonseca.\n\n\n== Wardrobe ==\nBallet Folklórico Oro Lenca has an extensive wardrobe of indigenous, creole, colonial, and modern dance costumes. The group has several signature costumes particular to the region. The white indigenous dance costume of La Esperanza is emblematic of the native peoples of Intibucá and Honduras. Members of the group also often perform in the traditional costume from the village of Guajiniquil in the municipality of Concepción in Intibucá. This 19th-century costume had all but vanished until it was researched and resurrected by Johann Serén in 2008. The Guajiniquil costume combines both creole and colonial influences and is recognized as an authentic regional dance costume by the Department of Protection of Cultural Heritage of the Instituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia. This costume is worn now by other dance groups in Honduras. Between 2009 and 2016, Johann Serén researched the Villa of Camasca dance costume from the municipality of Camasca. The first public appearance for this costume was at the National Palito Verde Festival in Azacualpa, Santa Barbara, on July 28, 2016 and it was received by the executive management of the Department of Culture and Arts on August 24, 2017. Annie Haylock de Orellana of La Esperanza is the exclusive tailor for the Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca. She assembles both traditional and modern costumes integral to the group's public performances.\n\n\n== El Grande de Grandes ==\nOn the last Saturday of October, Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca hosts an annual folk dance festival El Grande de Grandes. Members of the dance troupe manage all details of the festival and present awards to winning groups and dancers. Oro Lenca initially staged El Grande de Grandes in 2011, and since then it has grown into the preeminent national dance competition, which draws contestants from all parts of the country.Schools and community dance groups in Honduras host many regional and national dance competitions and festivals throughout the calendar year. Rules for competitions are defined by The National Association of Folkloric Dance Instructors of Honduras (ANIDAFH), which oversees regional and national competitions for primary and middle schools throughout Honduras. There are many folkloric competitions and festivals in Honduras every year. Notable among these are the Concurso Nacional de Danzas Folkloricas for school groups organized by ANIDAFH; the Encuentro Nacional de Danzas Folklóricas \"El Marcalino\" in Marcala, La Paz; the Festival Folklórica \"El Tomate\" in San Vicente Centenario, Santa Bárbara; the Festival Folklórico Nacional \"La Tusa\" in Nuevo Celilac, Santa Bárbara; the Festival de Las Escobas in La Paz; the Concurso Folklórico Nacional JADE in Tegucigalpa; the Festival de La Rosquilia in San Nicolás, Santa Bárbara; the Festival Regional \"Naranjos y Cafe\" in Marcala La Paz; the Festival Folklórico \"EL AMISTOSO\" in Catacamas, Olancho; the Festival Folklórico \"Bahía de Tela\" in Tela Atlantida; the Festival De Danzas Folklóricas \"SEHON\" in San Pedro Sula, Cortés; and the longest continuously running competition, the Encuentro Folklórico Nacional \"Gran Pereke\", organized by ANIDAFH.Each calendar year, El Grande de Grandes in La Esperanza is the last and largest festival, incorporating competitions at all levels. The festival has a modest entrance fee for spectators and attracts a large audience from both local and remote communities. The festival also includes speeches and recognitions of individuals and groups that support folklore investigation and education in Honduras. As host for El Grande de Grandes, Ballet Folklórico Oro Lenca does not participate as a contestant, but does present an exhibition performance during the festival. El Grande de Grandes includes several competitive levels in which groups from primary schools, high schools, graduates, and community groups compete. Each group is allowed one performance. The day starts with youngest school groups and proceeds through the levels. Prizes are awarded in each category, and the group with the highest score is awarded the grand prize for the entire competition. The judges are selected from the national dance community.\n\n\n== Marca País Honduras ==\nOn June 20, 2016, Oro Lenca along with 11 other companies and organizations from various areas of Honduras was affiliated with Marca País Honduras. This agreement allows Oro Lenca to bear the stamp of the Marca País Honduras as part of a national initiative to promote investment, exports, tourism, and national pride.\n\n\n== See also ==\nBaile Folklórico\nCulture of Honduras\nList of folk dance performance groups\nLa Esperanza, Honduras\nMusic of Honduras\n Honduras portal\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nFacebook\nInstituto Hondureño de Antropología e Historia\nMarca País Honduras", "Gul Bardhan (1928 – 29 November 2010) was a choreographer and theatre personality based in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. She was associated with the Indian People's Theatre Association. She was the co-founder of the Little Ballet Troupe. a dance and puppet company formed in Bombay in 1952, and headed by Shanti Bardhan, her husband. After the death of her husband in 1954, Gul Bardhan headed the troupe. The troupe was later renamed \"Ranga Shri Little Ballet Troupe\" and performed in different countries. She received several awards, including the Sangeet Natak Academy award and the Padma Shri (the fourth highest civilian award of India) in 2010.\n\n\n== References ==", "Alexei Osipovich Ratmansky (Russian: Алексей Осипович Ратманский, born August 27, 1968 in Leningrad) is a Russian-American choreographer and former ballet dancer. As of April 2014 he is the artist in residence at the American Ballet Theatre. From 2004 to 2008 he was the director of the Bolshoi Ballet.\n\n\n== Training and performance career ==\nRatmansky was born in St. Petersburg and trained under Pyotr Pestov and Alexandra Markeyeva at the Bolshoi Ballet School. He graduated in 1986. He then danced in Kyiv and was a principal dancer with the Ukrainian National Ballet, Royal Winnipeg Ballet and Royal Danish Ballet.\n\n\n== Choreographic and administrative careers ==\nRatmansky's choreographic career first became notable with his staging of the ballet Dreams of Japan for the State Ballet of Georgia in 1998. Dreams and Charms of Mannerism, choreographed in 1997, were both created for Nina Ananiashvili. Dreams earned the Golden Mask Award from the Theatre Union of Russia.\nRatmansky is noted for restaging traditionally classical ballets for large companies. His first three-act story ballet was Cinderella, created for the Kirov Ballet in 2002. Ratmansky's 2003 staging of The Bright Stream (also translated as \"The Limpid Stream\") for the Bolshoi Ballet led to his appointment as artistic director of that company the following year. While there he also made a full-length production of The Bolt, in 2005, and re-staged Le Corsaire and the Flames of Paris, in 2007 and 2008. The Critics' Circle in London has named the Bolshoi \"Best Foreign Company\" under Ratmansky's direction, in 2005 and 2007, and he received its National Dance Award for The Bright Stream.\nAfter his directorship at the Bolshoi, Ratmansky agreed to become the first artist in residence for the American Ballet Theatre in 2008 after negotiations with the New York City Ballet failed over the position of resident choreographer. His ballets for the New York City Ballet include Russian Seasons and Concerto DSCH, and for the American Ballet Theatre, On the Dnieper and Seven Sonatas.\nIn 2011, his choreography of Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet was premiered by the National Ballet of Canada in Toronto. Its performance in London earned Ratmansky the praise from New York Times reviewer Alastair Macaulay of being \"the most gifted choreographer specializing in classical ballet today.\"In 2014, Ratmansky took his career in a new direction when he reconstructed Marius Petipa's final revival of Paquita from the Sergeyev Collection. The reconstruction was premièred in Munich in December 2014, performed by the Bavarian State Ballet. In March 2015, he mounted his second Petipa reconstruction for American Ballet Theatre - The Sleeping Beauty, which premièred in Orange County and was later staged at the Teatro alla Scala. Ratmansky is currently reconstructing the Petipa/Ivanov 1895 staging of Swan Lake, which was premièred in Zurich in February 2016. In 2017, Ratmansky posted on Facebook that \"there is no such thing as equality in ballet,\" which was widely shared and received backlash.\n\n\n=== Choreographed works ===\n\n1988: La Sylphide-88, Duet-buff #1 & 2\n1993: Pas de Graham\n1994: The Fairy's Kiss, Alborada, Whipped Cream, 98 steps\n1995: Hurluburlu, Poor Little Things\n1996: Sarabande\n1997: Charms of Mannerism, Capriccio, Krakowyak, Old Juniet's Carriol\n1998: Dreams of Japan, Middle Duet, Poem of Extazy, Fairy's Kiss (2nd version)\n1999: Water, Chrizantemums\n2001: Turandot's Dream, Flight to Budapest, Leah, The Nutcracker\n2002: Cinderella, Vers la Flamme, The Firebird\n2003: The Bright Stream, Carnaval des Animaux, Bolero\n2004: Anna Karenina, Leah (2nd version)\n2005: The Bolt, Jeu de cartes\n2006: Russian Seasons\n2007: Le Corsaire (after Mazilier & Petipa, with Yuri Burlaka), Old Women Falling Out\n2008: Biset Variations, Pierrot Lunaire, Concerto DSCH, Flames of Paris (after Vainonen)\n2009: The Little Humpbacked Horse, Valse-Fantasie, On the Dnieper, Scuola di Ballo, Seven Sonatas\n2010: Don Quixote (after Petipa & Gorsky), Namouna, Fandango, The Nutcracker (2nd version)\n2011: Lost Illusions, Dumbarton, Psyche, Romeo & Juliet\n2012: Souvenir d'un Lieu Cher, Symphonic Dances, The Firebird (2nd version), The Golden Cockerel, Symphony No. 9\n2013: 24 Preludes, From Foreign Lands, Chamber Symphony, Piano Concerto No. 1, Cinderella (2nd version), Opera, The Tempest\n2014: Tanzsuite, Pictures at an Exhibition, Rondo Capriccioso\n2016: Serenade After Plato’s Symposium\n2017: Whipped Cream, Odessa, Songs of Bukovina\n\n\n=== Reconstructions ===\n2014: Paquita\n2015: The Sleeping Beauty\n2016: Swan Lake\n2018: Harlequinade, La Bayadère\n\n\n== Awards ==\nRatmansky received the 2005 and 2014 Prix Benois de la Danse for choreography for, respectively, Anna Karenina, put on for the Royal Danish Ballet, and Shostakovich Trilogy and The Tempest, put on for the American Ballet Theatre. He also received the 2007 Golden Mask Award for Best Choreographer for Jeu de Cartes choreographed for the Bolshoi Ballet.\nIn 2013, Ratmansky was named as the MacArthur Fellow of the year, an award that came with \"genius grant\" for \"working in any field, who \"show exceptional merit and promise for continued and enhanced creative work\". (http://www.macfound.org/fellows/900/)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nABT website\n\"Dance of Death\" by Judith Mackrell, an article in The Guardian\nArchive film of Alexei Ratmansky's Charms of Mannerism in 1999 at Jacob's Pillow", "Lucien Petipa (December 22, 1815 – July 7, 1898) was a French ballet dancer in the early 19th century (Romantic period), who was the brother of Marius Petipa, the famous ballet master of the Russian Imperial Ballet. He was born in Marseilles and died in Versailles.The son of Jean-Antoine Petipa, he was the original interpreter of many of the principal male roles during the Romantic era, working with choreographers such as Jean Coralli among others. Probably the most known role he created was Albert, duke of Sliesa (later to be known as count Albrecht) in the two-act ballet of Giselle in 1841, opposite the Italian-born ballerina Carlotta Grisi for whom the ballet was created. Between 1860 and 1868 he was maître de ballet at the Paris Opera and between 1872 and 1873 he ran the La Monnaie theater in Brussels.\n\n\n== Notable roles ==\nAlbert in Giselle (1841)\nAchmed in La Péri (1843)\n\n\n== Ballets ==\nIn 1857 Lucien Petipa staged a ballet to the music of the second version of the opera Le cheval de bronze.\nSacountala (performed on July 14, 1858 at the Paris Opera)\nGraziosa (performed on March 25, 1861 at the Paris Opera)\nLe Roi d'Yvetot (performed on December 28, 1865 at the Paris Opera)\nLe Marché des innocents (The March of the Innocents), along with his brother Marius Petipa (October 14, 1872, performed in Brussels)\nNamouna (performed on February 10, 1882 at the Paris Opera)\n\n\n== References ==", "The Guangzhou Ballet Troupe is a classical ballet company based in Guangzhou, China. In addition to works from the classical European ballet repertoire, the company performs works of classical and contemporary Chinese ballet. The company is one of the top four ballet companies in China. It was founded in 1974, and is currently headed by dancer Zhang Dandan. The company tours internationally.\n\n\n== History ==\nGuangzhou Ballet was founded in 1974 by Zhang Dandan, a former dancer with the National Ballet of China. The current company has many members who are graduates from the Beijing Dance Academy. Notable dancers in the company include Zou Guang, Tong Shusheng, Zhang Dandan Guo Fei and Qiu Lu.Members of the company are trained in the Vaganova method, following the tradition of Russian ballet introduced to China following the Communist Revolution. The Vaganova method has its origins at the Imperial Russian ballet in St. Petersburg.Guangzhou Ballet is also involved in cultural exchanges with foreign ballet choreographers, dancers, and instructors. Foreign artists and ballet coaches from France, Canada, USA, Russia, Britain, Germany and Sweden have participated in projects with the Guangzhou Ballet Troupe.\n\n\n== Guangzhou Ballet School ==\nGuangzhou Ballet School is a boarding school providing classes to students age 10 to 18. The school facilities include 16 studios, academic classrooms, a cafeteria, and a pointe shoe factory.\n\n\n== Repertoire ==\nGuangzhou Ballet has staged many ballet classics including productions of Coppélia, Don Quixote, Le Corsaire, Swan Lake, La Sylphide, the Butterfly Lovers, ballet dramas Anna Karenina, La Traviata and Romeo and Juliet, and selected scenes from Amelia Goes to the Ball, in addition to works by Ramuntcho, Rachmaninov and Bartók. Contemporary foreign works performed by the Guangzhou Ballet include Theme and Variations and Serenade by George Balanchine.\nGuangzhou Ballet has also staged the Chinese-style ballets That Day, This Moment, Lan Huahua, Goddess of the Luo River, and in 1997 The Celestial Phoenix, which won several awards from the Fifth China Drama Festival. Dancing over the Xiaoxiang River was staged in 1993 as a newly choreographed work. The Yellow River and The Dream of the Red Chamber are other Chinese ballet works performed by the company.\n\n\n== See also ==\nDance in China\n\n\n== References ==", "The National Ballet of China (NBC), known in China as the Central Ballet Troupe was founded on 31 December 1959. It is the mainland Chinese national ballet company.\nThe ballet company works from the Tianqiao Theater, this was specifically built for NBC in 1959, and it was renovated in 2001. This theatre is one of a handful of such theatres in China that specialize in ballet and opera performances.\n\n\n== History ==\nIn 1954, the first ballet school in China, Beijing Dance School, was established, and in the following years ballets such as Swan Lake and Romeo and Juliet were performed. Later in 1959 the National Ballet of China was founded as the Experimental Ballet Company of the Beijing Dance School. Two persons made their mark on both the school and the company - Dai Ailian who was the principal of the school and one of the ballet company directors, and Pyotr Gusev who instituted the Russian training system that formed the technical foundation for the company.During the Cultural Revolution, the company came under the control of Madame Mao and Dai Ailian was sidelined. In this period, Revolutionary Model dramas came to the fore, and the repertory of the company was eventually reduced to two sanctioned ballets - The Red Detachment of Women and The White Haired Girl. After the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, Ailian returned as director until 1980 and then continued as artistic adviser. The ballet company began to reform and change direction with classical Western ballet repertoire resurrected, and it also broadened its range to include more modern ballets from around the world. In 1994, Zhao Ruheng (赵汝蘅), who had been a company dancer since 1959, took over as its artistic director. In 2009, Feng Ying was appointed artistic director of the company.\n\n\n== The Company ==\nThe current director is Feng Ying (冯英), with Wang Quanxing (王全兴) as deputy, and Wang Caijun (王才军) the répétiteur. The company has its own orchestra, which is directed and conducted by Zhang Yi (张艺). Former directors include choreographer Li Chengxiang.The company employs over 70 dancers. Many NBC dancers have won gold, silver and bronze medals at various international ballet competitions.\n\n\n=== Principal dancers (2018-2019) ===\nZhang Jian (张剑)\nWang Qimin (王启敏)\nMa Xiaodong (马晓东）\n\n\n== Repertoire ==\nNBC has toured internationally and produced and performed many Chinese and Western ballets. According to its current director Feng Ying, there are three components in the repertoire of the company: Chinese ballets, 19th century Western classic, and 20th century ballet. They have also collaborated on contemporary dance pieces. Their repertoire includes:\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website (in English)\nNational Ballet of China at China.org.cn (in English)", "Enkel Zhuti is an Albanian male ballet dancer. He has a career in ballet in Italy where he has been part of a ballet troupe in Milan.\n\n\n== References ==", "Vladislav Lantratov (Russian: Владислав Валерьевич Лантратов; 8 October 1988) is a Russian principal dancer in the Bolshoi Ballet.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nLantratov was born in Moscow, Russia to a family of ballet dancers. He graduated from the Moscow Choreographic Academy in 2006, where he had studied under Leonid Zhdanov and then Ilya Kuznetsov, and joined the Bolshoi Ballet in the same year.\n\n\n== Career ==\nIn 2006 Lantratov performed in the grand pas in Raymonda, and in the same year danced in Carmen Suite and The Nutcracker. In 2007 he performed in Swan Lake and in 2008 in Yuri Grigorovich's Legend of Love. During the same year, he was in the first cast of Alexei Ratmansky's Russian Seasons at the Bolshoi (performing as one of the Pair in Blue).In 2009, Lantratov performed as the Ballet Dancer in Ratmansky's The Bright Stream. The same year he learned the parts of the Evil Genius in Swan Lake and Florent in La Esmeralda. The following year, he performed for the first time in Romeo and Juliet as Count Paris and appeared in performances of Sleeping Beauty as Prince Fortune and the Blue Bird.\nIn 2011, Lantratov performed a number of leading roles for the first time, including Lucien in Ratmansky's Lost Illusions, the Nutcracker Prince in Yuri Grigorovich's Nutcracker, and Basilio in Don Quixote. During 2011, Lantratov also danced in a gala concert in honor of Galina Ulanova in London. He has performed in the first Bolshoi casts of many ballets, including Wayne McGregor's Chroma, George Balanchine's Jewels and Yuri Possokhov's Classical Symphony. In 2013, he was chosen to be the first dancer to perform the role of Eugene Onegin at the Bolshoi Theater in John Cranko's Onegin. In 2014, Lantratov created the role of Petruchio in Jean-Christophe Maillot's Taming of the Shrew.\n\n\n== Awards ==\n2018 : Prix Benois de la Danse\n\n\n== References ==", "Valery Lagunov is a Russian choreographer.\n\n\n== Biography ==\nLagunov was born on July 2, 1942 in Moscow, Russia. In 1962 he graduated from the Moscow State Choreographic Academy where his teacher was Aleksey Yermolayev, and same year joined Bolshoi Ballet. He first appeared in Scriabiniana as Garland in 1962 and four next year played in The Sleeping Beauty as Prince. In 1966 he played as one of the shepherd boys in the Nutcracker and five years later appeared as Archon in Icarus. In 1972 he participated in the Swan Lake where he played a role of Evil genius and the same year played a role as a dance teacher in Cinderella. Three years later he appeared as Albrecht in Giselle and by 1976 played a role of black man in Mozart and Salieri. The same year he was named Merited Artist of the Russian Federation and also appeared as Don Juan in Love for Love. In 1979 he graduated from the Russian University of Theatre Arts and retired as a dancer in 1983. Since 1996 he teaches such future ballet dancers as Mikhail Lobukhin and Vladislav Lantratov.\n\n\n== References ==", "The Vaganova Academy of Russian Ballet is a school of classical ballet in St Petersburg, Russia. Established in 1738 during the reign of Empress Anna, the academy was known as the Imperial Ballet School until the Soviet era, when, after a brief hiatus, the school was re-established as the Leningrad State Choreographic Institute. In 1957, the school was renamed in honor of the pedagogue Agrippina Vaganova, who cultivated the method of classical ballet training that has been taught there since the late 1920s. Many of the world's leading ballet schools have adopted elements of the Vaganova method into their own training.\nThe Vaganova Academy is the associate school of the Mariinsky Ballet, one of the world's leading ballet companies. Students of the school have found employment with ballet and contemporary companies worldwide, such as the Bolshoi Ballet, The Royal Ballet, American Ballet Theatre and the Mikhailovsky Ballet.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe school was established as the Imperial Theatrical School by decree of the Empress Anna on 4 May 1738 with the French Ballet Master Jean-Baptiste Lande as its director. The first classes occupied empty rooms in the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and the first students were twelve boys and twelve girls. The purpose of the school was to form Russia's first professional dance company, which led to the formation of the Imperial Russian Ballet, the school becoming known as the Imperial Ballet School. The Imperial Russian Ballet is the direct predecessor of today's Mariinsky Ballet.\n\nNearly all the early teachers at the school were from Western Europe, including Franz Hilferding and Giovanni Canzianni. The first Russian teacher to join the school was Ivan Valberg. After the spread of ballet in Europe, the development of the school was influenced by a number of other teachers and methods, including Christian Johannson, a student of August Bournonville, and the Italian methods of Enrico Cecchetti, Pierina Legnani and Carlotta Brianza. Other renowned 19th-century dancers and ballet masters who taught at and were influential in the development in the school include Charles Didelot, Jules Perrot, Arthur Saint-Léon, Lev Ivanov, Marius Petipa and Mikhail Fokine.\nSince 1836, the school has been situated at 2 Rossi Street in St. Petersburg (known as Leningrad after 1924 until the collapse of the Soviet Union). The Imperial Ballet School was dissolved by the new Soviet government, but later re-established on the same site as the Leningrad State Choreographic School. The Imperial Russian Ballet was also dissolved and re-established as the Soviet Ballet. The company was later renamed the Kirov Ballet following the assassination of Sergey Kirov in 1938. Despite later being given the current name Mariinsky Ballet, the company is still commonly known as the Kirov Ballet by the majority of Western audiences and the company still use that title when touring internationally.\n\n\n== Vaganova ==\n\nAgrippina Vaganova brought perhaps the most important developments in modern Russian Ballet. She graduated from the Imperial Ballet School in 1897 and danced with the Imperial Ballet, retiring from the stage early to pursue her teaching career following the Revolution. As the Soviet government had not yet re-established the school, Vaganova began her teaching career at the privately owned School of Russian Ballet, eventually joining the new Leningrad State Choreographic School in 1920. Vaganova was to become a highly renowned ballet teacher and is most noted for authoring The Principles of Classical Dance, which outlines the training system she created and which heads the list of the numerous works produced by teachers of the school.\nVaganova's students would become some of the most famous ballet dancers of all time, and in recognition of her achievements, the school was named in her honour in 1957, six years after her death. There are a number of variations in the name of the school, but the official title in current use in the English-speaking world is Vaganova Ballet Academy.\n\n\n== Today ==\n\n\n=== Overview ===\nThe Vaganova Ballet Academy which some consider the source of modern ballet is now over 275 years old. The Academy has over 300 students. As in other similar institutions, competition for a place at the school is very fierce, with over 3,000 children auditioning each year, 300 of these being from St. Petersburg. Approximately 60 students are selected annually, with some 25 eventually graduating from the school having completed the full course of training. Students are evaluated annually as there are progressively fewer places in each grade. The school employs approximately 75 dance teachers, 30 piano teachers, 40 academic teachers and 40 accompanists. The Rector of the academy is Nikolay Tsiskaridze and the Artistic Director is Zhanna Ayupova.\n\n\n=== Auditions ===\nAuditions for the school begin in June, and children must be at least 10 years to audition.\nThe audition process is divided into three sections.\n\nAptitude: to assess the candidate's proportions, height of jump, degree of turnout and general appearance etc.\nPhysical: an examination by a specialist medical practitioner to assess the physiological possibilities of the candidate\nArtistic: to assess the candidate's musicality, rhythm, co-ordination and artistic talent\n\n\n=== Training ===\nAll students at the school begin by studying a program of dance training, secondary school level education, French language and piano lessons. As they progress through the school, the program becomes more intensive, with new subjects being added to the curriculum as the students become more advanced. In the first year, students study classical and historical dance. They progress to character dance in the fourth year and pas de deux and mime in the sixth year. At the end of the 8th year of training, all students dance in a graduation gala at the Mariinsky Theatre. The most successful students may be offered a contract with the Mariinsky Ballet company, with the majority seeking employment with ballet companies in Russia and worldwide, including leading companies such as the Bolshoi Ballet, The Royal Ballet, and the American Ballet Theatre.\n\n\n== Notable graduates ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website (in English)\nOfficial website (in Russian)\nPhoto-essay: Vaganova Ballet Academy", "Albania ( (listen) a(w)l-BAY-nee-ə; Albanian: Shqipëri or Shqipëria), officially the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea within the Mediterranean Sea and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east, Greece to the south; and maritime borders with Greece, Montenegro and Italy to the west. Tirana is its capital and largest city, followed by Durrës, Vlorë and Shkodër.\nGeographically, Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions, defined in an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi). It possesses significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps as well as the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains to the hot and sunny coasts of the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea along the Mediterranean Sea.\nHistorically, Albania has been inhabited by different civilisations over time, such as the Illyrians, Thracians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Venetians and Ottomans. The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbër in the 12th century. The Kingdom of Albania and Principality of Albania formed between the 13th and 14th centuries. Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania in the 15th century, the Albanian resistance to Ottoman expansion into Europe led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim over most of Europe. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the Balkan Wars, the modern nation state of Albania declared independence in 1912. In the 20th century, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy which formed Greater Albania before becoming a protectorate of Nazi Germany. Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II, modeled under the terms of Hoxhaism. The Revolutions of 1991 concluded the fall of communism in Albania and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania.\nPolitically, Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a developing country with an upper-middle income economy dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from centralized planning to a market-based economy. Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO, NATO, WTO, COE, OSCE, and OIC. It is an official candidate for membership in the European Union. It is one of the founding members of the Energy Community, including the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and Union for the Mediterranean.\n\n\n== Etymology ==\n\nThe term Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country. It may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of Albani (Albanian: Albanët) recorded by Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer from Alexandria, who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of Albanopolis located northeast of Durrës. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbëri or Arbëni and referred to themselves as Arbëreshë or Arbëneshë.Nowadays, Albanians call their country Shqipëri or Shqipëria. The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as \"Land of the Eagles\" and \"Children of the Eagles\".\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Prehistory ===\n\nThe first attested traces of neanderthal presence in the territory of Albania dates back to the middle and upper Paleolithic period and were discovered in Xarrë and at Mount Dajt in the adjacent region of Tirana. Archaeological sites from this period include the Kamenica Tumulus, Konispol Cave and Pellumbas Cave.\nThe discovered objects in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. They also demonstrate notable similarities with objects of the equivalent period found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and northwestern Greece.Multiple artifacts from the Iron and Bronze Ages near tumulus burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania, which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern Macedonia and Lefkada. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by Indo-European people who spoke a Proto-Greek language. Hence, a part of this historical population later moved to Mycenae around 1600 BC and properly established the Mycenaean civilisation.\n\n\n=== Antiquity ===\n\nIn ancient times, the incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples, among them numerous Illyrian tribes, Ancient Greeks and Thracians. In view of the Illyrian tribes, there is no evidence that these tribes used any collective nomenclature for themselves, while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used a common endonym. The endonym Illyrians seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in liaison with the Ancient Greeks resulting in the endonym Illyrians to be applied pars pro toto to all people of similar language and customs.\n\nThe territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of the Vjosë. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the Bryges while the south was inhabited by the Ancient Greek-speaking tribe of the Chaonians, whose capital was at Phoenice. Other colonies such as Apollonia, Epidamnos and Amantia, were established by Ancient Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC.The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe, centered in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of Albania. Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron, the son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, Teuta, inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions.\n\n\n=== Middle Ages ===\n\nThe Roman Empire was split in 395 upon the death of Theodosius I into an Eastern and Western Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the Barbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the Slavs crossed the Danube and largely absorbed the indigenous Ancient Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the Balkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century.In the 11th century, the Great Schism formalised the break of communion between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Church that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of River Shkumbin and established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 under the leadership of Progon of Kruja. The realm was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri.\nUpon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem of Kruja. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of the Byzantine Empire, under the Byzantine Doukai of Epirus or Laskarids of Nicaea.\n\nTowards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, Serbs and Venetians started to take possession over the territory. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianized.\nFew years after the dissolution of Arbanon, Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from the Despotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from Dyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down to Butrint. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta. During that time, several Albanian principalities were created, notably the Principality of Albania, Principality of Kastrioti, Lordship of Berat and Principality of Dukagjini. In the first half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania, and the League of Lezhë was held under Skanderbeg as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history.\n\n\n==== Ottoman Empire ====\n\nWith the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into Southeast Europe. They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 and erected their garrisons across Southern Albania in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania.The Albanians, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy taxes among others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the Janissary. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of Islamisation and the rapid construction of mosques which consequently modified the religious picture of Albania.\nA prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the Assembly of Lezhë until the Siege of Shkodër under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the Lord of Albania.Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe also among others financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa.\n\nWhen the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of Vlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe.The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, mostly catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century.\nSince the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers among others members of the prominent Köprülü family, Zagan Pasha, Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena however, two sultans such as Bayezid II and Mehmed III had both mothers of Albanian origin.\n\n\n=== Rilindja ===\n\nThe Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an independent nation. Modern Albanian culture flourished too, especially Albanian literature and arts, and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles.Prior to the rise of nationalism, Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries, and Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. Through literature, Albanians started to make a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future.\n\nThe victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the Russian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Treaty of Berlin. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the League of Prizren.\nThe league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the Ottoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defense of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league Committee of the Real Muslims.Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from Vilayet of Scutari. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the Kararname that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia and Herzegovina are willing to defend the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro.Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under Abdyl Frashëri, became focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets, including Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir and Ioannina, into an unified vilayet, the Albanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the Battle of Novšiće, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan.\n\n\n==== Independence ====\n\nAlbania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied with the establishment of the Senate and Government by the Assembly of Vlorë on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London. On 29 July 1913, the Treaty of London delineated the borders of the country and its neighbors, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece.Headquartered in Vlorë, the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied (Princ Vilhelm Vidi) was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet.\nIn November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land.In February 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince Wied appointed their leader, Prênk Bibë Doda, to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men, mostly from Kosovo, and northern Mirdita Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914.\n\n\n=== First Republic ===\n\nFollowing the end of the government of Fan Noli, the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King Zog I of Albania (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) served as the head of state for a seven-year term. Immediately after, Tirana was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital.The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the country was eventually replaced by another monarchy with a strong support by the fascist regime of Italy however, both maintained close relations until the Italian invasion of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure.\nIn an attempt at social modernisation, the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them.\nAfter being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943, the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency of the Kingdom of Italy governed by Victor Emmanuel III and his government. In October 1940, Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian invasion of Greece. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the German invasion. In April 1941, territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia, a strip of eastern Montenegro, the town of Tutin in central Serbia and most of Kosovo.Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government, military and law enforcement. Balli Kombëtar, which had fought against Italy, formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led National Liberation Movement of Albania.During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as the head of government.\nBy the end of the Second World War, the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur, Dukagjin and Kelmend led by Prek Cali. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 Kelmendi people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border.\n\n\n=== Communism ===\n\nIn the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the Axis Powers, the country became initially a satellite state of the Soviet Union, and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established People's Republic of Albania. Soviet-Albanian relations began to deteriorate after Stalin's death in 1953. At this point, the country started to develop foreign relations with other communist countries, among others with the People's Republic of China.\nDuring this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a railway system that completely revamped transportation.\nThe new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became cooperative, and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country.The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average, respectively. The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals, instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations, with much the same effect.\n\nToday a secular state without any official religion, religious freedoms and practices were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the waqfs along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the ulema and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone.After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda. Preaching religion carried a three to ten-year prison sentence.\nNonetheless, many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: \"The state recognizes no religion\", states the 1976 constitution, \"and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people\".\n\n\n=== Fourth Republic ===\n\nAfter forty years of communism and isolation as well as the revolutions of 1989, people, most notably students, became politically active and campaigned against the government that led to the transformation of the existing order. Following the popular support in the first multi-party elections of 1991, the communists retained a stronghold in the parliament until the victory in the general elections of 1992 led by the Democratic Party.Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the International Monetary Fund, Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes.The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees.The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police.\n\n\n=== Contemporary ===\n\nFollowing the disintegration of the communist system, Albania focussed on an active process of Westernisation with the goal of accession to the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In 2009, the country, along with Croatia, gained active membership for accession to the NATO simultaneously becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to enter the partnership for peace programme. Outside of it, it also applied to join the European Union on 28 April 2009 though it received, upon its application, an official candidate status on 24 June 2014.Between 2013 and 2017, Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections. As a Prime Minister, he implemented numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy, as well as democratising the state institutions, including the country's judiciary and law enforcement. Unemployment has been steadily reduced while having the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. Rama has also placed gender equality at the center of its agenda, since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers are female, making it the largest number of women serving in the country's history.On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with the epicenter positioned 16 km (10 mi) southwest of the town of Mamurras. The tremor was felt in Tirana and in places as far away as Taranto, Italy, and Belgrade, Serbia, while the most affected areas were the coastal city of Durrës and Kodër-Thumanë. Response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid, designed to help the Albanian people, from the Albanian diaspora and several countries around the world.On 9 March 2020, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June 2020, the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. The country's COVID-19 vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021, however, as of 11 August 2021, the total number of vaccines administered so far in Albania amounts to 1,280,239 doses.On 27 April 2021 during the 2021 parliamentary elections, the ruling Socialist Party led by Edi Rama, secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone.\n\n\n== Geography ==\n\nAlbania has an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi) and is located on the Balkan Peninsula in South and Southeast Europe. Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and the Ionian Sea to the southwest along the Mediterranean Sea. Albania lies between latitudes 42° and 39° N, and longitudes 21° and 19° E. Its northernmost point is Vërmosh at 42° 35' 34\" northern latitude; the southernmost is Konispol at 39° 40' 0\" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Sazan at 19° 16' 50\" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Vërnik at 21° 1' 26\" eastern longitude. The highest point is Mount Korab at 2,764 m (9,068.24 ft) above the Adriatic; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at 0 m (0.00 ft). The distance from the east to west is 148 km (92 mi) and from the north to south about 340 km (211 mi).\n\nFor a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest and the Skanderbeg Mountains in the centre.\nPerhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake in Southern Europe and located in northwest. In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin. Of particular concern is the Vjosë, which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe.\n\n\n=== Climate ===\n\nThe climate in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Defined by the Köppen classification, it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from mediterranean and subtropical in the western half to oceanic, continental and subarctic in the eastern half of Albania.\nThe warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the northern and eastern highlands. The mean monthly temperature ranges between −1 °C (30 °F) in winter to 21.8 °C (71.2 °F) in summer. The highest temperature of 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) was recorded in Kuçovë on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of −29 °C (−20 °F) was registered in the village of Shtyllë, Librazhd on 9 January 2017.\n\nRainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about 1,485 millimetres (58.5 inches). The mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,000 millimetres (120 inches) depending on geographical location. The northwestern and southeastern highlands receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst the northeastern and southwestern highlands as well as the Western Lowlands the more limited amount.The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least 3,100 mm (122.0 in) of rain annually. An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country, particularly on the mountains in the north and east, including the Albanian Alps and Korab Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the Ceraunian Mountains, where it can lie even beyond March.\n\n\n=== Biodiversity ===\n\nA biodiversity hotspot, Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of its geographical location at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and the great diversity in its climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most endangered species of the country, the lynx and brown bear, as well as the wildcat, gray wolf, red fox, golden jackal, egyptian vulture and golden eagle, the latter constituting the national animal of the country.\n\nThe estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo, pygmy cormorant and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the dalmatian pelican. Of particular importance are the mediterranean monk seal, loggerhead sea turtle and green sea turtle that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores.\nIn terms of phytogeography, Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom and stretches specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal and Mediterranean Region. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm namely within the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests.Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a Mediterranean and Eurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of fir, oak, beech and pine.\n\n\n=== Protected areas ===\n\nThe protected areas of Albania are areas designated and managed by the Albanian government. There are 15 national parks, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated national parks scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous two-thousanders, Valbonë Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory of 106.3 square kilometres (41.0 sq mi) within the rugged Albanian Alps in northern Albania. Shebenik-Jabllanicë National Park and Prespa National Park protect the mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the Great and Small Lakes of Prespa.\nDivjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the Mediterranean Sea, the Lagoon of Karavasta. The Ceraunian Mountains in southern Albania, rising immediately along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, characterises the topographical picture of Llogara National Park and continue on the Peninsula of Karaburun within the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park. Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that is surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and Channel of Vivari on the eastern half of the Straits of Corfu. Dajti National Park is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana.\n\n\n=== Environmental issues ===\n\nEnvironmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation. Climate change is predicted to have serious effects on the living conditions in Albania. The country is recognised as vulnerable to climate change impacts, ranked 80 among 181 countries in the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index of 2019. Factors that account for the country's vulnerability to climate change risks include geological and hydrological hazards, including earthquakes, flooding, fires, landslides, torrential rains, river and coastal erosion.As a party to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, Albania is committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45% and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of the climate change. The country has a moderate and improving performance in the Environmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2020.\nAlbania's ranking has however decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012. In 2019, Albania had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77 from 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries.\n\n\n== Governance ==\n\nAlbania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign state whose politics operate under a framework laid out in the constitution wherein the president functions as the head of state and the prime minister as the head of government. The sovereignty is vested in the Albanian people and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly.The government is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the legislative, judiciary and executive. The legislative power is held by the parliament and is elected every four years by a system of party-list proportional representation by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic suffrage by secret ballot.The civil law, codified and based on the Napoleonic Code, is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The judicial power is vested in the supreme court, constitutional court, appeal court and administrative court. Law enforcement in the country is primarily the responsibility of the Albanian Police, the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control.\nThe executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the commander-in-chief of the military and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the confidence of the parliament and is elected for a five-year term by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament, is authorized to constitute the cabinet. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers.\n\n\n=== Foreign relations ===\n\nIn the time since the end of communism and isolationism, Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs, developing and establishing friendly relations with other countries around the world. The country's foreign policy priorities are its accession into the European Union (EU), the international recognition of Kosovo and the expulsion of Cham Albanians, as well as helping and protecting the rights of the Albanians in Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Greece, Serbia, Italy and the Diaspora.Albania's admission into the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was considered by Albanian politicians to be a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy. The country has been extensively engaged with the NATO and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and the European Union (EU) in the region of the Balkans. Albania maintains strong ties with the United States ever after it supported the Albania's independence and democracy. Nowadays, both countries have signed a number of agreements and treaties. In 2007, Albania welcomed George W. Bush who became the first President of the United States ever to visit the country.\nAlbania and Kosovo are culturally, socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population in Kosovo. In 1998, the country contributed in supporting allied efforts to end the humanitarian tragedy in Kosovo and secure the peace after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.\nAlbania has been an active member of the United Nations since 1955. They country took on membership for the United Nations Economic and Social Council from 2005 to 2007 as well as in 2012. It served as vice president of the ECOSOC in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania is a full member of numerous international organisations inclusively the Council of Europe, International Organisation for Migration, World Health Organization, Union for the Mediterranean, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and La Francophonie.\n\n\n=== Military ===\n\nThe Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and constitute the military and paramilitary forces of the country. They are led by a commander-in-chief under the supervision of the Ministry of Defence and by the President as the supreme commander during wartime however, in times of peace its powers are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister.The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the sovereignty and the territorial integrity of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. Military service is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty.Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in Georgia, where it sent 3 military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009.Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China, such as tanks and SAM systems. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. Military spending has generally been low. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.\n\n\n=== Administrative divisions ===\n\nAlbania is defined within a territorial area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi) in the Balkan Peninsula. The country is divided into three regions, the Northern, Central and Southern Region, which consist of a number of counties (qarqe) and municipalities (bashkia). The highest level of administrative divisions are the twelve constituent counties, all with the same status. They are further subdivided into 61 municipalities with each of them being responsible for geographical, economic, social and cultural purposes inside the counties.The counties were created on 31 July 2000 to replace the 36 former districts. The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015, whereby municipalities were reduced to 61, while the rurals were abolished. The defunct municipalities are known as neighborhoods or villages. There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country, formerly known as localities. The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and law enforcement.The largest county in Albania, by population, is Tirana County with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is Gjirokastër County with over 70,000 people. The largest in the county, by area, is Korçë County encompassing 3,711 square kilometres (1,433 sq mi) of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is Durrës County with an area of 766 square kilometres (296 sq mi) in the west of Albania.\n\n\n== Economy ==\n\nThe transition from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist mixed economy in Albania has been largely successful. The country has a developing mixed economy classified by the World Bank as an upper-middle income economy. In 2016, it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The lek (ALL) is the country's currency and is pegged at approximately 132,51 lek per euro.\nThe cities of Tirana and Durrës constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest companies are the petroleum Taçi Oil, Albpetrol, ARMO and Kastrati, the mineral AlbChrome, the cement Antea, the investment BALFIN Group and the technology Albtelecom, Vodafone, Telekom Albania and others.\nIn 2012, Albania's GDP per capita stood at 30% of the European Union average, while GDP (PPP) per capita was 35%. Albania was one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the global financial crisis. The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to Forbes, as of December 2016, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was growing at 2.8%. The country had a trade balance of −9.7% and unemployment rate of 14.7%. The Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The economy is expected to expand in the near term, driven by a recovery in consumption and robust investments. Growth is projected to be 3.2% in 2016, 3.5% in 2017, and 3.8% in 2018.\n\n\n=== Primary sector ===\n\nAgriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the economy of Albania. It employs 41% of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the European Union, farmers are being aided through IPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards.Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, cherries, figs, sour cherries, plums, and strawberries), vegetables (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), sugar beets, tobacco, meat, honey, dairy products, traditional medicine and aromatic plants. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian. The country's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The World Bank and European Community economists report that, Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels and crustaceans.\nAlbania has one of Europe's longest histories of viticulture. The today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. During the communist era, the production area expanded to some 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres).\n\n\n=== Secondary sector ===\n\nThe secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from electronics, manufacturing, textiles, to food, cement, mining, and energy. The Antea Cement plant in Fushë-Krujë is considered one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula after Romania, and the largest oil reserves in Europe. The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the European Union (EU) in Albania. According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) as of 2016, the textile production marked an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros.Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world's leading chromium producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel and coal. The Batra mine, Bulqizë mine, and Thekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation.\n\n\n=== Tertiary sector ===\n\nThe tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the banking industry is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to privatization and the commendable monetary policy.Previously one of the most isolated and controlled countries in the world, telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector. It developed largely through privatisation and subsequent investment by both domestic and foreign investors. Eagle, Vodafone and Telekom Albania are the leading telecommunications service providers in the country.\nTourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well.The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, Lonely Planet named as a top travel destination, while The New York Times placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014.The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in the west of the country. However, the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches, and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast. Its coastline has a considerable length of 446 kilometres (277 miles). The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the Mediterranean. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the Albanian Alps, Ceraunian Mountains and Korab Mountains but also the historical cities of Berat, Durrës, Gjirokastër, Sarandë, Shkodër and Korçë.\n\n\n=== Transport ===\n\nTransportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and entities such as the Albanian Road Authority (ARRSH), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the highways and motorways in Albania, as well as the Albanian Aviation Authority (AAC), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country.\nThe international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's national flag carrier airline, Air Albania. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around Europe, Africa and Asia. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in Sarandë, Gjirokastër and Vlorë.The highways and motorways in Albania are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The Autostrada 1 (A1) represents an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway of the country. It will prospectively link Durrës on the Adriatic Sea across Pristina in Kosovo with the Pan-European Corridor X in Serbia. The Autostrada 2 (A2) is part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor as well as the Pan-European Corridor VIII and connects Fier with Vlorë. The Autostrada 3 (A3) is currently under construction and will connect, after its completion, Tirana and Elbasan with the Pan-European Corridor VIII. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated 759 kilometres (472 mi) of highway linking it with all of its neighboring countries.\nDurrës is the busiest and largest seaport in the country, followed by Vlorë, Shëngjin and Sarandë. As of 2014, it is as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic Sea with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with numerous islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece and Italy.\nThe rail network is administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare which was extensively promoted by the dictator Enver Hoxha. There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. However, a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is currently planned. The specific location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, merely makes it an important economic development project.\n\n\n== Infrastructure ==\n\n\n=== Education ===\n\nIn the country, education is secular, free, compulsory and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October, and ending in June or July. Albanian serves as the primary language of instruction in all academic institutions across the country. The study of a first foreign language is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools. The languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. The country has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 98.7%, with 99.2% for males and 98.3% for females.Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively. Pupils are required to attend school from the age of six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools with specialising in any particular field including arts, sports, languages, sciences or technology.The country's tertiary education, an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education, has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of the Bologna Process. There is a significant number of private and public institutions of higher education well dispersed in the major cities of Albania. Studies in tertiary education are organized at three successive levels which include the bachelor, master and doctorate.\n\n\n=== Health ===\n\nThe constitution of Albania guarantees equal, free and universal health care for all its citizens. The health care system of the country is currently organised in three levels, among others primary, secondary and tertiary healthcare, and is in a process of modernisation and development. The life expectancy at birth in Albania is at 77.8 years and ranks 37th in the world outperforming several developed countries. The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and ranks as well 37th in the world. The country's infant mortality rate is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. In 2000, the country had the 55th best healthcare performance in the world, as defined by the World Health Organization.Cardiovascular disease remain the principal cause of death in the country accounting 52% of total deaths. Accidents, injuries, malignant and respiratory diseases are other primary causes of death. Neuropsychiatric disease has also increased due to recent demographic, social and economic changes in the country.In 2009, the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth highest supply in Europe. In comparison to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity probably thanks to the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. According to World Health Organization data from 2016, 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically overweight, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 25 or more.\n\n\n=== Energy ===\n\nDue to its geographical location and natural resources, Albania has a wide variety of energy resources ranging from gas, oil and coal, to wind, solar and water as well as other renewable sources. Currently, the electricity generation sector of Albania is dependent on hydroelectricity simultaneously ranking fifth in the world in percentage terms. The Drin, located in the north, hosts four hydroelectric power stations, including Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejës. Two other power stations, such as the Banjë and Moglicë, are located along the Devoll in the south.Albania has considerably large deposits of oil. It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe and the 58th in the world. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Myzeqe Plain within the Western Lowlands, where the country's largest reserve is located. Patos-Marinza, also located within the area, is the largest onshore oil field in Europe.After the completion of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), Albania will be significantly connected to the planned Southern Gas Corridor, that will transport natural gas from the Caspian Sea through Albania to Europe. Withal the TAP runs for 215 kilometres (134 miles) across Albania's territory before entering the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast approximately 17 kilometres (11 miles) northwest of Fier. In 2009, the company Enel announced plans to build an 800 MW coal-fired power plant in the country, to diversify electricity sources.The water resources of Albania are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and comprise lakes, rivers, springs and groundwater aquifers. The country's available average quantity of fresh water is estimated at 1,297 cubic metres (45,803 cubic feet) per inhabitant per year, which is one of the highest rates in Europe. According to the data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access to improved sanitation.\n\n\n=== Technology ===\n\nAfter the fall of communism in 1991, human resources in sciences and technology in Albania have drastically decreased. As of various reports, during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania. In 2009, the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015. It aims to triple public spending on research and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of GDE from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of the European Union, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Albania was ranked 83rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020.Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania. Vodafone Albania, Telekom Albania and Albtelecom are the three large providers of mobile and internet in Albania. As of the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority (AKEP) in 2018, the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers. Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931,000 mobile users, Telekom Albania had about 605,000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272,000 users.\n\n\n== Demography ==\n\nAs defined by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), the population of Albania was estimated in 2020 at 2,845,955. The country's total fertility rate of 1.51 children born per woman is one of the lowest in the world. Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years; 75.8 years for males and 81.4 years for females. The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans and ranks as the 137th most populous country in the world. The country's population rose steadily from 2.5 million in 1979 until 1989, when it peaked at 3.1 million. It is forecast that the population will continue shrinking for the next decade at least, depending on the actual birth rate and the level of net migration.The explanation for the recent population decrease is the fall of communism in Albania in the late twentieth century. That period was marked by economic mass emigration from Albania to Greece, Italy and the United States. Four decades of total isolation from the world, combined with its disastrous economic, social and political situation, had caused this exodus. The external migration was prohibited outright during the communist era, while internal migration was quite limited, hence this was a new phenomenon. At least 900,000 people left Albania during this period, with about 600,000 of them settling in Greece. The migration affected the country's internal population distribution. It decreased particularly in the north and south, while it increased in the center within the cities of Tirana and Durrës.About 53.4% of the country's population lives in cities. The three largest counties by population account for half of the total population. Almost 30% of the total population is found in Tirana County followed by Fier County with 11% and Durrës County with 10%. Over 1 million people are concentrated in Tirana and Durrës, making it the largest urban area in Albania. Tirana is one of largest cities in the Balkan Peninsula and ranks seventh with a population about 400,000. The second largest city in the country by population is Durrës, with a population of 113,000, followed by Vlorë with a population of 104,513.\n\n\n=== Minorities ===\n\nIssues of ethnicity are a delicate topic and subject to debate. Contrary to official statistics that show an over 97 per cent Albanian majority in the country, minority groups (such as Greeks, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Roma and Aromanians) have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. According to the disputed 2011 census, ethnic affiliation was as follows: Albanians 2,312,356 (82.6% of the total), Greeks 24,243 (0.9%), Macedonians 5,512 (0.2%), Montenegrins 366 (0.01%), Aromanians 8,266 (0.30%), Romani 8,301 (0.3%), Balkan Egyptians 3,368 (0.1%), other ethnicities 2,644 (0.1%), no declared ethnicity 390,938 (14.0%), and not relevant 44,144 (1.6%). On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities stated that \"the results of the census should be viewed with the utmost caution and calls on the authorities not to rely exclusively on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities.\".Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities: Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples. Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews. Regarding the Greeks, \"it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania\". The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania. According to Ian Jeffries, most of Western sources put the number at around 200,000. The 300,000 mark is supported by Greek government as well. The CIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9% of the total population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17%, and other minorities 0.23%, of the population. The latter questions the validity of the census data about the Greek minority, due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott.Macedonians and some Greek minority groups have sharply criticised Article 20 of the Census law, according to which a $1,000 fine will be imposed on anyone who will declare an ethnicity other than what is stated on his or her birth certificate. This is claimed to be an attempt to intimidate minorities into declaring Albanian ethnicity; according to them the Albanian government has stated that it will jail anyone who does not participate in the census or refuse to declare his or her ethnicity. Genc Pollo, the minister in charge has declared that: \"Albanian citizens will be able to freely express their ethnic and religious affiliation and mother tongue. However, they are not forced to answer these sensitive questions\". The amendments criticized do not include jailing or forced declaration of ethnicity or religion; only a fine is envisioned which can be overthrown by court.Greek representatives form part of the Albanian parliament and the government has invited Albanian Greeks to register, as the only way to improve their status. On the other hand, nationalists, various organisations and political parties in Albania have expressed their concern that the census might artificially increase the numbers of the Greek minority, which might be then exploited by Greece to threaten Albania's territorial integrity.\n\n\n=== Language ===\n\nThe official language of the country is Albanian which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk, though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Also a dialect of Greek that preserves features now lost in standard modern Greek is spoken in areas inhabited by the Greek minority. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Serbian, Macedonian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Gorani, and Roma. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.8% of the population declared Albanian as their mother tongue (mother tongue is defined as the first or main language spoken at home during childhood).\n\nIn recent years, the shrinking number of pupils in schools dedicated to the Greek minority has caused problems for teachers. The Greek language is spoken by an important percentage in the southern part of the country, due to cultural and economic links with adjacent Greece. In a 2017 study carried out by Instat, the Albanian government statistical agency, 39.9% of the 25–64 years old is able to use at least one foreign language, with English first at 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors.Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, and with two-thirds of mainly Albanian families having at least one member that speaks Greek, most having learned it in the post communist era (1992–present) due to private schools or migration to Greece. Outside of the small designated \"minority area\" in the south the teaching of Greek was banned during the communist era. As of 2003 Greek was offered at over 100 private tutoring centers all over Albania and at a private school in Tirana, the first of its kind outside Greece.Young people have shown a growing interest in German language in recent years. Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better. Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis. Young people, attracted by economic importance of Turkish investments and common values between the two nations, gain from cultural and academic collaboration of universities.\n\n\n=== Religion ===\n\nAs of the 2011 census, there were 1,587,608 (56.7%) Sunni Muslims, 280,921 (10.03%) Roman Catholics, 188,992 (6.75%) Eastern Orthodox, 58,628 (2.09%) Bektashi Muslims, 3,797 (0.14%) Evangelicals, 1,919 (0.07%) other Christians, 602 (0.02%) of other religions and 153,630 (5.49%) believers without denomination in Albania. 69,995 people (2.5%) were irreligious while 386,024 (13.79%) did not declare their religion. Albania is nevertheless ranked among the least religious countries in the world. Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population. In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God and 40% believed in life after death. However, 40% believed in hell, while 42% believed in heaven.The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to give widely different results, with 70% of respondents refusing to declare belief in any of the listed faiths. The Albanian Orthodox Church officially refused to recognize the results, claiming that 24% of the total population adhered to its faith. Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data claiming that many Muslims were not counted and that the number of adherents numbered some 70% of the Albanian population. The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on the census, complaining that many of its believers were not contacted. The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country. Orthodox and Bektashis are mostly found in the south, whereas Catholics mainly live in the north. In 2008, there were 694 Catholic churches and 425 orthodox churches, 568 mosques and 70 bektashi tekkes in the country.\n\nAlbania is a secular and religiously diverse country with no official religion and thus, freedom of religion, belief and conscience are guaranteed under the country's constitution.During classical times, there are thought to have been about seventy Christian families in Durrës, as early as the time of the Apostles. The Archbishopric of Durrës was purportedly founded by Paul the Apostle, while preaching in Illyria and Epirus. Meanwhile, in medieval times, the Albanian people first appeared within historical records from the Byzantines. At this point, they were mostly Christianised. Islam arrived for the first time in the late 9th century to the region, when Arabs raided parts of the eastern banks of the Adriatic Sea. It later emerged as the majority religion, during centuries of Ottoman rule, though a significant Christian minority remained.\nDuring modern times, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had an official religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion. The country was then officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom has returned, however, since the end of communism.\nIslam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania. Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals and several Protestant communities including Seventh-day Adventist Church, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned to Tirana in 1853, where he preached Protestantism. Due to that, he was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 Albanian Jews left in the country.\n\n\n== Culture ==\n\n\n=== Symbols ===\n\nAlbania shares many symbols associated with its history, culture and belief. These include the colours red and black, animals such as the golden eagle living across the country, costumes such as the fustanella, plis and opinga which are worn to special events and celebrations, plants such as the olive and red poppy growing as well across the country.\nThe flag of Albania is a red flag with a black double-headed eagle positioned in the centre. The red colour used in the flag symbolises the bravery, strength and valour of the Albanian people, while the black colour appears as a symbol of freedom and heroism. The eagle has been used by Albanians since the Middle Ages including the establishment of the Principality of Arbër and by numerous noble ruling families such as the Kastrioti, Muzaka, Thopia and Dukagjini. Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, who fought and began a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire which halted Ottoman advance into Europe for nearly 25 years, placed the double-headed eagle on his flag and seal.The country's national motto, Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar (\"You Albania, you give me honour, you give me the name Albanian\"), finds its origins in the Albanian National Awakening. The first to express this motto was Naim Frashëri in his poem Ti Shqipëri më jep nder.\n\n\n=== Arts ===\n\nThe artistic history of Albania has been particularly influenced by a multitude of ancient and medieval people, traditions and religions. It covers a broad spectrum with mediums and disciplines that include painting, pottery, sculpture, ceramics and architecture all of them exemplifying a great variety in style and shape, in different regions and period.\nThe rise of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empire in the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art in the lands of Albania which are apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout the country. Centuries later, the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. However, Onufri, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art.\n\nThe architecture of Albania reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to the classical antiquity. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays, the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of various architectural styles. In the 20th century, many historical as well as sacred buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during the communist era.Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania and most visible in Byllis, Amantia, Phoenice, Apollonia, Butrint, Antigonia, Shkodër and Durrës. Considering the long period of rule of the Byzantine Empire, they introduced castles, citadels, churches and monasteries with spectacular wealth of visible murals and frescos. Perhaps the best known examples can be found in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of Korçë, Berat, Voskopojë and Gjirokastër. Involving the introduction of Ottoman architecture there was a development of mosques and other Islamic buildings, particularly seen in Berat and Gjirokastër.\n\nA productive period of Historicism, Art Nouveau and Neoclassicism merged into the 19th century, best exemplified in Korçë. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern Italian style, which is present in Tirana such as the Skanderbeg Square and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodër, Vlorë, Sarandë and Durrës. Moreover, other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences.\nSocialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Albania after the Second World War. At this period many socialist-styled complexes, wide roads and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished. Notable examples of that style include the Mother Teresa Square, Pyramid of Tirana, Palace of Congresses and so on.\nThree Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These include the ancient remains of Butrint, the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër, and Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region site shared with North Macedonia since 2019. Furthermore, the royal Illyrian tombs, the remains of Apollonia, the ancient Amphitheatre of Durrës and the Fortress of Bashtovë has been included on the tentative list of Albania.\n\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nThroughout the centuries, Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by Albanian culture, geography and history, and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specific regional cuisines. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south, owing to differing topography and climate that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs, fruits, and vegetables.Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs, and most notably, olives, which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary, and thyme are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, as well as legumes of all types.\nWith a coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian in the Mediterranean Sea, fish, crustaceans, and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise, lamb is the traditional meat for different holidays and religious festivals for both Christians and Muslims, although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply.\n\nTavë kosi (\"soured milk casserole\") is the national dish of Albania, consisting of lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish, made up of peppers, tomatoes, and cottage cheese. Pite is also popular, a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë (curd) or mish (ground meat).\nPetulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served with powdered sugar or feta cheese and different sorts of fruit jams. Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream. Krofne, similar to Berliner doughnuts, are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during cold winter months.\nCoffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world. Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafés, bars, or restaurants. Çaj Mali (Sideritis tea) is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties. Black tea with a slice of lemon and sugar, milk, or honey is also popular.\nAlbanian wine is also common throughout the country, and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production, and belongs to the Old World of wine producing countries. Its wine is characterized by its sweet taste and traditionally indigenous varieties.\n\n\n=== Media ===\n\nThe freedom of press and speech, and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution of Albania. Albania was ranked 84th on the Press Freedom Index of 2020 compiled by the Reporters Without Borders, with its score steadily declining since 2003. Nevertheless, in the 2020 report of Freedom in the World, the Freedom House classified the freedoms of press and speech in Albania as partly free from political interference and manipulation.Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) is the national broadcaster corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations in the country. The three major private broadcaster corporations are Top Channel, Televizioni Klan and Vizion Plus whose content are distributed throughout Albania and beyond its territory in Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking territories.Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's declaration of independence. The first movie theater exclusively devoted to showing motion pictures was built in 1912 in Shkodër by an Austrian distribution company with strong efforts by Albanian painter Kolë Idromeno. The opening of other movie theaters followed by 1920 in Shkodër, Berat, Tirana and Vlorë.During the Peoples Republic of Albania, Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration of the Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re in Tirana. In 1953, the Albanian-Soviet epic film, the Great Warrior Skanderbeg, was released chronicling the life and fight of the medieval Albanian hero Skanderbeg. It went on to win the international prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival. In 2003, the Tirana International Film Festival was established, the largest film festival in the country. Durrës is host to the Durrës International Film Festival, the second largest film festival, taking place at the Durrës Amphitheatre.\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\nAlbanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overall Albanian music. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northern Gheg varieties, and southern Lab and Tosk varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music.\nMany songs concern events from Albanian history and culture, including traditional themes of honour, hospitality, treachery, and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians, Neço Muka and Koço Çakali, in Paris, during their work with Albanian soprano Tefta Tashko-Koço. Several gramophone compilations were recorded at the time by the three artists, which eventually led to the recognition of Albanian iso-polyphony as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH). The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including Vaçe Zela and Parashqevi Simaku. It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere, composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public.\nContemporary artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Era Istrefi, Dua Lipa, Ava Max, Bleona, Elvana Gjata, Ermonela Jaho, and Inva Mula have achieved international recognition for their music, while soprano Ermonela Jaho has been described by some as the \"world's most acclaimed soprano\". Albanian opera singer Saimir Pirgu was nominated for the 2017 Grammy Award.\n\n\n=== Traditional clothing ===\n\nEvery cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of costume that vary in style, material, color, shape, detail, and form. Presently, national costumes are most often worn during special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious holidays, weddings, and by performing dance groups. Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. Clothing was traditionally made mainly from local materials such as leather, wool, linen, hemp fibre, and silk; Albanian textiles are still embroidered in elaborate ancient patterns.\n\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nThe Albanian language comprises an independent branch and is a language isolate within the Indo-European family of languages; it is not connected to any other known living language in Europe. Its origin is conclusively unknown, but it is believed to have descended from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language.The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the Catholic region in the northern of Albania, but also of the Orthodox in the south. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric Gjon Buzuku translated the Catholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian what Martin Luther had done for German. Meshari (The Missal) written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century.\nThe earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae, Archbishop of Antivari, who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books although their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include: a baptism formula (Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit) from 1462, written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of Durrës, Pal Engjëlli; a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff, a German who had travelled through Albania, and a 15th-century fragment of the Bible from the Gospel of Matthew, also in Albanian, but written in Greek letters.\n\nAlbanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who in his book Siege of Shkodër (Rrethimi i Shkodrës) from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (in vernacula lingua) as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (History of Skanderbeg) from 1508. The History of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness.\nDuring the 16th and the 17th centuries, the catechism (E mbësuame krishterë) (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written by Lekë Matrënga, (Doktrina e krishterë) (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (Rituale romanum) 1621 by Pjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry, an apology for George Castriot (1636) by Frang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary and folklore creations, the theological-philosophical treaty Cuneus Prophetarum (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by Pjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages, were published in Albanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Ismail Kadare. He has been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature several times.\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\nAlbania participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games since the games of 1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from 1987 to 2013.\n\nPopular sports in Albania include Football, weightlifting, basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming, rugby union and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the Football Association of Albania (Albanian: Federata Shqiptare e Futbollit, F.SH.F.), which was created in 1930 and has membership in FIFA and UEFA. Football arrived in Albania early in the 20th century when the inhabitants of the northern city of Shkodër were surprised to see a strange game being played by students at a Christian mission.\nThe Albania national football team, ranking 51st in the World in 2017 (highest 22nd on 22 August 2015) have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000, but had never participated in any major UEFA or FIFA tournament, until UEFA Euro 2016, Albania's first ever appearance at the continental tournament and at a major men's football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat Romania by 1–0 in a UEFA Euro 2016 match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs in the country are Skënderbeu, KF Tirana, Dinamo Tirana, Partizani and Vllaznia.\nWeightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the European Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the World Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in 1972 a gold in 2002 a silver and in 2011 a bronze medal.\n\n\n=== Diaspora ===\n\nHistorically, the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. The Albanian diaspora has been formed since the late Middle Ages, when they emigrated to places such as Italy, especially in Sicily and Calabria, and Greece to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of Albania. Following the fall of communism, large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Scandinavia, Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United States. Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of North Macedonia, the east of Montenegro, Kosovo in its entirety and southern Serbia. In Kosovo, Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the country. Altogether, the number of ethnic Albanian living abroad its territory is estimated to be higher than the total population inside the territory of Albania.\n\n\n== See also ==\nOutline of Albania\nIndex of Albania-related articles\nBibliography of Albania\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website\nAlbania. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\nAlbania from UCB Libraries GovPubs\n Wikimedia Atlas of Albania\nAlbania at Curlie\n Geographic data related to Albania at OpenStreetMap\nKey Development Forecasts for Albania from International Futures", "Léonne-Julie Alix de la Fay, also known as Julianne Bournonville and Madame Alix (14 December 1748 – 14 March 1826), was a French ballet dancer and dance instructor. She played an important part in the development of the Royal Swedish Ballet. She was the sister of the famous ballet dancer Antoine Bournonville and the aunt of August Bournonville.\n\n\n== Life and career ==\nShe was born Léonne-Julie Bournonville in Brussels, Austrian Netherlands, in 12 December 1748, as the child of the French actors Louis-Amable Bournonville and Jeanne Evrard, members of the theatre troupe of Charles-Simon Favart. \nShe accompanied her parents to Lyon in the troupe of Noverre in 1759-60 and debuted in La Ciaconne by Jean Dupré in Vienne in 1765. \nShe performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg under Gasparo Angiolini, and in Cassel in 1772-81.\nShe arrived in Sweden in 1782, where she joined the Royal Swedish Ballet at the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm. In 1783, she was made premier dancer. On 8 February that same year, she married Claude Alix de la Faye, the French dentist of the queen - in contrast with many other contemporary female dancers who married men with a different profession to their own, she continued to be active in her profession after her marriage. She was commonly known as \"Madame Alix\".She gave her last performance in 1798, in the opera Cora och Alonzo (Cora and Alonzo), and was granted retirement with a pension for life on condition that she continued to be active as a dancing instructor. She had been doing this for years anyway, training students to perform pantomime ballet in a similar way to that of Anne Marie Milan Desguillons, who taught students to perform children's plays, and de la Fay duly continued as an instructor after her retirement.She died in Stockholm in 1826, aged 77.\n\n\n== See also ==\nGiovanna Bassi\nLouis Gallodier\n\n\n== References ==\nÖsterberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare. Lund: Signum 1990. (ISBN 91-87896-03-6) (in Swedish)\nCertaines biographies la dissent née à Bruxelles, d'autres indiquent Ath ou Hal. L'extrait de l'acte de mariage de Claude Alix de La Faye et de Julie Bournonville (Stockholm, 8 février 1783, Chapelle française) indique : « Lëonne Julie Bournonville, native de la paroisse de Notre Dame de Hatte entre Gand et Bruxelles, fille majeure de feu Monsieur Louis Amable Bournonville, officier au service de France, et de Dame Jeanne Evrar ». La seule commune entre Bruxelles et Gand dont la pronunciation pourrait faire penser à Hatte est Haaltert. (in French)\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nJulie Alix de la Fay at Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon" ] }

{ "title": [ "Breaking Benjamin discography", "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go", "Jessica Simpson discography", "A-side and B-side", "Return of the Mack (album)", "Pet Shop Boys discography", "Mandy Moore discography", "Wham!", "Nelly Furtado discography", "David Cook (album)", "Gackt discography" ], "text": [ "The American rock band Breaking Benjamin has released six studio albums, two compilation albums, three extended plays, 23 singles and 15 music videos. The group has sold over seven million units in the United States alone, with three platinum records, two gold records, two multi-platinum singles, three platinum singles, and five gold singles as designated by the RIAA. The band signed with Hollywood Records in 2002 following the success of their independently released eponymous EP, and began recording their first full-length major-label debut Saturate shortly thereafter. The record peaked at number two on the US Top Heatseekers chart and number 136 on the US Billboard 200. It was certified gold more than 13 years later. The band's sophomore effort, We Are Not Alone, released in 2004, peaked at number 20 on the US Billboard 200, and was later certified platinum in the United States and gold in New Zealand. Breaking Benjamin's third studio album Phobia was released in 2006 and reached number two on the US Billboard 200, number one on the US Digital Albums chart, number one on the US Top Rock Albums chart, and was certified platinum nearly three years after its release. Breaking Benjamin released their fourth record in late 2009 titled Dear Agony, reaching number one on the US Top Hard Rock Albums and US Top Alternative Albums charts, number two on the US Top Rock Albums and US Digital Albums charts, and number four on the US Billboard 200. The record was certified gold three months after its release and was eventually certified platinum seven years later.\nNear the end of a tour supporting Dear Agony, front man Benjamin Burnley announced that he was ill and thereby no longer able to tour, placing the band on indefinite hiatus. During this time, guitarist Aaron Fink and bassist Mark Klepaski unilaterally permitted the compilation, recording, and release of Shallow Bay: The Best of Breaking Benjamin and a remix of the song \"Blow Me Away\" featuring Sydnee Duran of Valora. Burnley, asserting that the two had acted without consulting him, fired Fink and Klepaski. Shortly after the legal matters were settled in 2013, drummer Chad Szeliga announced his departure due to \"creative differences\". Shallow Bay was released in 2011, despite Burnley publicly opposing it, who said content had been altered without his consent and did not meet his standards. It went on to top the US Top Hard Rock Albums chart in three consecutive years, from 2011 to 2013.\nIn 2014, Burnley announced the band's reformation with a completely new lineup. Later in early 2015, the band announced a fifth full-length studio album titled Dark Before Dawn which was released in the summer of 2015, and debuted atop the US Billboard 200, the first to reach number one on that chart.\n\n\n== Albums ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n=== Extended plays ===\n\n\n== Singles ==\nNotes\n\nA ^ \"Until the End\" did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 but did peak at number 22 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which is an extension of the Billboard Hot 100.\nB ^ The remixed version of \"Blow Me Away\" featuring Valora did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 but did peak at number 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which is an extension of the Billboard Hot 100.\nC ^ \"Red Cold River\" did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 but did peak at number five on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which is an extension of the Billboard Hot 100.\n\n\n== Other charted or certified songs ==\nNotes\n\nD ^ \"Dear Agony\" did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 but did peak at number 21 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which is an extension of the Billboard Hot 100.\nE ^ \"Blow Me Away\" did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 but did peak at number one on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which is an extension of the Billboard Hot 100.\n\n\n== Music videos ==\n\n\n== References ==", "\"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\" is a song by the English duo Wham!, first released as a single in the UK on 14 May 1984. It became their first UK and US number one hit. It was written and produced by George Michael. The single was certified Platinum in the US, which at the time commemorated sales of over two million copies. The music video features Michael and Ridgeley wearing oversized message T-shirts (\"CHOOSE LIFE\") created by Katharine Hamnett, starting a craze covered in the 2002 VH1 series I Love the 80s.The song was ranked number 28 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of the '80s.\n\n\n== History ==\nMichael's inspiration for the song was a scribbled note that his bandmate Andrew Ridgeley had left for his parents, intended to read \"wake me up before you go\" but with \"up\" accidentally written twice, so Ridgeley wrote \"go\" twice on purpose.\nIn 1984, George Michael had this to say on the development of the song:\n\nI just wanted to make a really energetic pop record that had all the best elements of Fifties and Sixties records, combined with our attitude and our approach, which is obviously more uptempo and a lot younger than some of those records. It's one of those tracks that gets rid of a lot of your own personal influences; it reminds me of so many different records that I couldn't actually nail them down. I'd done a demo at home that just had a bass line and a vocal on it. Usually, I write the record in my head; I know what all the parts are going to be and I sing them to all our musicians. And it was great. ... We actually did it as a rehearsal. We used a LinnDrum because the drummer was late, and it was such a good track that we kept it.\nIt was recorded within two days at Sarm West Studio 2 in London, with a live rhythm section. The song, according to Michael, had been done in one take without any drop-ins (overdubs) at all - production-wise, he noted that the two options to him were \"either to be like Trevor Horn and go for stunning sounds on your own, or just get a great sound on each instrument and go for a live take\".The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number four – after much hype from the duo claiming they would go straight in at number one, which was a rare occurrence then – and climbed to the top spot seven days later, staying there for two weeks. The song also went to the top of the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, holding the top spot for three weeks.\nThe UK sleeve was designed by Peter Saville, with photography by Trevor Key.\n\n\n== Music video ==\nThe music video for the song was directed by Andy Morahan. It showcases the band performing for an audience of mostly teenagers at Brixton Academy in South London. The band was wearing Katharine Hamnett t-shirt designs that said \"CHOOSE LIFE\".\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nAll tracks are written by George Michael.Note: The US 7-inch single (Columbia 04552) has identical track listing.It was also released as a CD single in 1999\n\n\n== Chart performance ==\n\n\n== Certifications ==\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1984\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\" official music video on YouTube\nSong review from AllMusic", "American singer Jessica Simpson has released seven studio albums, four compilation albums, three video albums, nineteen singles, and fifteen music videos. Her debut album, Sweet Kisses (1999), was released through Columbia Records, reached number 25 on the US Billboard 200 albums chart, and was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album sold 1.9 million copies in the US and produced three singles. Simpson's debut single, \"I Wanna Love You Forever\", reached number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA. In 2001, Simpson released her second studio effort, titled Irresistible, which failed to match the success of Sweet Kisses. With estimated sales of over 900,000 copies, Irresistible peaked at number 6 in the United States. Her third studio album, In This Skin, was released in August 2003. Guided by the publicity of her reality TV show, Newlyweds, that album became the best-selling effort of her career, achieving a peak position of number 2 and triple platinum certification in the US. By 2009, In This Skin had sold 3 million copies in the US and produced four singles. In 2004, Simpson released her fourth studio and her first Christmas album, Rejoyce: The Christmas Album. It reached number 14 in the US and was certified gold by the RIAA. As of February 2009, Rejoyce has sold 669,000 copies in the US.In 2006, following a move to Epic Records, Simpson released her fifth studio album, A Public Affair. The album debuted and peaked at number 5 in the US and was certified gold by the RIAA. A Public Affair has sold just over 500,000 copies in the US and spawned three singles. The album's title track, the second single from the album, reached number 14 on the Hot 100 and topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. The single was eventually certified gold by the RIAA. After deciding to return to her roots of country music in 2008, Simpson signed a record deal with Columbia Nashville, the country imprint of Columbia Records, and released Do You Know, her sixth studio and first country album. The album debuted at number 4 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart, and has shifted 350,000 copies. Simpson had departed from Sony Music by 2010 and signed a record deal with Eleveneleven records. In October 2010, Sony released a compilation album entitled Playlist: The Very Best of Jessica Simpson. Her seventh studio and second holiday album, Happy Christmas, was released in November 2010 through Primary Wave. The album peaked at number 123 on the Billboard 200.\n\n\n== Albums ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n=== Box sets ===\n\n\n== Singles ==\n\n\n=== As main artist ===\n\n\n=== Promotional singles ===\n\n\n== Other charted songs ==\n\n\n== Other appearances ==\n\n\n== Videography ==\n\n\n=== Music videos ===\n\n\n== Notes ==\nNotes\n\nA^ : \"Angels\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 6 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.\nB^ : \"I Belong to Me\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 10 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.\nC^ : \"Remember That\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 1 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.\nD^ : \"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100, but peaked at number 21 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nJessica Simpson videography at MTV.com\nJessica Simpson discography at AllMusic", "The A-side and B-side are the two sides of phonograph records and cassettes; these terms have often been printed on the labels of two-sided music recordings. The A-side usually features a recording that its artist, producer, or record company intends to be the initial focus of promotional efforts and radio airplay and hopefully become a hit record. The B-side (or \"flip-side\") is a secondary recording that typically receives less attention, although some B-sides have been as successful as, or more so than, their A-sides.\nUse of this language has largely declined in the 21st century as the music industry has transitioned away from analog recordings towards digital formats without physical sides, such as CDs, downloads and streaming. Nevertheless, some artists and labels continue to employ the terms A-side and B-side metaphorically to describe the type of content a particular release features, with B-side sometimes representing a \"bonus\" track or other material. The term B-side carries a more expansive definition in the K-pop industry, referring to all tracks on an album that are not marketed as title tracks.\n\n\n== History ==\nThe first sound recordings were produced in the late 19th century using cylinder records, which held approximately two minutes of audio stored upon a single round surface. One-sided disc records made of shellac co-existed with cylinders and had a similar capacity. In 1908, Columbia Records introduced double-sided recordings with one selection on each side in European markets. Although cylinders and discs remained comparable and competitive for a time (by 1910, both media were able to hold between three and four minutes of sound), discs ultimately superseded the cylinder format, rendering it obsolete by 1912, largely due to its shorter play times. By the mid-1920s, double-sided shellac discs playing at 78 rpm (and known as \"78s\") had become an industry standard.\nRecord producers did not initially have reason to value either side of double-sided records as being more important than the other. There were no record charts until the 1930s, and most radio stations did not broadcast recorded music until the 1950s, when the Top 40 radio format overtook full-service network radio). In June 1948, Columbia Records introduced the modern 331⁄3 rpm long-playing (LP) microgroove vinyl record for commercial sales, and its rival RCA Victor, responded the next year with the seven-inch 45 rpm vinylite record, which would quickly replace the 78 for single record releases. The term \"single\" came into popular use with the advent of vinyl records in the early 1950s. During this period, most record labels would designate one song an A-side and the other a B-side at random. (All records have specific identifiers for each side in addition to the catalog number for the record itself; the \"A\" side would typically be assigned a sequentially lower number.) Under this random system, many artists had so-called \"double-sided hits\", where both songs on a record made one of the national sales charts (in Billboard, Cashbox, or other magazines), or would be featured on jukeboxes in public places.\nConventions shifted in the early 1960s, at which point record companies started assigning the song they wanted radio stations to play to side A, as 45 rpm single records (\"45s\") dominated most markets in terms of cash sales in comparison to albums, which did not fare as well financially. Throughout the decade the industry would slowly shift to an album-driven paradigm for releasing new music; it was not until 1968 that the total production of albums on a unit basis finally surpassed that of singles in the United Kingdom. In the late 1960s, stereo versions of pop and rock songs began appearing on 45s. However, since the majority of the 45s were played on AM radio stations that were not yet equipped for stereo broadcast, stereo was not a priority. Nevertheless, FM rock stations did not like to play monaural content, so the record companies adopted a protocol for promotional recordings for disc jockeys with the mono version of a song on one side and a stereo version of the same song on the other. By the early 1970s, album sales had increased and double-sided hit singles had become rare. Record companies started to use singles as a means of promoting albums; they frequently placed album tracks that they wished to promote on side A and less accessible, non-album, instrumental songs on side B. In order to ensure that radio stations played the side that the record companies wanted to promote, they often marked one side of a record's label as a \"plug side\".\nThe distinction between the two sides became less meaningful after the introduction of cassettes and compact disc singles in the late 1980s when 45 rpm vinyl records began to decline. At first, cassette singles would often have one song on each side, matching the arrangement of vinyl records. Eventually though, cassette maxi-singles containing more than two songs became more popular. As the one-sided audio compact disc became the dominant recording medium in the late 1990s, cassettes began vanishing and the A-side/B-side dichotomy became virtually extinct. The term \"B-side\" continued to enjoy varying levels of use in reference to the \"bonus\" tracks or \"coupling\" tracks on a CD single.\nIn the following decades, the industry largely shifted away from physical media towards digital music distribution formats, further diminishing the relevance of terminology or marketing strategies based on \"sides\". Today, companies label non-album songs and tracks deemed less desirable or marketable using terms such as \"unreleased\", \"bonus\", \"non-album\", \"rare\", \"outtakes\", or \"exclusive\". Such material is sometimes grouped for downloading or streaming together into \"bonus\" or \"extended\" versions of an artist's albums on digital music platforms.\n\n\n== Significance ==\nB-side songs may be released on the same record as a single to provide extra \"value for money\". There are several types of material commonly released in this way, including a different version (e.g., instrumental, a cappella, live, acoustic, remixed version or in another language), or, in a concept record, a song that does not fit into the story line.Additionally, it was common in the 1960s and 1970s for longer songs, especially by soul, funk, and R&B acts, to be broken into two parts for single release. Examples of this include Ray Charles's \"What'd I Say\", the Isley Brothers' \"Shout\", and a number of records by James Brown, including \"Papa's Got a Brand New Bag\" and \"Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud\". Typically, \"part one\" would be the chart hit, while \"part two\" would be a continuation of the same performance. A notable example of a non-R&B hit with two parts was the single release of Don McLean's \"American Pie\". With the advent of the 12-inch single in the late 1970s, the part one/part two method of recording was largely abandoned. Modern-day examples include Fall Out Boy's EP My Heart Will Always Be the B-Side to My Tongue and My Chemical Romance's The Black Parade: The B-Sides.\nSince both sides of a single received equal royalties, some composers deliberately arranged for their songs to be used as the B-sides of singles by popular artists. This became known as the \"flipside racket\". Similarly, it has also been alleged that owners of pirate radio stations operating off the British coast in the 1960s would buy the publishing rights to the B-sides of records they expected to be hits, and then plug the A-sides in the hope of driving up sales and increasing their share of the royalties.Occasionally, the B-side of a single would become the more popular song. This sometimes occurred because a DJ preferred the B-side to its A-side and played it instead. Some examples include \"I Will Survive\" by Gloria Gaynor (originally the B-side of \"Substitute\"), \"Ice Ice Baby\" by Vanilla Ice (originally the B-side of \"Play That Funky Music\"), \"I'll Be Around\" by the Spinners (originally the B-side of \"How Could I Let You Get Away\") and \"Maggie May\" by Rod Stewart (originally the B-side of \"Reason to Believe\"). Probably the most well-known of these, however, is \"Rock Around the Clock\" by Bill Haley & His Comets (originally the B-side of \"Thirteen Women (And Only One Man in Town))\".\nThe song \"How Soon Is Now?\" by the Smiths started out as the extra track on the 12-inch of \"William, It Was Really Nothing\" but later gained a separate release as an A-side in its own right, as did Oasis's \"Acquiesce\", which originally appeared as a B-side of \"Some Might Say\" in 1995, but gained subsequent release in 2006 as part of an EP to promote their forthcoming compilation album Stop the Clocks. Feeder in 2001 and 2005 had the B-sides \"Just a Day\" from \"Seven Days in the Sun\", and \"Shatter\" from \"Tumble and Fall\", released as A-sides after fan petitions and official website and fansite message board hype; they charted at No. 12 and No. 11 in the UK. In 1986, \"Grass\", the first single from XTC's album Skylarking, was eclipsed in the U.S. by its B-side, \"Dear God\" – so much so that the record was almost immediately re-released with one song (\"Mermaid Smiled\") removed and \"Dear God\" put in its place, the replacement becoming one of the band's better-known hits.\nOn many reissued singles, the A- and B-sides are two hit songs from different albums that were not originally released together, or even that are by entirely different artists. These were often made for the jukebox – for one record with two popular songs on it would make more money – or to promote one artist to the fans of another. It has even come about that new songs have been relegated to B-side status: for example, in 1981 Kraftwerk released their new single \"Computer Love\", its B-side being \"The Model\", from the band's 1978 album The Man-Machine. With synthpop increasingly dominating the UK charts, the single was re-released with the sides reversed. In early 1982 \"The Model\" reached number one.\n\n\n== Double A-side ==\nA \"double A-side\" or \"AA-side\" is a single where both sides are designated the A-side, with no designated B-side; that is, both sides are prospective hit songs and neither side will be promoted over the other. In 1949, Savoy Records promoted a new single by one of its artists, Paul Williams' \"House Rocker\" and \"He Knows How to Hucklebuck\", as \"The New Double Side Hit – Both Sides \"A\" Sides\". In 1965, Billboard reported that due to a disagreement between EMI and John Lennon about which side of the Beatles' \"We Can Work It Out\" and \"Day Tripper\" single should be considered the A-side and receive the plugging, \"EMI settled for a double-side promotion campaign—unique in Britain.\" They continued to use the format for the release of the singles \"Eleanor Rigby\" and \"Yellow Submarine\" in 1966, followed by \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" / \"Penny Lane\" in 1967 and \"Something\" / \"Come Together\" in 1969. Other groups followed suit, notably the Rolling Stones in early 1967 with \"Let's Spend the Night Together\" / \"Ruby Tuesday\" as a double-A single.A double-A-sided single is often confused with a single where both sides, the A and the B, became hits. Although many artists in the late 1950s and early 1960s, including Elvis Presley, the Everly Brothers, Fats Domino, Ricky Nelson, the Beach Boys, Brenda Lee, and Pat Boone, routinely had hit singles where both sides of the 45 received airplay, these were not double A-sides. The charts below tally the instances for artists' singles where both sides were hits, not where both sides were designated an A-side upon manufacture and release. For instance \"Don't Be Cruel\", the B-side of \"Hound Dog\" by Elvis Presley, became as big a hit as its A-side even though \"Don't Be Cruel\" was not the intended A-side when released in 1956. Reissues later in the 1960s (and after the Beatles' \"Day Tripper\"/\"We Can Work It Out\") listed the single with both songs as the A-side. Also, for Cliff Richard's 1962 \"The Next Time\"/\"Bachelor Boy\", both sides were marketed as songs with chart potential, albeit with \"Bachelor Boy\" pressed as the B-side.\nIn the UK, before the advent of digital downloads, both A-sides were accredited with the same chart position, for the singles chart was compiled entirely from physical sales. In the UK, the biggest-selling non-charity single of all time was a double A-side, Wings' 1977 release \"Mull of Kintyre\"/\"Girls' School\", which sold over two million copies. It was also the UK Christmas No. 1 that year, one of only four occasions on which a double A-side has topped that chart, the others being Queen's 1991 re-release of \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" with \"These Are the Days of Our Lives\", Westlife's 1999 release \"I Have a Dream\"/\"Seasons in the Sun\", and The Beatles' aforementioned \"Day Tripper\"/\"We Can Work It Out\" in 1965. Nirvana released \"All Apologies\" and \"Rape Me\" as a double A-side in 1993, and both songs are accredited as a hit on both the UK Singles Chart, and the Irish Singles Chart.Occasionally double-A-sided singles were released with each side targeting a different market. During the late 1970s, for example, Dolly Parton released a number of double-A-sided singles, in which one side was released to pop radio, and the other side to country, including \"Two Doors Down\"/\"It's All Wrong, But It's All Right\" and \"Baby I'm Burnin'\"/\"I Really Got the Feeling\". In 1978, the Bee Gees also used this method when they released \"Too Much Heaven\" for the pop market and the flip side, \"Rest Your Love on Me\", which was aimed toward country stations.\nMany artists continue to release double-A-sided singles outside of the US where it is seen as more popular. Examples of this include Oasis's \"Little by Little\"/\"She Is Love\" (2002), Bloc Party's \"So Here We Are\"/\"Positive Tension\" (2005) and Gorillaz's \"El Mañana\"/\"Kids with Guns\" (2006).\nArtists having the most US double-sided singles on which each side charted in the US Hot 100, according to Billboard:\nPerry Como (12) and Nat King Cole (19) both had additional double-sided singles on Billboard's pre-1955 charts.Artists having the most US double-sided singles on which each side reached the Billboard Top 40, according to Billboard:\n\n\n== Humorous implementations ==\nThe concept of the B-side is so well known that many performers have released humorous versions or commentary on the phenomenon, such as Paul and Linda McCartney's B-side to Linda McCartney's \"Seaside Woman\" (released under the alias Suzy and the Red Stripes) which is titled \"B-Side to Seaside\"; Blotto's 1981 single \"When the Second Feature Starts\" that features \"The B-Side\", a song about how bad B-sides are compared to A-sides; Three Dog Night's 1973 single \"Shambala\" with \"Our 'B' Side\", about the group wishing they could be trusted to write their own songs for single release; and the B-side of George Harrison's \"I Don't Care Any More\", which starts with Harrison saying, \"We got a B-side to make, ladies and gentlemen so we better get on with it.\"\n\n\n== B/W ==\n\nThe term \"b/w\", an abbreviation of \"backed with\", is often used in listings to indicate the B-side of a record. The term \"c/w\", for \"coupled with\", is used similarly.\n\n\n== B-side compilations ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\nOther sources", "Return of the Mack is the debut studio album by English singer-songwriter Mark Morrison. It was first released through his Mack Life Records imprint in the United Kingdom and then released by Atlantic Records in the United States, with distribution via Warner Music Group on April 22, 1996. The album includes a well-known popular song \"Return of the Mack\", which stayed for a remarkable 41 weeks on the US Billboard charts. Upon its release, Return of the Mack received mixed reviews from music critics, who praised Morrison's strong voice and entertaining songs, but described the album as having weak production. The album stayed for 38 weeks on the UK Albums Chart, where it debuted and peaked at number 4, and became a certified platinum by British Phonographic Industry (BPI). On the US Billboard 200, the album reached a peak of a number 76. The album has since sold over three million copies worldwide.\nThe album made Morrison the first artist in British pop history to have five top ten singles from a debut album to chart on the UK Singles Chart. These singles included \"Let's Get Down\", \"Return of the Mack\", \"Crazy (Remix)\", \"Trippin'\", \"Horny\" and \"Moan and Groan\". The first single \"Crazy\" became a top twenty hit in the United Kingdom, a remix was also released, which peaked at number 6 in the United Kingdom. The single, \"Return of the Mack\" has become an international hit for spending two weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart, and one week at number 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song was listed at number 8 on the Billboard 200 year-end chart for 1997 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Morrison became the first black male solo artist to reach number one on the UK Singles Chart in the 1990s. In 1997, he received four Brit Awards nominations, a Mercury Prize nomination, a MTV's Europe Music Awards nomination, and five Music of Black Origin Awards (MOBO) nominations. He would win the Best R&B song in the 1996's MOBO Awards for \"Return of the Mack\".\n\n\n== Background ==\nThe album was released on 22 April 1996 (1996-04-22) through his own record label, Mack Life Records. The album was largely self-produced by Morrison, and was recorded over a two-year period. The album's release was preceded by the release of three singles.\n\n\n== Release and promotion ==\nAt the 1997 BRIT Awards held on 24 February 1997, he performed \"Return of the Mack\".\n\n\n== Singles ==\nThe debut song \"Crazy\" became a top 20 hit in the UK. It was later featured in the 1997 film Speed 2: Cruise Control and appeared on the film's soundtrack album. The second single was \"Let's Get Down\".\n\n\n== Critical reception ==\nReturn of the Mack received mixed reviews from music critics. Entertainment Weekly writer Matt Diehl wrote \"its title, \"Return of the Mack\" sounds like another rap tale of gangsta paradise; instead, Mark Morrison comes off more like a funked-up Seal, promising revenge to a deceitful lover in a warbly croon.\" He goes onto add, \"the end result is an odd but infectious new-jack-swing variation on Hey Joe, buoyed by bubbly beats and the insistent title refrain.\"\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\n\n== Charts ==\n\n\n== Certifications ==\n\n\n== Release history ==\n\n\n== References ==", "English synth-pop duo Pet Shop Boys have released 14 studio albums, five live albums, seven compilation albums, four remix albums, five soundtrack albums, three extended plays and over seventy singles. The duo's debut single, \"West End Girls\", was first released in 1984 but failed to chart in most regions. However, the song was entirely re-recorded in late 1985, and this newly recorded version became their first number-one single, topping the UK Singles Chart, Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Singles Chart. Parlophone released the duo's debut album, Please, in the United Kingdom in March 1986. The album peaked at number three on the UK Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). It also peaked at number seven on the Billboard 200 in the United States and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The following summer they released \"It's a Sin\", the lead single from their second album, Actually. The single became another UK number one and also reached number nine in the US. This was followed by \"What Have I Done to Deserve This?\", with Dusty Springfield, which peaked at number two in both the UK and US. In the summer of 1987, the Pet Shop Boys recorded a cover of Brenda Lee's song \"Always on My Mind\", which became their third UK number-one single over Christmas 1987. This was followed by another UK number one, \"Heart\", in spring 1988. The album Actually was released in September 1987, peaked at number two in the UK and was certified three-times platinum by the BPI.\nThe duo's third album, Introspective, was released in October 1988 and peaked at number two in the UK and Germany and was certified two-times platinum by the BPI. Next album Behaviour, came in 1990 and became their third album in a row to debut and peak at number two in the UK. The duo then released their first hits compilation, Discography, which included all of their single releases as well as two new tracks. In 1993 they released a cover of the Village People single \"Go West\", which reached number two in the UK. The duo's fifth album, Very, followed and is the only Pet Shop Boys album, so far, to reach number one in the UK. In 1994 they recorded the Comic Relief charity single, \"Absolutely Fabulous\", under the pseudonym of Absolutely Fabulous. The duo do not consider it as a Pet Shop Boys single release and it was not included on any of their \"best-of\" albums. The duo then released a B-side collection album, Alternative in 1995. \"Se a vida é (That's the Way Life Is)\", was released in the summer of 1996, a Latin American music-inspired track, featuring a drum sample, which preceded the sixth Pet Shop Boys album, Bilingual.\nNightlife, the duo's seventh album came in 1999, followed by the modestly successful album Release in 2002. In November 2003, Pet Shop Boys released a second greatest hits album, PopArt: The Hits. The ninth Pet Shop Boys studio album, Fundamental, came in May 2006, reaching number five in the UK. Also in 2006, Concrete was released, a live album recorded at the Mermaid Theatre, London. Released in UK in March 2009, Yes, was a critical success and hit number four, their highest album chart peak in more than a decade. The Pet Shop Boys also received the BPI's award for \"Outstanding Contribution to British Music\", at the 2009 Brit Awards ceremony. In December 2009, they released an EP of covers, remixes, and new material, titled Christmas.\nUltimate, the one-disc compilation, was released on 1 November 2010 to celebrate 25 years since the band's first single release. The special version included a DVD with over three hours of BBC TV performances of 27 singles by Pet Shop Boys, released by arrangement with BBC Music. As well as the complete Glastonbury Festival performance from June 2010. Ultimate peaked at 27 on the UK charts. The second B-side compilation album, Format, was released on 6 February 2012, reaching number 26 in the UK. The duo released their eleventh studio album, Elysium, in late 2012, reaching number 9 in the UK. Elysium spawned the singles \"Winner\", \"Leaving\" and \"Memory of the Future\".\nIn March 2013, the Pet Shop Boys started a new chapter in their career when they left their long-term label, Parlophone, and signed with Kobalt Label Services. A new album, Electric, was released in July 2013, reaching number 3 in the UK and number 26 in the United States, their highest-peaking album for nearly 20 years in both countries. The singles from this album were \"Axis\", \"Vocal\", \"Love is a Bourgeois Construct\", \"Thursday\" (featuring Example) and \"Fluorescent\". The duo undertook a worldwide tour to support the album. In November 2014, they returned to the studio to begin working on their next album. With Stuart Price returning as producer, Super was announced on 21 January 2016 for release on 1 April. \"Inner Sanctum\" was released as a teaser track. The first single proper was \"The Pop Kids\", released on 26 February 2016.\n\n\n== Albums ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n\n\n=== Live albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n=== Remix albums ===\n\n\n=== Soundtrack albums ===\n\n\n== Extended plays ==\n\n\n== Singles ==\n\n\n=== 1980s ===\n\n\n=== 1990s ===\n\n\n=== 2000s ===\n\n\n=== 2010s and 2020s ===\n\n\n=== As featured artist ===\n\n\n== Videography ==\n\n\n=== Video albums ===\n\n\n=== Music videos ===\n\n\n== Other appearances ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nPet Shop Boys at AllMusic\nPet Shop Boys discography discography at Discogs\nPet Shop Boys discography at MusicBrainz", "American singer Mandy Moore has released seven studio albums, three compilation albums, two video albums, seventeen singles, and thirteen music videos. After being spotted singing at a recording studio by an artists and repertoire representative for Epic Records, Moore was signed to Sony Music. Her debut album, So Real, was released in December 1999. The album performed moderately on the charts, peaking at number thirty-one on the Billboard 200 and was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). According to Nielsen SoundScan, So Real had sold about 1,030,000 copies in the United States by June 2009. Her debut single, \"Candy\", peaked at number forty-one on the US Billboard Hot 100, and was certified Gold by the RIAA. It also reached the top forty in Canada, France, Ireland, and Switzerland and the top ten in Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In Australia the song peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart and was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). So Real was followed up with I Wanna Be with You, in May 2000. It is a re-release of the debut album, with remixed tracks and few new songs, the album reached number twenty-one on the Billboard 200 and was certified Gold by the RIAA. It also went on to sell about 805,000 copies in the US by June 2009. The album spawned only one single, the title track, which peaked at number twenty-four on the Hot 100, becoming Moore's only top-thirty song in the US and her highest peak to date. The song also reached number thirteen in Australia and was certified Gold by the ARIA.\nIn 2001, Mandy Moore released her self-titled third studio album, which was influenced by pop rock genre and Middle Eastern music. It debuted at number thirty-five on the Billboard 200, and was later certified Gold by the RIAA. By June 2009, it had sold 464,000 copies in the US and spawned three singles. The lead single, \"In My Pocket\", peaked at number eleven in Australia and in turn was certified Gold by the ARIA. The follow-up single, \"Crush\", peaked at number twenty-five in Australia. Coverage, Moore's fourth studio album and her first cover album, was released in October 2003. The album contained covers of songs from the 1980s and 1990s like the ones of Carole King, Joni Mitchell and Carly Simon. It debuted and peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard 200 chart. The position remains her highest peak on the chart to date, and as of June 2009 has sold 294,000 copies in the US. Moore and Sony parted ways in 2004, citing creative differences. A compilation album, The Best of Mandy Moore, followed the split. The compilation reached number 148 on the Billboard 200 and has sold about 104,000 copies in the US. A DVD of the same title, containing Moore's music videos from 1999 to 2003, was also released.\nIn July 2006, Moore signed a record deal with The Firm, a record label run by EMI. The singer's fifth studio album, Wild Hope, was released in June 2007. A departure from her previous style, Moore incorporated folk and acoustic music into the album. The album peaked at number thirty on the Billboard 200 chart and went on to sell about 109,000 copies in the US. In May 2009, Moore's sixth studio album, Amanda Leigh, was released through Storefront Recordings. Following the same musical style as Wild Hope, the album's title was taken from Moore's full name. It debuted at number twenty-five on the Billboard 200 and has sold 16,000 copies in the US, as of June 2009. The singles from Wild Hope and Amanda Leigh were commercially unsuccessful and failed to chart. On March 6, 2020, she realised her seventh studio album, Silver Landings, her first album in 11 years.\n\n\n== Albums ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n== Singles ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\nA ^ \"In My Pocket\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number two.\nB ^ \"Crush\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number nineteen.\nC ^ \"Extraordinary\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number two.\nD ^ When I Wasn't Watching\" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 but peaked on the US Alternative Digital Song Sales chart at number twenty four. \n\n\n== Soundtrack appearances ==\n\n\n== Videography ==\n\n\n=== Video releases ===\n\n\n=== Music videos ===\n\n\n=== Music video appearances ===\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nMandy Moore videography at MTV.com\nMandy Moore discography at Allmusic", "Wham! (briefly known in the US as Wham! U.K.) were an English pop duo formed in Bushey in 1981. The duo consisted of George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley. They became one of the most commercially successful pop acts of the 1980s, selling more than 30 million certified records worldwide from 1982 to 1986.Influenced by funk and soul music and presenting themselves as disaffected youth, Wham!'s 1983 debut album Fantastic addressed the United Kingdom's unemployment problem and teen angst over adulthood. Their second studio album Make It Big in 1984 was a worldwide pop smash hit, charting at number one in both the UK and the United States. Associated with the MTV-driven Second British Invasion of the US, the singles from the album—\"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\", \"Everything She Wants\" and \"Careless Whisper\"—all topped the US Billboard Hot 100. In 1985, Wham! made a highly publicised 10-day visit to China, the first by a Western pop group. The event was seen as a major watershed moment in increasing friendly bilateral relations between China and the West.In 1986, Wham! broke up. Michael was keen to create music targeted at a more sophisticated adult market rather than the duo's primarily teenage audience. Before going their separate ways, a farewell single \"The Edge of Heaven\", and a greatest hits album titled The Final would be forthcoming, along with a farewell concert entitled The Final.\n\n\n== History ==\nMichael and Ridgeley met at Bushey Meads School in Bushey near the town of Watford in Hertfordshire. The two at first performed in a short-lived ska band called the Executive, alongside former school friends David (Austin) Mortimer, Andrew Leaver, Harry Tadayon and Paul Ridgeley. When this group split, Michael and Andrew Ridgeley eventually formed Wham!\nRidgeley explained that the name originated from a need for \"something that captured the essence of what set us apart – our energy and our friendship – and then it came to us: Wham! Wham! was snappy, immediate, fun and boisterous too.\" British graphic design studio Stylorouge was credited with adding the exclamation mark to the name of the band.Ridgeley and Michael worked persistently to get their feet in the door with recording executives. Ridgeley would frequently run into Mark Dean from Innervision Records at The Three Crowns in Hertfordshire, and hand him the band's demo tape.In February 1982, Dean met with Michael and Ridgeley and offered them a recording deal. \"I'm going to offer Wham! a deal with my new label Innervision,\" Dean said. \"It's not a huge thing, I'm taking a punt. I'd like you to have a crack at recording a single or two and we'll see what happens from there.\"Initially the pair wrote songs such as \"Wham Rap (Enjoy What You Do)\" and \"Club Tropicana\" together, but part way through the recording of their debut album Fantastic, the pair agreed that Michael was the stronger songwriter, and would take creative control. Still teenagers, they promoted themselves as hedonistic youngsters, proud to live a carefree life without work or commitment. This was reflected in their earliest singles which, part-parody, part-social comment, briefly earned Wham! a reputation as a dance protest group.\nThe debut record to be released by the band was \"Wham Rap!\" in June 1982. It was a double A-side including the Social Mix and the Unsocial Mix. The record was not playlisted by BBC Radio 1 in the UK, partly because of the profanity in the Unsocial Mix. The song charted at only No. 105.In October 1982, \"Young Guns (Go for It)\" was issued. Initially, it also stalled outside the UK top 40 but the band got lucky when the BBC programme Top of the Pops scheduled them after another act unexpectedly pulled out of the show.\n\n\n=== Increasing success ===\nWham!'s first manager was Bryan Morrison. The effect of Wham! on the public was felt from the moment they finished their debut performance of \"Young Guns (Go for It)\" on Top of the Pops. Michael wore espadrilles, an open suede jacket, and rolled-up denim jeans. Ridgeley stood behind him, flanked by backing dancers Dee C. Lee and Shirlie Holliman. Afterwards, the song shot into the top 40 at No. 24 and peaked at No. 3 in December. The following year (1983), Dee C. Lee began her work with Paul Weller in the Style Council, and was replaced by Helen 'Pepsi' DeMacque. Holliman and DeMacque would later record as Pepsi & Shirlie.\nWham! followed up \"Young Guns (Go for It)\" with a reissue of \"Wham Rap (Enjoy What You Do)\", \"Bad Boys\" and \"Club Tropicana\". By the end of 1983, Wham! were competing against pop rivals Culture Club and Duran Duran as one of Britain's biggest pop acts. Their debut album Fantastic spent two weeks at No. 1 in the UK album charts in 1983, but the album only had modest success in the US.\n\n\n=== Legal disputes with Innervision ===\nSoon after this, Ridgeley became conscious of legal problems with their initial contract at Innervision. While the legal battle raged, Innervision released a medley of non-single album tracks from Fantastic, entitled \"Club Fantastic Megamix\". Wham! publicly denounced the release. After all the legal wrangling, Innervision settled out of court.\n\n\n=== Switch to Epic and continued success ===\nNow signed to Epic Records, except in the US and some other countries where they were on Epic sister label Columbia Records, Wham! returned in 1984 with a new album and an updated pop image. These changes helped to propel Wham!'s next single, \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\", into the top ten of several countries around the world. It became their first US and UK No. 1 single, accompanied by a video of the duo with Pepsi and Shirlie, all wearing Katharine Hamnett T-shirts with the slogans \"CHOOSE LIFE\" and \"GO GO\".The next single from the Wham! album was \"Careless Whisper\", but it featured only George Michael in the music video. In certain markets, the single was promoted as \"Wham! featuring George Michael\", and in other markets, it was credited to only George Michael as a solo act but, unlike any Wham! single except \"Wham Rap!\" and \"Club Tropicana\", it was also co-written with Andrew Ridgeley. The song, about a remorseful two-timer, had more emotional depth than previous releases. It reached No. 1, selling over 1.3 million copies in the UK. \"Careless Whisper\" marked a new phase in Michael's career, as his label Columbia/Epic began to somewhat distance him from the group Wham!'s playboy image.\nThe next single was \"Freedom\" and was simply promoted as a Wham! single. Wham! used a video edited together from footage of their tour in China for \"Freedom\"'s US single release. Their second album, Make It Big, climbed to No. 1 on the album charts and the band set off on an arena tour at the end of 1984.The double A-side single \"Last Christmas/Everything She Wants\" became the highest-selling single ever to peak at No. 2 in the UK charts. It stayed at No. 2 for five weeks and, as of February 2020, was the 10th best-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom, selling over 1.9 million copies in the UK. Wham! donated all their royalties from the single to the Ethiopian famine appeal to coincide with the fund-raising intentions of Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", the song which kept them out of the top spot. Nevertheless, Band Aid's success meant that Michael had achieved #1 status in the UK within three separate entities in 1984—as a solo artist, as one half of a duo, and as part of a charity ensemble.At the end of 1985, the US Billboard charts listed \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\" as the number-three song and \"Careless Whisper\" as the number-one song of the year.\n\n\n=== China (1985) ===\nIn March 1985, Wham! took a break from recording to embark on a lengthy world tour, including a ground-breaking 10-day visit to China, the first by a Western pop group. The China excursion was a publicity scheme devised by Simon Napier-Bell (one of their two managers—Jazz Summers being the other). It began with a concert at the Peoples' Gymnasium in Beijing in front of 12,000 people. They also played a concert in front of 5,000 in Canton. The two concerts were played without compensation. Wham!'s visit to China attracted huge media attention across the world. Napier-Bell later admitted that he used cunning tactics to sabotage the efforts of rock band Queen to be the first to play in China: he made two brochures for the Chinese authorities – one featuring Wham! fans as pleasant middle-class youngsters, and one portraying Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury in typically flamboyant poses. The Chinese opted for Wham!.British director Lindsay Anderson was engaged to accompany Wham! to China and make a documentary film about the visit. The film was shot over two weeks of March and April and edited over late spring and summer 1985 in London. Anderson called his one-hour and 18 minute film If You Were There.\nIn the final stages of editing, Anderson was dismissed by Wham!'s management, the editing team quit, and the film was entirely re-edited, renamed and released as Wham! in China: Foreign Skies. According to a 2006 interview with The Independent, Andy Stephens, manager for Michael, said that the film [Anderson's version] was simply not good enough to be shown in public: \"It's a dreadful film ... It's 20 years old and it's rubbish. Why on earth should we allow it to be shown?\", although after viewing it in 2008 critic and journalist John Harris described it as \"a rich, poetic, panoramic portrait of China's strangeness to the eyes of outsiders\".\n\n\n=== Live Aid (1985) ===\nSporting a beard, Michael appeared with Ridgeley onstage at Live Aid on 13 July 1985 (although they did not perform as Wham!). Michael sang \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" with Elton John, while Ridgeley joined Kiki Dee in the row of backing singers. In September, Wham! released the single \"I'm Your Man\" which went to No. 1 in the UK charts.\nAround this time, Ridgeley began a relationship with Keren Woodward of Bananarama, and also took up the hobby of rally driving. \"Last Christmas\" was re-issued for the festive season and again made the UK Top 10, peaking at No. 6, while Michael took up offers he was starting to receive to add his voice to other artists' songs. He performed backing vocals for David Cassidy, and also for Elton John on his successful singles \"Nikita\" (UK No. 3) and \"Wrap Her Up\" (UK No. 12), on which he sang co-lead vocals.\n\n\n=== Breakup (1986) ===\nMichael was keen to create music targeted at a more sophisticated adult market rather than the duo's primarily teenage audience, and therefore, he and Ridgeley officially announced the breakup of Wham! in the spring of 1986. Before going their separate ways, a farewell single \"The Edge of Heaven\", and a greatest hits album titled The Final would be forthcoming, along with a farewell concert entitled The Final. Announcing the breakup, Michael said: \"I think it should be the most amicable split in pop history.\"The farewell single reached No. 1 in June 1986. \"Where Did Your Heart Go?\" was the group's final single in the United States. The song, originally recorded by Was (Not Was), was a gloomy and sombre affair. The duo's last release was a double-LP collection of all the singles to date, including some extended versions. This was released in North America as the severely pared-down Music from the Edge of Heaven with alternate tracks.\nAt London's Wembley Stadium on 28 June 1986, Wham! bade goodbye to their fans and each other with an emotional embrace at the end of its final concert. 72,000 people attended the eight-hour event, which included support artists, on a scorching hot day in London. The duo had been together for five years, selling over 28 million records and 15 million singles. Foreign Skies, the documentary of their tour of China, received its world premiere as part of the festivities.\n\n\n=== Post-Wham! and Michael's death ===\nFor several years after becoming a solo artist, Michael spoke negatively, in public, about his time with Wham!, partly because of the negativity of intense media coverage on Ridgeley. Michael complained of the constant pressure he felt, and he claimed that the duo had been mistreated financially. He also spoke disparagingly about some of the videos and songs from the Wham! repertoire, especially the video from \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\", and the songs from Fantastic. However, his perspective on the era softened somewhat in the later years of his life. At his solo concerts he would still perform \"I'm Your Man\" and \"Everything She Wants\", the latter being one of the more critically acclaimed songs from the Wham! era.\nAndrew Ridgeley moved to Monaco after Wham!'s breakup and tried his hand at Formula Three motor racing. Meeting with little success, Ridgeley moved to Los Angeles to pursue his singing/acting career, the failure of which caused him to return to England in 1990. Regardless, CBS Records, having taken up the option on Wham!'s contract that specified solo albums from Michael and Ridgeley, released a solo effort from Ridgeley, Son of Albert, in 1990. After poor sales, CBS declined the option of a second album. On 25 June 1988, George Michael's 25th birthday, Michael played the third of three dates at Birmingham's NEC as part of the Faith World Tour. He appeared deeply moved when he was surprised on stage by many members of his family with Andrew Ridgeley, who was pushing a trolley carrying a huge birthday cake. They led the 13,000-strong crowd in a rendition of \"Happy Birthday\" before Ridgeley accompanied Michael in a performance of \"I'm Your Man\".\nIn January 1991, Ridgeley joined Michael on stage for a few songs at the encore of his performance at the Rock in Rio event at the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. On 21 November 2009, there was a Wham!-themed night on television's The X Factor in the UK. Michael later appeared on the show's final episode, performing a duet of \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" with finalist and eventual winner Joe McElderry. In 2012, Michael said that there was no truth in speculation that he and Ridgeley were set for a Wham! reunion to mark the 30th anniversary of the group's first album.Michael died from heart and liver disease at his home in Goring-on-Thames, Oxfordshire on Christmas Day 2016. He was 53. Upon hearing of Michael's death, Ridgeley paid his respects on Twitter, saying, \"Heartbroken at the loss of my beloved friend Yog.\"\n\n\n== Discography ==\n\nFantastic (1983)\nMake It Big (1984)\n\n\n== Selected filmography ==\nDocumentaries and filmed performances\n\nWham! in China: Foreign Skies (1986)\n\n\n== Concert tours ==\n1983\n\nClub Fantastic Tour1984–85\n\nThe Big Tour1985\n\nWhamamerica!1986\n\nThe Final\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website of George Michael\nGeorge Michael Concert Archive\nWham! at Rolling Stone", "Canadian singer Nelly Furtado has released six studio albums, twenty-eight singles, one video album, one live album, two compilation albums, three extended plays, and twenty-three music videos. Furtado released her debut album Whoa, Nelly! in 2000 and it became a commercial success selling 6 million copies worldwide. It has been certified multi Platinum in countries such as Canada, United States, Australia and New Zealand. The album spawned four singles including the successful top 10 hits \"I'm Like a Bird\" and \"Turn Off the Light\". In 2003 she released her second album Folklore, while the album did not match the success of her previous album in such markets as the US and Australia, it did however become a success in several European countries. Folklore has sold 2 million copies worldwide. The album produced two European top 10 hits: \"Powerless (Say What You Want)\" and \"Força\", while \"Try\" peaked inside the top 10 in Canada.\nHer third album Loose (2006) was the best selling album of her career, with 12 million copies sold worldwide. It reached number one on the album charts of nine countries and was certified multi-platinum in several countries such as Canada, UK, Australia, Germany, Switzerland, Austria and New Zealand. The album spawned four successful number one singles: \"Promiscuous\", \"Maneater\", \"Say It Right\" and \"All Good Things (Come to an End)\". Loose was one of the best selling albums of 2006–2007 and is twenty-second best-selling album of the 2000s. She released her first Spanish language album Mi Plan in 2009 which became a success in Europe and on the Latin charts. The lead single \"Manos al Aire\" became a European top 10 hit and also topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart, making Furtado the first North American singer to reach number one on that chart with an original Spanish song. Mi Plan has been certified Platinum (Latin) in the US. In 2010 she released a remix album Mi Plan Remixes and her first greatest hits The Best of Nelly Furtado. Furtado released her fifth album The Spirit Indestructible in 2012, followed by The Ride in 2017.\n\n\n== Albums ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n=== Live albums ===\n\n\n=== Video albums ===\n\n\n== Extended plays ==\n\n\n== Singles ==\n\n\n=== As main artist ===\n\n\n=== As featured artist ===\n\n\n== Other appearances ==\n\n\n== Music videos ==\nFeatured music videos\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==", "David Cook is the first major-label studio album, second overall from seventh season American Idol winner David Cook, released on November 18, 2008, in the United States by RCA Records. It was certified platinum and has sold over one million copies in the United States. It has produced two top twenty singles, \"Light On\" and \"Come Back To Me\". The single \"The Time of My Life\" has also been certified platinum by the RIAA. \"Light On\" was certified platinum in January 2010.\n\n\n== Singles ==\nThe first single, \"Light On\", was released to U.S. radio on September 30, 2008. The song sold 109,000 digital downloads in its first week of availability, leading to a number seventeen debut on the Billboard Hot 100 and number eight on the Hot Digital Songs chart. \"Light On\" was certified platinum in January 2010.\"Come Back to Me\" and \"Bar-ba-sol\" were released as a dual A-side single in March 2009 as the second and third singles, respectively. The video for \"Come Back to Me\" premiered on American Idol on April 1.\n\n\n=== Other singles ===\nOn May 20, 2009, Cook performed the song \"Permanent\" on the finale of American Idol Season 8. This version was released as a digital single, independent of the album promotion, with the proceeds from the song and the video of his performance going to charity. The single version of the song is longer than the version on his album.\n\"The Time of My Life\" (his first feature single as the winner of American Idol) is also featured as a bonus track on the album.\n\n\n== Critical reception ==\nThe album's reception has been generally mixed to positive. Entertainment Weekly gave the album a positive review saying, \"They give David Cook's clutch of bombastic verse-chorus- verse rockers an impressive melodic sheen, one well suited to Cook's husky, expressive vocals. If anything, the series of booming midtempo anthems (most notable among them \"Bar-ba-sol\" and \"Mr. Sensitive\") could use a little sandpapering around the edges.\" AllMusic concurred writing, \"He not only is a star thanks to AmIdol, but he's always been ready to do big, happy, crowd-pleasing grunge-pop, as his self-released 2006 debut, Analog Heart, proved. David Cook is remarkably similar to that now-suppressed effort, heavy on crawling, melodic midtempo rockers and power ballads, only given more gloss in its production and writing.\"Billboard said of the album, \"Much like his predecessors' quick-turnaround debuts, Cook's is fairly generic, but its rock edge is dirtied up with crunching guitars and the artist's tuneful growl. There are a host of big, anthemic choruses that highlight the power of Cook's voice, namely the soaring \"Declaration\" and Chris Cornell/Brian Howes-penned \"Light On.\" Elsewhere, Cook exercises his right to rawk with the swaggering, gritty \"Bar-ba-sol\" and bares his soul alongside a delicate piano and string arrangement on \"Permanent.\" There are some lyrical missteps (\"Life on the Moon,\" which marvels at the titular concept), but as the lone rocker winner of \"Idol\" to date, Cook stands apart from cookie-cutter pop.\"Rolling Stone gave the album an average review commenting on its lack of \"out-of-the-box songwriting\". Meanwhile, Ken Barnes of USA Today was also subdued in his review, particularly criticizing the production team and the song choices made on the album. Of it, he wrote, \"they did him a disservice ... [Cook] has a more supple, versatile voice than Daughtry, and he demonstrated vastly more musical originality than most Idol finalists, but you’d never know it from this collection of formulaic, tune-averse tracks.\"\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\n\n== Personnel ==\nAdapted credits from the album's liner notes.\nDavid Cook - Art direction, guitar, vocalsMusiciansPaul Bushnell - Bass\nDavid Campbell - Strings Arrangement\nRob Cavallo - Additional guitars, keyboard, producer\nDorian Crozier - Drums, Programming\nJamie Muhoberac - Keyboard, organ, piano\nTim Pierce - Guitars\nNeal Tiemann - Guitars\n\n\n== Release history ==\n\n\n== Chart performance ==\nThe album debuted at the number-three spot on the Billboard 200 chart with sales of 280,000 copies in the United States. In the beginning of February 2009, it was announced that the album had been certified platinum by RIAA for shipment of 1,000,000 copies. The album also broke digital sales records for a debut artist, selling 59,000 electronic copies. The album has sold over 1,500,000 copies worldwide.\n\n\n== Sales and certifications ==\n\n\n== Notes ==\nThe song \"A Daily AntheM\" was featured on the eighth season of American Idol during the audition episodes.\nThe song \"Heroes\" was featured on the commercial for the FIFA World Cup and when he was on Extreme Makeover: Home Edition while he was coming off the bus. It was also used as the soundtrack for NBC Sports Championship Season promos in 2010 for: The Kentucky Derby (May), The Players (May), The Preakness Stakes (May), The French Open (June), The Stanley Cup Final (June), US Open (June), and Wimbledon (July).\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "The discography of Japanese recording artist Gackt consists of eight studio albums, eight compilation albums, one extended play, and forty-eight singles. In 1999 Gackt signed a recording contract with Nippon Crown. His breakthrough success was the EP Mizérable, which peaked at number 2 on the Oricon albums chart. His single \"Returner (Yami no Shūen)\", released on June 20, 2007, was his first and only single to reach the number one spot on the Oricon charts to date. In 2007, his entire back catalogue, with live song recordings from Drug Party tour, was released on the iTunes Store, video collection \"The Greatest Filmography\" was released in the United States and Canada, and his album Diabolos was released in 18 European countries. From November 2008 until March 2010 his records were released under his own independent label Dears, but still supported by Nippon Crown. In April 2010, Gackt transferred to Avex Group. Since February 2014 they're released by his independent record label G&Lovers, which is supported by Crown Tokuma. As a solo artist, since 2009 are reported sales of over 10 million, and holds the male soloist record for most top ten consecutive chart singles as of July 18, 2011.\n\n\n== Discography ==\n\n\n=== Studio albums ===\nFootnotes:\n\n— = N/A\n\n\n=== Live albums ===\n\n\n=== Compilation albums ===\n\n\n=== Remix albums ===\n\n\n=== Soundtrack ===\n\n\n=== Singles ===\nOn December 27, 2006, Japanese recording charts Oricon wrote up the list of Gackt's top ten best selling singles. The sales can be seen in the table, from first: \"Another World\", \"Vanilla\", \"Jūnigatsu no Love Song\", \"Metamorphoze\", \"Kimi no Tameni Dekiru Koto\", \"Wasurenai Kara\", \"Oasis\", \"Redemption\", \"Kimi ni Aitakute\", and \"Mizérable\".\n\n\n=== Credited work ===\nCovers1997 - Hideki Saijo's \"Kizudarake no Lola\" as a vocalist.\n2000 - Stevie Wonder's \"To Feel the Fire\" as part of Kirin's Fire brand of coffee campaign.\n2003 - John Lennon's \"Love\", performed at the \"Dream Power: John Lennon Super Live\" concert organized by Yoko Ono in Saitama Super Arena.\n2016 - Ayumi Hamasaki's \"Seasons\" as part of Nescafé Dolce Gusto brand of coffee campaign.\n2017 - Dreams Come True's \"Suki\" released in The Best Covers Of Dreams Come True Doriuta Vol.1. (2017).\nMany songs during the cover concert festival conceptualized around fictional school \"Camui Gakuen\" held since 2009.Other contribution2006 - Ji Dandi \"Lover 〜愛しい人〜\" (songwriter, composer)\n2008 - Tōru Furuya \"ララの夜想曲-nocturne-\" (composer)\n2014 - Mayo Kawasaki \"Why\" (supplemental songwriter, composer)\n2019 - BoA \"スキだよ-MY LOVE-\" (lyricist)\n\n\n== Video discography ==\n\n\n=== Concert tour videos ===\n\n\n=== Concert tour videos compilations ===\n\n\n=== Music videos compilations ===\n\n\n=== Video singles ===\n\n\n=== Platinum Box series ===\n\n\n== References ==" ] }

{ "title": [ "The Big Sky (film)", "Viva Villa!", "Kitty Hawks", "Only Angels Have Wings", "Monkey Business (1952 film)", "Tim Roth", "Howard Hawks", "Scarface (1932 film)", "Hagar Wilde", "Elizabeth Threatt" ], "text": [ "The Big Sky is a 1952 American Western film produced and directed by Howard Hawks and written by Dudley Nichols, based on the novel of the same name by A.B. Guthrie Jr.. The cast includes Kirk Douglas, Dewey Martin, Elizabeth Threatt and Arthur Hunnicutt, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Though not considered among Hawks's major achievements by most critics, the film was chosen by Jonathan Rosenbaum for his alternative list of the Top 100 American Films.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nIn 1832, Jim Deakins (Kirk Douglas) is travelling in the wilderness when he encounters an initially hostile Boone Caudill (Dewey Martin). However, they soon become good friends and head together to St. Louis on the Missouri River in search of Boone's uncle, Zeb Calloway (Arthur Hunnicutt). They find him when they are tossed in jail for brawling with fur traders of the Missouri River Company. When 'Frenchy' Jourdonnais (Steven Geray) comes to bail Zeb out, Zeb talks him into paying for Jim and Boone too.\nThe two men join an expedition organised by Zeb and Frenchy, who owns a sailing barge called 'Mandan'. Taking about 30 other trappers with them, they begin to travel 2,000 miles up the Missouri and into the Yellowstone River to seek trade with the Blackfoot Indians, in competition with the Missouri Fur Company. Zeb has brought along Teal Eye (Elizabeth Threatt), a pretty Blackfoot woman Zeb had found several years earlier after she had escaped from an enemy tribe. She is the daughter of a chief and Zeb plans to return her to her family as a means of establishing trade with the tribe. On the journey, they encounter another Blackfoot that Zeb knows, Poordevil (Hank Worden); they take him along too. Later, Teal Eye falls into the river and is rescued from rapids by Boone.\nThe Missouri Company knows about the threat to their monopoly. One day, it makes its move. A party led by Streak (Jim Davis) captures Teal Eye and tries to burn the boat, but Frenchy wakes up before the fire causes much damage. Poordevil tracks the enemy and Zeb and Jim rescue the woman. Later the expedition puts in at a company trading post and leaves a warning not to interfere. A week later they repulse an attack by Crow Indians. Jim is separated from the group and shot in the leg. Boone, followed by Teal Eye and Poordevil, finds him, extracts the bullet and waits for his friend to heal. When they rejoin their band, they find Streak trying to buy the boat and the goods on it. Jim compares the bullet dug out of his leg with one of Streak's and finds them to be the same. Streak and his men are killed in the ensuing shootout.\nThe expedition finally reaches the Blackfoot village and begins trading. Teal Eye then tells a very disappointed Jim that she loves him... like a brother. Boone follows her back to her teepee. When he emerges much later, he is surprised to find out he is now married. However, Teal Eye makes him buy her from her father, so that he will be free to leave her any time he wants to. With winter coming on, the men soon begin the long return boat trip and Boone goes with them, abandoning Teal Eye. This cools the earlier friendship between Boone and Jim, who confides to Zeb that unlike Boone he would not have left if Teal Eye had chosen him instead. Later that evening, however, Boone changes his mind and decides to return to Teal Eye, which pleases Jim greatly, and the two men remain friends as they finally go their separate ways.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nKirk Douglas as Jim Deakins\nDewey Martin as Boone Caudill\nElizabeth Threatt as Teal Eye\nArthur Hunnicutt as Zeb Calloway\nBuddy Baer as Romaine, one of Frenchy's men\nSteven Geray as 'Frenchy' Jourdonnais\nHenri Letondal as Labadie\nHank Worden as Poordevil\nJim Davis as Streak\n\n\n== Reception ==\nTo improve business, the film's running time was reduced from 140 minutes to 122 minutes for its general release.In 1998, Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader included the film in his unranked list of the best American films not included on the AFI Top 100.\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\nThe film was nominated for two Academy Awards:\nAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actor – Arthur Hunnicutt\nAcademy Award for Best Cinematography, Black-and-White – Russell Harlan\n\n\n== Home video releases ==\n1988 Turner Home Entertainment, RKO Collection, VHS, ISBN 1-55960-014-4\n\n\n== Soundtrack releases ==\nThe eight-minute suite for The Big Sky was released on Lost Horizon: The Classic Film Scores of Dimitri Tiomkin (1976), performed by the National Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Charles Gerhardt. Recorded in London in December 1975, the RCA Red Seal album was re-released on audio CD in 1991 and 2010. UPC 8-8697-77933-2-5\nThe original motion picture soundtrack for The Big Sky was restored by the Brigham Young University Film Music Archives for a 2003 compact disc release. The limited-edition CD (BYU FMADT111) includes 28 tracks and nearly 80 minutes of orchestral music.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Big Sky at IMDb\nThe Big Sky at the TCM Movie Database\nThe Big Sky at AllMovie\nThe Big Sky at the American Film Institute Catalog", "Viva Villa! is a 1934 American pre-Code film directed by Jack Conway and starring Wallace Beery as Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa. The screenplay was written by Ben Hecht, adapted from the 1933 book Viva Villa! by Edgecumb Pinchon and O. B. Stade. The film was shot on location in Mexico and produced by David O. Selznick. There was uncredited assistance with the script by Howard Hawks, James Kevin McGuinness, and Howard Emmett Rogers. Hawks and William A. Wellman were also uncredited directors on the film.The film is a fictionalized biography of Pancho Villa starring Beery in the titular role and featuring Fay Wray, who had played the leading lady in King Kong the previous year. The supporting cast includes Leo Carillo, Donald Cook, Stuart Erwin, Henry B. Walthall, Joseph Schildkraut and Katherine DeMille.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nAfter seeing his poor father lose his land and be whipped to death for protesting, young Pancho Villa stabs one of the killers, then heads off into the hills of Chihuahua, Mexico during the 1880s. As a grown man, Villa and a band of rebel bandits, including his trusted ally Sierra, kill wealthy landowners and become heroes to their fellow \"peons\".\nA wealthy aristocrat, Don Felipe, arranges an introduction for Villa to the distinguished and eloquent Francisco Madero, who resents what has become of Mexico under the rule of president Porfirio Díaz and persuades Villa to help him fight for liberty, not just for personal gain. The coarse and illiterate Villa is humbled in the presence of Madero and agrees to fight for his cause. He also is attracted to Don Felipe's beautiful sister Teresa, although there are many women in Villa's life, including one he is married to, Rosita.\nVilla's exploits are made even more colorful by an American newspaper reporter, Johnny Sykes, to whom Villa has taken a great liking. While drunk, Sykes is misinformed and reports that Villa has already overtaken the village of Santa Rosalia in a great victory for his men. Disobeying the orders of Madero and the arrogant General Pascal, simply to help his newspaper friend, Villa stages a raid on Santa Rosalia, as well as on Juarez.\nMadero ultimately assumes office in Mexico City, then commands Villa to disband his personal army. Villa agrees, but when Sierra kills a bank teller just so Villa can withdraw his money, Villa himself ends up sentenced to death. A gloating General Pascal mocks the way Villa pleads for his life, then reads a telegram from Madero, ordering that Villa instead be exiled from the country.\nAlone and drunk in El Paso, Texas, feeling forsaken by his homeland, Villa is visited by Sykes, who informs him that Madero has been assassinated by the power-mad Pascal and his men. Villa returns to Mexico and rebuilds his own army, recruiting tens of thousands to ride by his side. Together they storm the capital, where Pascal is subjected to a particularly gruesome death. Villa takes what he wants, but when Teresa resists and he physically assaults her, she draws a gun that her brother Don Felipe has given her for protection. Sierra intervenes and murders her.\nVilla appoints himself president but is ineffectual, unable to restore Madero's dream of land reform for Mexico's poor. He ultimately agrees to step aside and go back to where he belongs, including to his wife. Before he can, with Sykes by his side, Villa is gunned down by Don Felipe out of revenge for his sister. Sykes vows to keep Villa's memory alive, telling his dying friend that he is no longer news, but history.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nWallace Beery as Pancho Villa\nLeo Carrillo as Sierra\nFay Wray as Teresa\nDonald Cook as Don Felipe de Castillo\nStuart Erwin as Jonny Sykes\nHenry B. Walthall as Francisco Madero\nJoseph Schildkraut as Gen. Pascal\nKatherine DeMille as Rosita Morales (as Katherine de Mille)\nGeorge E. Stone as Emilio Chavito\nPhillip Cooper as Pancho Villa as a boy\nDavid Durand as Bugle boy\nFrank Puglia as Pancho Villa's father\nRalph Bushman as Wallace Calloway, reporter (as Francis X. Bushman Jr.)\nAdrian Rosley as Alphonso Mendoza\nHenry Armetta as Alfredo Mendosa\n\n\n== Production and release ==\nDavid O. Selznick began filming Viva Villa! in 1932 in Mexico. Between filming and its release in April 1934, the film went through a development hell.Initially, Lee Tracy was cast to play a role of Jonny Sykes. However, following an incident on a Mexican balcony, from which he urinated on the cadets, he was let go of the project, and eventually was replaced by Stuart Erwin.On September 29, 1933, Pancho Villa's son, Pancho Augustin Villa Jr. was signed to cast in a role of a young Pancho Villa.The film also experienced change of as many as three writers and two directors, as well as being totally burned in a plane crash.\nViva Villa! was released for three days in the Paramount Theatre on May 17, 1934.When the film was finally released in Mexican cinemas, on September 7, 1934, firecrackers had exploded, which in turn, halted the viewing.\n\n\n== Reception ==\nThe film was very popular at the box office.Variety called the film a \"corking western\", while Helen Brown-Norden of Vanity Fair wrote \"There is also no denying the fact that Wallace Beery is not everybody's Villa\".Before film's premiere, Mexican press called it \"derogatory to Mexico\", and urged the production of it in a country to be halted.\n\n\n== Box office ==\nThe film grossed a total (domestic and foreign) of $1,875,000: $941,000 from the US and Canada and $934,000 elsewhere. It made a profit of $87,000.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nThe picture was nominated for the following Academy Awards:\nAcademy Award for Best Picture\nAssistant Director (John S. Waters) (winner)\nWriting (Adaptation) (Ben Hecht)\nSound Recording (Douglas Shearer)\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nViva Villa! partially inspired the creation of Elia Kazan's 1952 film Viva Zapata!, written by John Steinbeck and starring Marlon Brando and Anthony Quinn.\n\n\n== See also ==\nLet's Go with Pancho Villa - a 1936 Mexican film about Villa\nAnd Starring Pancho Villa as Himself, starring Antonio Banderas\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nCurtis Marez, \"Pancho Villa Meets Sun Yat-Sen: Third World Revolution and the History of Hollywood Cinema,\" American Literary History 17.3 (2005): 486–505.\n\n\n== External links ==\nViva Villa! at IMDb\nViva Villa! at the TCM Movie Database\nViva Villa! at AllMovie\nViva Villa! at the American Film Institute Catalog\nViva Villa! at Rotten Tomatoes", "Kitty Stephen Hawks (born February 11, 1946) is an American interior designer living in New York City and Westchester, New York. She is the daughter of New York socialite Slim Keith and film director Howard Hawks and is married to Larry Lederman, a photographer and retired corporate attorney.\n\n\n== Career ==\nHawks graduated from Smith College and attended the School of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of California, Los Angeles. After working as an agent for International Creative Management in Los Angeles, she moved to New York City, where she worked as creative director for Perry Ellis and Stendig Furniture before starting her own interior design firm. She was first commissioned in 1988 to decorate an apartment in New York's Hotel des Artistes. Since then her clients have included Tom Brokaw, Candice Bergen, Agnes Gund, Michael Ovitz, Mike Nichols, and Diane Sawyer. She served for over 10 years as a board member of The Design Trust for Public Space and the Municipal Art Society of New York. She has taught residential design at the Parsons School of Interior Design, and was inducted into the Interior Design Hall of Fame in 2005. Hawks’ could be seen as unpredictable as she told Interior Design magazine, “My work isn’t premeditated, it’s very spontaneous.”\n\n\n== Awards ==\nInterior Design Hall of Fame 2005\n\n\n== References ==", "Only Angels Have Wings is a 1939 American adventure drama film directed by Howard Hawks, and starring Cary Grant and Jean Arthur, based on a story written by Hawks. Its plot follows the manager of an air freight company in a remote South American port town who is forced to risk his pilots' lives while vying for a major contract. It features supporting performances from Thomas Mitchell, Richard Barthelmess, Noah Beery Jr., and Rita Hayworth, marking the first major role for the latter.Released by Columbia Pictures in May 1939, the film is generally regarded as being among Hawks' finest films, particularly in its portrayal of the professionalism of the pilots of the film, its atmosphere, and the flying sequences.\nIn 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\n\n== Plot ==\nGeoff Carter is the head pilot and manager of Barranca Airways, a small, barely solvent company owned by \"Dutchy\" Van Ruyter carrying airmail from the fictional South American port town of Barranca through a high pass in the Andes Mountains. Bonnie Lee, a piano-playing entertainer, arrives on a banana boat one day. After making her acquaintance, Joe Souther crashes and dies trying to land in fog later that day. Bonnie becomes infatuated with Geoff, despite his fatalistic attitude about the dangerous flying, and stays on in Barranca (not at his invitation, as he insists on telling her).\nThe situation is complicated by the arrival of pilot Bat MacPherson and his wife (and Geoff's old flame) Judy. McPherson cannot find work in the United States because he once bailed out of an airplane, leaving his mechanic — the brother of \"Kid\" Dabb, Carter's best friend — to die in the ensuing crash. When Geoff is forced to ground the Kid because of failing eyesight, he hires MacPherson on the understanding that he will get the most dangerous assignments.\nDutchy will secure a lucrative government contract if he can provide reliable mail service during a six-month trial. On the last day of the probation period, bad weather closes the mountain pass. Geoff decides to try to fly a new Ford Trimotor over the mountains instead. The Kid asks to go with him as co-pilot. Geoff refuses, but then lets the Kid toss a coin to decide the matter. When it lands on the floor, Geoff discovers that the coin has two heads. Geoff still agrees to take him along. Just before leaving, Bonnie tries to talk Geoff out of going. She takes his gun out of his holster and points it at him. When she realizes that she cannot stop him, she drops the gun on the table, but it accidentally fires, hitting Geoff in the shoulder.\nUnable to fly, Geoff lets MacPherson take his place. However, MacPherson and the Kid are unable to climb high enough; the plane stalls and drops thousands of feet before leveling off. Geoff tells them to turn around, but they decide to try to fly through the fogged-in pass. In the pass, they encounter a flock of condors. One crashes through the windshield, paralyzing the Kid; another hits the No. 1 engine, setting it on fire. Later the No. 2 engine also catches fire. The Kid tells MacPherson to bail out, but he refuses. He turns around and returns to Barranca, managing to crash-land the burning Trimotor on the field. The Kid dies from a broken neck, but not before telling Geoff what MacPherson did. As a result, MacPherson is finally accepted by the other pilots.\nBonnie is torn between leaving and staying, and confronts Geoff in the hope he will ask her to stay. However, with mere hours to spare on the trial period, the weather clears and Geoff has to rush off to secure the all-important contract. Before he goes, he offers to toss a coin to decide: heads, Bonnie stays; tails, she leaves. The coin comes up heads, but Bonnie despairs that this is the result of chance, not love. Geoff leaves her with the coin. She then realizes that it is the Kid's trick coin, dispelling her sadness.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Production ==\n\n\n=== Pre-production and casting ===\nThe film's original script outline was written by Anne Wigton; the working title originally was Plane No. 4. Howard Hawks re-wrote the film's scenario himself, based on a story that he wrote in 1938 titled Plane from Barranca. While he was scouting locations several years earlier, for the filming of Viva Villa!, Hawks had been especially inspired by the stoic aviation personnel that he had met in Mexico. The film's final script was written and re-written throughout the film's production, mostly by Hawks and Jules Furthman, but also with contributions by Eleanore Griffin and William Rankin.Hawks had previously worked with Cary Grant the year before on Bringing up Baby and this was the second of five collaborations between the director and star.He cast Jean Arthur in the leading role of Bonnie Lee after appraising her acting in several films made by Frank Capra.Hawks then hired silent film star Richard Barthelmess for the role of Bat MacPherson. Barthelmess's career had gradually diminished since sound films became popular in the late 1920s, and he was a controversial choice, mainly because he had recently had a botched plastic surgery operation on the skin under his eyes that resulted in permanent X-shaped scars under both of his eyes. Barthelmess usually wore heavy make-up to hide the scars, but Hawks wanted to use the scars for the character.Hawks had originally cast Dorothy Comingore in the role of Judy MacPherson, but studio head Harry Cohn had been grooming a young starlet that would be advanced for the role. With backing from Cohn, her agent then insisted that Hawks give Rita Hayworth a screen test, which eventually resulted in Hayworth being cast in the role.\n\n\n=== Filming ===\nShooting of Only Angels Have Wings began on December 19, 1938 at the Columbia Studio Ranch and Hawks shot the film in chronological sequence whenever possible. Hawks and Arthur initially found working together difficult and Arthur would often argue with Hawks on set. Hawks was attempting to coach Arthur to play a variation of the classical \"Hawksian Woman Archetype\", but Arthur often felt uncomfortable with his direction. Eventually, she unhappily agreed to play the role as he directed her. Years later after Arthur saw Lauren Bacall's performance in To Have and Have Not, Arthur apologized to Hawks and told him that she finally understood what he had wanted from her (epitomized in Bacall's repetition and emphasis on the paradoxical line \"I'm hard to get ... all you have to do is ask me.\") Hawks later said that he considered Arthur to have been good in the film.Initial shooting was completed on March 24, 1939, 31 days over its shooting schedule. This was followed with several weeks of second unit shooting of aircraft flying in various locations in the western United States. A few re-takes were shot in April with Cary Grant and Victor Kilian. Two days of re-shoots with Rita Hayworth were also shot, but were directed by Charles Vidor.In a 1972 interview, Arthur revealed, \"I loved sinking my head into Cary Grant's chest\".\n\n\n=== Aircraft used in the production ===\nThe \"cast\" also starred a 1929 Hamilton Metalplane, Ford Trimotor and TravelAir 6000 single engine monoplane. All of these types accurately represented the types of aircraft flying in the period depicted by the film. The Metalplane was the airplane Joe Souther crashes while trying to land in heavy fog, and was only used for ground shots. In 2007, one of the Hamilton props used in the simulated flying scenes for this aircraft surfaced on an episode of Antiques Roadshow; its owner had been able to screen match it, confirming its authenticity. The Pilgrim was used in the exciting mine rescue flying scene, while the Ford Trimotor was featured in another dramatic landing that ends in a fiery crash. Midway through the film, Paul Mantz flew a Boeing Model 100 biplane in a spirited aerobatic performance, reprising his earlier scene in Flight from Glory. Only Angels Have Wings has become very popular among enthusiasts of the aircraft of the golden age of aviation.\n\n\n== Release and reception ==\nTwelve days after the film's final re-shoots were completed, Only Angels Have Wings premiered in Los Angeles at the Pantages Theater on May 10, 1939. Its official world premiere occurred the next day at Radio City Music Hall. It was heavily promoted by Columbia Studios and ended up making $143,000 on its initial two-week run at radio City Music Hall, and earned over one million dollars overall. It was the third-highest-grossing film of 1939. The film was also Rita Hayworth's breakout role and helped make her a major Hollywood star, with Hayworth appearing on the cover of Look magazine after the film's success.Only Angels Have Wings received good reviews on its release, with Abel Green of Variety comparing it favorably to Flight From Glory and praised Barthelmess's performance. Frank S. Nugent in his review for The New York Times focused on the excitement found in the aerial scenes, also recognizing the talents of the star-studded cast, \"Mr. Hawks has staged his flying sequences brilliantly ... He has made proper use of the amiable performing talents of Mr. Grant, Miss Arthur, Thomas Mitchell, Mr. Barthelmess, Sig Rumann and the rest.\"Only Angels have Wings was later selected as one of 12 films representing the U.S. at the first Cannes Film Festival. However, the festival was canceled in light of events leading up to World War II.On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 86 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim.\"\n\n\n=== Radio adaptations ===\nTwo weeks after the film's premiere, Only Angels Have Wings was adapted as a one-hour radio play for the May 29, 1939 broadcast of Lux Radio Theatre. The film's principal actors, Cary Grant, Jean Arthur, Rita Hayworth, Richard Barthlemess and Thomas Mitchell all reprised their roles. Orson Welles headlined a radio adaptation on The Campbell Playhouse on February 25, 1940, that starred Welles and Joan Blondell.\n\n\n== Awards and honors ==\nRoy Davidson and Edwin C. Hahn were nominated for the first-time Best Effects, Special Effects.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nOnly Angels Have Wings has become thought of as one of Hawks's best films, with Dave Kehr calling it the \"equilibrium point\" of Hawks's career, bridging themes developed in his early films of the 1930s to some of his darker films of the 1940s and 1950s. Film critics at Cahiers du Cinema also praised the film in the 1950s as a quintessential support of the auteur theory.\n\n\n== See also ==\nList of misquotations: In one scene, Cary Grant calls after Hayworth's character by saying, \"Judy, Judy.\" This is the closest he ever came on film to the misquotation associated with him: \"Judy, Judy, Judy\".\nList of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a film review aggregator website\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n\n== External links ==\nOnly Angels Have Wings at IMDb\nOnly Angels Have Wings at the TCM Movie Database\nOnly Angels Have Wings at AllMovie\nOnly Angels Have Wings at the American Film Institute Catalog\n\"Judy, Judy, Judy\" FAQ\nOnly Angels Have Wings: Hawks’s Genius Takes Flight an essay by Michael Sragow at the Criterion CollectionStreaming audio\n\nOnly Angels Have Wings on Lux Radio Theater: May 29, 1939\nOnly Angels Have Wings on The Campbell Playhouse: February 25, 1940", "Monkey Business is a 1952 American screwball comedy film directed by Howard Hawks, written by Ben Hecht, and starring Cary Grant, Ginger Rogers, Charles Coburn, and Marilyn Monroe. To avoid confusion with the 1931 Marx Brothers film of the same name, this film is sometimes referred to as Howard Hawks' Monkey Business.\n\n\n== Plot ==\n\nDr. Barnaby Fulton (Cary Grant), an absent-minded research chemist for the Oxley chemical company, is trying to develop an elixir of youth. He is urged on by his commercially minded boss, Oliver Oxley (Charles Coburn). One of Dr. Fulton's chimpanzees, Esther, gets loose in the laboratory, mixes a beaker of chemicals, and pours the mix into the water cooler. The chemicals have the rejuvenating effect Fulton is seeking.\nUnaware of Esther's antics, Fulton tests his latest experimental concoction on himself and washes it down with water from the cooler. He soon begins to act like a 20-year-old and spends the day out on the town with his boss's secretary, Lois Laurel (Marilyn Monroe). When Fulton's wife, Edwina (Ginger Rogers), learns that the elixir \"works\", she drinks some along with water from the cooler and turns into a prank-pulling schoolgirl.\nEdwina makes an impetuous phone call to her old flame, the family lawyer, Hank Entwhistle (Hugh Marlowe). Her mother, who knows nothing of the elixir, believes that Edwina is truly unhappy in her marriage and wants a divorce.\nBarnaby takes more elixir and befriends a group of kids playing as make-believe \"Indians\" (Native Americans). They capture and \"scalp\" Hank (giving him a Mohawk hairstyle), later fleeing when police show up. Meanwhile, Edwina lies down to sleep off the formula. Meanwhile, a woman leaves her baby with the Fultons' housekeeper as she needs an emergency babysitter. When Edwina awakens, a naked baby is next to her and Barnaby's clothes are nearby. She mistakenly presumes he has taken too much formula and regressed to a baby. She takes the child to Oxley to resolve the problem. Together the two attempt to find an antidote and when the baby grows sleepy, Edwina tries to put him to sleep in the hopes of reversing the effects.\nMeanwhile, more and more scientists (and Mr. Oxley) at the laboratory are drinking the water and reverting to a second childhood. The formula is lost with the last of the water poured away. As the water is poured away, Barnaby crawls into the laboratory through the window and lies down to sleep next to the baby. Edwina later discovers him and realizes her mistake with the baby. Later at home as Barnaby and Edwina are planning to go out, their spirits and marriage renewed, Barnaby notes that \"you're old only when you forget you're young.\"\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Critical response ===\nReview aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 88% based on 25 reviews and an average score of 6.9/10.Hawks said he did not think the film's premise was believable, and as a result thought the film was not as funny as it could have been. Peter Bogdanovich has noted that the scenes with Cary Grant and Marilyn Monroe work especially well and laments that Monroe was not the leading lady instead of Ginger Rogers. However, Gregory Lamb of The Christian Science Monitor described Rogers as \"a comedienne par excellence\" in the film.In the book Film Dialogue Jeff Jaeckle criticized the film's depictions of Native Americans during a scene of Grant playing cowboys and Indians, stating that \"Smearing war paint on his face and adopting the name of Red Eagle, he coaches the children in a war song: 'We wantum wampum, we wantum wampum/Ugha ugha goo goo', and so on. In such nonsense speech Indianness and childishness are the same thing. It seems worth making a distinction between this and the evident good intentions of such liberal films as Broken Arrow.\"\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMonkey Business at IMDb\nMonkey Business at AllMovie\nMonkey Business at the TCM Movie Database\nMonkey Business at Rotten Tomatoes\nMonkey Business at the British Board of Film Classification\nHistoric reviews, photo gallery at CaryGrant.net", "Timothy Simon Roth (born 14 May 1961) is an English actor. After his television debut in Made in Britain, he starred in his film debut The Hit (1984), for which he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Most Promising Newcomer. Roth was among a group of prominent British actors of the era, the \"Brit Pack\". He gained more attention for his performances in The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover (1989), Vincent & Theo (1990), and Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead (1990).\nRoth earned international recognition for starring in Quentin Tarantino's films, such as Reservoir Dogs (1992), Pulp Fiction (1994), Four Rooms (1995) and The Hateful Eight (2015). For his performance in Rob Roy, Roth won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He made his directorial debut with The War Zone (1999), for which he received numerous accolades.\nHe played Cal Lightman in the Fox series Lie to Me and Jim Worth / Jack Devlin in the Sky Atlantic series Tin Star. Roth also portrays the character Emil Blonsky / Abomination in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).\n\n\n== Early life ==\nRoth was born in Dulwich, London, the son of Ann, a painter and teacher, and Ernie, a Fleet Street journalist and a painter. His father was born in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, to a family of Irish descent. Although he was not of Jewish background, he changed his surname from \"Smith\" to the German/Yiddish \"Roth\" in the 1940s, as \"an act of anti-Nazi solidarity\".Roth is a survivor of child sexual abuse, committed by his paternal grandfather, who he has stated sexually abused him from childhood until his early teen years. He first revealed that he was a victim of sexual abuse during press for his 1999 directorial debut, The War Zone, a film which dealt with the topics of incest and sexual violence within a family, but declined to name the perpetrator at that time. In December 2016, he gave an interview to the British newspaper The Guardian in which he revealed that his abuser was his grandfather, who had also sexually abused Roth's own father when he was a child.Roth attended school in Lambeth, before switching to Croydon Technical School due to bullying.\nRoth attended the Strand School in Tulse Hill. As a young man, he wanted to be a sculptor and studied at London's Camberwell College of Arts.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\nRoth played a white supremacist skinhead in the 1982 television film Made in Britain. He played an East End character in King of the Ghetto, a controversial drama based on a novel by Farukh Dhondy set in Brick Lane and broadcast by the BBC in 1986. He played a shy young man in Mike Leigh's film Meantime.\nIn 1985, he appeared in the television film Murder with Mirrors. He played an apprentice hitman in Stephen Frears' The Hit, earning an Evening Standard Award for Most Promising Newcomer. In 1989, he had a supporting role as the buffoonish lackey Mitchell in Peter Greenaway's The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover. In 1990, he starred as Vincent van Gogh in Vincent & Theo, and Guildenstern in Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead. During the late 1980s, Roth, Gary Oldman, Colin Firth, Daniel Day-Lewis, Bruce Payne and Paul McGann, were dubbed the Brit Pack. Roth collaborated with Quentin Tarantino on each films, including Reservoir Dogs, Pulp Fiction and Four Rooms. Roth played Archibald Cunningham in Rob Roy. He won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a Golden Globe.\n\nIn 1996, he starred in Woody Allen's musical comedy Everyone Says I Love You. Roth played \"Danny Boodman T.D. Lemon 1900\" in The Legend of 1900, and co-starred in the film Gridlock'd. He made his directorial debut in 1999 with The War Zone, a film version of Alexander Stuart's novel. In 2001, he played General Thade in Planet of the Apes. For the Harry Potter film series, Roth declined the role of Severus Snape, which went to Alan Rickman.He was considered for the part of Hannibal Lecter in the 2001 film Hannibal, before Anthony Hopkins returned to reclaim the role. He appeared in Francis Ford Coppola's Youth Without Youth and Michael Haneke's Funny Games, then starred as Emil Blonsky / Abomination, a Russian-born officer in the United Kingdom's Royal Marines Commandos, in The Incredible Hulk. Hulk director Louis Leterrier was a fan of Roth's work, with the director telling Empire magazine, \"it's great watching a normal Cockney boy become a superhero!\".From 2009 to 2011, he starred in Lie To Me as Cal Lightman, an expert on body language who assists local and federal law organisations in the investigation of crimes. A fan of Monty Python since his youth, in 2009 he appeared in the television documentary, Monty Python: Almost the Truth (Lawyers Cut). In 2010, Roth appeared on the cover of Manic Street Preachers' 2010 studio album, Postcards from a Young Man.In 2012, he was announced as the President of the Jury for the Un Certain Regard section at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival. He starred as FIFA President Sepp Blatter in United Passions, a film about football's governing body, released in 2014, to coincide with FIFA's 110th anniversary, and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In 2015, he starred in the film Chronic which received a limited release in 2016. He later received an Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead nomination. Roth played Oswaldo Mobray in the ensemble western film The Hateful Eight. In 2019, Roth was to appear in Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, but his scenes were cut. He reprised his role as Emil Blonsky / Abomination in the film Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021) as well as in the upcoming Disney+ series She-Hulk (2022), both set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nRoth has three sons. Jack Roth, born to Lori Baker in 1984, is also an actor. In 1993, Roth married Nikki Butler. They have two sons, Timothy Hunter (born 1995) and Michael Cormac (born 1996).\n\n\n== Politics ==\nRoth is a supporter of the Green Party of England and Wales. Roth endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for President in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nTim Roth at www.lietome.com\nThe Officially Unofficial Tim Roth Web Page\nTim Roth at IMDb\nTim Roth at the Internet Off-Broadway Database\nTim Roth at AllMovie\nTim Roth at the BFI's Screenonline\nAudio Interview w/ Rafferty/Mills Connection Podcast (2009)", "Howard Winchester Hawks (May 30, 1896 – December 26, 1977) was an American film director, producer and screenwriter of the classic Hollywood era. Critic Leonard Maltin called him \"the greatest American director who is not a household name.\"\nA versatile film director, Hawks explored many genres such as comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, war films and westerns. His most popular films include Scarface (1932), Bringing Up Baby (1938), Only Angels Have Wings (1939), His Girl Friday (1940), To Have and Have Not (1944), The Big Sleep (1946), Red River (1948), The Thing from Another World (1951), Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953), and Rio Bravo (1959). His frequent portrayals of strong, tough-talking female characters came to define the \"Hawksian woman\".\nIn 1942, Hawks was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for Sergeant York. In 1974, he was awarded an Honorary Academy Award as \"a master American filmmaker whose creative efforts hold a distinguished place in world cinema.\" His work has influenced various popular and respected directors such as Martin Scorsese, Robert Altman, Jean-Luc Godard, John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino.\n\n\n== Early life and background ==\nHoward Winchester Hawks was born in Goshen, Indiana. He was the first-born child of Frank Winchester Hawks (1865–1950), a wealthy paper manufacturer, and his wife, Helen Brown (née Howard; 1872–1952), the daughter of a wealthy industrialist. Hawks's family on his father's side were American pioneers and his ancestor John Hawks had emigrated from England to Massachusetts in 1630. The family eventually settled in Goshen and by the 1890s was one of the wealthiest families in the Midwest, due mostly to the highly profitable Goshen Milling Company.Hawks's maternal grandfather, C. W. Howard (1845–1916), had homesteaded in Neenah, Wisconsin in 1862 at age 17. Within 15 years he had made his fortune in the town's paper mill and other industrial endeavors. Frank Hawks and Helen Howard met in the early 1890s and married in 1895. Howard Hawks was the eldest of five children and his birth was followed by Kenneth Neil Hawks (August 12, 1898 – January 2, 1930), William Bellinger Hawks (January 29, 1901 – January 10, 1969), Grace Louise Hawks (October 17, 1903 – December 23, 1927) and Helen Bernice Hawks (1906 – May 4, 1911). In 1898, the family moved back to Neenah where Frank Hawks began working for his father-in-law's Howard Paper Company.Between 1906 and 1909, the Hawks family began to spend more time in Pasadena, California during the cold Wisconsin winters in order to improve Helen Hawks's ill health. Gradually, they began to spend only their summers in Wisconsin before permanently moving to Pasadena in 1910. The family settled in a house down the street from Throop Polytechnic Institute and the Hawks children began attending the school's Polytechnic Elementary School in 1907. Hawks was an average student and did not excel in sports, but by 1910 had discovered coaster racing, an early form of soapbox racing. In 1911, Hawks's youngest sibling Helen died suddenly of food poisoning. From 1910 to 1912, Hawks attended Pasadena High School. But in 1912, the Hawks family moved to nearby Glendora, California, where Frank Hawks owned orange groves. Hawks finished his junior year of high school at Citrus Union High School in Glendora. During this time he worked as a barnstorming pilot.He was then sent to Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire from 1913 to 1914; his family's wealth may have influenced his acceptance to the elite private school. Even though he was seventeen, he was admitted as a lower middleclassman, the equivalent of a sophomore. While in New England, Hawks often attended the theaters in nearby Boston. In 1914, Hawks returned to Glendora and graduated from Pasadena High School that year. Skilled in tennis, by eighteen years old, Hawks won the United States Junior Tennis Championship. That same year, Hawks was accepted to Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he majored in mechanical engineering and was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon. His college friend Ray S. Ashbury remembered Hawks spending more of his time playing craps and drinking alcohol than studying, although Hawks was also known to be a voracious reader of popular American and English novels in college.While working in the film industry during his 1916 summer vacation, Hawks made an unsuccessful attempt to transfer to Stanford University. He returned to Cornell that September, leaving in April 1917 to join the Army when the United States entered World War I. He served as a lieutenant in the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps. During World War I, he taught aviators to fly and he used these experiences as influence for future aviation films such as The Dawn Patrol (1930). Like many college students who joined the armed services during the war, he received a degree in absentia in 1918. Before Hawks was called for active duty, he returned to Hollywood and by the end of April 1917 was working on a Cecil B. DeMille film.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Entering films (1916–1925) ===\nHoward Hawks's interest and passion for aviation led him to many important experiences and acquaintances. In 1916, Hawks met Victor Fleming, a Hollywood cinematographer who had been an auto mechanic and early aviator. Hawks had begun racing and working on a Mercer race car—bought for him by his grandfather, C.W. Howard—during his 1916 summer vacation in California. He allegedly met Fleming when the two men raced on a dirt track and caused an accident. This meeting led to Hawks's first job in the film industry, as a prop boy on the Douglas Fairbanks film In Again, Out Again (on which Fleming was employed as the cinematographer) for Famous Players-Lasky. According to Hawks, a new set needed to be built quickly when the studio's set designer was unavailable, so Hawks volunteered to do the job himself, much to Fairbanks's satisfaction. He was next employed as a prop boy and general assistant on an unspecified film directed by Cecil B. DeMille. (Hawks never named the film in later interviews and DeMille made roughly five films in that time period). By the end of April 1917, Hawks was working on Cecil B. DeMille's The Little American. Hawks then worked on the Mary Pickford film The Little Princess, directed by Marshall Neilan. According to Hawks, Neilan did not show up to work one day, so the resourceful Hawks offered to direct a scene himself, to which Pickford consented.Hawks began directing at age 21 after he and cinematographer Charles Rosher filmed a double exposure dream sequence with Mary Pickford. Hawks worked with Pickford and Neilan again on Amarilly of Clothes-Line Alley before joining the United States Army Air Service. Hawks's military records were destroyed in the 1973 Military Archive Fire, so the only account of his military service is his own. According to Hawks, he spent 15 weeks in basic training at the University of California in Berkeley where he was trained to be a squadron commander in the air force. When Pickford visited Hawks at basic training, his superior officers were so impressed by the appearance of the celebrity that they promoted him to flight instructor and sent him to Texas to teach new recruits. Bored by this work, Hawks attempted to secure a transfer during the first half of 1918 and was eventually sent to Fort Monroe, Virginia. The Armistice was signed in November of that year, and Hawks was discharged as a Second Lieutenant without having seen active duty.After the war, Hawks was eager to return to Hollywood. His brother, Kenneth Hawks, who had also served in the Air Force, graduated from Yale University in 1919, and the two of them moved to Hollywood together to pursue their careers. They quickly made friends with Hollywood insider (and fellow Ivy Leaguer) Allan Dwan. Hawks landed his first important job when he used his family's wealth to loan money to studio head Jack L. Warner. Warner quickly paid back the loan and hired Hawks as a producer to \"oversee\" the making of a new series of one-reel comedies starring the Italian comedian Monty Banks. Hawks later stated that he personally directed \"three or four\" of the shorts, though no documentation exists to confirm the claim. The films were profitable, but Hawks soon left to form his own production company using his family's wealth and connections to secure financing. The production company, Associated Producers, was a joint venture between Hawks, Allan Dwan, Marshall Neilan, and director Allen Holubar, with a distribution deal with First National. The company made 14 films between 1920 and 1923, with 8 directed by Neilan, 3 by Dwan and 3 by Holubar. More of a \"boy's club\" than a production company, the four men gradually drifted apart and went their separate ways in 1923, by which time Hawks had decided that he wanted to direct rather than produce.Beginning in early 1920, Hawks lived in rented houses in Hollywood with the group of friends he was accumulating. This rowdy group of mostly macho, risk-taking men included his brother Kenneth Hawks, Victor Fleming, Jack Conway, Harold Rosson, Richard Rosson, Arthur Rosson and Eddie Sutherland. During this time, Hawks first met Irving Thalberg, the vice-President in charge of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Hawks admired his intelligence and sense of story. Hawks also became friends with barn stormers and pioneer aviators at Rogers Airport in Los Angeles, getting to know men like Moye Stephens.\nIn 1923, Famous Players-Lasky president Jesse Lasky was looking for a new Production Editor in the story department of his studio and Thalberg suggested Hawks. Hawks accepted and was immediately put in charge of over 40 productions, including several literary acquisitions of stories by Joseph Conrad, Jack London and Zane Grey. Hawks worked on the scripts for all of the films produced, but he had his first official screenplay credit in 1924 on Tiger Love. Hawks was the Story Editor at Famous Players (later Paramount Pictures) for almost two years, occasionally editing such films as Heritage of the Desert. Hawks signed a new one-year contract with Famous-Players in the fall of 1924. He broke his contract to become a story editor for Thalberg at MGM, having secured a promise from Thalberg to make him a director within a year. In 1925, when Thalberg hesitated to keep his promise, Hawks broke his contract at MGM and left.\n\n\n=== Silent films (1925–1929) ===\nIn October 1925, Sol Wurtzel, William Fox's studio superintendent at the Fox Film Corporation, invited Hawks to join his company with the promise of letting Hawks direct. Over the next three years, Hawks directed his first eight films (six silent, two \"talkies\"). Hawks reworked the scripts of most of the films he directed without always taking official credit for his work. He also worked on the scripts for Honesty – The Best Policy in 1926 and Joseph von Sternberg's Underworld in 1927, famous for being one of the first gangster films. Hawks's first film was The Road to Glory which premiered in April 1926. The screenplay was based on a 35-page composition written by Howard Hawks. This represented one of the only films on which Hawks had extensive writing credit. It is one of Hawks's only two lost films. Immediately after completing The Road to Glory, Hawks began writing his next film, Fig Leaves, his first (and, until 1935, only) comedy. It received positive reviews, particularly for the art direction and costume designs. It was released in July 1926 and was Hawks' first hit as a director. Although he mainly dismissed his early work, Hawks praised this film in later interviews.Paid to Love is notable in Hawks's filmography, because it was a highly stylized, experimental film. He attempted to imitate the style of German film director F. W. Murnau. Hawks's film includes atypical tracking shots, expressionistic lighting and stylistic film editing that was inspired by German Expressionist cinema. In a later interview, Hawks commented \"It isn't my type of stuff, at least I got it over in a hurry. You know the idea of wanting the camera to do those things: Now the camera's somebody's eyes.\" Hawks worked on the script with Seton I. Miller, with whom he would go on to collaborate on seven more films. The film stars George O'Brien as the introverted Crown Prince Michael, William Powell as his happy-go-lucky brother and Virginia Valli as Michael's flapper love interest Dolores. The characters played by Valli and O'Brien anticipate those found in later films by Hawks: a sexually aggressive showgirl, who is an early prototype of the \"Hawksian woman\", and a shy man disinterested in sex, found in later roles played by Cary Grant and Gary Cooper. Paid to Love was completed by September 1926, but remained unreleased until July 1927. It was financially unsuccessful. Cradle Snatchers was based on a 1925 hit stage play by Russell G. Medcraft and Norma Mitchell. The film was shot in early 1927. The film was released in May 1927 and was a minor hit. For many years it was believed to be a lost film until film director Peter Bogdanovich discovered a print in 20th Century Fox's film vaults, although the print was missing part of reel three and all of reel four. In March 1927, Hawks signed a new one-year, three-picture contract with Fox and was assigned to direct Fazil, based on the play L'Insoumise by Pierre Frondaie. Hawks again worked with Seton Miller on the script. Hawks was over schedule and over budget on the film, which began a rift between him and Sol Wurtzel that would eventually lead to Hawks leaving Fox. The film was finished in August 1927, though it was not released until June 1928.\n\nA Girl in Every Port is considered by film scholars to be the most important film of Hawks's silent career. It is the first of his films to utilize many of the Hawksian themes and characters that would define much of his subsequent work. It was his first \"love story between two men,\" with two men bonding over their duty, skills and careers, who consider their friendship to be more important than their relationships with women. In France, Henri Langlois called Hawks \"the Gropius of the cinema\" and Swiss novelist and poet Blaise Cendrars said that the film \"definitely marked the first appearance of contemporary cinema.\" Hawks went over budget once again with this film, though, and his relationship with Sol Wurtzel deteriorated. After an advance screening that received positive reviews, Wurtzel told Hawks, \"This is the worst picture Fox has made in years.\" The Air Circus was Hawks's first film centered around aviation, one of his early passions. In 1928, Charles Lindbergh was the world's most famous person and Wings was one of the most popular films of the year. Wanting to capitalize on the country's aviation craze, Fox immediately bought Hawks' original story for The Air Circus, a variation of the male friendship plot of A Girl in Every Port about two young pilots. The film was shot from April to June 1928, but Fox ordered an additional 15 minutes of dialogue footage in order that the film could compete with the new \"talkies\" being released. Hawks hated the new dialogue written by Hugh Herbert and he refused to participate in the re-shoots. The film was released in September 1928 and was a moderate hit. It is one of two films directed by Hawks that are lost films.Trent's Last Case is an adaptation of British author E. C. Bentley's 1913 novel of the same name. Hawks considered the novel to be \"one of the greatest detective stories of all time\" and was eager to make it his first sound film. He cast Raymond Griffith in the lead role of Phillip Trent. Griffith's throat had been damaged by poison gas during World War I and his voice was a hoarse whisper, prompting Hawks to later state, \"I thought he ought to be great in talking pictures because of that voice.\" However, after shooting only a few scenes, Fox shut Hawks down and ordered him to make a silent film, both because of Griffith's voice and because they only owned the legal rights to make a silent film. The film did have a musical score and synchronized sound effects, but no dialogue. Due to the failing business of silent films, it was never released in the US and only briefly screened in England where film critics hated it. The film was believed lost until the mid-1970s and was screened for the first time in the US at a Hawks retrospective in 1974. Hawks was in attendance of the screening and attempted to have the only print of the film destroyed. Hawks's contract with Fox ended in May 1929, and he never again signed a long-term contract with a major studio. He managed to remain an independent producer-director for the rest of his long career.\n\n\n=== Early sound films (1930–1934) ===\nBy 1930, Hollywood was in upheaval over the coming of \"talkies\" and the careers of many actors and directors were ruined. Hollywood studios were recruiting stage actors and directors that they believed were better suited for sound films. After having worked in the industry for 14 years and directed many financially successful films, Hawks found himself having to prove himself an asset to the studios once again. Leaving Fox on sour terms didn't help his reputation, but Hawks never backed down from fights with studio heads. After several months of unemployment, Hawks renewed his career with his first sound film in 1930.\n\nHawks' first all-sound film was The Dawn Patrol, based on an original story by John Monk Saunders and (unofficially) Hawks. Reportedly, Hawks paid Saunders to put his name on the film, so that Hawks could direct the film without arousing concern due to his lack of writing experience. Accounts vary on who came up with the idea of the film, but Hawks and Saunders developed the story together and tried to sell it to several studios before First National agreed to produce it. Shooting began in late February 1930, about the same time that Howard Hughes was finally finishing his epic World War I aviation epic Hell's Angels, which had been in production since September 1927. Shrewdly, Hawks began to hire many of the aviation experts and cameramen that had been employed by Hughes, including Elmer Dyer, Harry Reynolds and Ira Reed. When Hughes found out about the rival film, he did everything he could to sabotage The Dawn Patrol. He harassed Hawks and other studio personnel, hired a spy that was quickly caught and finally sued First National for copyright infringement. Hughes eventually dropped the lawsuit in late 1930—he and Hawks had become good friends during the legal battle. Filming was finished in late May 1930 and it premiered in July, setting a first-week box office record at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York. The film became one of the biggest hits of 1930. The success of this film allowed Hawks to gain respect in the field of filmmaking and allowed him to spend the rest of his career as an independent director without the necessity to sign any long-term contracts with specific studios.\n\nHawks did not get along with Warner Brothers executive Hal B. Wallis and his contract allowed him to be loaned out to other studios. Hawks took the opportunity to accept a directing offer from Harry Cohn at Columbia Pictures. The film opened in January 1931 and was a hit. The film was banned in Chicago, though, and the experience of censorship which would continue in his next film project. In 1930, Howard Hughes hired Hawks to direct Scarface, a gangster film loosely based on the life of Chicago mobster Al Capone. The film was completed in September 1931, but the censorship of the Hays Code prevented it from being released as Hawks and Hughes had originally intended. The two men fought, negotiated and made compromises with the Hays Office for over a year, until the film was eventually released in 1932, after such other pivotal early gangster films as The Public Enemy and Little Caesar. Scarface was the first film in which Hawks worked with screenwriter Ben Hecht, who became a close friend and collaborator for 20 years. After filming was complete on Scarface, Hawks left Hughes to fight the legal battles and returned to First National to fulfill his contract, this time with producer Darryl F. Zanuck. For his next film, Hawks wanted to make a film about his childhood passion: car racing. Hawks developed the script for The Crowd Roars with Seton Miller for their eighth and final collaboration. Hawks used real race car drivers in the film, including the 1930 Indianapolis 500 winner Billy Arnold. The film was released in March and became a hit.\n\nLater in 1932, he directed Tiger Shark starring Edward G. Robinson as a tuna fisherman. In these early films, Hawks established the prototypical \"Hawksian Man\", which film critic Andrew Sarris described as \"upheld by an instinctive professionalism.\" Tiger Shark demonstrated Hawks' ability to incorporate touches of humor into dramatic, tense, and even tragic story lines. In 1933, Hawks signed a three-picture deal at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, the first of which was Today We Live in 1933. This World War I film was based on a short story by author William Faulkner. Hawks' next two films at MGM were the boxing drama The Prizefighter and the Lady and the bio-pic Viva Villa!. Studio interference on both films led Hawks to walk out on his MGM contract without completing either film himself.\n\n\n=== Later sound films (1935–1970) ===\nIn 1934, Hawks went to Columbia Pictures to make his first screwball comedy, Twentieth Century, starring John Barrymore and Hawks's distant cousin Carole Lombard. It was based on a stage play by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur and, along with Frank Capra's It Happened One Night (released the same year), is considered to be the defining film of the screwball comedy genre. In 1935, Hawks made Barbary Coast with Edward G. Robinson and Miriam Hopkins. Hawks collaborated with Hecht and MacArthur on Barbary Coast and reportedly convinced them to work on the film by promising to teach them a marble game. They would switch off between working on the script and playing with marbles during work days.: 94  In 1936, he made the aviation adventure Ceiling Zero with James Cagney and Pat O'Brien. Also in 1936, Hawks began filming Come and Get It, starring Edward Arnold, Joel McCrea, Frances Farmer and Walter Brennan. But he was fired by Samuel Goldwyn in the middle of shooting and the film was completed by William Wyler.In 1938, Hawks made the screwball comedy Bringing Up Baby for RKO Pictures. It starred Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn and was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde and has been called \"the screwiest of the screwball comedies\" by film critic Andrew Sarris. Grant plays a near-sighted paleontologist who suffers one humiliation after another due to the lovestruck socialite played by Hepburn. Hawks's artistic direction for Bringing Up Baby revolved around the raw natural chemistry between Grant and Hepburn. With Grant portraying the paleontologist and Hepburn as an heiress, the roles only add to the movie's purpose of disintegrating the line between the real and the imaginary. Bringing Up Baby was a box office flop when initially released and, subsequently, RKO fired Hawks due to extreme losses; however, the film has become regarded as one of Hawks's masterpieces. Hawks followed this with 11 consecutive hits up to 1951, starting with the aviation drama Only Angels Have Wings, starring Cary Grant and made in 1939 for Columbia Pictures. It also starred Jean Arthur, Thomas Mitchell, Rita Hayworth, and Richard Barthelmess.\n\nIn 1940, Hawks returned to the screwball comedy genre with His Girl Friday, starring Cary Grant and Rosalind Russell. The film was an adaptation of the hit Broadway play The Front Page by Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur, which had already been made into a film in 1931. Not forgetting the influence Jesse Lasky had on his early career, in 1941, Hawks made Sergeant York, starring Gary Cooper as a pacifist farmer who becomes a decorated World War I soldier. Hawks directed the film and cast Cooper as a specific favor to Lasky. This was the highest-grossing film of 1941 and won two Academy Awards (Best Actor and Best Editing), as well as earning Hawks his only nomination for Best Director. Later that year, Hawks worked with Cooper again for Ball of Fire, which also starred Barbara Stanwyck. The film was written by Billy Wilder and Charles Brackett and is a playful take on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Cooper plays a sheltered, intellectual linguist who is writing an encyclopedia with six other scientists, and hires street-wise Stanwyck to help them with modern slang terms. In 1941, Hawks began work on the Howard Hughes-produced (and later directed) film The Outlaw, based on the life of Billy the Kid and starring Jane Russell. Hawks completed initial shooting of the film in early 1941, but due to perfectionism and battles with the Hollywood Production Code, Hughes continued to re-shoot and re-edit the film until 1943, when it was finally released with Hawks uncredited as director.After making the World War II film Air Force in 1943 starring John Garfield and written by Nichols, Hawks did two films with real-life lovers Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall. To Have and Have Not, made in 1944, stars Bogart, Bacall and Walter Brennan and is based on a novel by Ernest Hemingway. Hawks was a close friend of Hemingway and made a bet with the author that he could make a good film out of Hemingway's \"worst book.\" Hawks, William Faulkner and Jules Furthman collaborated on the script about an American fishing boat captain working out of French Martinique in the Caribbean and various situations of espionage after the Fall of France in 1940. Bogart and Bacall fell in love on the set of the film and married soon afterwards. To Have and Have Not has been critiqued as having a \"rambling, slapped-together feel\" that contribute to an overall clumsy and dull movie. The film, however, has also been enjoyed for its romantic plot and has been compared to Casablanca in its feel. The greatest strength of the movie has been said to come from its atmosphere and use of wit that really plays on the strengths of Bacall and helps the movie solidify the theme of beauty in perpetual opposition. Hawks reteamed with Bogart and Bacall in 1946 with The Big Sleep, based on the Philip Marlowe detective novel by Raymond Chandler. The screenplay for the film also reteamed Faulkner and Furthman, in addition to Leigh Brackett.\nIn 1948, Hawks made Red River, an epic western reminiscent of Mutiny on the Bounty starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift in his first film. Later that year, Hawks remade his earlier film Ball of Fire as A Song Is Born, this time starring Danny Kaye and Virginia Mayo. This version follows the same plot but pays more attention to popular jazz music and includes such jazz legends as Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Louis Armstrong, Lionel Hampton, and Benny Carter playing themselves. In 1949, Hawks reteamed with Cary Grant in the screwball comedy I Was a Male War Bride, also starring Ann Sheridan.\n\nIn 1951, Hawks produced, and according to some, directed, a science-fiction film, The Thing from Another World. Director John Carpenter stated: \"And let's get the record straight. The movie was directed by Howard Hawks. Verifiably directed by Howard Hawks. He let his editor, Christian Nyby, take credit. But the kind of feeling between the male characters—the camaraderie, the group of men that has to fight off the evil—it's all pure Hawksian.\" He followed this with the 1952 western film The Big Sky, starring Kirk Douglas. Later in 1952, Hawks worked with Cary Grant for the fifth and final time in the screwball comedy Monkey Business, which also starred Marilyn Monroe and Ginger Rogers. Grant plays a scientist (reminiscent of his character in Bringing up Baby) who creates a formula that increases his vitality. Film critic John Belton called the film Hawks' \"most organic comedy.\" Hawks' third film of 1952 was a contribution to the omnibus film O. Henry's Full House, which includes short stories by the writer O. Henry made by various directors. Hawks' short film The Ransom of Red Chief starred Fred Allen, Oscar Levant and Jeanne Crain.In 1953, Hawks made Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, which featured Marilyn Monroe famously singing \"Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend.\" The film starred Monroe and Jane Russell as two gold-digging, cabaret-performer best friends that many critics argue is the only female version of his celebrated \"buddy film\" genre. In 1955, Hawks shot a film atypical within the context of his other work, Land of the Pharaohs, which is a sword-and-sandal epic about ancient Egypt that stars Jack Hawkins and Joan Collins. The film was Hawks' final collaboration with longtime friend William Faulkner before the author's death. In 1959, Hawks worked with John Wayne in Rio Bravo, also starring Dean Martin, Ricky Nelson, and Walter Brennan as four lawmen \"defending the fort\" of their local jail in which a local criminal is awaiting a trial while his family attempt to break him out. The screenplay was written by Furthman and Leigh Brackett, who had collaborated with Hawks previously on The Big Sleep. Film critic Robin Wood has said that if he \"were asked to choose a film that would justify the existence of Hollywood ... it would be Rio Bravo.\"\n\nIn 1962, Hawks made Hatari!, again with John Wayne, who plays a wild animals catcher in Africa. It was also written by Leigh Brackett. Hawks's knowledge of mechanics allowed him to built the camera-car hybrid that allowed him to film the hunting scenes in the film. In 1964, Hawks made his final comedy, Man's Favorite Sport?, starring Rock Hudson (since Cary Grant felt he was too old for the role) and Paula Prentiss. Hawks then returned to his childhood passion for car races with Red Line 7000 in 1965, featuring a young James Caan in his first leading role. Hawks' final two films were both Western remakes of Rio Bravo starring John Wayne and written by Leigh Brackett. In 1966, Hawks directed El Dorado, starring Wayne, Robert Mitchum, and Caan, which was released the following year. He then made Rio Lobo, with Wayne in 1970. After Rio Lobo, Hawks planned a project relating to Ernest Hemingway and \"Now, Mr. Gus,\" a comedy about two male friends seeking oil and money. He died in December 1977, before these projects were completed.Hawks died on December 26, 1977, at the age of 81, from complications arising from a fall when he tripped over his dog at his home in Palm Springs, California. He had spent two weeks in the hospital recovering from his concussion when he asked to be taken home, dying a few days later. He was working with his last protege discovery at the time, Larraine Zax.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\n\nHoward Hawks was married three times: to actress Athole Shearer, sister of Norma Shearer, from 1928 to 1940; to socialite and fashion icon Slim Keith from 1941 to 1949; and to actress Dee Hartford from 1953 to 1960. Hawks had two children with Shearer, Barbara and David. David Hawks worked as an assistant director for the television series M*A*S*H. His second daughter Kitty Hawks was a result of his second marriage to \"Slim\" Keith. Hawks had one son with his last wife, Dee Hartford, who was named Gregg after cinematographer Gregg Toland.Along with his love of flying machines, Hawks also had a passion for cars and motorcycles. He built the race car that won the 1936 Indianapolis 500, as well as enjoyed riding motorcycles with Barbara Stanwyck and Gary Cooper. Hawks and his son Gregg were members of Checkers Motorcycle Club. Hawks continued riding until the age of 78. His other hobbies included golf, tennis, sailing, horse racing, carpentry, and silversmithing.Hawks was also known for maintaining close friendships with many American writers such as Ben Hecht, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulkner. Hawks credited himself with the discovery of William Faulkner and introducing the then-unknown writer to the Algonquin Round Table. Hawks and Faulkner had mutual interests in flying and drinking and Faulkner admired the films of Hawks, asking him to teach him how to write screenplays. Faulkner wrote five screenplays for Hawks, the first of them being Today We Live and the last of them being Land of the Pharaohs. With a mutual interest in fishing and skiing, Hawks was also close with Ernest Hemingway, and was almost made the director of the film adaptation of For Whom the Bell Tolls. Hawks found it difficult to forgive Hemingway for his suicide. After coming to terms with it in the 1970s, he began to plan a film project about Hemingway and his relationship with Robert Capa. He never filmed the project.Hawks supported Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election.\n\n\n== Style ==\n\nHawks was a versatile director whose career includes comedies, dramas, gangster films, science fiction, film noir, and Westerns. Hawks's own functional definition of what constitutes a \"good movie\" is characteristic of his no-nonsense style: \"Three great scenes, no bad ones.\" Hawks also defined a good director as \"someone who doesn't annoy you.\" In Hawks's own words, his directing style is based on being enjoyable and straightforward. His style was very actor-focused and he made it a point to take as few shots as possible, thereby preserving an inherent and natural humor for his comedic pieces.While Hawks was not sympathetic to feminism, he popularized the Hawksian woman archetype, a portrayal of women in more strong, less effeminate roles. Such an emphasis had never been done in the 1920s and therefore was seen to be a rarity and, according to Naomi Wise, has been cited as a prototype of the post-feminist movement. Another notable theme carried throughout his work included the relationship of morality and human interaction. In this sense he tended to portray more dramatic elements of a concept or a plot in a humorous way.Orson Welles in an interview with Peter Bogdanovich said of Howard Hawks, in comparison with John Ford, that \"Hawks is great prose; Ford is poetry.\" Despite Hawks's work in a variety of Hollywood genres, he still retained an independent sensibility. Film critic David Thomson wrote of Hawks: \"Far from being the meek purveyor of Hollywood forms, he always chose to turn them upside down. To Have and Have Not and The Big Sleep, ostensibly an adventure and a thriller, are really love stories. Rio Bravo, apparently a Western – everyone wears a cowboy hat – is a comedy conversation piece. The ostensible comedies are shot through with exposed emotions, with the subtlest views of the sex war, and with a wry acknowledgment of the incompatibility of men and women.\" David Boxwell argues that the filmmaker's body of work \"has been accused of a historical and adolescent escapism, but Hawks's fans rejoice in his oeuvre's remarkable avoidance of Hollywood's religiosity, bathos, flag-waving, and sentimentality.\n\n\n== Writing and producing ==\nIn addition to his career as a film director, Howard Hawks either wrote or supervised the writing for most of his films. In some cases, he would rewrite parts of the script on-set. Due to the Screen Writer's Guild's rule that the director and producer couldn't receive credit for writing, Hawks rarely received credit. Even though Sidney Howard received credit for writing Gone with the Wind (1939), the screenplay was actually written by a myriad of Hollywood screenwriters including, David O. Selznick, Ben Hecht, and Howard Hawks. Hawks was an uncredited contributor to many other screenplays such as Underworld (1927), Morocco (1930), Shanghai Express (1932), and Gunga Din (1939). Hawks also produced many of his own films, preferring not to work under major film studios, because it allowed him creative freedom in his writing, directing, and casting. Hawks would sometimes walk out on films that he wasn't producing himself. Hawks, however, never considered producing to come before his directing. For example, several of the film cards for his films show \"Directed and produced by Howard Hawks\" with \"produced\" underneath \"directed\" in much smaller font. Sometimes his films wouldn't credit any producer. Hawks discovered many well known film stars such as Paul Muni, George Raft, Ann Dvorak, Carole Lombard, Frances Farmer, Jane Russell, Montgomery Clift, Joanne Dru, Angie Dickinson, James Caan, and most famously Lauren Bacall.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== Awards and recognition ==\nPeter Bogdanovich suggested to the Museum of Modern Art to do a retrospective on Howard Hawks who was in the process of releasing Hatari!. For marketing purposes, Paramount paid for part of the exhibition which was held in 1962. The exhibition traveled to Paris and London. For the event, Bogdanovich prepared a monograph. As a result of the retrospective, a special edition of Cahiers du Cinéma was published and Hawks was featured on his own issue of Movie magazine.In 1996, Howard Hawks was voted No. 4 on Entertainment Weekly's list of 50 greatest directors. In 2007, Total Film magazine ranked Hawks as No. 4 in its \"100 Greatest Film Directors Ever\" list. Bringing Up Baby (1938) was listed number 97 on the American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies. On the AFI's AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs Bringing Up Baby was listed number 14, His Girl Friday (1940) was listed number 19 and Ball of Fire (1941) was listed number 92. In the 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made, six films directed by Hawks were in the critics' top 250 films: Rio Bravo (number 63), Bringing Up Baby (number 110), Only Angels Have Wings (number 154), His Girl Friday (number 171), The Big Sleep (number 202) and Red River (number 235). Six of his films currently hold a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. His films Ball of Fire, The Big Sleep, Bringing Up Baby, His Girl Friday, Only Angels Have Wings, Red River, Rio Bravo, Scarface, Sergeant York, The Thing from Another World and Twentieth Century were deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by the United States Library of Congress and inducted into the National Film Registry. With eleven films, he ties with John Ford for directing the most films that are in the registry.\nFrom the film industry, he received three nominations for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures from the Directors Guild of America for Red River in 1949, The Big Sky in 1953, and Rio Bravo in 1960. He was inducted into the Online Film and Television Association's Hall of Fame for his directing in 2005. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1708 Vine Street. He was nominated for Academy Award for Best Director in 1942 for Sergeant York, but he received his only Oscar in 1974 as an Honorary Award from the Academy. He was cited as, \"a master filmmaker whose creative efforts hold a distinguished place in world cinema\".\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nIn the 1950s, Eugene Archer, a film fan, was planning on writing a book on important American film directors such as John Ford. However, after reading Cahiers du Cinema, Archer learned that the French film scene was more interested in Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks. Books were not written on Hawks until the sixties and a full biography on Hawks wasn't published until 1997, twenty years after his death. Film critic Andrew Sarris cited Howard Hawks as \"the least known and least appreciated Hollywood director of any stature\". According to professor of film studies Ian Brookes, Hawks is not as well known as other directors, because of his lack of association with a particular genre such as Ford with Western and Hitchcock with thriller. Hawks worked across many genres including gangster, film noir, musical comedy, romantic comedy, screwball comedy, Western, aviation, and combat. Moreover, Hawks preferred not to associate with major studios during his film production. He worked for all major studios at least once on short term contract, but many of his films were produced under his own name. The simplicity of his narratives and stories may also have contributed to his under-recognition. Commercially, his films were successful, but he received little critical acclaim except for one Academy Award nomination for Best Director for Sergeant York (he lost to John Ford for How Green Was My Valley), and an Honorary Academy Award presented to him two years before his death.Some critics limit Hawks by his action films, describing Hawks as a director who produced films with a \"masculine bias\", however action scenes in Hawks's films were often left to second-unit directors and Hawks actually preferred to work indoors. Howard Hawks's style is difficult to interpret, because there is no recognizable relationship between his visual and narrative style as in the films of his contemporary directors. Because his camera style was derived more from his working method rather than anecdotal or visual realization, his camera work is unobtrusive, making his films appear to have little to no cinematographic style. Hawks's style can, rather, be characterized as improvisational and collaborative. Hawks' directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films are cited as major influences on many noted filmmakers, including Robert Altman, John Carpenter, and Quentin Tarantino. His work is also admired by many notable directors including Peter Bogdanovich, Martin Scorsese, François Truffaut, Michael Mann and Jacques Rivette. Jean-Luc Godard called him \"the greatest American artist.\" Critic Leonard Maltin labeled Hawks \"the greatest American director who is not a household name.\" Andrew Sarris in his influential book of film criticism The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929–1968 included Hawks in the \"pantheon\" of the 14 greatest film directors who had worked in the United States. Brian De Palma dedicated his version of Scarface to Hawks and Ben Hecht. Altman was influenced by the fast-paced dialogue of His Girl Friday in MASH and subsequent productions. Hawks was nicknamed \"The Gray Fox\" by members of the Hollywood community, thanks to his prematurely gray hair.Hawks has been considered by some film critics to be an auteur both because of his recognizable style and frequent use of specific thematic elements, and because of his attention to all aspects of his films, not merely directing. Hawks was venerated by French critics associated with Cahiers du cinéma, who intellectualized his work in a way that Hawks himself found moderately amusing (his work was promoted in France by The Studio des Ursulines cinema). And although he was not at first taken seriously by British critics of the Sight & Sound circle, other independent British writers, such as Robin Wood, admired his films. Wood named Hawks's Rio Bravo as his top film of all time.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHoward Hawks at IMDb\nHoward Hawks at the TCM Movie Database \nBibliography of books and articles about Hawks via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center\nProfile at Senses of Cinema\nBBC interview\nHoward Hawks at Find a Grave\nHoward Hawks papers, MSS 1404 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University", "Scarface (also known as Scarface: The Shame of the Nation and The Shame of a Nation) is a 1932 American pre-Code gangster film directed by Howard Hawks and produced by Hawks and Howard Hughes. The screenplay, by Ben Hecht, is based loosely on the 1929 novel by Armitage Trail which was inspired by Al Capone. The film stars Paul Muni as Italian immigrant gangster Antonio \"Tony\" Camonte, a gangster who violently rises through the Chicago gangland. Meanwhile, Camonte pursues his bosses' mistress as Camonte's sister pursues his best hitman. In an overt tie to the life of Capone, one scene depicts a version of the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre.\nAfter Hughes purchased the rights to Trail's novel, Hughes quickly selected Hawks and Hecht to direct and write the film. Beginning in January 1931, Hecht wrote the script over an eleven-day period. Scarface was produced before the introduction of the Production Code Administration in 1934, which enforced regulations on film content. However, the Hays Code, a more lenient precursor, called for major alterations, including a prologue condemning gangsters, an alternate ending to more clearly reprehend Camonte, and the alternative title The Shame of a Nation. The censors believed the film glorified violence and crime. These changes delayed the film by a year, though some showings retained the original ending. Modern showings of the film have the original ending, though some DVD releases also include the alternate ending as a feature; these versions maintain the changes Hughes and Hawks were required to make for approval by the Hays Office. No completely unaltered version is known to exist.\nAudience reception was positive, but censors banned the film in several cities and states, forcing Hughes to remove it from circulation and store it in his vault. The rights to the film were recovered after Hughes's death in the 1970s. Alongside Little Caesar and The Public Enemy (both 1931), Scarface is regarded as among the most significant gangster films, and greatly influenced the genre.\nThe supporting cast features George Raft and Boris Karloff.\nScarface was added to the National Film Registry in 1994 by the Library of Congress. In 2008, the American Film Institute listed Scarface as the sixth-best gangster film. It was remade as the 1983 film of the same title starring Al Pacino.\n\n\n== Plot ==\n\nIn 1920s Chicago, Italian immigrant Antonio \"Tony\" Camonte (Paul Muni) acts on the orders of Italian mafioso John \"Johnny\" Lovo (Osgood Perkins) and kills \"Big\" Louis Costillo, the leading crime boss of the city's South Side. Johnny takes control of the South Side with Tony as his key lieutenant, selling large amounts of illegal beer to speakeasies and muscling in on bars run by rival outfits. However, Johnny repeatedly warns Tony not to mess with the Irish gangs led by O'Hara, who runs the North Side. Tony soon ignores these orders, barraging bars belonging to O'Hara, and attracting the attention of the police and rival gangsters. Johnny realizes Tony is out of control and looks to remove him from his position.\nMeanwhile, Tony pursues Johnny's girlfriend Poppy (Karen Morley) with increasing confidence. At first, she is dismissive of him but pays him more attention as his reputation rises. She visits his \"gaudy\" apartment where he shows her his view of an electric billboard advertising Cook's Tours, which features the slogan which inspires him: \"The World Is Yours\".\nTony eventually decides to declare war and take over the North Side. He sends the coin-flipping Guino Rinaldo, one of his best men and close friend, to kill O'Hara in a florist's shop that he uses as his base. This brings heavy retaliation from the North Side gangs, now led by Gaffney and armed with Thompson submachine guns—which instantly capture Tony's dark imagination. Tony leads his own forces to destroy the North Side gangs and take over their market, even to the point of impersonating police officers to murder several rivals in a garage. Tony kills Gaffney as he makes a strike at a bowling alley.\nThe South Side gang and Poppy go to a club and Tony and Poppy dance together in front of Johnny. After Tony conspicuously shows his intention to steal Poppy, Johnny believes his protégé is trying to take over, and he arranges for Tony to be assassinated while driving. Tony manages to escape this attack, and he and Guino kill Johnny, leaving Tony as the undisputed boss of the city. In order to elude the increasingly aggravated police force, Tony and Poppy leave Chicago for a month.\n\nTony's actions have provoked a public outcry, and the police are slowly closing in. After he sees his beloved sister Francesca \"Cesca\" (Ann Dvorak) with Guino, he kills his friend in a jealous rage before the couple can inform him of their secret marriage. His sister runs out distraught, presumably to notify the police. The police move to arrest Tony for Guino's murder, and Tony takes cover in his house and prepares to fire at the police. Cesca comes back, planning to kill him, but decides to help him to fight the police. Tony and Cesca arm themselves and Tony shoots at the police from the window, laughing maniacally. Moments later, however, Cesca is killed by a stray bullet. Calling Cesca's name as the apartment fills with tear gas, Tony leaves on the stairs, and the police confront him. Tony pleads for his life but makes a break for it, only to be shot by an unknown officer with a Tommy gun. He stumbles for a moment and falls in the gutter and dies. Among the sounds of cheering, the electric billboard blazes \"The World Is Yours\".\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Production ==\n\n\n=== Development ===\nBusiness tycoon Howard Hughes, who dabbled in film-making, wanted a box office hit after the success of his 1931 film The Front Page. Gangster films were topical in the early 1930s in the age of Prohibition, and Hughes wanted to make a film based on the life of gangster Al Capone superior to all other films in the genre. He was advised against making the film, as the genre was crowded; Little Caesar starring Edward G. Robinson and The Public Enemy starring James Cagney were already box-office successes, and Warner Bros. claimed nothing new could be done with the gangster genre. Furthermore, industry censors such as the Hays Office were becoming concerned with the glamorization of crime in media.Hughes bought the rights to Armitage Trail's novel Scarface, inspired by the life of Capone. Trail wrote for a number of detective story magazines during the early 1920s, but died of a heart attack at the age of 28, shortly before the release of Scarface. Hughes hired Fred Pasley, a New York reporter and authority on Capone, as a writer. Hughes asked Ben Hecht, who in 1929 had won the first Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for his silent crime film Underworld, to be head writer. Suspicious of Hughes as an employer, Hecht requested a daily salary of $1,000, to be paid every day at six o'clock. Hecht claimed he would only waste a day's labor if Hughes turned out to be a fraud.Hughes wanted film director Howard Hawks to direct and co-produce. This surprised Hawks, as the two had never been friendly; Hughes had filed a lawsuit against Howard Hawks in July 1930, alleging that Hawks's film The Dawn Patrol had plagiarized his film Hell's Angels. Over a game of golf, Hughes promised to drop the lawsuit, and by the eighteenth hole, Hawks had become interested in directing the film. He became more convinced when he discovered Hecht would be the head writer. Hecht and Hawks worked together well, intending to portray the Capone character as of the Borgia Family, including the suggestion of incest between the main character and his sister, present in Trail's novel.\n\n\n=== Writing ===\nHecht wrote the screenplay over eleven days in January 1931, adapted from Trail's novel. Additional writing was provided by Fred Pasley and W.R. Burnett, author of the novel Little Caesar, upon which the film Little Caesar was based. Pasley wrote the screenplay including elements of the book Al Capone: Biography of a Self-Made Man; the book contains a barbershop scene with Capone similar to the introduction of Tony Camonte in the film. Pasley was not credited for his work on the screenplay. John Lee Mahin and Seton I. Miller rewrote the script for continuity and dialogue.Because there were five writers, it is difficult to distinguish which components were contributed by which writer; however, the ending of Scarface is similar to Hecht's first gangster film Underworld, in which gangster Bull Weed traps himself in his apartment with his lover and fires at the hordes of police outside, and thus was likely a Hecht contribution.The film version of Scarface bears little resemblance to the novel. Though the film contains the same major characters, plot points, and incestual undertones, changes were made to reduce the length and the number of characters, and to satisfy the requests of censorship offices. To make gangsters appear less admirable, Tony's character was made to appear less intelligent and more brutish than in the novel. Similarly, the sibling relationship between Tony and the police officer was removed to avoid depicting police corruption.\n\n\n==== Ties to Capone ====\nBoth the film and novel are loosely based upon the life of gangster Al Capone, whose nickname was \"Scarface\". The names of characters and locations were changed only minimally. Capone became Camonte, Torrio became Lovo, and Moran became Doran. In some early scripts, Colosimo was Colisimo and O'Bannion was Bannon, but the names were changed to Costillo and O'Hara respectively. This, including other alterations made to characters and other identifying locations to maintain anonymity, were due to censorship and Hawks's concern about the overuse of historical details.Ben Hecht had met Capone and \"knew a lot about Chicago\", so he did no research for the script. According to Hecht, while he worked on the script, Capone sent two men to visit him in Hollywood to make sure the film was not based on Capone's life. He told them the Scarface character was a parody of numerous people, and that the title was chosen as it was intriguing. The two left Hecht alone.The references to Capone and actual events from the Chicago gang wars were obvious to audiences at the time. Muni's character had a scar similar to Capone, received in similar fights. The police in the film mention Camonte is a member of the Five Points Gang in Brooklyn, of which Capone was a known member. Tony kills his boss \"Big Louis\" Costillo in the lobby of his club; Capone was involved in the murder of his first boss \"Big Jim\" Colosimo in 1920. Rival boss O'Hara is murdered in his flower shop; Capone's men murdered Dean O'Bannion in his flower shop in 1924. The assassination of seven men in a garage, with two of the gunmen costumed as police officers, mirrors the St. Valentine's Day Massacre of 1929. The leader of this rival gang narrowly escapes the shooting, as did gang leader Bugs Moran. The film opens at the intersection of 22nd Street and Wabash Avenue in the middle of Capone's South Side, the site of many Capone's crimes.Despite the clear references to Capone, Capone was rumored to have liked the film so much he owned a print of it. However, this was likely an exaggerated claim by Hawks as Capone was imprisoned in Atlanta for tax evasion during the film's release.\n\n\n=== Casting ===\n\nHawks and Hughes found casting difficult as most actors were under contract and studios were reluctant to allow their artists to freelance for independent producers. Producer Irving Thalberg suggested Clark Gable, but Hawks believed Gable was a personality, not an actor. After seeing Paul Muni on Broadway, talent agent Al Rosen suggested him for the lead role. Muni initially declined, feeling he was not physically suited for the role, but after reading the script, his wife Bella convinced him to take it. After a test run in New York, Hughes, Hawks, and Hecht approved Muni for the role.Boris Karloff was cast as Irish gangster Gaffney. Jack La Rue was cast as Tony Camonte's sidekick Guino Rinaldo (modeled after Capone's bodyguard Frank Rio) but as he was taller than Muni, Hawks worried he would overshadow Muni's tough Scarface persona. He was replaced with George Raft, a struggling actor at the time, after Hawks encountered him at a prizefight. Raft had played an extremely similar part the previous year as his feature film debut in Quick Millions starring Spencer Tracy, but the Scarface role would make Raft a star.Though Karen Morley was under contract at MGM, Hawks was close with MGM studio executive Eddie Mannix, who loaned out Morley for the film. She was reportedly given the choice between the role of Poppy or Cesca. Though Cesca was the stronger role, she chose Poppy as she felt Cesca would be a better fit for her friend Ann Dvorak. She considered this \"probably the nicest thing [she] did in [her] life\". Morley invited 20-year-old Dvorak to a party at Hawks' house to introduce them. According to Hawks, at the party, Dvorak zeroed in on George Raft who played her love interest. He initially declined her invitation to dance. She tried to dance in front of him in order to lure him; eventually, he gave in, and their dance together stopped the party. After this event, Hawks was interested in casting her but had reservations about her lack of experience. After a screen test, he gave her the part, and MGM was willing to release her from her contract as a chorus girl. Dvorak had to both receive permission from her mother Anna Lehr and to win a petition presented to the Superior Court to be able to sign on with Howard Hawks as a minor.\n\n\n=== Filming ===\nFilming lasted six months, which was long for films made in the early 1930s. Howard Hughes remained off-set to avoid interfering with the filming of the movie. Hughes urged Hawks to make the film as visually exciting as possible by adding car chases, crashes, and machine-gun fire. Hawks shot the film at three different locations: Metropolitan Studios, Harold Lloyd Studios and the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles. Filming took three months with the cast and crew working seven days a week. For the most violent scene of the film in the restaurant, Hawks cleared the set to avoid harming extras and had the set fired on by machine guns. The actors acted out the scene in front of a screen with the shooting projected in the back, so as everyone crowded under the tables in the restaurant, the room appeared to be simultaneously under fire.During filming, Hawks and Hughes met with the Hays Office to discuss revisions. Despite that, Scarface was filmed and put together quickly. In September 1931, a rough cut of the film was screened for the California Crime Commission and police officials, neither of whom thought the movie was a dangerous influence for audiences or would elicit a criminal response. Irving Thalberg was given an advanced screening and was impressed by the film. Despite the positive feedback the film was given, the Hays Office was insistent on changes before final approval.\n\n\n=== Censorship ===\nScarface was produced and filmed during Pre-Code era of Hollywood, which spanned from 1930 to 1934. The Pre-Code era is characterized by its informal and haphazard screening and regulation of film content, before the establishment of the Production Code Administration (PCA) in July 1934. Before the influence of the PCA, censorship was overseen by the Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA). In 1930, Will Hays, the chairman of the MPPDA, attempted to regulate the content of movies; the MPPDA became known as the Hays Office. The goal of the Hays Office was to censor nudity, sexuality, drug use and crime. More specific to Scarface, the Hays Office wanted to avoid the sympathetic portrayal of crime by either showing criminals recognizing the error of their ways or showing criminals get punished. The Hays Office, however, did not have authority to remove material from a film until the MPPDA officially pledged to adhere to the Production Code in 1934, so they relied on delaying film release and lobbying to remove scenes or prevent movies from being produced. Films evaded the Hays Office by adding extremely suggestive scenes so they could remove them and satisfy the Hays Office enough that they wouldn't notice the lesser immoralities that remained in the film.J.E. Smyth called Scarface, \"one of the most highly censored films in Hollywood history.\" Howard Hawks believed the Hays Office had personal vendettas against the movie, while Hughes believed the censorship was due to \"ulterior and political motives\" of corrupt politicians. However, James Wingate of the New York censor boards rebutted that Hughes was preoccupied with \"box office publicity\" in producing the film. After repeated demands for a script rewrite from the Hays Office, Hughes ordered Hawks to shoot the film: \"Screw the Hays Office, make it as realistic, and grisly as possible.\" The Hays Office was outraged by Scarface when they screened it. According to the Hays Office, Scarface violated the Code, because the film elicited sympathy for Muni's character and it revealed to youth a successful method of crime. The Hays office called for scenes to be deleted, scenes to be added to condemn gangsterism, and a different ending. They believed Tony's death at the end of the film was too glorifying. In addition to the violence, the MPPDA felt an inappropriate relationship between the main character and his sister was too overt, especially when he holds her in his arms after he slaps her and tears her dress; they ordered this scene be deleted. Hughes, in order to receive the MPPDA's approval, deleted the more violent scenes, added a prologue to condemn gangsterism, and wrote a new ending.In addition, a couple of scenes were added to overtly condemn gangsterism, such as a scene in which a newspaper publisher looks at the screen and directly admonishes the government and the public for their lack of action in fighting against mob violence and a scene in which the chief detective denounces the glorification of gangsters. Hawks refused to shoot the extra scenes and the alternate ending. They were directed by Richard Rossen, earning Rossen the title of \"co-director\". Hughes was instructed to change the title to The Menace, Shame of the Nation or Yellow to clarify the subject of the film; after months of haggling, he compromised with the title Scarface, Shame of the Nation and by adding a foreword condemning the \"gangster\" in a general sense. Hughes made an attempt to release the film under the title \"The Scar\" when the original title was disallowed by the Hays office. Besides the title, the term \"Scarface\" was removed from the film. In the scene where Tony kills Rinaldo, Cesca says the word \"murderer\", but she can be seen mouthing the word \"Scarface\".The original script had Tony's mother loving her son unconditionally, praising his lifestyle, and even accepting money and gifts from him. In addition, there was a politician who, despite campaigning against gangsters on the podium, is shown partying with them after hours. The script ends with Tony staying in the building, unaffected by tear gas and a multitude of bullets fired at him. After the building is on fire, Tony is forced to exit, guns blazing. He is sprayed with police gunfire but appears unfazed. Upon noticing the police officer who had been arresting him throughout the film, he fires at him, only to hear a single \"click\" noise implying his gun is empty. He is killed after the police officer shoots him several times. A repeated clicking noise is heard on the soundtrack implying he was attempting to fire while he was dying.\n\n\n=== Alternate ending ===\nThe first version of the film (Version A) was completed on September 8, 1931, but censors required the ending be modified or they would refuse to grant Scarface a license. Paul Muni was unable to re-film the ending in 1931 due to his work on Broadway. Consequently, Hawks was forced to use a body double. The body double was mainly filmed by way of shadows and long shots in order to mask Muni's absence in these scenes. The alternate ending (Version B) differs from the original ending in the manner that Tony is caught and in which he dies. Unlike the original ending where Tony tries to escape from the police and dies after being shot several times, in the alternate ending, Tony reluctantly hands himself over to the police. After the encounter, Tony's face is not shown. A scene follows where a judge is addressing Tony during sentencing. The next scene is the finale, in which Tony (seen from a bird's eye view) is brought to the gallows and hanged.However, Version B did not pass the New York censors and Chicago censors. Howard Hughes felt the Hays office had suspicious intentions in rejecting the film because Hays was friends with Louis B. Mayer and Hughes believed censorship was to prevent wealthy independent competitors from producing films. Confident his film could stand out among audiences more than Mayer's films, Hughes organized a press showing of the film in Hollywood and New York. The New York Herald Tribune praised Hughes for his courage in opposing the censors. Hughes disowned the censored film and finally in 1932 released Version A with the added text introduction in states that lacked strict censors (Hughes attempted to take the New York censors to court). This 1932 release version led to bonafide box office status and positive critical reviews. Hughes was successful in subsequent lawsuits against the boards that censored the film. Due to criticism from the press, Hays claimed the version shown in theaters was the censored film he had previously approved.\n\n\n=== Music ===\nDue to the film's urban setting, nondiegetic music (not visible on the screen or implied to be present in the story) was not used in the film. The only music that appears in the film is during the opening and closing credits and during scenes in the movie where music appears naturally in the film's action such as in the nightclub. Adolf Tandler served as the film's musical director, while Gus Arnheim served as the orchestra's conductor. Gus Arnheim and his Cocoanut Grove Orchestra perform \"Saint Louis Blues\" by W.C. Handy and \"Some of These Days\" by Shelton Brooks in the nightclub. The tune Tony whistles in the film is the sextet from Gaetano Donizetti's popular opera Lucia di Lammermoor. This tune is accompanied by words that translate to, \"What restrains me in such a moment?\", and this tune continues to appear during violent scenes in the movie. The song Cesca sings while playing the piano is \"Wreck of the Old 97\".\n\n\n=== Cultural references ===\nThe serious play Tony and his friends go to see, leaving at the end of Act 2, is John Colton and Clemence Randolph's Rain, based on W. Somerset Maugham's story \"Miss Sadie Thompson\". The play opened on Broadway in 1922 and ran throughout the 1920s. (A film version of the play, also titled Rain and starring Joan Crawford, was released by United Artists the same year as Scarface.) Though fairly inconspicuous in the film, and unnoticed by most viewers, the Camonte family was meant to be partially modeled after the Italo-Spanish Borgia family. This was most prominent through the subtle and arguably incestuous relationship Tony Camonte and his sister share. Camonte's excessive jealousy of his sister's affairs with other men hint at this relationship. Coincidentally, Donizetti wrote the opera for Lucrezia Borgia, about the Borgia family, and Lucia di Lammermoor from where Tony Camonte's whistle tune comes.\n\n\n== Release ==\nAfter battling with censorship offices, the film was released almost a year late, behind The Public Enemy and Little Caesar which had been filmed at the same time. Scarface was released in theaters on April 9, 1932. Hughes planned a grand premiere in New York, but New York censor boards rejected the showing of the film. State censorship boards in Ohio, Virginia, Maryland, and Kansas and citywide censorship boards in Detroit, Seattle, Portland, and Chicago banned the film as well. Hughes threatened to sue censorship boards for preventing the release of his film much to the approval of the New York Herald Tribune. Each state had a different board of censors which allowed Hughes to release the film in areas without strict censorship. At the request of Will Hays, Jason Joy convinced the strict censor boards to allow the release of Scarface, because the Hays Office acknowledged and appreciated the changes Hughes made to Scarface. Joy visited state censor boards individually, stating that while the Hays Office was against the positive portrayal of crime, gang films were actually documents against gangster life. Joy was successful and eventually all state and municipal censorship boards allowed Scarface to be released, accepting only the cut and censored version of Scarface.\n\n\n=== Home media ===\nThe film was one of the first films released on video by MCA Videocassette in May 1980. The film was released on DVD on May 22, 2007, and was released again on August 28, 2012, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of Universal Studios, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. Both versions of the DVD include an introduction by Turner Classic Movies host and film historian Robert Osborne and the film's alternate ending. On video and on television, the film maintains Hawks's original ending but still contains the other alterations he was required to make during filming. A completely unaltered and uncensored version of the film is not known to exist.\n\n\n== Reception ==\nAt the time of release, audience reception was generally positive. According to George Raft, who met Al Capone a few times at casinos, even Capone himself liked the film adding, \"you tell 'em that if any of my boys are tossin' coins, they'll be twenty-dollar gold pieces.\" Variety cited Scarface as having \"that powerful and gripping suspense which is in all gangster pictures is in this one in double doses and makes it compelling entertainment,\" and that the actors play, \"as if they'd been doing nothing else all their lives.\" The National Board of Review named Scarface as one of the best pictures of 1932. However, at the time of release in 1932, there was a general public outcry about the film and the gangster genre in general which negatively affected box-office earnings of the film. Jack Alicoate gave Scarface a scathing review in The Film Daily that the violence and subject matter of the film left him with, \"the distinct feeling of nausea\". He goes on to say the film \"should never have been made\" and showing the film would \"do more harm to the motion picture industry, and everyone connected with it, than any picture ever shown.\" Although Ben Hecht was often critical of his work for Hollywood, he admitted that Scarface was \"the best-directed picture [he has] seen\". Hecht did, however, criticize Muni's performance. Having known Al Capone, Hecht claimed that Muni portrayed Capone as too \"silent\" and \"moody\", more similar to \"Hitler\". Some critics disagreed with the casting of British actor Boris Karloff, believing his accent was out of place in a gangster film; a New York Times article stated \"his British accent is hardly suitable to the role\". However, other critics considered him a high point. The film earned $600,000 at the box office and while Scarface was more of a financial success than Hughes's other films at the time, due to the large cost of production, it is unlikely the film did better than break even.The film initiated outrage among Italian organizations and individuals of Italian descent, remarking a tendency of filmmakers to portray gangsters and bootleggers in their films as Italian. In the film, an Italian American makes a speech condemning gangster activities; this was added later in production to appease censors. This, however, did not prevent the Italian embassy from disapproving Scarface. Believing the film to be offensive to the Italian community, the Order Sons of Italy in America formally denounced the film and other groups urged community members to boycott the film and other films derogatory towards Italians or Italian-Americans. Will Hays wrote to the ambassador in Italy, excusing himself from scrutiny by stating the film was an anachronism because it had been delayed in production for two years and was not representative of the current practice of censorship at the time. Nazi Germany permanently prohibited showings of the film. Some cities in England banned the film as well, believing the British Board of Film Censorship's policy on gangster films was too lax. The film had been banned in Ireland on August 19, 1932 and on August 29, 1941 (under the alternate title of 'Gang War'). The decisions were upheld by the Films Appeal Board each time. It was banned on April 24, 1953 (under its original title). No appeal was lodged. Various reasons include pandering to sensationalism, glamorizing the gangster lifestyle and implying an incestuous relationship between the protagonist and his sister.Several cities in the United States including Chicago and some states refused to show the film. The magazine Movie Classics ran an issue urging the people to demand to see the film at theaters despite the censorship bans. The film broke box-office records at the Woods Theatre in Chicago after premiering Thanksgiving Day, November 20, 1941 after having been banned from showing in Chicago by censors for nine years. Despite the favorable reception of the film among the public, the censorship battles and the unflattering reviews from some press contributed to the film's generally poor performance at the box-office. Upset at the inability to make money from Scarface, Howard Hughes removed the film from circulation. The film remained unavailable until 1979 except for occasional release prints of suspect quality from questionable sources. Hughes had plans in 1933 to direct and produce a sequel to Scarface, but due to stricter censorship rules, the film was never made.Based on a sampling of 43 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, Scarface holds a 98% rating, with an average rating of 8.71/10. The critics' consensus reads: \"This Scarface foregoes his \"little friend\" and packs a different kind of heat, blending stylish visuals, thrilling violence, and an incredible cast.\"\n\n\n=== Industry reception ===\nIn 1994, Scarface was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". The character of Tony Camonte ranked at number 47 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains list. The film was named the best American sound film by critic and director Jean-Luc Godard in Cahiers du Cinéma. In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its \"Ten Top Ten\"—the best ten films in ten \"classic\" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Scarface was acknowledged as the sixth best in the gangster film genre. The 1983 version was placed 10th, making Scarface the only film to make the same \"10 Top 10\" list as its remake.\n\n\n== Analysis ==\n\nScholars debate whether Scarface classifies as a film with historical significance or as merely a Hollywood gangster-era motion picture. Its historical significance was augmented by the film's writing credits: W.R. Burnett, author of gangster novel Little Caesar from which the film of the same name was based on, Fred D. Pasley, a prominent Chicago gangland historian, and ex-Chicago reporter Ben Hecht. Events similar to the assassination of Jim Colismo and the St. Valentine's Day Massacre contribute to the film's realism and authenticity. Film critic Robert E. Sherwood stated the film, \"merits...as a sociological or historical document...[and] an utterly inexcusable attempt has been made to suppress it—not because it is obscene...but because...it comes too close to telling the truth.\"\n\n\n=== Excess ===\nAccording to film studies professor Fran Mason, a prominent theme in the film is excess. The opening of the film sets the stage as Big Louie Costillo sits in the remnants of a wild party, convincing his friends his next party will be bigger, better, and have \"much more everything\". This indicates the excessive life of a gangster, whether in pleasure or in violence. The death scene of Costillo sets the next tone of excess. In this scene, the audience sees only the shadow of Tony Camonte with a gun, hears the shots and the sound of the body hitting the floor. The violent scenes become more severe as the film progresses. Most of the violence in the film is shown through montage, as scenes go by in sequence, showing the brutal murders that Tony and his gang commit such as roughing up bar owners, a drive-by bombing, and the massacre of seven men against a wall. A scene shows a peel-off calendar rapidly changing dates while shot by a machine gun, making the excessive violence clear. The violence is not only perpetrated by the gangsters. The police in the final scene with Tony and Cesca spare no effort to catch the notorious Camonte siblings, visible through the disproportionate number of police officers and cars surrounding the apartment complex to apprehend one man. Tony and the police's excessive use of violence throughout the film normalizes it. An element of parody underlies Tony's abnormal joy in using Tommy guns. In the scene in the restaurant in which men from the North Side gang attempt to shoot Tony with a Tommy, he obtains pleasure from the power. Rather than cowering beneath the tables, he tries to peek out to watch the guns in action, laughing maniacally from his excitement. He reacts jovially upon getting his first Tommy gun and enthusiastically leaves to, \"write [his] name all over the town with it in big letters.\"The gangster's excessive consumption is comically represented through Tony's quest to obtain expensive goods and show them off. In Tony's first encounter with Poppy alone on the staircase, he boasts about his new suit, jewelry, and bullet-proof car. Poppy largely dismisses his advances calling his look, \"kinda effeminate\". His feminine consumption and obsession with looks and clothes is juxtaposed by his masculine consumption which is represented by his new car. Later, Tony shows Poppy a stack of new shirts, claiming he will wear each shirt only once. His awkwardness and ignorance of his own exorbitance make this Gatsby style scene more comical than serious. His consumption serves to symbolize the disintegration of values of modernity, specifically represented by his poor taste and obsession with money and social status. Tony's excess transcends parody and becomes dangerous because he represents a complete lack of restraint which ultimately leads to his downfall.Tony's excess is manifested in the gang wars in the city. He is given express instruction to leave O'Hara, Gaffney, and the rest of the North Side gang alone. He disobeys because of his lust for more power, violence, and territory. Not only does he threaten the external power structure of the gangs in relation to physical territory, but he also disrupts the internal power structure of his own gang by blatantly disobeying his boss Johnny Lovo. Gaffney's physical position juxtaposes Tony's position. Throughout the film, Gaffney's movement is restricted by both setting and implication, because of the crowded spaces in which he is shown onscreen and his troupe of henchmen he is constantly surrounded by. Tony is able to move freely at the beginning of the film, becoming progressively more crowded until he is as confined as Gaffney. He is surrounded by henchmen and cannot move as freely throughout the city. This, however, is self-imposed by his own excessive desire for territory and power.The theme of excessiveness is further exemplified by Tony's incestuous desires for his sister, Cesca, whom he attempts to control and restrict. Their mother acts as the voice of reason, but Tony does not listen to her, subjecting his family to the excess and violence he brings upon himself. His lust for violence mirror's Cesca's lust for sexual freedom, symbolized by her seductive dance for Rinaldo at the club. Rinaldo is split between his loyalty for Tony and his passion for Cesca, serving as a symbol of the power struggle between the Camonte siblings. Rinaldo is a symbol of Tony's power and prominence; his murder signifies Tony's lack of control and downfall, which ends in Tony's own death.\n\n\n=== American Dream ===\n\nCamonte's rise to prominence and success is modeled after the American Dream, but more overtly violent. As the film follows the rise and fall of an Italian gangster, Tony becomes increasingly more Americanized. When Tony appears from under the towel at the barbershop, this is the first time the audience gets a look at his face. He appears foreign with a noticeable Italian accent, slicked hair and an almost Neanderthal appearance evident by the scars on his cheek. As the movie progresses, he becomes more Americanized as he loses his accent and his suits change from gaudy to elegant. By the end of the film, his accent is hardly noticeable. Upon the time of his death, he had accumulated many \"objects\" which portray the success suggested by the American Dream: his own secretary, a girlfriend of significant social status (more important even is she was the mistress of his old boss), as well as a fancy apartment, big cars, and nice clothes. Camonte exemplifies the idea of the American Dream that one can obtain success in America by following Camonte's own motto to, \"Do it first, do it yourself, and keep on doin' it.\" On the other hand, Camonte represents the American urge to reject modern life and society, in turn rejecting Americanism itself. The gangster strives for the same American Dream as anyone else, but through violence and illicit activity, approaches it in a way at odds with modern societal values.\n\n\n=== Gangster territory ===\nControl of territory is a theme in the gangster film genre in a physical sense and on the movie screen. Tony works to control the city by getting rid of competing gangs and gaining physical control of the city, and he likewise gains control of the movie screen in his rise to power. This is most evident in scenes and interactions involving Tony, Johnny, and Poppy. In an early scene in the film, Tony comes to Johnny's apartment to receive his payment after killing Louie Costillo. Two rooms are visible in the shot: the main room, where Tony sits, and the room in the background where Poppy sits and where Johnny keeps his money. Lovo goes into the back room but Tony does not, so this room represents Johnny's power and territory. The men are sitting across from each other in the scene with Poppy sitting in the middle of them in the background representing the trophy they are both fighting for. However, they both appear equally in the shot, representing their equality of power. Later, in the nightclub scene, Tony sits himself in between Poppy and Johnny showing he is in control through his centrality in the shot. He has gained the most power and territory, as indicated by \"winning\" Poppy.\n\n\n=== Fear of technology ===\nScarface represents the American fears and confusion that stemmed from the technological advancement of the time: whether technological advancement and mass production should be feared or celebrated. An overall anxiety post-World War I was whether new technology would cause ultimate destruction, or whether it would help make lives easier and bring happiness. In the film, Tony excitedly revels in the possibilities machine guns can bring by killing more people, more quickly, and from further away. This represents the question of whether mass production equals mass destruction or mass efficiency.\n\n\n=== Objects and gestures ===\nThe use of playful motifs throughout the film showcased Howard Hawks's dark comedy he expressed through his directing. In the bowling alley scene, where rival gang leader Tom Gaffney was murdered, when Gaffney throws the ball, the shot remains on the last standing bowling pin, which falls to represent the death of kingpin Tom Gaffney. In the same scene, before the death of Gaffney, a shot shows an \"X\" on the scoreboard, foreshadowing Gaffney's death. Hawks used the \"X\" foreshadowing technique throughout the film (seen first in the opening credits) which were chiefly associated with death appearing many times (but not every scene) when a death is portrayed; the motif appears in numerous places, most prominently as Tony's \"X\" scar on his left cheek. The motifs mock the life of the gangster. The gangster's hat is a common theme throughout gangster films, specifically Scarface, as representative of conspicuous consumption. Hawks included hand gestures, a common motif in his films. In Scarface, George Raft was instructed to repetitively flip a coin, which he does throughout the film.\n\n\n=== \"The World Is Yours\" ===\nCamonte's apartment looks out on a neon, flashing sign that says \"The World Is Yours\". This sign represents the modern American city as a place of opportunity and individualism. As attractive as the slogan is, the message is impossible, yet Tony doesn't understand this. The view from his apartment represents the rise of the gangster. When Camonte is killed in the street outside his building, the camera pans up to show the billboard, representative of the societal paradox of the existence of opportunity yet the inability to achieve it. According to Robert Warshow, the ending scene represents how the world is not ours, but not his either. The death of the gangster momentarily releases us from the idea of the concept of success and the need to succeed. In regards to the theme of excess, the sign is a metaphor for the dividing desires created by modernity seen through the lens of the excessive desires of the gangster persona.\n\n\n=== Style ===\n\"Sharp\" and \"hard-edged\", Scarface set the visual style for the gangster films of the 1930s. Hawks created a violent, gripping film through his use of strong contrast of black and white in his cinematography, for example, dark rooms, silhouettes of bodies against drawn shades, and pools of carefully placed light. Much of the film is shown to take place at night. The tight grouping of subjects within the shot and stalking camera movement followed the course of action in the film. The cinematography is dynamic and characterized by highly varied camera placement and mobile framing.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nDespite its lack of success at the box office, Scarface was one of the most discussed films of 1932 due to its subject matter, and its struggle and triumph over censor boards. Scarface is cited (often with Little Caesar and The Public Enemy) as the archetype of the gangster film genre, because it set the early standard for the genre which continues to appear in Hollywood. However, Scarface was the last of the three big gangsters films of the early 1930s, as the outrage at the Pre-Code violence caused by the three films, particularly Scarface, sparked the creation of the Production Code Administration in 1934. Howard Hawks cited Scarface as one of his favorite works and the film was a subject of pride for Howard Hughes. Hughes locked the film in his vaults a few years after release, refusing many profitable offers to distribute the film or to buy its rights. After his death in 1976, filmmakers were able to gain access to the rights to Scarface which sparked the 1983 remake starring Al Pacino. Though rare for a remake, the 1983 version was also critically acclaimed.Paul Muni's performance in Scarface as \"the quintessential gangster anti-hero\" contributed greatly to his rapid ascent into his acclaimed film career. Paul Muni received significant accolades for his performance as Tony Camonte. Critics praised Muni for his robust and fierce performance. Al Pacino stated he was greatly inspired by Paul Muni and Muni influenced his own performance in the 1983 Scarface remake. However, despite the impressive portrayal of a rising gangster, critics claim the character minimally resembled Al Capone. Unlike Camonte, Capone avoided grunt work and typically employed others to do his dirty work for him. Moreover, Muni's Scarface at the end revealed the Capone character to be a coward as he pled for mercy and tried to escape before getting shot in the street. Capone wasn't known for his cowardice and didn't die in battle.Scarface was Ann Dvorak's best and most well-known film. The film launched Raft's lengthy career as a leading man. Raft, in the film's second lead, had learned to flip a coin without looking at it, a trait of his character, and he made a strong impression in the comparatively sympathetic but colorful role. Howard Hawks told Raft to use this in the film to camouflage his lack of acting experience. A reference is made in Raft's later role as gangster Spats Columbo in Some Like it Hot (1959), wherein he asks a fellow gangster (who is flipping a coin) \"Where did you pick up that cheap trick?\"The movie Scarface may have had an influence on actual gangster life four years after the film was released. In 1936, Jack McGurn who was thought to be responsible for the St. Valentine's Massacre depicted in the film, was murdered by rivals in a bowling alley.\n\n\n=== Italian-language versions ===\nIn October 1946, after World War II and the relations between Italy and the United States softened, Titanus, an Italian film production company was interested in translating Scarface into Italian. Initially, upon requesting approval from the Italian film office, the request was rejected due to censorship concerns of the portrayal of violence and crime throughout the film. There was no initial concern about the film's portrayal of Italians. Titanus appealed to the Italian film office calling Scarface, \"one of the most solid and constructive motion pictures ever produced overseas\". They lobbied to bring in a foreign language film to help domestic film producers save money in the Italian economy damaged by the recent war. After receiving approval at the end of 1946, Titanus translated a script for dubbing the film. One difference in the Italian script is the names of the characters were changed from Italian sounding to more American sounding. For example, Tony Camonte was changed to Tony Kermont, and Guino Rinaldo was changed to Guido Reynold. This and several other changes were made to conspicuously remove references to Italians. Another example is the difference in the scene in the restaurant with Tony and Johnny. In the American version, Tony makes a comical statement about the garlic in the pasta, whereas, in the Italian translation, the food in question is a duck liver pâté, a less overtly Italian reference to food. Moreover, in the American version, the gangsters are referred to as illegal immigrants by the outraged community; however, in the Italian dubbed version, the citizen status of the criminals are not mentioned, merely the concern of repeat offenders.The film was redubbed into Italian in 1976 by the broadcasting company Radio Televisione Italiana (RAI). Franco Dal Cer translated the script and the dub was directed by Giulio Panicali. Pino Locchi dubbed the voice of Tony Camonte for Paul Muni and Pino Colizzi dubbed the voice of Gunio Rinaldo for George Raft. A difference between the 1947 version and the 1976 version is that all of the Italian names are and Italian cultural references were untouched from the original American script. The 1976 version celebrates the Italian backgrounds of the characters, adding noticeably different Italian dialects to specific characters. This version of the dubbed film translates the opening and closing credit scenes as well as the newspaper clippings shown into Italian; however, the translation of the newspaper clippings was not done with particular aesthetic care.The film was redubbed in the 1990s and released on Universal's digital edition. According to scholarly consensus, the 1990 dub is a combination of re-voicing and reuse of audio from the 1976 redub.\n\n\n=== Related films ===\nAfter the rights for Scarface were obtained after the death of Howard Hughes, Brian de Palma released a remake of the film in 1983 featuring Al Pacino as Scarface. The film was set in contemporary Miami and is known for its inclusion of graphic violence and obscene language, considered \"as violent and obscene for the 1980s\" as the original film was considered for 1930s cinema . The 2003 DVD \"Anniversary Edition\" limited edition box set of the 1983 film included a copy of its 1932 counterpart. At the end of the 1983 film, a title reading \"This film is dedicated to Howard Hawks and Ben Hecht\" appears over the final shot.Universal announced in 2011 that the studio is developing a new version of Scarface. The studio claims the new film is neither a sequel nor a remake, but will take elements from both the 1932 and the 1983 version, including the basic premise of a man who becomes a kingpin in his quest for the American Dream. In 2016, Universal announced Antoine Fuqua was in talks to direct the remake. On February 10, 2017, Fuqua left the remake with the Coen brothers rewriting the script. Universal later hired David Ayer to direct and contracted Diego Luna to star, but dismissed Ayer because his script was too violent. In 2018, Fuqua was back on the project.Scarface is often associated with other pre-code crime films released in the early 1930s such as The Doorway to Hell (1930), Little Caesar (1931) and The Public Enemy (1931). According to Fran Mason of the University of Winchester, Scarface is more similar to the film The Roaring Twenties than its early 1930s gangster film contemporaries because of its excess.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nAaker, Everett (2013). The Films of George Raft. McFarland & Company. p. 24.\nAshbrook, William (1965). Donizetti. London: Cassell & Company.\nBalio, Tino (2009). United Artists: The Company Built by the Stars. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780299230043.\nBarlett, Donald L.; Steele, James B. (1979). Howard Hughes: His Life & Madness. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393326020. Retrieved October 31, 2018.\nBenyahia, Sarah Casey (2012). Crime. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9780415581417.\nBergreen, Laurence (1994). Capone: The Man and the Era. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 49. ISBN 978-0671744564.\nBlack, Gregory D. (1994). Hollywood Censored: Morality Codes, Catholics, and the Movies. 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Freedom and Entertainment: Rating the Movies in an Age of New Media. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 0521676541. Retrieved June 21, 2019. scarface 1983 critically acclaimed.\nVieria, Mark A. (2003). Sin in Soft Focus: Pre-Code Hollywood. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 9780810982284.\nWallace, Stone (2015). George Raft - The Man Who Would Be Bogart. Albany, Georgia: BearManor Media. ISBN 9781593931230. Retrieved October 26, 2018.\nWarshow, Robert (March–April 1954). \"Movie Chronicle: The Westerner\". Partisan Review. 21 (2): 191. Retrieved May 24, 2018.\nYablonsky, Lewis (1974). George Raft. McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 978-0070722354.\nYogerst, Chris (June 20, 2017). \"Hughes, Hawks, and Hays: The Monumental Censorship Battle Over Scarface (1932)\". The Journal of American Culture. 40 (2): 134–144. doi:10.1111/jacc.12710.\n\n\n=== Further reading ===\nCavallero, Jonathan J.; Plasketes, George (2004). \"Gangsters, Fessos, Tricksters, and Sopranos: The Historical Roots of Italian American Stereotype Anxiety\". Journal of Popular Film and Television. 32 (2): 50–73. doi:10.3200/JPFT.32.2.49-73. ISSN 0195-6051. S2CID 144052558.\nKlemens, Nadine (2006). Gangster mythology in Howard Hawks' \"Scarface - Shame of the nation\". GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-638-47698-0.\nMajumdar, Gaurav (2004). \"\"I Can't See\": Sovereignty, Oblique Vision, and the Outlaw in Hawks's Scarface\". CR: The New Centennial Review. 4 (1): 211–226. doi:10.1353/ncr.2004.0024. ISSN 1539-6630. S2CID 145050454.\n\n\n== External links ==\nScarface at IMDb\nScarface at the TCM Movie Database\nScarface at Rotten Tomatoes\nScarface at the American Film Institute Catalog\nScarface at AllMovie\nReview of film at Variety", "Hagar Wilde (July 7, 1905 – September 25, 1971) was an American playwright and screenwriter in the late 1930s till the late 1950s. She is perhaps best known for the screenplays for Bringing Up Baby (1938) and I Was a Male War Bride (1949), two Howard Hawks films, both starring Cary Grant.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nHagar Wilde was born Beverly Violet Bidwell in Toledo, Ohio.\n\n\n== Career ==\nWilde was a prolific young short story writer and debut novelist when she was hired by billionaire Howard Hughes in 1931, to write dialogue for The Age for Love, starring Billie Dove. Her association with director Howard Hawks included co-writing (with Dudley Nichols) the screenplay for Bringing Up Baby (for which she had also written the original story, published in the magazine Collier's Weekly), and the screenplay for I Was a Male War Bride (1949). She also co-wrote the screenplay for The Unseen (1945), with Raymond Chandler, based on the novel Midnight House by Ethel Lina White.Wilde wrote two shows produced on Broadway. Her first stage success was a \"taut little horror drama\" titled Guest in the House (1942); she co-wrote the play with Dale Eunson, and it was adapted into a film in 1944. She also wrote Made in Heaven (1946–1947). In the 1950s she worked extensively in adapting scripts for television.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nWilde was married at least four times. Her first husband was Harlod Chandler Murner; they were married from 1923 to 1928. Her second husband was Ernest Victor Heyn. She divorced Heyn and married her third husband, actor Stephen Bekassy, in 1941. She had a daughter, Stephanie, with Bekassy, before they divorced in 1953. Her fourth husband was an Englishman; that marriage also ended. She died in 1971 at the Motion Picture Country Home in California, aged 66 years.\n\n\n== Selected filmography ==\nThe Age for Love (1931)\nBringing Up Baby (1938)\nCarefree (1938)\nFired Wife (1943)\nGuest in the House (1944)\nThe Unseen (1945)\nI Was a Male War Bride (1949)\nRed, Hot and Blue (1949)\nShadow of the Eagle (1950)\nThe Rival of the Empress (1951)\nThis is My Love (1954)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHagar Wilde at IMDb\nHagar Wilde at the Internet Broadway Database \nExcerpt from Stephanie Harrison, Adaptations: From Short Story to Big Screen. 35 Great Stories That Have Inspired Great Films. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4000-5314-8", "Elizabeth Coyote Threatt (April 12, 1926 – November 22, 1993) was an American model and actress, best known for her starring role in Howard Hawks's 1952 film The Big Sky, where she is in a love triangle with Kirk Douglas and Dewey Martin. It was her only film appearance, and all dialogue spoken by Threatt was in the depicted Native American language. She was spotted by Howard Hawks and cast for the part of an Indian princess captured by white man as hostage for a trade deal. Threatt left the film industry (and acting) after this one film.\nElizabeth Coyote Threatt was born in Kershaw, South Carolina on April 12, 1926, the daughter of William Threatt, a Cherokee Indian employed by the US army, and his wife, Bessie Pearl Furr.\nShe died in Concord, North Carolina aged 67.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\nThe Big Sky (1952)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nElizabeth Threatt at IMDb\nElizabeth Threatt at Find a Grave" ] }

{ "title": [ "Leonie (film)", "Léonie Gilmour", "Stuart Gilmour", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "Cody Votolato", "Los Debutantes", "Ailes Gilmour", "Christopher Masterson", "Thomas Fane, 6th Earl of Westmorland", "Isamu Noguchi", "Emil Leeb" ], "text": [ "Leonie (Japanese: レオニー, Hepburn: Reonī) is a 2010 Japanese film directed by Hisako Matsui and starring Emily Mortimer and Shido Nakamura. The film is based on the life of Léonie Gilmour, the American lover and editorial assistant of Japanese writer Yone Noguchi and mother of sculptor Isamu Noguchi and dancer Ailes Gilmour.\nProduction started in April 2009 and the film was released in Japan on November 20, 2010. An extensively reedited version of the film began a limited theatrical run in the United States on March 22, 2013, and was released on DVD on May 14, 2013.\n\n\n== Plot (Japan release version) ==\nThe film opens on a beach. A window overlooks the beach. In a dark room, Isamu Noguchi, grown old, is chipping away at a large stone with a hammer and chisel. \"Mother, I want you to tell the story.\" The film periodically returns to this scene of Isamu at work.\nBryn Mawr 1892. After a class in which she argues with a professor about the importance of artist Artemisia Gentileschi, Leonie (Emily Mortimer) befriends Catherine Burnell (Christina Hendricks). Later, they meet Umeko Tsuda (Mieko Harada), a graduate student. In Tsuda's room, Leonie gazes at a print of Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa.\nThe story now alternates between Pasadena 1904—where Leonie, living in a primitive tent with her mother Albiana (Mary Kay Place), bears a child temporarily named \"Yo,\"—and New York, where Leonie met Japanese poet Yone Noguchi (Shido Nakamura). She and Yone succumb to passion while collaborating on his anonymous novel, The American Diary of a Japanese Girl, published by Frederick A. Stokes (David Jensen). They quarrel when Yone returns unannounced from London with an apparently drunk Charles Warren Stoddard (Patrick Weathers). The Russo-Japanese War begins and Yone, declaring he will return to Japan, greets Leonie's announcement of pregnancy with angry disbelief. Leonie tells her sad story to the now unhappily married Catherine, who reminds her of her advice not to be boring. In California, Leonie fends off a racist attack against her son and decides, against Albiana's advice, to accept Yone's invitation to come to Japan.\nIn Yokohama when the steam ship arrives, Yone finds Leonie and the child, on whom he now bestows the name Isamu. Welcomed somewhat coldly by Yone, Leonie accustoms herself to unfamiliar customs and meets three Tokyo University students Yone has arranged for her to tutor. Angered by Yone's belated confession that he now has another wife, she moves out, against Yone's protests. She begins tutoring the children of Setsu Koizumi, whose stories of her idyllic marriage with the late Lafcadio Hearn starkly contrast with her own. She also visits Umeko Tsuda to ask for a job at her now famous school, but Umeko, fearing scandal, refuses her. Leonie then gives birth to a daughter, Ailes whose father was one of Leonie's Japanese students. When they visit Yone, he calls her a slut. She decides to build a house in Chigasaki, allowing Isamu, who is unhappy in a Yokohama school, to stay home and supervise the construction.\nYokohama, 1918: Isamu now wants to go to America. At the ship Yone tries to stop him; Leonie tells him to go, and he obeys. Because of the war, Leonie does not receive Isamu's letters explaining the school has been closed due to the arrest of founder Edward Rumely (Jay Karnes) for alleged treason. Rumely belatedly appears and makes arrangements for Isamu, now Americanized as Sam Gilmour.\nLeonie and Ailes (Kelly Vitz) arrive in New York and surprise Isamu (Jan Milligan) who, on Rumely's advice, is studying medicine. Leonie objects, telling Rumely Isamu is destined to be an artist, and he is soon seen neglecting his medical studies for drawing and sculpture. As Isamu gains artistic success and Ailes enters the world of dance, Leonie grows old, eking out a meager existence selling Japanese knickknacks. After an argument with Ailes, she becomes ill and is hospitalized. By the time Isamu makes it to her bedside she has died. At the small funeral Isamu meets Catherine.\nIn a closing scene shot in Sapporo's Moerenuma Park, Leonie watches children play in the playground designed by Isamu.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nEmily Mortimer as Leonie Gilmour\nShido Nakamura as Yone Noguchi\nChristina Hendricks as Catharine Burnell\nMieko Harada as Umeko Tsuda\nKeiko Takeshita as Setsu Koizumi\nMasatoshi Nakamura as Toshu Senda\nMary Kay Place as Albiana Gilmour\nRob Brownstein as Frederick A. Stokes\nYasuo Daichi as a carpenter\nJay Karnes as Dr. Edward Rumely\nTakashi Kashiwabara as Michihiko Kawada\nMelissa Caudle as Maternity Ward Doctor\nJan Milligan as Isamu Noguchi\nMarco St. John as Onorio Ruotolo\nKelly Vitz as Ailes Gilmour\nPatrick Weathers as Charles Warren Stoddard\nSo Yamanaka as Tomoharu Iwakura\n\n\n== Production ==\nHisako Matsui, an independent filmmaker who previously directed the films Yukie (1998) and Ori ume (2002), became interested in making a film of Leonie Gilmour's life after reading Masayo Duus's biography of Isamu Noguchi. She began a grassroots fund-raising project for the film in 2005, giving personal presentations throughout Japan and encouraging her supporters to take an active role in fund-raising. One private donor contributed 1.2 billion yen (about ten million dollars) to the project.On Feb. 12, 2009, Production Weekly listed the film as a production of Hyde Park Entertainment to be produced by Ashok Amritraj and Patrick Aiello, with Emily Mortimer and Shidou Nakamura identified as cast members.\n (Matsui's initial choice for the part of Leonie Gilmour had been Cynthia Nixon). On April 27, 2009, Production Weekly reported that actresses Christina Hendricks and Mary Kay Place had joined the cast, which was said to be currently filming in New Orleans. Production in the Santa Ynez Valley on May 11–14, 2009 was reported in The Santa Ynez Valley Journal. According to the story, a local ranch \"was used as the setting for a small settlement just outside Pasadena in 1904, where settlers are trying to eke out an existence in the hard scrabble life of the time.\" The article also noted the participation of local residents as extras, including seven-week-old Jordyn Oltman serving as \"Baby Isamu photo double.\" Returning to Japan, production continued in Takamatsu and Moerenuma Park, Sapporo. In both cases, Matsui invited supporters to participate as extras.\nOn July 30, 2009, Matsui returned to the United States and began postproduction work in Los Angeles. On September 1, 2009, she reported on her selection of Barbara Tulliver as editor, citing Tulliver's work on numerous films, and noting her extensive work for David Mamet. In September 2009, Oscar-winning composer Jan A.P. Kaczmarek started writing the score for Leonie.\nOn April 3, 2010, at Sogetsu Hall in Tokyo a special preview screening of the film was given for the film's supporters. The screening was followed by a party attended by Matsui, Nakamura Shido, and many of the film's organizers. It was announced that Kadokawa Pictures would distribute the film theatrically in Japan. Additional preview screenings in Japan and at the Hawaii International Film Festival followed through the summer and fall. On October 5, 2010, Empress Michiko attended a special pre-release screening at Yūrakuchō Asahi Hall with Matsui and many cast members. The film opened in Japan on November 20, 2010. A DVD was released by Kadokawa Pictures in August 2011.\nFollowing the film's theatrical run in Japan, Matsui assembled a new production team to reedit and market the film for international release. The new edit, credited to Craig Hayes and Sabine Hoffman, simplified the narrative structure reducing the length from 132 minutes to 102 minutes. On August 30, 2012, The Wrap announced that Monterey Media had acquired U.S. rights to the film from the director. \"The deal was brokered by ICM Partners,\" (Emily Mortimer's agency) \"on behalf of the filmmakers.\" The article noted that \"Monterey plans a winter theatrical release for the film.\" The reedited version opened its American theatrical run at New York's Clearview 1st & 62nd Cinemas on March 22, 2013. A DVD was released by Monterey Home Video on May 14, 2013.\n\n\n== Critical reception ==\nResponse to the film's limited theatrical release in the United States was mixed, with the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reporting a 45% favorable score based on eleven reviews and a 71% \"liked it\" score out of 247 user ratings on the eve of the film's DVD release in May 2013. John Anderson's review in Variety praised Matsui for \"bring[ing] to light a curious and intriguing story of a great-woman-behind-a-great-man\" and also praised the production: \"Tech credit are generally good, especially d.p. Tetsuo Nagata’s bronzed and burnished widescreen lensing; the interiors in particular pay much homage to Ozu.\" The Hollywood Reporter commented that \"the screenplay co-written by the director and David Weiner is frustratingly sketchy and at times overly florid, especially in its heavy doses of pseudo-poetic narration delivered by the older Leonie recounting her story. But it is also moving and inspirational in its portrait of a devoted mother’s passionate commitment to nurturing her son’s artistic talents. The emotional impact of the film was also mentioned by several reviewers, including Rex Reed, who praised the film as \"inspirational... a remarkable portrait of a brave, uncompromising woman who maintained her identity and spirit against all odds,\" though giving it an overall score of C+.Variety's reference to the film as a \"feminist/revisionist celebration of the life of a major artist\" was echoed in a number of reviews, but some were left unimpressed by its supposed feminism, including Rachel Saltz in the New York Times: \"Too bad that the film that bears her name ultimately reduces her to the mother of her child.\" Emily Mortimer's performance in the title role was almost universally praised, The Hollywood Reporter and The Village Voice both referring to it as \"stellar.\" The Hollywood Reporter also praised the \"stellar support\" of Shido Nakamura and Mary Kay Place.\n\n\n== Fictional elements and historical inaccuracies ==\nMatsui has described the film as \"a work of imagination built on a foundation of fact.\" In Leonie Gilmour: When East Weds West, biographer Edward Marx wrote that Matsui \"had worked hard to reconstruct Gilmour's world,\" but had based her portrayal of Gilmour on a biography of her son in which she was merely a secondary character. The film includes no mention of her life before college. Marx notes a number of \"misinterpretations and outright errors\" about her life, such as \"the primitive Pasadena campground to which Albiana welcomes Léonie in Matsui’s film,... in fact, Léonie lived during her Los Angeles years in Boyle Heights,\" and only worked in an office building in Pasadena.Léonie's friend \"Catherine Burnell\" was actually Catharine Bunnell (niece of Yale benefactor John Sterling); Léonie did not meet her in an art history class, which Bryn Mawr College did not have at the time, but rather in their dormitory, where they shared a dining table. \"Noguchi’s relations with various editors and publishers were more complex than Matsui’s single figure of Frederick A. Stokes, publisher of The American Diary of a Japanese Girl, nor did Gilmour have anything to do with the decision to publish that book anonymously.\" One of Gilmour's students (played by actor So Yamanaka in Matsui's film) is misidentified by Duus and Matsui as Tomoharu Iwakura (grandson of Iwakura Tomomi); the student, named Iwamura according to Gilmour, was presumably \"one of the five sons of Baron Iwamura Michitoshi, a former samurai from Tosa.\" Duus's assumption that Gilmour's scandalous life was the cause of her failure to land an anticipated job at Umeko Tsuda’s school is regarded by Marx as unlikely; Tsuda already had a qualified American teacher who worked without pay, and Gilmour worked at other morally strict Christian schools. Lafcadio Hearn's wife Koizumi Setsuko's English-speaking role in the film is at odds with Gilmour's comment that \"she has a very sympathetic face, but we could not speak each other’s language.\"Marx also notes the absence of \"Yone’s other American love interest, Ethel Armes\" from the film \"Originally, blonde bombshell Nichole Hiltz was cast to play the role of Ethel, which would have made Yone’s motivations more comprehensible,\" but the Ethel scenes were eliminated because of time constraints.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nLeonie at IMDb", "Léonie Gilmour (June 17, 1873 – December 31, 1933) was an American educator, editor and journalist. She was the lover and editor of the writer Yone Noguchi and the mother of sculptor Isamu Noguchi and dancer Ailes Gilmour. She is the subject of the feature film Leonie (2010) and the book Leonie Gilmour: When East Weds West (2013).\n\n\n== Life ==\nLéonie Gilmour was born in New York City on June 17, 1873, and grew up in the East Village, Manhattan. At the time of her birth, her father, Andrew Gilmour, a clerk, and mother, Albiana Gilmour (née Smith, daughter of one of the co-founders of the Brooklyn Times-Union), were living \"in one room in a rear house\" in St. Bridget's Place, the alley behind St. Brigid's Church on the east side of Tompkins Square Park. Léonie was among the first students at the Free Kindergarten organized by Felix Adler's Ethical Culture Society and became a member of the first class of the Workingman's School (later Ethical Culture School). After her graduation in 1887, Adler found a place for her at the recently opened Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore. As one of the few students to pass the Bryn Mawr School's rigorous graduation requirements, she was awarded its first four-year college scholarship, funded by school president Mary Garrett.As was expected, Gilmour enrolled at Bryn Mawr College in the fall of 1891. Despite an early interest in chemistry, she eventually chose to major in history and political science as her major fields. In her third year, following the example of many students preparing for the school's rigorous foreign language exams (which required students to translate on sight from Greek, Latin, French and German), Léonie decided to spend a year abroad studying at the Sorbonne in Paris. Upon her return in the fall of 1894, she was assigned to the same residence hall dining table as incoming student Catharine Bunnell (niece of future Yale benefactor John William Sterling), and the two became lifelong friends. In January 1895, an illness leading to hospitalization led to Gilmour's withdrawal from the college, her transcript citing \"reasons of health,\" although Gilmour's biographer speculates that the expiration of her four-year scholarship the previous year may have been a contributing factor. She never completed her degree. Her friend Catharine Bunnell also withdrew from the college at the end of the year.After leaving Bryn Mawr College in 1896, Gilmour taught at the Academy of St. Aloysius in New Jersey and worked at various editing jobs. In 1901, she answered a classified advertisement placed by Yone Noguchi, a 25-year-old Japanese writer who had recently arrived in New York. Noguchi had spent seven years in California and had published two books of English poetry, but his mastery of English was insecure. Gilmour agreed to become his editor. The relationship proved successful, and with Gilmour's assistance, Noguchi resumed work on a fictional diary of a Japanese girl published in 1902 as The American Diary of a Japanese Girl.\nFollowing Noguchi's return from England in 1903, the relationship took an amorous turn, and on November 18, Noguchi wrote out a declaration of questionable legality stating that \"Leonie Gilmour is my Lawful wife.\" The marriage remained secret and the two continued to maintain separate residences. When the arrangement proved less than successful, it appeared that the experiment would simply be brought to an end in the early months of 1904 with no one being the wiser. Noguchi resumed his relationship with Washington, D.C. journalist Ethel Armes and with the onset of the Russo-Japanese War, began making plans to return to Japan in the fall.\nTrouble developed, however, when Gilmour discovered she had become pregnant during the waning days of the relationship. Rather than pressing Noguchi for a reconciliation, she chose to join her mother in Los Angeles, and gave birth to Isamu Noguchi on November 18, 1904.\nThe birth was publicized when a Los Angeles Herald reporter visited Léonie in the hospital. After Ethel Armes confirmed the truth of the story and canceled her engagement to Noguchi, Noguchi began attempting to persuade Gilmour to come to Japan. Léonie resisted for some months before finally agreeing. By the time she arrived in March 1907 Noguchi had become involved with a Japanese woman, Takeda Matsuko.In Tokyo, Gilmour worked primarily as a teacher and resumed her helpful role as Noguchi's editorial assistant. Unable to use her alma mater connection with Tsuda Umeko to secure a position at Tsuda College as she hoped, Léonie worked at a Yokohama school and privately tutored the children of the late Lafcadio Hearn, among others.\nDomestic arrangements proved strained even before Léonie belatedly learned of the existence of Takeda Matsuko, around the time of Matsuko's second pregnancy by Noguchi. Léonie separated from Noguchi in 1909, taking Isamu, and living in a series of residences in Ōmori, Yokohama and Chigasaki. In 1912 as a result of a relationship with a man whose identity remains mysterious (Isamu Noguchi biographer Masayo Duus speculates that he was one of Léonie's students) she gave birth to a daughter, Ailes Gilmour.\nGilmour sent Isamu back to the United States to attend an experimental school in 1918. She and Ailes continued to reside in Japan until 1920 when they returned to the United States, settling in San Francisco, and later moving to New York, where she successfully dissuaded Isamu from his plan to attend medical school and redirected him to the artist's vocation she had chosen for him when he was still an infant. Ailes was sent to a progressive school in Connecticut.\nGilmour herself made ends meet through a small import/export business and various other jobs. In December 1933 she was admitted to New York's Bellevue Hospital with pneumonia and died on New Year's Eve of coronary thrombosis with arteriosclerosis as a contributory factor.\n\n\n=== Literary works ===\nAlthough Gilmour harbored literary aspirations, her achievements as a writer were limited. Much of her literary energy was channeled into her editorial projects, particularly those of her partner, Yone Noguchi. It has been speculated that she may have co-authored or authored some works attributed to him, such as The American Diary of a Japanese Girl, and there is little doubt that much of Noguchi's best writing was accomplished with her editorial assistance.\nAs an author in her own right, Gilmour's most successful pieces were short autobiographical essays for newspapers and magazines chronicling unfortunate events with a wry ironic humor, In a picaresque, matter-of-fact style, Gilmour described the unusual situations in which she found herself as a result of her unconventional attitudes and lifestyle. Gilmour's \"Founding a Tent-Home in California,\" for example, shows turn-of-the-century Los Angeles from the perspective of a hapless, idealistic new arrival. \"Dorobo, or the Japanese Burglar\" portrays the experience of being burglarized with a humorous perspective.Near the end of her life, at the request of her son, Gilmour had begun writing a memoir which she referred to as \"the book.\" This evidently included the brief account of her childhood entitled \"St. Bridget's Child,\" as well as \"The Kid Chronicle that Was Not Written\" (describing her meeting and correspondence with Charles Warren Stoddard) and \"Inside Looking On: When East Weds West.\" All of these were unpublished at the time of her death, as was her story about Ailes' arrival in San Francisco, \"Ai-chan Goes to Frisco.\"\n\n\n=== Interest in Gilmour ===\nGilmour's unconventional life and perspectives have made her the subject of interest among scholars and a Japanese filmmaker. In 2009, Japanese filmmaker Matsui Hisako (松井久子) began production of Leonie, a film based on Gilmour's life. Actress Emily Mortimer played the role of Gilmour in the film. A book, Leonie Gilmour: When East Weds West, including a biography of Gilmour by Edward Marx, along with Gilmour's collected writings, was published in 2013.\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nLeonie Gilmour at Isamu Noguchi Garden Museum\nLeonie Gilmour page at Noguchi Project", "Stuart Gilmour (born 17 August 1977 in Broxburn) is a Scottish footballer who plays as a midfielder.\nGilmour began his career with Dundee United but made just one appearance, playing the whole match in the 1-0 Scottish Challenge Cup quarter-final away win over Clydebank in September 1995. Gilmour failed to appear in another matchday squad and was released the following close season. He subsequently played at Junior level, firstly with West Calder United, before signing for Whitburn in July 1998. Gilmour spent five years at Whitburn, winning the Scottish Junior Cup in 1999 and representing Scotland in junior internationals before retiring in 2003 at the age of 26.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nStuart Gilmour at Soccerbase", "Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714) was Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland between 8 March 1702 and 1 May 1707. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, the kingdoms of England and Scotland united as a single sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death in 1714.\nAnne was born in the reign of Charles II to his younger brother and heir presumptive, James, whose suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England. On Charles's instructions, Anne and her elder sister, Mary, were raised as Anglicans. Mary married their Dutch Protestant cousin, William III of Orange, in 1677, and Anne married Prince George of Denmark in 1683. On Charles's death in 1685, James succeeded to the throne, but just three years later he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Mary and William became joint monarchs. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over Anne's finances, status, and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Mary's accession and they became estranged. William and Mary had no children. After Mary's death in 1694, William reigned alone until his own death in 1702, when Anne succeeded him.\nDuring her reign, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession, until 1710 when Anne dismissed many of them from office. Her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, turned sour as the result of political differences. The Duchess took revenge with an unflattering description of the Queen in her memoirs, which was widely accepted by historians until Anne was re-assessed in the late 20th century.\nAnne was plagued by ill health throughout her life, and from her thirties she grew increasingly ill and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies, she died without surviving issue and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Under the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded all Catholics, she was succeeded by her second cousin George I of the House of Hanover.\n\n\n== Early life ==\n\nAnne was born at 11:39 p.m. on 6 February 1665 at St James's Palace, London, the fourth child and second daughter of the Duke of York (afterwards James II and VII), and his first wife, Anne Hyde. Her father was the younger brother of King Charles II, who ruled the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, and her mother was the daughter of Lord Chancellor Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal at St James's, her older sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of Monmouth and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Gilbert Sheldon. The Duke and Duchess of York had eight children, but Anne and Mary were the only ones to survive into adulthood.As a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering known as \"defluxion\". For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with her paternal grandmother, Henrietta Maria of France, at the Château de Colombes near Paris. Following her grandmother's death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne, Duchess of Orléans. On the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England. Her mother died the following year.As was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London. On the instructions of Charles II, they were raised as Protestants. Placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady Frances Villiers, their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Anne's preceptor.Around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her close friend and one of her most influential advisors. Jennings married John Churchill (the future Duke of Marlborough) in about 1678. His sister, Arabella Churchill, was the Duke of York's mistress, and he was to be Anne's most important general.In 1673, the Duke of York's conversion to Catholicism became public, and he married a Catholic princess, Mary of Modena, who was only six and a half years older than Anne. Charles II had no legitimate children, and so the Duke of York was next in the line of succession, followed by his two surviving daughters from his first marriage, Mary and Anne—as long as he had no son. Over the next ten years, the new Duchess of York had ten children, but all were either stillborn or died in infancy, leaving Mary and Anne second and third in the line of succession after their father. There is every indication that, throughout Anne's early life, she and her stepmother got on well together, and the Duke of York was a conscientious and loving father.\n\n\n== Marriage ==\n\nIn November 1677, Anne's elder sister, Mary, married their Dutch first cousin William III of Orange, at St James's Palace, but Anne could not attend the wedding because she was confined to her room with smallpox. By the time she recovered, Mary had already left for her new life in the Netherlands. Lady Frances Villiers contracted the disease, and died. Anne's aunt Lady Henrietta Hyde (the wife of Laurence Hyde) was appointed as her new governess. A year later, Anne and her stepmother visited Mary in Holland for two weeks.Anne's father and stepmother retired to Brussels in March 1679 in the wake of anti-Catholic hysteria fed by the Popish Plot, and Anne visited them from the end of August. In October, they returned to Britain, the Duke and Duchess to Scotland and Anne to England. She joined her father and stepmother at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh from July 1681 until May 1682. It was her last journey outside England.Anne's second cousin George of Hanover visited London for three months from December 1680, sparking rumours of a potential marriage between them. Historian Edward Gregg dismissed the rumours as ungrounded, as her father was essentially exiled from court, and the Hanoverians planned to marry George to his first cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle as part of a scheme to unite the Hanoverian inheritance. Other rumours claimed she was courted by Lord Mulgrave, although he denied it. Nevertheless, as a result of the gossip, he was temporarily dismissed from court.With George of Hanover out of contention as a potential suitor for Anne, King Charles looked elsewhere for an eligible prince who would be welcomed as a groom by his Protestant subjects but also acceptable to his Catholic ally, Louis XIV of France. The Danes were Protestant allies of the French, and Louis XIV was keen on an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain the power of the Dutch. A marriage treaty between Anne and Prince George of Denmark, younger brother of King Christian V, and Anne's second cousin once removed, was negotiated by Anne's uncle Laurence Hyde, who had been made Earl of Rochester, and the English Secretary of State for the Northern Department, Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland. Anne's father consented to the marriage eagerly because it diminished the influence of his other son-in-law, William of Orange, who was naturally unhappy at the match.Bishop Compton officiated at the wedding of Anne and George of Denmark on 28 July 1683 in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace. Although it was an arranged marriage, they were faithful and devoted partners. They were given a set of buildings, known as the Cockpit, in the Palace of Whitehall as their London residence, and Sarah Churchill was appointed one of Anne's ladies of the bedchamber. Within months of the marriage, Anne was pregnant, but the baby was stillborn in May. Anne recovered at the spa town of Tunbridge Wells, and over the next two years, gave birth to two daughters in quick succession: Mary and Anne Sophia.\n\n\n== Accession of James II and VII ==\nWhen Charles II died in 1685, Anne's father became King James II of England and VII of Scotland. To the consternation of the English people, James began to give Catholics military and administrative offices, in contravention of the Test Acts that were designed to prevent such appointments. Anne shared the general concern, and continued to attend Anglican services. As her sister Mary lived in the Netherlands, Anne and her family were the only members of the royal family attending Protestant religious services in England. When her father tried to get Anne to baptise her youngest daughter into the Catholic faith, Anne burst into tears. \"The Church of Rome is wicked and dangerous\", she wrote to her sister, \"their ceremonies—most of them—plain downright idolatry.\" Anne became estranged from her father and stepmother, as James moved to weaken the Church of England's power.In early 1687, within a matter of days, Anne miscarried, her husband caught smallpox, and their two young daughters died of the same infection. Lady Rachel Russell wrote that George and Anne had \"taken [the deaths] very heavily ... Sometimes they wept, sometimes they mourned in words; then sat silent, hand in hand; he sick in bed, and she the carefullest nurse to him that can be imagined.\" Later that year, she suffered another stillbirth.\n\nPublic alarm at James's Catholicism increased when his wife, Mary of Modena, became pregnant for the first time since James's accession. In letters to her sister Mary, Anne raised suspicions that the Queen was faking her pregnancy in an attempt to introduce a false heir. She wrote, \"they will stick at nothing, be it never so wicked, if it will promote their interest ... there may be foul play intended.\" Anne suffered another miscarriage in April 1688, and left London to recuperate in the spa town of Bath.Anne's stepmother gave birth to a son, James Francis Edward Stuart, on 10 June 1688, and a Catholic succession became more likely. Anne was still at Bath, so she did not witness the birth, which fed the belief that the child was spurious. Anne may have left the capital deliberately to avoid being present, or because she was genuinely ill, but it is also possible that James desired the exclusion of all Protestants, including his daughter, from affairs of state. \"I shall never now be satisfied\", Anne wrote to her sister Mary, \"whether the child be true or false. It may be it is our brother, but God only knows ... one cannot help having a thousand fears and melancholy thoughts, but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find me firm to my religion and faithfully yours.\"To dispel rumours of a supposititious child, James had 40 witnesses to the birth attend a Privy Council meeting, but Anne claimed she could not attend because she was pregnant herself (which she was not) and then declined to read the depositions because it was \"not necessary\".\n\n\n== Glorious Revolution ==\n\nWilliam of Orange invaded England on 5 November 1688 in an action known as the Glorious Revolution, which ultimately deposed King James. Forbidden by James to pay Mary a projected visit in the spring of 1687, Anne corresponded with her and was aware of the plans to invade. On the advice of the Churchills, she refused to side with James after William landed and instead wrote to William on 18 November declaring her approval of his action. Churchill abandoned the unpopular King James on the 24th. Prince George followed suit that night, and in the evening of the following day James issued orders to place Sarah Churchill under house arrest at St James's Palace. Anne and Sarah fled from Whitehall by a back staircase, putting themselves under the care of Bishop Compton. They spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived at Nottingham on 1 December. Two weeks later and escorted by a large company, Anne arrived at Oxford, where she met Prince George in triumph. \"God help me!\", lamented James on discovering the desertion of his daughter on 26 November, \"Even my children have forsaken me.\" On 19 December, Anne returned to London, where she was at once visited by William. James fled to France on the 23rd. Anne showed no concern at the news of her father's flight, and instead merely asked for her usual game of cards. She justified herself by saying that she \"was used to play and never loved to do anything that looked like an affected constraint\".In January 1689, a Convention Parliament assembled in England and declared that James had effectively abdicated when he fled, and that the thrones of England and Ireland were therefore vacant. The Parliament or Estates of Scotland took similar action, and William and Mary were declared monarchs of all three realms. The Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689 settled the succession. Anne and her descendants were to be in the line of succession after William and Mary, and they were to be followed by any descendants of William by a future marriage. On 24 July 1689, Anne gave birth to a son, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who, though ill, survived infancy. As King William and Queen Mary had no children, it looked as though Anne's son would eventually inherit the Crown.\n\n\n== William and Mary ==\nSoon after their accession, William and Mary rewarded John Churchill by granting him the Earldom of Marlborough and Prince George was made Duke of Cumberland. Anne requested the use of Richmond Palace and a parliamentary allowance. William and Mary refused the first, and unsuccessfully opposed the latter, both of which caused tension between the two sisters. Anne's resentment grew worse when William refused to allow Prince George to serve in the military in an active capacity. The new king and queen feared that Anne's financial independence would weaken their influence over her and allow her to organise a rival political faction. From around this time, at Anne's request she and Sarah Churchill, Lady Marlborough, began to call each other the pet names Mrs. Morley and Mrs. Freeman, respectively, to facilitate a relationship of greater equality between the two when they were alone. In January 1692, suspecting that Marlborough was secretly conspiring with James's followers, the Jacobites, William and Mary dismissed him from all his offices. In a public show of support for the Marlboroughs, Anne took Sarah to a social event at the palace, and refused her sister's request to dismiss Sarah from her household. Lady Marlborough was subsequently removed from the royal household by the Lord Chamberlain, and Anne angrily left her royal lodgings and took up residence at Syon House, the home of the Duke of Somerset. Anne was stripped of her guard of honour; courtiers were forbidden to visit her, and civic authorities were instructed to ignore her. In April, Anne gave birth to a son who died within minutes. Mary visited her, but instead of offering comfort took the opportunity to berate Anne once again for her friendship with Sarah. The sisters never saw each other again. Later that year, Anne moved to Berkeley House in Piccadilly, London, where she had a stillborn daughter in March 1693.When Mary died of smallpox in 1694, William continued to reign alone. Anne became his heir apparent, since any children he might have by another wife were assigned to a lower place in the line of succession, and the two reconciled publicly. He restored her previous honours, allowed her to reside in St James's Palace, and gave her Mary's jewels, but excluded her from government and refrained from appointing her regent during his absences abroad. Three months later, William restored Marlborough to his offices. With Anne's restoration at court, Berkeley House became a social centre for courtiers who had previously avoided contact with Anne and her husband.According to James, Anne wrote to him in 1696 requesting his permission to succeed William, and thereafter promising to restore the Crown to James's line at a convenient opportunity; he declined to give his consent. She was probably trying to ensure her own succession by attempting to prevent a direct claim by James.\n\n\n=== Act of Settlement ===\n\nAnne's final pregnancy ended on 25 January 1700 with a stillbirth. She had been pregnant at least seventeen times over as many years, and had miscarried or given birth to stillborn children at least twelve times. Of her five liveborn children, four died before reaching the age of two. Anne suffered from bouts of \"gout\" (pains in her limbs and eventually stomach and head) from at least 1698. Based on her foetal losses and physical symptoms, she may have had systemic lupus erythematosus, or antiphospholipid syndrome. Alternatively, pelvic inflammatory disease could explain why the onset of her symptoms roughly coincided with her penultimate pregnancy. Other suggested causes of her failed pregnancies are listeriosis, diabetes, intrauterine growth retardation, and rhesus incompatibility. Rhesus incompatibility, however, generally worsens with successive pregnancies, and so does not fit with the pattern of Anne's pregnancies, as her only son to survive infancy, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, was born after a series of stillbirths. Experts also believe syphilis, porphyria and pelvic deformation to be unlikely as the symptoms are incompatible with her medical history.Anne's gout rendered her lame for much of her later life. Around the court, she was carried in a sedan chair, or used a wheelchair. Around her estates, she used a one-horse chaise, which she drove herself \"furiously like Jehu and a mighty hunter like Nimrod\". She gained weight as a result of her sedentary lifestyle; in Sarah's words, \"she grew exceeding gross and corpulent. There was something of majesty in her look, but mixed with a gloominess of soul\". Sir John Clerk, 1st Baronet, described her in 1706\n\nunder a fit of the gout and in extreme pain and agony, and on this occasion everything about her was much in the same disorder as about the meanest of her subjects. Her face, which was red and spotted, was rendered something frightful by her negligent dress, and the foot affected was tied up with a poultice and some nasty bandages. I was much affected by this sight ...\nAnne's sole surviving child, the Duke of Gloucester, died at the age of eleven on 30 July 1700. She and her husband were \"overwhelmed with grief\". Anne ordered her household to observe a day of mourning every year on the anniversary of his death. With William childless and Gloucester dead, Anne was the only individual remaining in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights 1689. To address the succession crisis and preclude a Catholic restoration, the Parliament of England enacted the Act of Settlement 1701, which provided that, failing the issue of Anne and of William III by any future marriage, the Crown of England and Ireland would go to Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her Protestant descendants. Sophia was the granddaughter of James VI and I through his daughter Elizabeth, who was the sister of Anne's grandfather Charles I. Over fifty Catholics with stronger claims were excluded from the line of succession. Anne's father died in September 1701. His widow, Anne's stepmother, the former queen, wrote to Anne to inform her that her father forgave her and to remind her of her promise to seek the restoration of his line. Anne, however, had already acquiesced to the new line of succession created by the Act of Settlement.\n\n\n== Reign ==\n\nAnne became queen upon the death of King William III on 8 March 1702, and was immediately popular. In her first speech to the English Parliament, on 11 March, she distanced herself from her late Dutch brother-in-law and said, \"As I know my heart to be entirely English, I can very sincerely assure you there is not anything you can expect or desire from me which I shall not be ready to do for the happiness and prosperity of England.\"Soon after her accession, Anne appointed her husband Lord High Admiral, giving him nominal control of the Royal Navy. Anne gave control of the army to Lord Marlborough, whom she appointed Captain-General. Marlborough also received numerous honours from the Queen; he was created a Knight of the Garter and was elevated to the rank of duke. The Duchess of Marlborough was appointed Groom of the Stool, Mistress of the Robes, and Keeper of the Privy Purse.Anne was crowned on St George's Day, 23 April 1702. Afflicted with gout, she was carried to Westminster Abbey in an open sedan chair, with a low back to permit her train to flow out behind her. On 4 May, England became embroiled in the War of the Spanish Succession, in which England, Austria, and the Dutch Republic fought against France and Bourbon Spain. Charles II of Spain had died childless in 1700, and the succession was disputed by two claimants: the Habsburg Archduke Charles of Austria and the Bourbon Philip, Duke of Anjou.She took a lively interest in affairs of state, and was a patron of theatre, poetry and music. She subsidised George Frideric Handel with £200 a year. She sponsored high-quality medals as rewards for political or military achievements. They were produced at the Mint by Isaac Newton and John Croker. She knighted Newton when she visited Cambridge in 1705.\n\n\n=== Acts of Union ===\n\nWhile Ireland was subordinate to the English Crown and Wales formed part of the kingdom of England, Scotland remained an independent sovereign state with its own parliament and laws. The Act of Settlement 1701, passed by the English Parliament, applied in the kingdoms of England and Ireland but not Scotland, where a strong minority wished to preserve the Stuart dynasty and its right of inheritance to the throne. Anne had declared it \"very necessary\" to conclude a union of England and Scotland in her first speech to the English Parliament, and a joint Anglo-Scots commission met at her former residence, the Cockpit, to discuss terms in October 1702. The negotiations broke up in early February 1703 having failed to reach an agreement. The Estates of Scotland responded to the Act of Settlement by passing the Act of Security, which gave the Estates the power, if the Queen had no further children, to choose the next Scottish monarch from among the Protestant descendants of the royal line of Scotland. The individual chosen by the Estates could not be the same person who came to the English throne, unless England granted full freedom of trade to Scottish merchants. At first, Anne withheld royal assent to the act, but she granted it the following year when the Estates threatened to withhold supply, endangering Scottish support for England's wars.\n \nIn its turn, the English Parliament responded with the Alien Act 1705, which threatened to impose economic sanctions and declare Scottish subjects aliens in England, unless Scotland either repealed the Act of Security or moved to unite with England. The Estates chose the latter option; the English Parliament agreed to repeal the Alien Act, and new commissioners were appointed by Queen Anne in early 1706 to negotiate the terms of a union. The articles of union approved by the commissioners were presented to Anne on 23 July 1706 and ratified by the Scottish and English Parliaments on 16 January and 6 March 1707, respectively. Under the Acts of Union, England and Scotland were united into a single kingdom called Great Britain, with one parliament, on 1 May 1707. Anne, a consistent and ardent supporter of union despite opposition on both sides of the border, attended a thanksgiving service in St Paul's Cathedral. The Scot Sir John Clerk, 1st Baronet, who also attended, wrote, \"nobody on this occasion appeared more sincerely devout and thankful than the Queen herself\".\n\n\n=== Two-party politics ===\n\nAnne's reign was marked by the further development of a two-party system. In general, the Tories were supportive of the Anglican church and favoured the landed interest of the country gentry, while the Whigs were aligned with commercial interests and Protestant Dissenters. As a committed Anglican, Anne was inclined to favour the Tories. Her first ministry was predominantly Tory, and contained such High Tories as Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham, and her uncle Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester. It was headed by Lord Treasurer Lord Godolphin and Anne's favourite the Duke of Marlborough, who were considered moderate Tories, along with the Speaker of the House of Commons, Robert Harley.Anne supported the Occasional Conformity Bill of 1702, which was promoted by the Tories and opposed by the Whigs. The bill aimed to disqualify Protestant Dissenters from public office by closing a loophole in the Test Acts, legislation that restricted public office to Anglican conformists. The existing law permitted nonconformists to take office if they took Anglican communion once a year. Anne's husband was placed in an unfortunate position when Anne forced him to vote for the bill, even though, being a Lutheran, he was an occasional conformist himself. The Whigs successfully blocked the bill for the duration of the parliamentary session. Anne reinstituted the traditional religious practice of touching for the king's evil that had been eschewed by William as papist superstition. After the Great Storm of 1703, Anne declared a general fast to implore God \"to pardon the crying sins of this nation which had drawn down this sad judgement\". The Occasional Conformity Bill was revived in the wake of the storm, but Anne withheld support, fearing its reintroduction was a ruse to cause a political quarrel. Once again it failed. A third attempt to introduce the bill as an amendment to a money bill in November 1704 was also thwarted.The Whigs vigorously supported the War of the Spanish Succession and became even more influential after the Duke of Marlborough won a great victory at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704. Many of the High Tories, who opposed British involvement in the land war against France, were removed from office. Godolphin, Marlborough, and Harley, who had replaced Nottingham as Secretary of State for the Northern Department, formed a ruling \"triumvirate\". They were forced to rely more and more on support from the Whigs, and particularly from the Whig Junto—Lords Somers, Halifax, Orford, Wharton and Sunderland—whom Anne disliked. Sarah, the Duchess of Marlborough, incessantly badgered the Queen to appoint more Whigs and reduce the power of the Tories, whom she considered little better than Jacobites, and the Queen became increasingly discontented with her.In 1706, Godolphin and the Marlboroughs forced Anne to accept Lord Sunderland, a Junto Whig and the Marlboroughs' son-in-law, as Harley's colleague as Secretary of State for the Southern Department. Although this strengthened the ministry's position in Parliament, it weakened the ministry's position with the Queen, as Anne became increasingly irritated with Godolphin and with her former favourite, the Duchess of Marlborough, for supporting Sunderland and other Whig candidates for vacant government and church positions. The Queen turned for private advice to Harley, who was uncomfortable with Marlborough and Godolphin's turn towards the Whigs. She also turned to Abigail Hill, a woman of the bedchamber whose influence grew as Anne's relationship with Sarah deteriorated. Abigail was related to both Harley and the Duchess, but was politically closer to Harley, and acted as an intermediary between him and the Queen.\n\nThe division within the ministry came to a head on 8 February 1708, when Godolphin and the Marlboroughs insisted that the Queen had to either dismiss Harley or do without their services. When the Queen seemed to hesitate, Marlborough and Godolphin refused to attend a cabinet meeting. Harley attempted to lead business without his former colleagues, and several of those present including the Duke of Somerset refused to participate until they returned. Her hand forced, the Queen dismissed Harley.The following month, Anne's Catholic half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart, attempted to land in Scotland with French assistance in an attempt to establish himself as king. Anne withheld royal assent from the Scottish Militia Bill 1708 in case the militia raised in Scotland was disloyal and sided with the Jacobites. She was the last British sovereign to veto a parliamentary bill, although her action was barely commented upon at the time. The invasion fleet never landed and was chased away by British ships commanded by Sir George Byng. As a result of the Jacobite invasion scare, support for the Tories fell and the Whigs were able to secure a majority in the 1708 British general election.The Duchess of Marlborough was angered when Abigail moved into rooms at Kensington Palace that Sarah considered her own, though she rarely if ever used them. In July 1708, she came to court with a bawdy poem written by a Whig propagandist, probably Arthur Maynwaring, that implied a lesbian relationship between Anne and Abigail. The Duchess wrote to Anne telling her she had damaged her reputation by conceiving \"a great passion for such a woman ... strange and unaccountable\". Sarah thought Abigail had risen above her station, writing \"I never thought her education was such as to make her fit company for a great queen. Many people have liked the humour of their chambermaids and have been very kind to them, but 'tis very uncommon to hold a private correspondence with them and put them upon the foot of a friend.\" While some modern commentators have concluded Anne was a lesbian, most have rejected this analysis. In the opinion of Anne's biographers, she considered Abigail nothing more than a trusted servant, and was a woman of strong traditional beliefs, who was devoted to her husband.At a thanksgiving service for a victory at the Battle of Oudenarde, Anne did not wear the jewels that Sarah had selected for her. At the door of St Paul's Cathedral, they had an argument that culminated in Sarah offending the Queen by telling her to be quiet. Anne was dismayed. When Sarah forwarded an unrelated letter from her husband to Anne, with a covering note continuing the argument, Anne wrote back pointedly, \"After the commands you gave me on the thanksgiving day of not answering you, I should not have troubled you with these lines, but to return the Duke of Marlborough's letter safe into your hands, and for the same reason do not say anything to that, nor to yours which enclosed it.\"\n\n\n=== Death of her husband ===\n\nAnne was devastated by her husband's death in October 1708, and the event proved a turning point in her relationship with the Duchess of Marlborough. The Duchess arrived at Kensington Palace shortly before George died, and after his death insisted that Anne leave Kensington for St James's Palace against her wishes. Anne resented the Duchess's intrusive actions, which included removing a portrait of George from the Queen's bedchamber and then refusing to return it in the belief that it was natural \"to avoid seeing of papers or anything that belonged to one that one loved when they were just dead\".The Whigs used George's death to their own advantage. The leadership of the Admiralty was unpopular among the Whig leaders, who had blamed Prince George and his deputy George Churchill (who was Marlborough's brother) for mismanagement of the navy. With Whigs now dominant in Parliament, and Anne distraught at the loss of her husband, they forced her to accept the Junto leaders Lords Somers and Wharton into the cabinet. Anne, however, insisted on carrying out the duties of Lord High Admiral herself, without appointing a member of the government to take George's place. Undeterred, the Junto demanded the appointment of the Earl of Orford, another member of the Junto and one of Prince George's leading critics, as First Lord of the Admiralty. Anne appointed the moderate Earl of Pembroke, on 29 November 1708. Pressure mounted on Pembroke, Godolphin and the Queen from the dissatisfied Junto Whigs, and Pembroke resigned after less than a year in office. Another month of arguments followed before the Queen finally consented to put Orford in control of the Admiralty as First Lord in November 1709.Sarah continued to berate Anne for her friendship with Abigail, and in October 1709, Anne wrote to the Duke of Marlborough asking that his wife \"leave off teasing & tormenting me & behave herself with the decency she ought both to her friend and Queen\". On Maundy Thursday 6 April 1710, Anne and Sarah saw each other for the last time. According to Sarah, the Queen was taciturn and formal, repeating the same phrases—\"Whatever you have to say you may put in writing\" and \"You said you desired no answer, and I shall give you none\"—over and over.\n\n\n=== War of the Spanish Succession ===\n\nAs the expensive War of the Spanish Succession grew unpopular, so did the Whig administration. The impeachment of Henry Sacheverell, a high church Tory Anglican who had preached anti-Whig sermons, led to further public discontent. Anne thought Sacheverell ought to be punished for questioning the Glorious Revolution, but that his punishment should only be a mild one to prevent further public commotion. In London, riots broke out in support of Sacheverell, but the only troops available to quell the disturbances were Anne's guards, and Secretary of State Sunderland was reluctant to use them and leave the Queen less protected. Anne declared God would be her guard and ordered Sunderland to redeploy her troops. In line with Anne's views, Sacheverell was convicted, but his sentence—suspension of preaching for three years—was so light as to render the trial a mockery.The Queen, increasingly disdainful of the Marlboroughs and her ministry, finally took the opportunity to dismiss Sunderland in June 1710. Godolphin followed in August. The Junto Whigs were removed from office, although Marlborough, for the moment, remained as commander of the army. In their place, she appointed a new ministry, headed by Harley, which began to seek peace with France. Unlike the Whigs, Harley and his ministry were ready to compromise by giving Spain to the Bourbon claimant, Philip of Anjou, in return for commercial concessions. In the parliamentary elections that soon followed his appointment, Harley, aided by government patronage, secured a large Tory majority. In January 1711, Anne forced Sarah to resign her court offices, and Abigail took over as Keeper of the Privy Purse. Harley was stabbed by a disgruntled French refugee, the Marquis de Guiscard, in March, and Anne wept at the thought he would die. He recovered slowly. Godolphin's death from natural causes in September 1712 reduced Anne to tears; she blamed their estrangement on the Marlboroughs.\n\nThe elder brother of Archduke Charles, Emperor Joseph I, died in April 1711 and Charles succeeded him in Austria, Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire. To also give him the Spanish throne was no longer in Britain's interests, but the proposed Peace of Utrecht submitted to Parliament for ratification did not go as far as the Whigs wanted to curb Bourbon ambitions. In the House of Commons, the Tory majority was unassailable, but the same was not true in the House of Lords. The Whigs secured the support of the Earl of Nottingham against the treaty by promising to support his Occasional Conformity bill. Seeing a need for decisive action to erase the anti-peace majority in the House of Lords, and seeing no alternative, Anne reluctantly created twelve new peers, even though such a mass creation of peers was unprecedented. Abigail's husband, Samuel Masham, was made a baron, although Anne protested to Harley that she \"never had any design to make a great lady of [Abigail], and should lose a useful servant\". On the same day, Marlborough was dismissed as commander of the army. The peace treaty was ratified and Britain's military involvement in the War of the Spanish Succession ended.By signing the Treaty of Utrecht, King Louis XIV of France recognised the Hanoverian succession in Britain. Nevertheless, gossip that Anne and her ministers favoured the succession of her half-brother rather than the Hanoverians continued, despite Anne's denials in public and in private. The rumours were fed by her consistent refusals to permit any of the Hanoverians to visit or move to England, and by the intrigues of Harley and the Tory Secretary of State Lord Bolingbroke, who were in separate and secret discussions with her half-brother about a possible Stuart restoration until early 1714.\n\n\n=== Death ===\nAnne was unable to walk between January and July 1713. At Christmas, she was feverish, and lay unconscious for hours, which led to rumours of her impending death. She recovered, but was seriously ill again in March. By July, Anne had lost confidence in Harley; his secretary recorded that Anne told the cabinet \"that he neglected all business; that he was seldom to be understood; that when he did explain himself, she could not depend upon the truth of what he said; that he never came to her at the time she appointed; that he often came drunk; [and] last, to crown all, he behaved himself towards her with ill manner, indecency and disrespect.\" On 27 July 1714, during Parliament's summer recess, she dismissed Harley as Lord Treasurer. Despite failing health, which her doctors blamed on the emotional strain of matters of state, she attended two late-night cabinet meetings that failed to determine Harley's successor. A third meeting was cancelled when she became too ill to attend. She was rendered unable to speak by a stroke on 30 July 1714, the anniversary of Gloucester's death, and on the advice of the Privy Council handed the treasurer's staff of office to Whig grandee Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury.Anne died around 7:30 a.m. on 1 August 1714. John Arbuthnot, one of her doctors, thought her death was a release from a life of ill-health and tragedy; he wrote to Jonathan Swift, \"I believe sleep was never more welcome to a weary traveller than death was to her.\" She was buried beside her husband and children in the Henry VII Chapel on the South Aisle of Westminster Abbey on 24 August.\n\n\n=== Succession ===\nThe Electress Sophia had died on 28 May, two months before Anne, so the Electress's son, George, Elector of Hanover, succeeded pursuant to the Act of Settlement 1701. The possible Catholic claimants, including Anne's half-brother, James Francis Edward Stuart, were ignored. The Elector's accession was relatively stable: a Jacobite rising in 1715 failed. Marlborough was re-instated, and the Tory ministers were replaced by Whigs.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nThe Duchess of Marlborough \"unduly disparaged\" Anne in her memoirs, and her prejudiced recollections persuaded many early biographers that Anne was \"a weak, irresolute woman beset by bedchamber quarrels and deciding high policy on the basis of personalities\". The Duchess wrote of Anne:\n\nShe certainly meant well and was not a fool, but nobody can maintain that she was wise, nor entertaining in conversation. She was ignorant in everything but what the parsons had taught her when a child ... Being very ignorant, very fearful, with very little judgement, it is easy to be seen she might mean well, being surrounded with so many artful people, who at last compassed their designs to her dishonour.\n\nHistorians have since viewed Anne more favourably. In his biography of 1980, Edward Gregg presents the Queen as a woman of invincible stubbornness, who was the central figure of her age. Gregg's argument depicts her reign as: \n\na period of significant progress for the country: Britain became a major military power on land, the union of England and Scotland created a united kingdom of Great Britain, and the economic and political base for the golden age of the 18th century was established. However, the Queen herself has received little credit for these achievements and has long been depicted as a weak and ineffectual monarch, dominated by her advisers.\nIn the opinion of modern historians, traditional assessments of Anne as fat, constantly pregnant, under the influence of favourites, and lacking political astuteness or interest may derive from sexist prejudices against women. Author David Green noted, \"Hers was not, as used to be supposed, petticoat government. She had considerable power; yet time and time again she had to capitulate.\" Gregg concluded that Anne was often able to impose her will, even though, as a woman in an age of male dominance and preoccupied by her health, her reign was marked by an increase in the influence of ministers and a decrease in the influence of the Crown. She attended more cabinet meetings than any of her predecessors or successors, and presided over an age of artistic, literary, scientific, economic and political advancement that was made possible by the stability and prosperity of her reign. In architecture, Sir John Vanbrugh constructed Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard. Queen Anne-style architecture and Queen Anne-style furniture were named after her. Writers such as Daniel Defoe, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift flourished. Henry Wise laid out new gardens at Blenheim, Kensington, Windsor and St James's. The union of England and Scotland, which Anne had fervently supported, created Europe's largest free trade area. The political and diplomatic achievements of Anne's governments, and the absence of constitutional conflict between monarch and parliament during her reign, indicate that she chose ministers and exercised her prerogatives wisely.\n\n\n== Titles, styles, honours and arms ==\n\n\n=== Titles and styles ===\n6 February 1665 – 28 July 1683: Her Highness The Lady Anne\n28 July 1683 – 8 March 1702: Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne of Denmark\n8 March 1702 – 1 August 1714: Her Majesty The QueenThe official style of Anne before 1707 was \"Anne, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.\" After the union, her style was \"Anne, by the Grace of God, Queen of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.\" In line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1800, Anne was styled \"Queen of France\", but did not actually reign in France.\n\n\n=== Arms ===\nAs queen regnant, Anne's coat of arms before the union were the Stuart royal arms, in use since 1603: Quarterly; I and IV grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In 1702, Anne adopted the motto semper eadem (\"always the same\"), the same motto used by Queen Elizabeth I.\nThe Acts of Union declared that: \"the Ensigns Armorial of the said United Kingdom be such as Her Majesty shall appoint\". In 1707, the union was heraldically expressed by the impalement, or placing side by side in the same quarter, of the arms of England and Scotland, which had previously been in different quarters. The new arms were: Quarterly; I and IV, Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England) impaling Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II, Azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, a separate form of arms was used on seals until the Act of Union.\n\n\n== Pregnancies and issue ==\nAnne had seventeen pregnancies, of which five were live births. None of her children survived to adulthood.\n\n\n== Genealogical table ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nEarly-18th-century Whig plots\nQueen Anne's Bounty, 1704 financial scheme in support of poorer clergy\nQueen Anne's Revenge, 18th-century pirate ship\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\nChester, Joseph Lemuel, ed. (1876), The Marriage, Baptismal, and Burial Registers of the Collegiate Church or Abbey of St. Peter, Westminster, London: Harleian Society\nCurtis, Gil (1972), The Life and Times of Queen Anne, introduced by Antonia Fraser, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-99571-5\nGreen, David (1970), Queen Anne, London: Collins, ISBN 0-00-211693-6\nGregg, Edward (2001), Queen Anne (2nd ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-09024-2\nKendall, K. Limakatso (1991), Schofield, Mary Anne; Macheski, Cecilia (eds.), \"Finding the Good Parts: Sexuality in Women's Tragedies in the Time of Queen Anne\", Curtain Calls: British and American Women and the Theatre, 1660–1820, Athens: Ohio University Press, ISBN 0-8214-0957-3\nLouda, Jiří; Maclagan, Michael (1999) [1981]. Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe (2nd ed.). London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-84820-6.\nLuttrell, Narcissus (1857), A Brief Historical Relation of State Affairs from September 1678 to April 1714, Oxford: University Press\nNenner, Howard (1998), The Right to be King: the Succession to the Crown of England, 1603–1714, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-57724-8\nPinches, John Harvey; Pinches, Rosemary (1974), \"The Royal Heraldry of England\", Heraldry Today, Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press, ISBN 0-900455-25-X\nSomerset, Anne (2012), Queen Anne: The Politics of Passion, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-00-720376-5\nTraub, Valerie (2002), The Renaissance of Lesbianism in Early Modern England, Cambridge: University Press, ISBN 0-521-44427-6\nWaller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2\nWard, Adolphus W., ed. (1908), The Age of Louis XIV, The Cambridge Modern History, V, Cambridge: University Press\nWard, Adolphus W. (1885). \"Anne (1665–1714)\" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 1. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 441–474.\nWeir, Alison (1995), Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy, Revised Edition, London: Random House, ISBN 0-7126-7448-9\nYorke, Philip Chesney (1911). \"Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. II (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–68.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nBucholz, Robert O. \"'Nothing but ceremony': Queen Anne and the limitations of royal ritual.\" Journal of British Studies 30.3 (1991): 288–323.\nHarris, Frances. \"'The Honourable Sisterhood': Queen Anne's Maids of Honour\" British Library Journal 19#2 (1993) pp. 181–198 online\nVan Hensbergen, Claudine. \"Carving a Legacy: Public Sculpture of Queen Anne, c. 1704‐1712.\" Journal for Eighteenth‐Century Studies 37.2 (2014): 229–244 online.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nPortraits of Queen Anne at the National Portrait Gallery, London", "Cody Votolato (born 20 May 1982) is a musician from Redmond, Washington, best known for being the guitarist in the post-hardcore band The Blood Brothers. He grew up in the eastside suburbs of Seattle. Cody attended Redmond High School with his bandmates in the late 1990s when the band originally formed, graduating Spring of 2000. His accomplished thrashy and discordant style, exhibited in early Blood Brothers albums and in Head Wound City, has evolved into a more melodic and experimental sound in recent years [1]. Votolato's older brother Rocky Votolato is a folk musician and solo artist who played in the band Waxwing with his brother, as well as with Rudy Gajadhar, the older brother of The Blood Brothers' drummer Mark Gajadhar. Votolato also contributed artwork to The Blood Brothers' album ...Burn, Piano Island, Burn. On 4 September 2012, it was announced that Cody has joined Cold Cave as touring guitarist.\n\n\n== Bands ==\nCold Cave\nTelekinesis\nThe Blood Brothers\nHead Wound City - a side project involving Jordan Blilie from The Blood Brothers as well as Justin Pearson and Gabe Serbian of The Locust and Nick Zinner of Yeah Yeah Yeahs\nJaguar Love - a collaboration with Johnny Whitney from The Blood Brothers and J. Clark of Pretty Girls Make Graves\nWaxwing - a now-defunct Post-Hardcore Band with his brother, solo artist Rocky Votolato on Vocals.\n\n\n== References ==", "Los Debutantes (English: The Debutantes) is a 2003 Chilean film directed by Andres Waissbluth and starring Antonella Rios and Alejandro Trejo.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nIt tells the story of two brothers from a small town, played by Nestor Cantillana and Juan Pablo Miranda, who move to Santiago and visit a nightclub to celebrate the younger brother's 17th birthday. The older brother is subsequently offered a job by the club owner Don Pascual (played by Alejandro Trejo), and both brothers become friendly with Gracia, a dancer at the club who has dreams of becoming a singer (played by Antonella Rios). The story is told in Rashomon style from three different perspectives: firstly from the perspective of the younger brother, secondly from the perspective of the older brother, and finally from the perspective of Gracia.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nThe film was the Chilean submission for the 76th Academy Awards in the category Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film which took place in 2004, but was not one of the five nominated films. It was also nominated for the Goya Awards.\n\n\n== Release ==\n\n\n=== Home media ===\nThe film was released on DVD in the UK in 2005, and received a mildly critical review in Time Out.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nLos Debutantes at IMDb", "Ailes Gilmour (January 27, 1912 – April 16, 1993) was a Japanese American dancer who was one of the young pioneers of the American Modern Dance movement of the 1930s. She was one of the first members of Martha Graham's dance company. Gilmour's older half-brother was sculptor Isamu Noguchi.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nGilmour was born in 1912 in Yokohama, Japan. Her father was unknown. Her mother, Léonie Gilmour, attended Bryn Mawr College and studied at the Sorbonne in Paris, then moved to New York City in the early 1900s to try to establish herself as a writer. In 1907, Léonie traveled to Japan at the behest of Yone Noguchi, the father of Ailes' older half-brother, Isamu, who had been born in 1904. However, by the time Léonie arrived in Tokyo, Yone was involved with a Japanese woman who had already borne the first of their nine children. Léonie's circumstances in Japan were always precarious. Nevertheless, she chose to stay there, teaching to support herself and Isamu, while continuing to edit Yone's writing. When Ailes was born, Léonie chose the name Ailes for her daughter from a poem Beauty's a Flower by Moira O'Neill, the pseudonym of Agnes Shakespeare Higginson. It is a striking coincidence that the words in that poem seemed to predict Ailes' career as a dancer. O'Neill wrote, \"Ailes was a girl that stepped on two bare feet...\" Léonie, Isamu and Ailes lived together in Japan until 1918, when Léonie sent Isamu back to the United States to attend a progressive school in Indiana.\nYoung Ailes grew up in a Japanese style house that Léonie had constructed in Chigasaki, a seaside town near Yokohama. Ailes had close Japanese childhood friends, spoke Japanese as well as English and identified with Japan before she returned to the United States in 1920, at age 8. When Ailes and her mother returned to America, they lived first in San Francisco and then moved to New York City. Léonie was a great believer in progressive education and sent Ailes to the Ethical Culture Society elementary school, founded in 1876 by Felix Adler. Léonie herself had attended the predecessor to the Ethical Culture Society elementary school when it was called the Workingman's School. For high school, Léonie chose the Cherry Lawn School in Connecticut for her daughter. It was a boarding school that was known for its progressive, coeducational program. The director and founder of the school was Dr. Fred Goldfrank, who was related to one of the founders of the Ethical Culture Society. Ailes greatly enjoyed her time there and formed several friendships that she maintained for the rest of her life.\nIn 1928, Gilmour was the literary editor of The Cherry Pit, the Cherry Lawn's student magazine. After she graduated from high school in 1929, she went on to the Neighborhood Playhouse to study dance and performing arts as a scholarship student. There she met the young Martha Graham and joined her new professional dance troupe. Gilmour told Marion Horosko that she introduced Graham to her half-brother, Noguchi, in 1929. Graham had a bust made of herself in bronze.\n\n\n== Career ==\nDuring the Depression Era, dancers like Gilmour and artists like Noguchi struggled to find work. In 1932, when Radio City Music Hall opened, Gilmour performed at the debut with Graham's company. Their work, Choric Patterns, lasted on stage for just one week. Gilmour ruefully observed to Marion Horosko that Radio City Music Hall could succeed only when it became a movie theater with Rockettes.\nIn the 1930s, Gilmour appeared on dance programs with dancer-choreographer Bill Matons. Matons was the director of the \"experimental unit\" of the New Dance League, which evolved from the Workers Dance League between 1931 and 1935. Bill Matons was to later become General Hershy Bar, an anti-war street theater character and publisher. Among the group's later-to-become-famous members were male dancer-choreographers like José Limón and Charles Weidman. In 1937, Ailes and Matons performed in a Works Progress Administration (WPA) recital at the Brooklyn Museum. In 1939, they were in Adelante, a WPA-sponsored Broadway musical. Also in 1937, Matons did the choreography for the Lenin Peace pageant at Madison Square Garden.\nIn 1948, Gilmour married anthropologist Herbert J. Spinden. They had a son, Joseph.On April 16, 1993, Gilmour died in Santa Fe, New Mexico at the age of eighty-one.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nNoguchi, Isamu. A Sculptor's World. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.", "Christopher Kennedy Masterson (born January 22, 1980) is an American actor and disc jockey known best for his role as Malcolm's eldest brother Francis on Malcolm in the Middle. He is the younger brother of Danny Masterson, and the older half-brother of Alanna Masterson and Jordan Masterson.\n\n\n== Career ==\nMasterson played Geoff in the direct-to-video movie Dragonheart: A New Beginning, the sequel to Dragonheart. Masterson is best known for playing the character of the trouble-making eldest brother Francis in the sitcom Malcolm in the Middle. He took on the role for seven years, from 2000 to 2006. In 2003 he played Edward Linton in MTV's Wuthering Heights. Masterson portrayed a lead character in the films Scary Movie 2, Waterborne, Made for Each Other and Intellectual Property. He guest starred in three episodes of That '70s Show, alongside his brother, Danny. In the USA Network television series White Collar, he played Josh Roland in the episode \"Where There's a Will\". He also played Scotty O'Neal in the movie My Best Friend's Wedding. In 2012, Masterson had a guest role on the TBS series Men at Work as a concierge named Archie. His brother, Danny Masterson, plays Milo on the show, but the two did not share any scenes together.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nMasterson was born on Long Island, New York, the son of Carol Masterson, a manager, and Peter Masterson, an insurance agent. Masterson, like his brother Danny Masterson, is a follower of Scientology. The two have invested in restaurants together. He also has a half-sister, actress Alanna Masterson, and a half-brother, actor Jordan Masterson. Masterson was in a relationship with his brother's That ‘70s Show co-star Laura Prepon from 1999 to 2007.On June 25, 2019, he married actress Yolanda Pecoraro. In 2021, she gave birth to a daughter.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nChristopher Masterson at IMDb\n\"Chris Masterson on Life after 'Malcolm in the Middle'\". Interview at adrinkwith.com. Retrieved June 6, 2016.", "Thomas Fane, 6th Earl of Westmorland (3 October 1681 – 4 June 1736), styled The Honourable Thomas Fane from 1691 to 1699, was a British peer and member of the House of Lords. He was the third son (second surviving son) of Vere Fane, 4th Earl of Westmorland and his wife Rachel Bence; as well as the younger brother of Vere Fane, and the older brother of John Fane, 7th Earl of Westmorland. As his older brother Vere died without issue in 1699, Thomas Fane inherited the Earldom of Westmorland, as well as his brother's further titles Baron Burghersh and Lord le Despencer.\nFane held many offices, including that of Deputy Warden of the Cinque Ports between 1705 and 1708, First Lord of Trade between 1719 and 1735 and Lord-Lieutenant of Northamptonshire in 1735. Furthermore, he was Gentleman of the Bedchamber to Queen Anne's husband, Prince George of Denmark, on 25 April 1704, and Lord of the Bedchamber to King George I in 1715. In 1717, he was invested as a Privy Counsellor.Fane married Catherine Stringer, daughter of Thomas Stringer in 1707, and they were married until she died on 4 February 1730. Fane himself died on 4 June 1736 without any issue, and was succeeded as 7th Earl of Westmorland, 7th Baron Burhersh and 10th Lord le Despencer by his younger brother, general John Fane.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Literature ==", "Isamu Noguchi (野口 勇, Noguchi Isamu, November 17, 1904 – December 30, 1988) was a Japanese-American artist and landscape architect whose artistic career spanned six decades, from the 1920s onward. Known for his sculpture and public artworks, Noguchi also designed stage sets for various Martha Graham productions, and several mass-produced lamps and furniture pieces, some of which are still manufactured and sold.\nIn 1947, Noguchi began a collaboration with the Herman Miller company, when he joined with George Nelson, Paul László and Charles Eames to produce a catalog containing what is often considered to be the most influential body of modern furniture ever produced, including the iconic Noguchi table which remains in production today. His work lives on around the world and at the Noguchi Museum in New York City.\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\n\n=== Early life (1904–1922) ===\nIsamu Noguchi was born in Los Angeles, the son of Yone Noguchi, a Japanese poet who was acclaimed in the United States, and Léonie Gilmour, an American writer who edited much of Noguchi's work.\nYone had ended his relationship with Gilmour earlier that year and planned to marry The Washington Post reporter Ethel Armes. After proposing to Armes, Yone left for Japan in late August, settling in Tokyo and awaiting her arrival; their engagement fell through months later when she learned of Léonie and her newborn son.\nIn 1906, Yone invited Léonie to come to Tokyo with their son. She at first refused, but growing anti-Japanese sentiment following the Russo-Japanese War eventually convinced her to take up Yone's offer. The two departed from San Francisco in March 1907, arriving in Yokohama to meet Yone. Upon arrival, their son was finally given the name Isamu (勇, \"courage\"). However, Yone had married a Japanese woman by the time they arrived, and was mostly absent from his son's childhood. After again separating from Yone, Léonie and Isamu moved several times throughout Japan.\nIn 1912, while the two were living in Chigasaki, Isamu's half-sister, pioneer of the American Modern Dance movement Ailes Gilmour, was born to Léonie and an unknown Japanese father. Here, Léonie had a house built for the three of them, a project that she had the 8-year-old Isamu \"oversee\". Nurturing her son's artistic ability, she put him in charge of their garden and apprenticed him to a local carpenter. However, they moved once again in December 1917 to an English-speaking community in Yokohama.\nIn 1918, Noguchi was sent back to the U.S. for schooling in Rolling Prairie, Indiana. After graduation, he left with Dr. Edward Rumely to LaPorte, where he found boarding with a Swedenborgian pastor, Samuel Mack. Noguchi began attending La Porte High School, graduating in 1922. During this period of his life, he was known by the name \"Sam Gilmour\".\n\n\n=== Early artistic career (1922–1927) ===\nAfter high school, Noguchi explained his desire to become an artist to Rumely; though he preferred that Noguchi become a doctor, he acknowledged Noguchi's request and sent him to Connecticut to work as an apprentice to his friend Gutzon Borglum. Best known as the creator of Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Borglum was at the time working on the group called Wars of America for the city of Newark, New Jersey, a piece that includes forty-two figures and two equestrian sculptures. As one of Borglum's apprentices, Noguchi received little training as a sculptor; his tasks included arranging the horses and modeling for the monument as General Sherman. He did, however, pick up some skills in casting from Borglum's Italian assistants, later fashioning a bust of Abraham Lincoln. At summer's end, Borglum told Noguchi that he would never become a sculptor, prompting him to reconsider Rumely's prior suggestion.He then traveled to New York City, reuniting with the Rumely family at their new residence, and with Dr. Rumely's financial aid enrolled in February 1922 as a premedical student at Columbia University. Soon after, he met the bacteriologist Hideyo Noguchi, who urged him to reconsider art, as well as the Japanese dancer Michio Itō, whose celebrity status later helped Noguchi find acquaintances in the art world. Another influence was his mother, who in 1923 moved from Japan to California, then later to New York.\nIn 1924, while still enrolled at Columbia, Noguchi followed his mother's advice to take night classes at the Leonardo da Vinci Art School. The school's head, Onorio Ruotolo, was immediately impressed by Noguchi's work. Only three months later, Noguchi held his first exhibit, a selection of plaster and terracotta works. He soon dropped out of Columbia University to pursue sculpture full-time, changing his name from Gilmour (the surname he had used for years) to Noguchi.\nAfter moving into his own studio, Noguchi found work through commissions for portrait busts, he won the Logan Medal of the Arts. During this time, he frequented avant garde shows at the galleries of such modernists as Alfred Stieglitz and J. B. Neuman, and took a particular interest in a show of the works of Romanian-born sculptor Constantin Brâncuși.In late 1926, Noguchi applied for a Guggenheim Fellowship. In his letter of application, he proposed to study stone and wood cutting and to gain \"a better understanding of the human figure\" in Paris for a year, then spend another year traveling through Asia, exhibit his work, and return to New York. He was awarded the grant despite being three years short of the age requirement.\n\n\n=== Early travels (1927–1937) ===\nNoguchi arrived in Paris in April 1927 and soon afterward met the American author Robert McAlmon, who brought him to Constantin Brâncuși's studio for an introduction. Despite a language barrier between the two artists (Noguchi barely spoke French, and Brâncuși did not speak English), Noguchi was taken in as Brâncuși's assistant for the next seven months. During this time, Noguchi gained his footing in stone sculpture, a medium with which he was unacquainted, though he would later admit that one of Brâncuși's greatest teachings was to appreciate \"the value of the moment\". Meanwhile, Noguchi found himself in good company in France, with letters of introduction from Michio Itō helping him to meet such artists as Jules Pascin and Alexander Calder, who lived in the studio of Arno Breker. They became friends and Breker did a bronze bust of Noguchi.\nNoguchi only produced one sculpture – his marble Sphere Section – in his first year, but during his second year he stayed in Paris and continued his training in stoneworking with the Italian sculptor Mateo Hernandes, producing over twenty more abstractions of wood, stone and sheet metal. Noguchi's next major destination was to be India, from which he would travel east; he arrived in London to read up on Oriental Sculpture, but was denied the extension to the Guggenheim Fellowship he needed.\nIn February 1929, he left for New York City. Brâncuși had recommended that Noguchi visit Romany Marie's café in Greenwich Village. Noguchi did so and there met Buckminster Fuller, with whom he collaborated on several projects, including the modeling of Fuller's Dymaxion car.Upon his return, Noguchi's abstract sculptures made in Paris were exhibited in his first one-man show at the Eugene Schoen Gallery. After none of his works sold, Noguchi altogether abandoned abstract art for portrait busts in order to support himself. He soon found himself accepting commissions from wealthy and celebrity clients. A 1930 exhibit of several busts, including those of Martha Graham and Buckminster Fuller, garnered positive reviews, and after less than a year of portrait sculpture, Noguchi had earned enough money to continue his trip to Asia.\nNoguchi left for Paris in April 1930, and two months later received his visa to ride the Trans-Siberian Railway. He opted to visit Japan first rather than India, but after learning that his father Yone did not want his son to visit using his surname, a shaken Noguchi instead departed for Beijing. In China, he studied brush painting with Qi Baishi, staying for six months before finally sailing for Japan. Even before his arrival in Kobe, Japanese newspapers had picked up on Noguchi's supposed reunion with his father; though he denied that this was the reason for his visit, the two did meet in Tokyo. He later arrived in Kyoto to study pottery with Uno Jinmatsu. Here he took note of local Zen gardens and haniwa, clay funerary figures of the Kofun period which inspired his terracotta The Queen.\nNoguchi returned to New York amidst the Great Depression, finding few clients for his portrait busts. Instead, he hoped to sell his newly produced sculptures and brush paintings from Asia. Though very few sold, Noguchi regarded this one-man exhibition (which began in February 1932 and toured Chicago, the west coast, and Honolulu) as his \"most successful\". Additionally, his next attempt to break into abstract art, a large streamlined figure of dancer Ruth Page entitled Miss Expanding Universe, was poorly received. In January 1933 he worked in Chicago with Santiago Martínez Delgado on a mural for Chicago's Century of Progress Exposition, then again found a business for his portrait busts; he moved to London in June hoping to find more work, but returned in December just before his mother Leonie's death.\nBeginning in February 1934, Noguchi began submitting his first designs for public spaces and monuments to the Public Works of Art Program. One such design, a monument to Benjamin Franklin, remained unrealized for decades. Another design, a gigantic pyramidal earthwork entitled Monument to the American Plow, was similarly rejected, and his \"sculptural landscape\" of a playground, Play Mountain, was personally rejected by Parks Commissioner Robert Moses. He was eventually dropped from the program, and again supported himself by sculpting portrait busts. In early 1935, after another solo exhibition, the New York Sun's Henry McBride labeled Noguchi's Death, depicting a lynched African-American, as \"a little Japanese mistake\". That same year he produced the set for Frontier, the first of many set designs for Martha Graham.\nAfter the Federal Art Project started up, Noguchi again put forth designs, one of which was another earthwork chosen for the New York City airport entitled Relief Seen from the Sky; following further rejection, Noguchi left for Hollywood, where he again worked as a portrait sculptor to earn money for a sojourn in Mexico. Here, Noguchi was chosen to design his first public work, a relief mural for the Abelardo Rodriguez market in Mexico City. The 20-meter-long History as Seen from Mexico in 1936 was hugely political and socially conscious, featuring such modern symbols as the Nazi swastika, a hammer and sickle, and the equation E = mc². Noguchi also met Frida Kahlo during this time and had a brief but passionate affair with her; they remained friends until her death.\n\n\n=== Further career in the United States (1937–1948) ===\nNoguchi returned to New York in 1937. He designed the Zenith Radio Nurse, the iconic original baby monitor now held in many museum collections. The Radio Nurse was Noguchi's first major design commission and he called it \"my only strictly industrial design\".He again began to turn out portrait busts, and after various proposals was selected for two sculptures. The first of these, a fountain built of automobile parts for the Ford Motor Company's exhibit at the 1939 New York World's Fair, was thought of poorly by critics and Noguchi alike but nevertheless introduced him to fountain-construction and magnesite. Conversely, his second sculpture, a nine-ton stainless steel bas-relief entitled News, was unveiled over the entrance to the Associated Press building at the Rockefeller Center in April 1940 to much praise. Following further rejections of his playground designs, Noguchi left on a cross-country road trip with Arshile Gorky and Gorky's fiancée in July 1941, eventually separating from them to go to Hollywood.\nFollowing the attack on Pearl Harbor, anti-Japanese sentiment was energized in the United States, and in response Noguchi formed \"Nisei Writers and Artists for Democracy\". Noguchi and other group leaders wrote to influential officials, including the congressional committee headed by Representative John H. Tolan, hoping to halt the internment of Japanese Americans; Noguchi later attended the hearings but had little effect on their outcome. He later helped organize a documentary of the internment, but left California before its release; as a legal resident of New York, he was allowed to return home. He hoped to prove Japanese-American loyalty by somehow helping the war effort, but when other governmental departments turned him down, Noguchi met with John Collier, head of the Office of Indian Affairs, who persuaded him to travel to the internment camp located on an Indian reservation in Poston, Arizona, to promote arts and crafts and community.Noguchi arrived at the Poston camp in May 1942, becoming its only voluntary internee. Noguchi first worked in a carpentry shop, but his hope was to design parks and recreational areas within the camp. Although he created several plans at Poston, among them designs for baseball fields, swimming pools, and a cemetery, he found that the War Relocation Authority had no intention of implementing them. To the WRA camp administrators he was a troublesome interloper from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and to the internees he was an agent of the camp administration. Many did not trust him and saw him as a spy. He had found nothing in common with the Nisei, who regarded him as a strange outsider. In June, Noguchi applied for release, but intelligence officers labeled him as a \"suspicious person\" due to his involvement in \"Nisei Writers and Artists for Democracy\". He was finally granted a month-long furlough on November 12, but never returned; though he was granted a permanent leave afterward, he soon afterward received a deportation order. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, accusing him of espionage, launched into a full investigation of Noguchi which ended only through the American Civil Liberties Union's intervention. Noguchi would later retell his wartime experiences in the British World War II documentary series The World at War.\nUpon his return to New York, Noguchi took a new studio in Greenwich Village. Throughout the 1940s, Noguchi's sculpture drew from the ongoing surrealist movement; these works include not only various mixed-media constructions and landscape reliefs, but lunars – self-illuminating reliefs – and a series of biomorphic sculptures made of interlocking slabs. The most famous of these assembled-slab works, Kouros, was first shown in a September 1946 exhibition, helping to cement his place in the New York art scene.In 1947 he began a relationship with Herman Miller of Zeeland, Michigan. This relationship was to prove very fruitful, resulting in several designs that have become symbols of the modernist style, including the iconic Noguchi table, which remains in production today. Noguchi also developed a relationship with Knoll, designing furniture and lamps. During this period he continued his involvement with theater, designing sets for Martha Graham's Appalachian Spring and John Cage and Merce Cunningham's production of The Seasons. Near the end of his time in New York, he also found more work designing public spaces, including a commission for the ceilings of the Time-Life headquarters. In March 1949, Noguchi had his first one-person show in New York since 1935 at the Charles Egan Gallery. In September 2003, The Pace Gallery held an exhibition of Noguchi's work at their 57th Street gallery. The exhibition, entitled 33 MacDougal Alley: The Interlocking Sculpture of Isamu Noguchi, featured eleven of the artist’s interlocking sculptures. This was the first exhibition to illustrate the historical significance of the relationship between MacDougal Alley and Isamu Noguchi’s sculptural work.\n\n\n=== Bollingen Fellowship and life in Japan (1948–1952) ===\nFollowing the suicide of his friend Arshile Gorky in 1948 and a failed romantic relationship with Nayantara Pandit, the niece of Indian nationalist Jawaharlal Nehru, Noguchi applied for a Bollingen Fellowship to travel the world, proposing to study public space as research for a book about the \"environment of leisure\".\n\n\n=== Later years (1952–1988) ===\nIn the ensuing years he gained in prominence and acclaim, leaving his large-scale works in many of the world's major cities. He was briefly married to the ethnic-Japanese icon of Chinese song and cinema Yoshiko Yamaguchi between 1951 and 1956.In 1955, he designed the sets and costumes for a controversial theatre production of King Lear starring John Gielgud.In 1962, he was elected to membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters.In 1971, he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.In 1986, he represented the United States at the Venice Biennale, showing a number of his Akari light sculptures.In 1987, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts.\nIsamu Noguchi died on December 30, 1988 at the age of 84. In its obituary for Noguchi, The New York Times called him \"a versatile and prolific sculptor whose earthy stones and meditative gardens bridging East and West have become landmarks of 20th-century art\".\n\n\n== Notable works ==\n\nJapanese Garden at UNESCO Headquarters, Paris, France\nA bridge in Peace Park, Hiroshima, Japan\nKodomo no Kuni, a children's playground in Yokohama, Japan\nBayfront Park, 1980–1990, Miami, Florida\nIntetra (1976), Society of the Four Arts, Palm Beach, Florida\nSunken Garden for Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut\nSunken Garden for Chase Manhattan Bank Plaza in New York City\nGardens for the IBM headquarters, Armonk, New York\nBilly Rose Sculpture Garden, Israel Museum, Jerusalem\nPlayscapes, a children's playground in Atlanta, Georgia\nBust of Martha Graham, Honolulu Museum of Art, Honolulu, Hawaii\nTsuneko-san (1931), Honolulu Museum of Art\nLunar Landscape (1943–44), Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art\nSculpture for First National City Bank Building, Fort Worth, Texas\nFloor Frame (1962), The White House Rose Garden, Washington, D.C.\nThe Cry (1962), Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York\nRed Cube (1968), HSBC Building, New York City\nOctetra (1968), Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art. It was first located near Spoleto Cathedral It is an abstract painted concrete sculpture.\nUntitled Red (1965–66), Honolulu Museum of Art\ngarden fountain for Expo '70, Osaka, Japan\nTwin Sculpture (1972), Munich, Germany\nSky Gate (1977), Honolulu Hale, Honolulu, Hawaii\nPortal, Justice Center Complex, Cleveland, Ohio.\nDodge Fountain and Philip A. Hart Plaza in Detroit, Michigan (created in collaboration with Shoji Sadao)\nSky Viewing Sculpture (1969), Western Washington University Public Sculpture Collection, Bellingham, Washington\nBlack Sun (1969), Volunteer Park, Seattle, Washington\nUntitled (1981), obsidian and wood sculpture, Honolulu Museum of Art\nNoguchi Garden: California Scenario and Spirit of the Lima Bean (1980–1982), Costa Mesa, California\nBolt of Lightning...A Memorial to Benjamin Franklin (conceived 1933, installed 1984), Franklin Square, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\nLandscape of the Cloud, in the lobby of 666 Fifth Avenue, New York City\nThe Lillie and Hugh Roy Cullen Sculpture Garden (1986) for the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas\nMoerenuma Park, Sapporo, Japan\nStudies for the Sun, The Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection, Albany, NYHis final project was the design for Moerenuma Park, a 400-acre (1.6 km²) park for Sapporo, Japan. Designed in 1988 shortly before his death, it was completed and opened to the public in 2004.\n\n\n== Gallery ==\n\n\n== Honors ==\nNoguchi received the Edward MacDowell Medal for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to the Arts in 1982; the National Medal of Arts in 1987; and the Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Japanese government in 1988.In 2004, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 37-cent stamp honoring Noguchi.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\n\nThe Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum is devoted to the preservation, documentation, presentation, and interpretation of the work of Isamu Noguchi. It is supported by a variety of public and private funding bodies. The US copyright representative for the Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum is the Artists Rights Society. In 2012, it was announced that, in order to reduce liability, Noguchi's catalogue raisonné would be published as an online-only, ever-modifiable work-in-progress.Exhibition\nM+ [1] in partnership with the Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum organised an exhibition of Isamu Noguchi and Danh Vō. Noguchi for Danh Vo: Counterpoint(Nov 16, 2018 - April 22, 2019) The exhibition take place in the M+ Pavilion, Hong Kong.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nWabi-sabi\nJapanese in New York City\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\nNoguchi, Isamu (1968). A Sculptor's World. Harper & Row.\nDuus, Masayo; translated by Duus, Peter (2004). The life of Isamu Noguchi: journey without borders. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12096-X.\nKuh, Katherine (1962). The Artist's Voice: Talks with Seventeen Artists. Harper & Row.\nMarika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. p. 254–257\nMarika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6. p. 39; p. 270–273\nLifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts.\nKenjiro Okazaki, A Place to Bury Names（about Isamu Noguchi and Shirai Seiichi）\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nAltshuler, Bruce (1995). Isamu Noguchi (Modern Masters). Abbeville Press, Inc. ISBN 1-55859-755-7.\nAshton, Dore; Hare, Denise Brown (1993). Noguchi East and West. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08340-7.\nCort, Louise Allison, Bert Winther-Tamaki. Isamu Noguchi and modern Japanese ceramics: a close embrace of the earth. Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.\nHerrera, Hayden. Listening To Stone: The Art and Life of Isamu Noguchi. Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux. New York. 2015.\nLyford, Amy. Isamu Noguchi's Modernism: Negotiating Race, Labor, and Nation, 1930–1950 (University of California Press; 2013) 288 pages\nNoguchi, Isamu et al. (1986). Space of Akari and Stone. Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-87701-405-1.\nPina, Leslie (1998). Classic Herman Miller. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing. ISBN 0-7643-0471-2.\nTorres, Ana Maria; Williams, Tod (2000). Isamu Noguchi: A Study of Space. The Monticelli Press. ISBN 1-58093-054-9.\nWinther-Tamaki, Bert. Art in the encounter of nations: Japanese and American artists in the early postwar years. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2001.\nWeilacher, Udo: \"Isamu Noguchi: Space as Sculpture.\" in: Weilacher, Udo (1999): Between Landscape Architecture and Land Art. Birkhauser Publisher. ISBN 3-7643-6119-0.\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Noguchi Museum\nThe Pace Gallery\nNoguchi's Indiana experience\nNoguchi's California Scenario (LandLiving.com)\nMoerenuma Park (LandLiving.com)\nArtists Rights Society, Noguchi's U.S. Copyright Representatives\n\"Noguchi – The Man Who Entered Stone\", BigBridge Press, 1999; a biography in poem\n\"Isamu Noguchi 'Radio Nurse' Baby Monitor (Archive)\". Furniture. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on December 23, 2012.\nDrawings by Isamu Noguchi from the University of Michigan Museum of Art", "Emil Leeb (17 June 1881 – 8 September 1969) was a German general during World War II. A professional soldier, he saw active service during both World Wars. Leeb's older brother was Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb.\n\n\n== First World War ==\nLeeb entered Army service on 7 July 1901. He attended the War School in Munich, the Bavarian Artillery & Engineer School, and then the Bavarian War Academy. Before and during World War I, Leeb served as an adjutant in artillery units and then was appointed a General Staff officer. Leeb was promoted to captain on 1 June 1915. In June 1917, he was transferred to the General staff in the XVth Royal Bavarian Reserve Corps and an infantry division. Leeb participated in battles around Lorraine, Northern France, Galicia, the Carpathian Mountains, Flanders and the German withdrawal from Northern France. Leeb's older brother, Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, had the knightly rank of \"Ritter\" and the nobiliary particle of \"von\", not by birth, but thanks to the conferment of the Bavarian Military Order of Max Joseph and a patent of nobility. Hence, the older brother had \"von\" between his names, but the younger brother did not.\n\n\n== Interwar period ==\nRemaining in the downsized Reichswehr after the end of the war in November 1918, during 1919 Leeb served as a staff officer with the 4th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment, the Detachment Hierl (Freikorps), the 24th Reichswehr Brigade, Niederwerfung des Spartacus Aufstandes in Bavaria, before a posting to the German War Ministry (1 October 1919 – 1 October 1921), an artillery regiment (1 October 1921 – 1 October 1924), and the War Academy (7th Division) in Munich (1924 - 1 October 1928). He was promoted to Major on 1 February 1925. Between 1929 and 1933, Leeb served as commander of the Mountain Transport and Observation Squadron in Landsberg. He became a supply officer (Provision Matters) in the War Ministry (1 April 1933 – 1 April 1936), before promotion to Generalmajor on 1 July 1935, and later was given command of the 15th Infantry Division (1 April 1936 – 1 April 1939) at Frankfurt-am-Main. After promotion to Generalleutnant in early 1937, he became Commanding General of the XI Army Corps (1 April 1939 – 16 April 1940) in Hanover, where he was responsible for recruiting, training, and mobilization. During this period he was promoted to General of the Artillery (1 April 1939) and also became commander of Military District XI (1 April 1939 – 31 August 1939).\n\n\n== Second World War ==\nLeeb took part in the invasion of Poland, with his XI Corps attacking towards Warsaw. He initially reported to Walther von Reichenau of the 10th Army, before his unit formed the left wing of Reichenau's drive towards Łódź. Later, his unit was transferred to Johannes Blaskowitz's 8th Army in its attack from the east-central region of Germany into west-central Poland, before sweeping on towards Warsaw. On 15 April 1940, Leeb became Chief of the Waffenamt (Army Ordnance Weapons Depot) at the War Ministry in Berlin (15 April 1940 – 1 January 1945). His predecessor, Karl Becker, had committed suicide because he was unable to properly supply the field units with ammunition. During this period, Leeb also served as an advisor to the Works Company for Weapons and Mechanical Engineering, which was directed by Hermann Göring in Berlin (17 January 1941 – 29 December 1942), and he then served as a member of the Armaments Advisory Service (December 1942 - 1 May 1945). In late 1944, Leeb's section became part of Heinrich Himmler's Replacement Army. Leeb retired on 1 May 1945, the day following Adolf Hitler's death.\n\n\n== References ==\nSamuel Mitcham, Hitler’s Commanders, 2000\nThe German Campaign in Poland, U.S. Dept. of the Army, Pamphlet No.20-555, Washington DC, 1956" ] }

{ "title": [ "R. S. Krishnan", "Johannes Juilfs", "H. C. Verma", "Girsh Blumberg", "Hamish Robertson", "Concepts of Physics", "Julius Ashkin", "Duncan G. Steel", "Wilhelm Hanle", "Chien-Shiung Wu" ], "text": [ "Rappal Sangameswaran Krishnan (23 September 1911 – 2 October 1999) was an Indian experimental physicist and scientist. He was the Head of the department of Physics at the Indian Institute of Science and the vice chancellor of the University of Kerala. He is known for his pioneering researches on colloid optics and a discovery which is now known as Krishnan Effect. He was a Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Indian National Science Academy and the Institute of Physics, London and a recipient of the C. V. Raman Prize.\n25 students were guided by RSKrishnan for Ph D.\nDr T N Vasudevan was the 25th. Prof Vasudevan retired from Physics Dept, Calicut University died on 2nd August 2021\n\n\n== Biography ==\n\nKrishnan was born in a small village named Rappal, in Thrissur district, then in the Kingdom of Cochin and now in the South Indian state of Kerala on 22 September 1911. He did his early schooling at local schools and, securing a scholarship, joined St. Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli from where he completed his bachelor's degree with honours (BA Hons.) and a first rank in 1933. He subsequently joined the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore as a research student under the physics Nobel laureate Sir C. V. Raman. For his research, he received a doctorate from the University of Madras (DSc) in 1938, as the IISc did not then confer doctoral degrees. In 1938, he became a researcher at Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University under Sir John Cockcroft. His researches at Cambridge is reported to have assisted in the development of the 37’ Cyclotron and to the observation of deuteron-induced fission in uranium and thorium. The University awarded him PhD, in 1941, for his research work. He conducted his thesis research under Norman Feather, a colleague of Cockcroft's and also a student of Lord Rutherford.Krishnan returned to India the same year and joined the Physics department of the Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore in 1942 where he returned to work under C.V. Raman's tutelage. After the retirement of Raman, Krishnan succeeded him as the Head of the Department of Physics in 1948. He served the institution till 1972 and, on his superannuation, he was appointed as the vice chancellor of the University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram in 1973 and held the position till 1977. He is known to have been active during his retirement life in Bengaluru, involved with the compilation of research publications on Raman Effect and publishing a number of articles. During this period, he served as a visiting scientist at the National Aerospace Laboratories (1987–90)and was an Emeritus Scientist of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). He was married to Narayani Krishnan and he died on 2 October 1999, at the age of 88, at Bengaluru.\n\n\n== Legacy ==\nWorking further on the Raman Effect, Krishnan discovered the reciprocity relations between the intensity of the horizontally polarised incident light getting scattered with horizontal polarization irrespective of the colloidal particles. This is known as Krishnan (reciprocity) Effect and the article was published in IISc journal on recommendation from C. V. Raman in 1936. He is credited with researches on Second Order Raman Spectra in diamond and in alkali halide crystals and is reported to have successfully recorded the phenomena for the first time, using the ultraviolet (mercury 2536 Å) technique of excitation for Raman spectroscopy, a technique he developed, on which he published a number of articles in peer reviewed journals. This is known to have provided conformation of Born's lattice dynamical theory. He was the first scientist to perform Brillouin scattering experiments in diamond, crystalline and fused quartz, alumina and alkali halides and is the author of a theory on Brillouin scattering in cubic and birefringent crystals, along with his student, Chandrasekhar. He also had documented investigations on thermal expansion, elastic constants and photoelastic constants of crystals and he initiated efforts on dating of Indian rock formations using nuclear geochronological techniques. He was the author of a monograph, two volumes of 'Source Book on Raman Effect' and contributed chapters to several scientific texts, besides delivering several orations.Krishnan served as a member of the International Committee on Ferro-electricity and sat in the International Advisory Committee for Conferences on Raman Spectroscopy. He represented India in several international conferences and seminars such as the 2nd International Conference on Crystallography in Stockholm in 1951, the International Science Conference at Edinburgh, the 5th Australian Spectroscopic Conference, and the 1st International Conference on Raman Spectra on Crystals in Paris in 1965. His researches have been documented by way of over 500 articles published in peer reviewed national and international journals and over 60 research scholars were mentored by him, in their doctoral studies. Krishnan was a member of the council of the Indian Academy of Sciences from 1949 to 1955 and was its treasurer for a short period in 1955. He was also a member of the London Institute of Science, and the American Physical Society and was associated with several universities in Europe and the US, as a visiting professor.\n\n\n== Awards and honours ==\nThe Indian Academy of Sciences elected Krishnan as a Fellow in 1944 and the Indian National Science Academy followed suit in 1950. He was also a fellow of the Institute of Physics, London and served as the president of the Physics Section of Indian Science Congress in 1949. He received the C. V. Raman Prize of the Indian Science Congress in 1988, four years after the Indian Institute of Science awarded him the 1984 Platinum Jubilee Distinguished Alumni Award.\n\n\n== Selected bibliography ==\nS. P. S. Porto, R. S. Krishnan (1957). \"Raman Effect of Conundrum\". J. Chem. Phys. 47 (3): 1009–1012. Bibcode:1967JChPh..47.1009P. doi:10.1063/1.1711980.\nR. S. Krishnan (February 1936). \"Scattering of light in optical glasses\". Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 3 (211): 211–220. doi:10.1007/BF03046252. S2CID 198139008.\nR. S. Krishnan (August 1947). \"Second-Order Raman Spectra of Crystals\". Nature. 160 (4059): 230–231. Bibcode:1947Natur.160..230K. doi:10.1038/160230a0. PMID 20256209. S2CID 4126866.\nR. S. Krishnan (July 1946). \"The Second Order Raman Spectrum on Diamond\". Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 24 (1): 25–32. doi:10.1007/BF03170737. S2CID 91228159.\n\n\n== See also ==\nR. S. Krishnan Higher Secondary School\nRaman Effect\n\n\n== References ==", "Johannes Wilhelm Heinrich Juilfs, also known by the alias Mathias Jules, (15 December 1911 – 1995) was a German theoretical and experimental physicist. He was a member of the Sturmabteilung (SA) and then, in 1933, of the Schutzstaffel (SS). Prior to World War II, he was one of three SS staff physicists who investigated the physicist Werner Heisenberg during the Heisenberg Affair, instigated, in part, by the ideological deutsche Physik (German physics) movement. During the war, he worked as a theoretical physics assistant at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. During the denazification process after World War II, he was banned from working as a civil servant in academia. For a few years, he worked as a school principal, and then he took a job as a physicist in the textile industry. With the help of Heisenberg and the Minister of Lower Saxony, he was able to become a full professor at the Leibniz University Hannover.\n\n\n== Education ==\nJuilfs conducted his university studies from 1930 to 1938. He was a student of Werner Kolhörster and Max von Laue. He received his doctorate in mathematical physics under Kolhörster, in 1938, from the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (today, the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin). He completed his Habilitation there on 30 March 1945.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== World War II ===\nJuilfs was a theoretical physics assistant from 1938 to 1945 at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; today, the Max-Planck Institut für Physik), first for Max von Laue and from 1943 to Werner Heisenberg.Juilfs was first a member of the Sturmabteilung (SA, Storm Detachments) and then, in 1933, of the Schutz-Staffel (SS, Defense Squadron). He was also a leader in the Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (NSDStB, National Socialist German Student League). In the SS, he rose to the rank of Obersturmführer.\n\n\n=== The deutsche Physik movement & the Heisenberg Affair ===\nOn 1 April 1935 Arnold Sommerfeld, Heisenberg’s teacher and doctoral advisor at the University of Munich, achieved emeritus status. However, Sommerfeld stayed on as his own temporary replacement during the selection process for his successor, which took until 1 December 1939. The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty’s selection and that of both the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Education Ministry.) and the supporters of deutsche Physik, which was anti-Semitic and had a bias against theoretical physics, especially including quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. In 1935, the Munich Faculty drew up a candidate list to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich. There were three names on the list: Werner Heisenberg, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932, Peter Debye, who would receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936, and Richard Becker - all former students of Sommerfeld. The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with Heisenberg as their first choice. However, supporters of deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates and the battle commenced, dragging on for over four years. During this time, Heisenberg came under vicious attack by the supporters of deutsche Physik. One such attack was published in Das Schwarze Korps, the newspaper of the Schutzstaffel, or SS, headed by Heinrich Himmler. In the editorial, Heisenberg was called a “White Jew” who should be made to “disappear.” These verbal attacks were taken seriously, as there was physical violence against the Jews and they were incarcerated. Heisenberg fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler, in an attempt to get a resolution to this matter and regain his honor. At one point, Heisenberg’s mother visited Himmler’s mother to help bring a resolution to the affair. The two women knew each other as a result of Heisenberg’s maternal grandfather and Himmler’s father being rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club. Eventually, Himmler settled the Heisenberg affair by sending two letters, one to SS-Gruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and one to Heisenberg, both on 21 July 1938. In the letter to Heydrich, Himmler said Germany could not afford to lose or silence Heisenberg as he would be useful for teaching a generation of scientists. To Heisenberg, Himmler said the letter came on recommendation of his family and he cautioned Heisenberg to make a distinction between professional physics research results and the personal and political attitudes of the involved scientists. The letter to Heisenberg was signed under the closing “Mit freundlichem Gruss und, Heil Hitler!” (With friendly greetings, Heil Hitler!”) Overall, the Heisenberg affair was settled with a victory for academic standards and professionalism, however, with Wilhelm Müller taking over for Sommerfeld on 1 December 1939, this appointment was a political victory over academic standards. Müller was not a theoretical physicist, had not published in a physics journal, and was not a member of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft; his appointment as a replacement for Sommerfeld was considered a travesty and detrimental to educating a new generation of theoretical physicists.During the SS investigation of Heisenberg, there were three investigators and all had training in physics. Heisenberg had participated in the doctoral examination of one of them at the Universität Leipzig. The most influential of the three, however, was Juilfs. During their investigation, they had all become supporters of Heisenberg as well as his position against the ideological policies of the deutsche Physik movement in theoretical physics and academia.\n\n\n=== Afterwards ===\nIt was in the summer of 1940 that Wolfgang Finkelnburg became an acting director of the Nationalsozialistischer Deutscher Dozentenbund (NSDDB, National Socialist German University Lecturers League) at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt (today, the Technische Universität Darmstadt). As such, he organized the Münchner Religionsgespräche (“Munich Synod”), which took place on November 15, 1940. The event was an offensive against the deutsche Physik movement. Finkelnburg invited five representatives to make arguments for theoretical physics and academic decisions based on ability, rather than politics: Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Otto Scherzer, Georg Joos, Otto Heckmann, and Hans Kopfermann. Alfons Bühl, a supporter of deutsche Physik, invited Harald Volkmann, Bruno Thüring, Wilhelm Müller, Rudolf Tomaschek, and Ludwig Wesch. The discussion was led by Gustav Borer, with Herbert Stuart and Johannes Malsch as observers. While the technical outcome of the event may have been thin, it was a political victory against deutsche Physik and signaled the decline of the influence of the movement within the German Reich.In November 1942, as a follow-on to the 1940 Münchner Religionsgespräche, 30 scientists met at Seefeld in the Austrian Tyrol to establish guidelines for the teaching of physics. Among those in attendance were Werner Heisenberg, Carl Ramsauer, Wolfgang Finkelnburg, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Juilfs, as well as supporters of the declining deutsche Physik movement. Juilfs clearly expressed the side the SS had taken against the movement. The deutsche Physik supporters were sufficiently cowed and the program of the 1940 Münchner Religionsgespräche was adopted, i.e., quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were accepted as essential parts of German physics. This was a considerable victory by the physics establishment in Germany, as the state was forced to back down on ideological purity in the teaching of physics in order to get the physics community’s support.\n\n\n== Post World War II ==\nThe denazification process in Germany after World War II barred Juilfs from returning to a university career. From 1948 he was a principal at an adult education school in Helmstedt. However, with the founding of the Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany) in 1949, and with the help of some influential individuals, the fortunes of Juilfs began to change. It was in 1950 that he became head of the physics department at the Textilforschungsanstalt (Textile Research Institute) at Krefeld. The Minister of Culture of the German state of Lower Saxony intervened on his behalf with a grant. Shortly thereafter, Juilfs coauthored a textbook, Physik der Gegenwart, with Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, which was published in 1952 and contributed to his rehabilitation in academia. For Juilfs supporting Heisenberg during the Heisenberg Affair, the quid pro quo from Heisenberg was a whitewash certificate; these certificates were known as Persilschein, a word play on the detergent Persil. The Minister of Lower Saxony intervened again and helped Juilfs obtain a temporary position as lecturer on theoretical physics at the Technische Hochschule Hannover (today, the Leibniz University Hannover. By 1958, he was an ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) there. After World War II, many academicians lost their jobs through the denazification process, but by or shortly after the formation of the new Federal Republic of Germany, most of them were again found in academic positions.\n\n\n== Selected Literature by Juilfs ==\nJohannes Juilfs and Viktor Masuch Die Ionisierung durch Gamma- und Höhenstrahlen in verschiedenen Gasen, Zeitschrift für Physik Volume 104, Numbers 5–6, pp. 458–467 (1937). The authors were identified as being in Berlin-Dahlem. The article was received on 26 November 1936. The authors thanked Professor Doctor Werner Kolhörster.\nJohannes Juilfs (Mar 1939). \"Das erste deutsche Mathematikerlager\". Deutsche Mathematik. 3 (1): 109–140.\n\n\n== Books by Juilfs ==\nCarl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Johannes Juilfs Physik der Gegenwart (Athenäum-Verl., 1952, 1958)\nJohannes Juilfs Die Messung von Gewebetemperaturen mittels Temperaturstrahlung (Westdt. Verl., 1955)\nJohannes Juilfs Vergleichende Untersuchungen zur elastischen und bleibenden Dehnung von Fasern (Westdt. Verl., 1956)\nJohannes Juilfs Zur Messung der Fadenglätte (Westdt. Verl., 1956)\nJohannes Juilfs Zur Dichtebestimmung von Fasern (Westdt. Verl., 1957)\nJohannes Juilfs Die Bestimmung des Wasserrückhaltevermögens (bzw. des Quellwertes) von Fasern (Westdt. Verl., 1958)\nWilhelm Weltzien, Johannes Juilfs, and Werner Bubser Die Textilforschungsanstalt Krefeld 1920 – 1958 (Westdt. Verl., 1958)\nJohannes Juilfs Vergleichende Untersuchungen am Schopper-Scheuerprüfgerät (Westdt. Verl., 1958)\nJohannes Juilfs Zur Bestimmung der Bruchlast (Zugfestigkeit) von Fasern, Fäden und Garnen (Westdt. Verl., 1959)\nJohannes Juilfs Zur Bestimmung der Absolutdichte von Fasern (Westdt. Verl., 1960)\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nBeyerchen, Alan D. Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (Yale, 1977) ISBN 0-300-01830-4\nDavid C. Cassidy, \"Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg\", (W. H. Freeman, 1992)\nHentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) ISBN 0-8176-5312-0\nRose, Paul Laurence \"Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture\" (University of California, 1998)\nThomas Powers. Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb (Knopf, 1993)\nWalker, Mark German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949 (Cambridge, 1993) ISBN 0-521-43804-7\n\n\n== Notes ==", "Harish Chandra Verma (born 8 April 1952) is an Indian experimental physicist and emeritus professor of the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. His field of research is nuclear physics.He has authored several school, undergraduate and graduate textbooks, the most popular being the two-volume Concepts of Physics. He has co-founded Shiksha Sopan, a social upliftment organization for economically weaker children living near the campus of IIT Kanpur.He has been awarded the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Shiksha Puruskar by the Bihar state government. In 2020, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nVerma was born in Darbhanga, Bihar in a Kayastha Brahmin family. His father was a teacher in Samastipur. After he passed high school, he obtained his B. Sc. degree at the Patna Science College. He obtained his M.Sc. and Ph.D. at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Patna Science College ===\nIn early 1980, Verma joined Patna Science College as a lecturer. He remained at the college as a lecturer and reader for 15 years before resigning from the college and joining IIT Kanpur.\n\n\n=== IIT Kanpur ===\nVerma joined IIT Kanpur in 1994 as an assistant professor. Here he pursued research in experimental nuclear physics. He has published 139 research papers. He retired on 30 June 2017.\n\n\n=== Physics outreach ===\nVerma has developed more than six hundred ‘low cost’ physics experiments which teachers can employ in their classrooms. In 2011, he set up the National Anveshika Network of India (NANI), a flagship programme of the Indian Association of Physics Teachers (IAPT). He is the national coordinator for this programme. There are currently 22 Anveshikas in the country.\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nConcepts of Physics Part-1, Bharati Bhawan Publishers & Distributors, 1992, ISBN 8177091875\nConcepts of Physics Part-2, Bharati Bhawan Publishers & Distributors, 1992, ISBN 8177092324\nQuantum Physics, Surya Publication, ISBN 9788192571409\nFoundation Science Physics for class 9, Bharati Bhawan Publishers & Distributors, ISBN 9788177097313\nFoundation Science Physics for class 10, Bharati Bhawan Publishers & Distributors, ISBN 9350270064\n\n\n== Online Courses ==\nNuclear Physics: Fundamentals and Applications (organised by National Program for Technology Enhanced Learning, NPTEL)\nLearning Physics through Simple Experiments (Massive Online Open Course in 2016)\nPhysics of Semiconductors (Massive Online Open Course in 2017)\nB.Sc. courses in Hindi - Basics of Special Theory of Relativity (2018)\nBasics of Quantum Mechanics (2019)\nAdvanced Course on the Special Theory of Relativity (2020)\nClassical Electromagnetism - Electrostatics (2020)\nClassical Mechanics (2021)\nThe Story of Photoelectric Effect (2021)\n\n\n== Awards ==\nPadma Shri (2020)\nMaulana Abul Kalam Azad Shiksha Purashkar (2017)\n\n\n== References ==", "Girsh Blumberg is an Estonian-American experimental physicist working in the field of experimental condensed matter physics, spectroscopy, nano-optics, and plasmonics. \nBlumberg is an elected fellow of the American Physical Society \n,\nan elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (FAAAS)\n,\nand a Distinguished Professor of Physics at Rutgers University.\nGirsh Blumberg is best known for his contribution to electronic Raman scattering studies in strongly correlated electron systems,\nsuperconductors and quantum spin systems.\nHe has co-authored over 100 publications and is inventor on over 30 patents in the fields of electronic and optical devices, spectroscopy and nano-plasmonics. \nHe and his collaborators made the first observation of the Leggett mode in multiband superconductors,\n \nhave observed Wigner crystallization in strongly interacting quantum spin ladder systems,\n\nhave explained long-standing puzzle of the “Hidden Order” in URu2Si2 heavy fermion compound,\n \nhave made a discovery of the chiral spin waves on the surface of topological insulators,\n \nto name a few.\n\n\n== Biography ==\nGirsh Blumberg was raised in Viljandi, Estonia of educator parents, along with his two sisters.\n\nBlumberg graduated from secondary school in 1976 with gold medal and then, in 1981, with M.Sc. cum laude from University of Tartu.\nHe completed his Ph.D. in Physics and Mathematics from Physics Institute of the Estonian Academy of Sciences in 1987.\n \nStarting from 1981 he was first a research, and later a senior research scientist at the National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics in Tallinn, Estonia.\nBetween 1992 and 1998 Blumberg was Visiting Research Assistant Professor of the NSF Science and Technology Center for Superconductivity (NSF-STCS) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. \nIn 1998 he joined Bell Labs before joining the faculty at Rutgers University in 2008.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==", "Robert Graham Hamish Robertson (born 3 October 1943) is a Canadian–American experimental physicist, specializing in neutrino physics. He is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Washington, where he was formerly the director of the University of Washington's Center for Experimental Nuclear Physics and Astrophysics.\n\n\n== Education and career ==\nRobertson attended elementary and secondary school in Canada and England. He received a Bachelor of Arts from University of Oxford in 1965. In 1971, he received a Doctor of Philosophy from McMaster University, working under R. G. Summers-Gill with a dissertation titled Properties of the odd-odd cobalt nuclei.\nFollowing his graduate work, he worked at the Cyclotron Laboratory at Michigan State University, where his research included the first observation of an isobaric quintet of states in nuclei. After leaving Michigan State, he worked at Los Alamos National Laboratory on the determination of the neutrino mass. Studying tritium decay, he showed that the electron neutrino mass is below 10 eV. In 1994, he became a professor at the University of Washington.\nRobertson has been a visiting scientist at several institutions, including at Princeton University (1975–1976), Chalk River Laboratories (1979), Argonne National Laboratory (1980), and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (2003–2004).He was on the editorial staff of Physical Review D and the Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science.\n\n\n== Awards and Honours ==\n1976: Awarded a Sloan Foundation Fellowship\n1982: Elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society\n1997: Tom W. Bonner Prize in Nuclear Physics, American Physical Society\n1998: Elected a Fellow of the Institute of Physics (London)\n2003: Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\n2004: Elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences\n\n\n== See also ==\nHelium and Lead Observatory\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMajorana | ElectroWeak Interaction Research, washington.edu", "Concepts of Physics is a calculus-based physics textbook by H. C. Verma. The book was first published in 1992. It is published as a two-volume set, with each volume roughly covering the physics syllabus of class XI and class XII respectively. The book is extensively popular amongst students preparing for competitive exams, especially the Joint Entrance Examination.", "Julius Ashkin (August 23, 1920 – June 4, 1982) was a leader in experimental and theoretical physics known for furthering the evolution of particle physics from nuclear physics. As a theoretical physicist he made contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics, solid state physics, nuclear physics, and elementary particle physics. As an experimental physicist his main contributions concerned the passage of certain particles (pi-mesons, or pions) through solid matter and their subsequent decay. He was recognized for the quality of his research and teaching.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nJulius Ashkin was born in Brooklyn, New York, on August 23, 1920. His parents were Isadore and Anna Ashkin. He had two younger siblings, a brother, Arthur, also a physicist, and a sister, Ruth. One older sibling, Gertrude, died while young. The family home was in Brooklyn, New York, at 983 E 27 Street. Isadore had immigrated to the United States from Odessa, Ukraine at the age of 19. Anna, five years younger, also came from the Ukraine (in her case Galicia). Within a decade of his landing in New York, Isadore had become a U.S. citizen and was running a dental laboratory at 139 Delancey Street in Manhattan.\n\n\n== Education ==\nAshkin attended Brooklyn's James Madison High School, graduating in 1936, while still a few weeks shy of his 16th birthday. In his senior year, he received honors and awards. He was awarded a scholarship to attend Columbia University, where he studied four years as an undergraduate from 1936 to 1940, and three as a graduate from 1940 to 1943.Physicists then working on Columbia's faculty in those years included professors Enrico Fermi, Isidor Isaac Rabi, Hans Bethe (visiting), Edward Teller (visiting), and instructors Arnold Nordsieck, Hugh Paxton, and Willis Lamb. All these men were recognized as among the finest of their generation and four of them — Fermi, Rabi, Bethe, and Lamb — were to be awarded the Nobel Prize.As an undergraduate, Ashkin was invited to join an honorary mathematics society, and received awards. He entered the fall semester as an assistant lecturer and began work toward a master's degree. A year later, having received that degree, he began work toward a Ph.D. under the supervision of Willis Lamb. As a graduate student, Ashkin contributed to one paper in astrophysics. and two papers in statistical mechanics He collaborated with Lamb in writing the first of the two papers on statistical mechanics and with Teller in writing the second. This second paper, \"Statistics of Two-Dimensional Lattices with Four Components\" has since been frequently cited. He received his Ph.D. in Physics in 1943.\n\n\n== Manhattan Project ==\n\n\n=== Early stages of the Manhattan Project at Columbia University ===\nDuring the latter part of 1942, before completing his Ph.D. work, Ashkin accepted an offer to work in the Manhattan Project. Early work on the development of the atom bomb had taken place at Columbia during the six years Ashkin was an undergraduate and graduate student there. When the process of nuclear fission was discovered in 1938, scientists in many locations in Europe and the United States began intense work to understand and control the phenomenon. Researchers at Columbia and nearby Princeton University were in the forefront of this work. There's no information on how much, if at all, Ashkin was involved in the effort at this early stage of his career, but it is certain that the Columbia physics department was the workplace for scientists who were devoted to the secret development of a new and phenomenally powerful weapon. These men included men already mentioned — Fermi, Rabi, Teller, and Bethe — as well as Leó Szilárd (who worked with Fermi to demonstrate that a nuclear reaction was possible), Herbert L. Anderson (then, like Ashkin, a Columbia graduate student), John R. Dunning (an associate professor at Columbia who had built a small cyclotron in the mid-1930s), Walter Zinn (a Columbia professor who worked with the Columbia cyclotron to demonstrate the possibility of a sustained chain reaction), George B. Pegram (Dean of Columbia's Faculties of Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science, who helped bring Fermi to the United States and brought him together with representatives of the U.S. Navy Department for the first discussion of the atomic bomb) and Harold Urey (associate professor of Chemistry whose work on separation of isotopes resulted in the discovery of deuterium). In addition, Columbia received visits from scientists at Princeton University who were coordinating their work with Columbia colleagues. These included John Wheeler, Edward Creutz, and Robert R. Wilson.\n\n\n=== Metallurgical Laboratory ===\nWhen Ashkin accepted an invitation to join the Manhattan Project he was still working on his Ph.D. He spent the last few months of 1942 at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago and then worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory from mid-1943 to mid-1945. The scientists at the Metallurgical Laboratory, or Met Lab as it was called, used a nuclear reactor called the Chicago Pile to produce the world's first controlled chain reaction. They built the reactor in a disused squash court under the bleachers of Stagg Field, the university's old football stadium. They had been brought together from Columbia and Princeton by Arthur Compton who was a professor of physics at the University of Chicago. The Met Lab consisted of two divisions. Fermi, Anderson, Zinn, Creutz, and Szilard were key members of the physics division; Bethe and Teller of the theoretical division.Although Ashkin's interest, experience, and skill would seem to place him with the theoretical division, he worked in the physics division in a group called \"Nuclear Physics — Experimental.\" His placement in this group suggests that Ashkin had prior experience in carrying out nuclear experiments while a student at Columbia. With the other members of the group — Feld, Szilard, Robert F. Christy, Herbert E. Kubitschek, and S. Bernstein (untraced) — Ashkin produced a number of technical reports on the theoretical aspects of nuclear fission. With Feld, he also produced a practical report on Poisoning and Production in a Power Plant which considered the power potential of sustained nuclear reactions as well as the radiation poisoning and other hazards that accompanied them. All these reports were secret when produced and have since been declassified and released.\n\n\n=== Los Alamos ===\nAt Los Alamos Ashkin was assigned to work in the Theoretical Division headed by Bethe. There were five groups in this division and Ashkin was assigned to group 4, Diffusion Problems. His responsibilities, broadly, permitted him to build upon work he had done as a graduate student and in his months at Met Lab. T-4's group leader was Richard Feynman; Ashkin was alternate leader. The initial members were Richard Ehrich, and Frederick Reines. Theodore Welton joined it in the early spring of 1944. The group's main task was to estimate the rate at which neutrons would diffuse through the explosive core of the bomb during nuclear fission. Somewhat facetiously Feynman later claimed that the work done at Los Alamos was mostly engineering, not science. Welton, however, told of the group's long hard hours, high spirits and cohesiveness, and said they achieved some excellent successes in theoretical physics. Their work required a great number of mathematical computations, which, Welton remembered, they performed using Work Projects Administration math tables and big Marchant mechanical calculators. In fact, their assistant, an enlisted man named Murray Peshkin, remembered the group as having an unending need for calculation. An undergraduate with a major in physics at the time he was recruited, he was put, as he recalled, \"to solving differential equations that were needed to predict the critical mass of a bomb under various assumptions about the many unknown properties of the nuclei in the bomb material.\"Security at Los Alamos was very tight by standards of the time. The site was an uninhabited desert location (formerly a private school) whose perimeter was fenced, with guards at the gates. The scientists were permitted outside the facility but there was little available transportation. (Since they were not members of the military, they could not be ordered to comply with military secrecy orders and instead voluntarily agreed to abide by them.) Although urban-raised scientists, like Ashkin, were far from the amusements that cities afford, they were able to find amusing things to do. It helped that some of the married ones were able to bring their wives to live in the town of Los Alamos and thus parties of men and women could get together for social activities. These include such things as hikes of hills and canyons of the surrounding wilderness areas. It's likely Ashkin played outdoor team sports while at Los Alamos. A Met Lab colleague remembered playing touch football with him and Feld on an open space called the midway at the University of Chicago.Feynman was particularly adept at leavening hard work with light-hearted games. His genius was as much playful as serious. He took pride in deceiving the mail censors, guessing the combinations of safes in which secret files were stored, picking door locks, and teasing the guards (he would depart from the main gate, circle around the perimeter to a hole in the fence, re-enter the facility, and then exit the gate again, thus causing confusion and consternation both.) He also liked to pound his bongo drums, a practice which made those within hearing range grit their teeth but which he believed put him in touch with the spirits of the Indians who formerly inhabited the place. Physicists are known for their love of music, particularly classical music, and their ability to play it. Feynman wasn't unusual in his affection for drumming but his choice of musical genres was atypical as was his lack of skill as a drummer. It appears that the music produced by his friends offended him as much as his relentless noise offended them. When Ashkin played the recorder, Feynman said he was using \"an infernally popular wooden tube ... for making noises bearing a one-one correspondence to black dots on a piece of paper -- in imitation to music.\"In 1946, before the scientists at Los Alamos dispersed, there was a brief period during which they gave lectures on subjects in which they had expertise. The program was styled the \"Los Alamos University\" and some junior members of laboratory personnel received college credit for attending them. Ashkin's were on theoretical mechanics. The course description says it covered the dynamics of particles, rigid bodies, elastic media, and fluids using vector analysis, particle dynamics, Lagrange's equations, and Hamilton's equations.Along with other members of the Feynman team, Ashkin produced technical reports while at Los Alamos. These were classified at the time but have since been made public. One example gives an idea of the work carried out by the group. It is The Calculation of Critical Masses Including the Effects of the Distribution of Neutron Energies, by Feynman, R.P.; Welton, T.A.; Ashkin, J.; Ehrlich, R.; Peshkin, M.; and Reines, F. Report LA-524(Del.) January 21, 1947 (extract from abstract: \"Convenient approximate methods are developed for the calculation of critical sizes and multiplication rates of spherical, active cores surrounded by infinite tampers. Special attention is given to those problems arising from the fact that neutrons of different velocities have different properties. The methods consist essentially of approximating the neutron densities at each velocity by fundamental mode shapes for each velocity.\")On July 16, 1945 Ashkin was present at the first-ever explosion of a nuclear bomb at the Trinity test site, Alamogordo. Only a few of the many scientists were permitted to witness this unspeakably dramatic culmination of their work. Ashkin was probably there because of his work on radiation poisoning, begun at Met Lab and probably continued afterward.In 1950 it was revealed that one of the scientists at Los Alamos, Klaus Fuchs, was providing the Soviet intelligence bureau, NKGB, with secret information about bomb research. Between 1943 and 1946, Fuchs worked at both Columbia and Los Alamos. When the FBI interviewed Bethe and Feynman about their relationship with Fuchs while at Los Alamos, Feynman said Fuchs was quiet, reserved and not inclined to mix with other scientists outside of work. He also said he believed Fuchs was less stand-offish with Ashkin and seemed friendly with him.\n\n\n== Academic positions ==\n\n\n=== University of Rochester ===\nOn leaving Los Alamos in 1946 Ashkin obtained a position as assistant professor at the University of Rochester and in 1950 he moved to the Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie Mellon University). He remained at CMU for the rest of his life, serving as professor and for a period head of the physics department. Robert Marshak brought Ashkin to the University of Rochester in 1946. As an assistant professor he taught mechanics and thermodynamics and theoretical physics and performed pioneering experiments on neutron-proton, proton-proton, and nucleon-nucleon scattering.While at Rochester, Ashkin was the first scientist to formally recognize the importance of the Feynman diagram. Feynman devised the diagram in 1948 to provide a simple visualization of the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic particles. Although the diagram and its offshoots were later seen as extremely important tools, Feynman did not give them a theoretical framework nor did he explain how he proposed they be used. Physicists had difficulty in understanding their function, distrusted their simplicity, and were reluctant to give them formal recognition. Feynman later said physicists did not realize the diagram's power and would employ a more complex method created by Julian Schwinger. Ashkin, he said, was the first to break with this pattern: \"They somehow or other couldn’t do it. They had to go through this [the Schwinger method] to believe it. But that's all right. The only person who didn't, the first paper where it was used directly — which I kept looking for, I kept flipping through the Physical Review as it came out — was Ashkin. He'd done some calculation for some experiment, and he said, 'We’ve calculated this using Feynman's rules.' Bloop! There it was in writing! Then gradually more and more people did it.\"While he was teaching at the University of Rochester, Ashkin married Claire Ruderman, a biologist studying at the same university. The couple had two daughters, Beth and Laura.\n\n\n=== Carnegie Mellon University ===\nIn 1950 Ashkin joined the physics faculty of Carnegie Mellon University (then the Carnegie Institute of Technology) where Edward Creutz was department head and director of a new 450 MeV proton synchrocyclotron that CIT had built in nearby Saxonburg, Pennsylvania. Joining fellow scientists Lincoln Wolfenstein and Sergio de Benedetti, at this time Ashkin began to transition from mainly theoretical to mainly experimental work. The cyclotron remained in use at the Saxonburg Nuclear Research Center until the mid-1970s when it was dismantled and, using it, Ashkin was able to produce some of his best-known experimental results.In 1953, with Bethe, his former director of theoretical work in Los Alamos, Ashkin published an article closely related to the work they had then done. This article, \"Passage of Radiations Through Matter,\" summarized the effects of particles and radiation as they passed through solids. In time it became a standard reference for physics experimenters. Using the CIT cyclotron and following on work done by Bethe and Robert E. Marshak, Ashkin conducted experiments to determine the characteristics of a short-lived particle — the pi-meson or pion — that is produced when high energy cosmic ray protons and other cosmic ray components interact with matter in the Earth's atmosphere. Ashkin served as chair of the physics department between 1961 and 1972. After he died, CMU created the Julius Ashkin Teaching Award in his honor.\n\n\n=== Sabbatical at CERN ===\nIn 1958–1959 Ashkin won a Ford Foundation grant to spend a sabbatical year in Geneva, Switzerland, at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. There, he became a member of the first group of scientists to use that institution's new 600 MeV synchrocyclotron. Using this particle accelerator he helped to make a significant discovery which confirmed an aspect of the V-A Theory of weak interactions. Supported by a grant from the Guggenheim Foundation, in 1968 he also spent a year as a Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford.Ashkin died at Montefiore Hospital in Pittsburgh, Pennslylvania on June 4, 1982 after a lengthy illness.\n\n\n== Notes ==", "Duncan G. Steel (born 1951) is an American experimental physicist, researcher and professor in quantum optics in condensed matter physics. He is the Robert J. Hiller Professor of Electrical Engineering, Professor of Physics, Professor of Biophysics, and Research Professor in the Institute of Gerontology at the University of Michigan. Steel is also a Guggenheim Scholar and a Fellow of American Physical Society, the Optical Society of America, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He coedited the five-volume series on the Encyclopedia of Modern Optics.\n\n\n== Education ==\nSteel graduated from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill with an A.B. in 1972. Graduated from the University of Michigan with a Ph.D. in 1976.\nPrior to joining the faculty at Michigan, he was a Member of the Technical Staff and Senior Staff Physicist for the Hughes Aircraft Company at the Hughes Research Labs (HRL) in Malibu. There he worked on optical phase conjugation and real time holography. Working with Richard Lind, they demonstrated the first laser with a phase conjugate mirror using degenerate four-wave mixing.\n\n\n== Research ==\nSteel works on nonlinear optical spectroscopy and coherent control of semiconductor heterostructures, for which he received 2010 Frank Isakson Prize for Optical Effects in Solids from the American Physical Society. His research focus is on using ultrafast optical techniques to manipulate electron spins embedded in semiconductor quantum dots to create quantum coherence as a new degree of freedom. Some of his publications describe the first demonstration of an optically driven CNOT gate in a solid state device and demonstration of entanglement in semiconductor system. In addition to semiconductor physics, he is also involved in the development and application of advanced laser spectroscopy methodology and other biophysical techniques for the study of protein folding and dynamics.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"Optical Studies of Single Quantum Dots\", Physics Today, October 2002\n\"Quantum logic gate lights up\", Physics World, August 8, 2003\n\"Quantum Information Processing Based on Optically Driven Semiconductor Quantum Dots\", September 2004, Optics & Photonics News\n[1] Michigan scientists working on super-fast, secure computing, Phys Org, September 9, 2009\n[2] Lasers Lengthen Quantum Bit Memory, July 2009\n[3] Entangling spin and light, Editors' Choice, Science, May 3, 2013", "Wilhelm Hanle (13 January 1901 – 29 April 1993, Gießen) was a German experimental physicist. He is known for the Hanle effect. During World War II, he made contributions to the German nuclear energy project, also known as the Uranium Club. From 1941 until emeritus status in 1969, he was an ordinarius professor of experimental physics and held the chair of physics at the University of Giessen.\n\n\n== Education ==\nHanle was born in Mannheim. From 1919 to 1924, he studied at the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg and the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. Philipp Lenard, Director of the Physikalische Institut (Physics Institute) at Heidelberg, had a dictatorial attitude towards his students and colleagues, and Hanle had a conflict with Lenard. Hanle transferred to Göttingen. In 1923, Hanle conducted an experiment which demonstrated the variation of polarization of the resonance fluorescent light from a mercury vapor in a weak magnetic field; this became known as the \"Hanle effect\". He received his doctorate at Göttingen in 1924, under James Franck, who as Director of the II. Physikalisches Institut (Second Physical Institute).\n\n\n== Career ==\nHanle was a teaching assistant at the University of Göttingen in 1924 and at the Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen in 1925. He was at the Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg from 1926 to 1929, and, upon completion of his Habilitation, he became a Privatdozent (unpaid lecturer) there in 1927. From 1929, he was an ausserordentlicher Professor (extraordinarius professor) and head of the physics department at the Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena.At Jena, Georg Joos was professor of theoretical physics, but in 1935, he made a compulsory transfer to head the Second Physical Institute at Göttingen to replace James Franck, who had resigned as a result of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service in 1933. Hanle and Joos would soon be part of the impetus to initiate the German nuclear energy project, shortly after Hanle went to Göttingen. From 1937 to 1941, Hanle was again at the University of Göttingen.In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons; simultaneously, they communicated these results to Lise Meitner, who had in July of that year fled to The Netherlands and then went to Sweden. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939.Paul Harteck was director of the physical chemistry department at the University of Hamburg and an advisor to the Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office). On 24 April 1939, along with his teaching assistant Wilhelm Groth, Harteck made contact with the Reichskriegsministerium (RKM, Reich Ministry of War) to alert them to the potential of military applications of nuclear chain reactions. Two days earlier, on 22 April 1939, after hearing a colloquium paper by Hanle on the use of uranium fission in a Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor), Georg Joos, along with Hanle, notified Wilhelm Dames, at the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Ministry of Education), of potential military applications of nuclear energy. The communication was given to Abraham Esau, head of the physics section of the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) at the REM. On 29 April, a group, organized by Esau, met at the REM to discuss the potential of a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The group included the physicists Walther Bothe, Robert Döpel, Hans Geiger, Wolfgang Gentner (probably sent by Walther Bothe), Wilhelm Hanle, Gerhard Hoffmann, and Georg Joos; Peter Debye was invited, but he did not attend. After this, informal work began at Göttingen by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague Reinhold Mannfopff; the group of physicists was known informally as the first Uranverein (Uranium Club) and formally as Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kernphysik. The group's work was discontinued in August 1939, when the three were called to military training.The second Uranverein began after the HWA squeezed out the RFR of the REM and started the formal German nuclear energy project under military auspices. The second Uranverein was formed on 1 September 1939, the day World War II began, and it had its first meeting on 16 September 1939. The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, advisor to the HWA, and held in Berlin. The invitees included Walther Bothe, Siegfried Flügge, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Gerhard Hoffmann, Josef Mattauch, and Georg Stetter. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included Klaus Clusius, Robert Döpel, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Also at this time, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, after World War II the Max Planck Institute for Physics), in Berlin-Dahlem, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced.Hanle contributed to the Uranverein under the auspices of the HWA with experimental studies which showed that boron and cadmium were strong absorbers of thermal neutrons.From 1941 to 1969, Hanle was an ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) of experimental physics and held the chair of physics at the Justus Liebig-Universität Gießen. Hanle made significant contributions to the rebuilding of the university after World War II.\n\n\n== Honors ==\nHanle received a number of honors, including:\n1970 – Honorary Doctor of Engineering from the University of Stuttgart\n1987 – Honorary Senator of the University of Giessen for his work in reconstruction of the university after World War II\n\n\n== Internal Report ==\nThe following was published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. Reports in this publication were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany. The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics.\nWilhelm Hanle Über den Nachweis von Bor und Cadmium in Kohle G-85 (18 April 1941)\n\n\n== Books ==\nWilhelm Hanle Die Erde im Strahlungsfeld von Sonne und Kosmos (Schmitz, 1948)\nWilhelm Hanle Atomenergie (Schmitz, 1949)\nWilhelm Hanle Künstliche Radioaktivität (Piscator-Verl., 1952)\nUlrich Jetter and Wilhelm Hanle Atomwaffen, Anwendung, Wirkungsweise, Schutzmassnahmen (Physik-Verl., 1952)\nKarl Lindackers, Wilhelm Hanle, and Max Pllermann Praktische Durchführung von Abschirmungsberechnungen (Hanser, Carl GmbH + Co., 1962)\nWilhelm Hanle Isotopentechnik (Thiemig, 1964)\nWilhelm Hanle, Martin Oberhofer, and Wolfgang Jacobi Strahlenschutzpraxis. T. 3. Umgang mit Strahlern (Thiemig, 1968)\nWilhelm Hanle and Max Pollermann Isotopentechnik. Anwendung von Radionukliden und stabilen Nukliden (Hanser, Carl GmbH + Co., 1976)\nWilhelm Hanle Isotopentechnik. Anwendung von Radionukliden und stabilen Nukliden (K. Thiemig, Muenchen, 1982)\nWerner Heisenberg, Robert Döpel, Wilhelm Hanle, and Käthe Mitzenheim Werner Heisenberg in Leipzig 1927–1942. (Wiley-VCH Weinheim 1993)\nWilhelm Hanle, Memoiren. (I. Physikalisches Institut, Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, 1989)\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nHentschel, Klaus (editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (editorial assistant and translator) Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) ISBN 0-8176-5312-0\nKant, Horst Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project / Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Göttingen, Preprint 203 (Max-Planck Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 2002)\nMokler, Paul Wilhelm Hanle on his 90th birthday, Journal Zeitschrift für Physik D Volume 18, Number 1, 1–2 (1991)\nReimann, Bruno W. Wilhelm Hanle (1901–1993), Physiker, Nazi-Forscher, Ehrensenator der JLU Gießen. In: www.bruno-w-reimann.de\nWalker, Mark German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949 (Cambridge, 1993) ISBN 0-521-43804-7\nWinnewisser, Brenda P., interviewer. Oral history interview with Wilhelm Hanle, 1979 May 23 May to 2 June. American Institute of Physics (1979)\n\n\n== Notes ==", "Chien-Shiung Wu (Chinese: 吳健雄; May 31, 1912 – February 16, 1997) was a Chinese-American particle and experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the fields of nuclear and particle physics. Wu worked on the Manhattan Project, where she helped develop the process for separating uranium into uranium-235 and uranium-238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion. She is best known for conducting the Wu experiment, which proved that parity is not conserved. This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics, while Wu herself was awarded the inaugural Wolf Prize in Physics in 1978. Her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie. Her nicknames include the \"First Lady of Physics\", the \"Chinese Madame Curie\" and the \"Queen of Nuclear Research\".\n\n\n== Early life ==\n\nChien-Shiung Wu was born in the town of Liuhe, Taicang in Jiangsu province, China, on May 31, 1912, the second of three children of Wu Zhong-Yi (吳仲裔) and Fan Fu-Hua. The family custom was that children of this generation had Chien as the first character (generation name) of their forename, followed by the characters in the phrase Ying-Shiung-Hao-Jie, which means \"heroes and outstanding figures\". Accordingly, she had an older brother, Chien-Ying, and a younger brother, Chien-Hao. Wu and her father were extremely close, and he encouraged her interests passionately, creating an environment where she was surrounded by books, magazines, and newspapers. Wu's mother was a teacher and valued education for both genders. Wu's father was an engineer who encouraged women's equality and became a notable activist during the recent revolution led by Sun Zhongshan that modernized the country. Her father supported the revolt due to his modern ideals. He even led a local militia that wiped out local bandits and completely modernized the little town of Liuhe, while seeking girls from rich and poor families to join his new school.\n\n\n== Education ==\n\nWu received her elementary school education at Ming De School, a school for girls founded by her father. Wu grew up as a modest and inquisitive child in a well-to-do family. She did not play outside like the other children did but instead would listen to the newly invented radio for pleasure and knowledge. She also enjoyed poetry and Chinese classics such as the Analects, and western literature on democracy that her father promoted at home. Wu would listen to her father recite paragraphs from scientific journals instead of children's stories until Wu learned how to read. She left her hometown in 1923 at the age of 10 to go to the Suzhou Women's Normal School No. 2, which was fifty miles from her home. This was a boarding school with classes for teacher training as well as for regular high school, and it introduced subjects in science that slowly became a growing passion for the young Wu. Admission to teacher training was more competitive, as it did not charge for tuition or board and guaranteed a job on graduation. Although her family could have afforded to pay, Wu chose the more competitive option and was ranked ninth among around 10,000 applicants.In 1929, Wu graduated at the top of her class and was admitted to National Central University in Nanjing. According to government regulations of the time, teacher-training college students wanting to move on to universities needed to serve as schoolteachers for one year. In Wu's case, this was only nominally enforced. She went to teach at a public school in Shanghai, the president of which was the famous philosopher Hu Shih. Hu became a very notable political icon whom Wu saw as a second father and would visit Wu when she was in the United States. Hu was previously Wu's teacher when she took a few courses at National China College and was quickly impressed after Wu, who sat in the front seat to be noticed by her hero, finished and perfected the first three-hour assessment in less than two hours. Her elders advised her to \"ignore the obstacles.\" This was similar to what her father always reiterated to her, \"Just put your head down and keep walking forward.\"Although Wu ended up doing scientific research, her writing was considered outstanding thanks to her early training. Her Chinese calligraphy was praised by others. Before matriculating to National Central University Wu spent the summer preparing for her studies with her usual full force. She felt that her background and training in Suzhou Women's Normal School were insufficient to prepare her for majoring in science. Her father encouraged her to plunge ahead, and bought her three books for her self-study that summer: trigonometry, algebra, and geometry. This experience was the beginning of her habit of self-study, and it gave her sufficient confidence to major in mathematics in the fall of 1930.From 1930 to 1934, Wu studied at National Central University (which was later reinstated in Taiwan, with the mainland variant Nanjing University claiming to be its true successor) and first majored in mathematics but later transferred to physics. She became involved in student politics. Relations between China and Japan were tense at this time, and students were urging the government to take a stronger line with Japan. Wu was elected as one of the student leaders by her colleagues because they felt that since she was one of the top students at the university, her involvement would be forgiven, or at least overlooked, by the authorities. That being the case, she was careful not to neglect her studies. She led protests that included a sit-in at the Presidential Palace in Nanjing, where the students were met by Chiang Kai-shek.For two years after graduation, she did graduate-level study in physics and worked as an assistant at Zhejiang University. She became a researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Academia Sinica. Her supervisor was Gu Jing-Wei, a female professor who had earned her PhD abroad at the University of Michigan and encouraged Wu to do the same. She became an important role model to the young Wu, who developed confidence and was sometimes blunt and honest when giving advice to close friends. Wu was accepted by the University of Michigan, and her uncle, Wu Zhou-Zhi, provided the necessary funds. She embarked for the United States with a female friend and chemist from Taicang, Dong Ruo-Fen (董若芬), on the SS President Hoover in August 1936. Her parents and uncle saw her off at the Huangpu Bund as she boarded the ship. Her father and uncle were very sad while her mother was in tears that day, and little did Wu know that she would never see her parents again. Though her family would survive the Second World War, she would only visit the remaining members of her family decades later when she made trips to lectures in China in the 1970s.\n\n\n== Early physics career ==\n\n\n=== Berkeley ===\n\nThe two women arrived in San Francisco, where Wu's plans for graduate study changed after visiting the University of California, Berkeley. She met physicist Luke Chia-Liu Yuan, a middle-class grandson from the concubine of Yuan Shikai (the self-proclaimed president of the new republic of China and Emperor of China for six months before his passing). As a result of his political lineage, Luke did not talk much about Yuan Shikai and Wu would tease him after she discovered the truth since her father once rebelled against Yuan Shikai. Yuan showed her the Radiation Laboratory, where the director was Ernest O. Lawrence, who would soon win the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron particle accelerator.Wu was shocked at the sexism in American society when she learned that at Michigan women were not even allowed to use the front entrance, and decided that she would prefer to study at the more liberal Berkeley in California. Wu was also influenced by her interest in the Berkeley facilities which included the first cyclotron of Lawrence, but her decision would disappoint Dong who studied at Michigan on her own. Yuan took her to see Raymond T. Birge, the head of the physics department, and he offered Wu a place in the graduate school despite the fact that the academic year had already commenced. Wu firmly abandoned her plans to study at Michigan and enrolled at Berkeley. Her Berkeley classmates included Robert R. Wilson, who like others secretly admired Wu, and George Volkoff; her closest friends included post-doctoral student Margaret Lewis and Ursula Schaefer, a history student who chose to remain in the United States rather than return to Nazi Germany. Wu sorely missed Chinese cuisine and was not impressed with the food at Berkeley, so she always dined with friends such as Schaeffer at her favorite restaurant, the Tea Garden. Wu and her friends would get free meals that were not part of the menu due to her friendship with the owner. Wu applied for a scholarship at the end of her first year, but there was prejudice against Asian students from the department head Birge, and Wu and Yuan were instead offered a readership with a lower stipend. Yuan then applied for, and secured, a scholarship at Caltech. Birge however respected Wu for her talents and was the reason Wu could enroll even though the academic year already started.\nWu made rapid progress in her education and her research. Although Lawrence was officially her supervisor, she also worked closely with the famous Italian physicist Emilio Segrè. She quickly became his favorite student and the two conducted studies on beta decay, including xenon, which would provide important results in the future of nuclear bombs. According to Segrè, Wu was a popular student who was talented and quite attractive to many males. In his autobiography, Nobel laureate Luis Alvarez said of Wu, I got to know this graduate student in this idle time. She used the same room next door, and was called \"Gee Gee\" [Wu's nickname at Berkeley]. She was the most talented and most beautiful experimental physicist I have ever met. Segrè recognized Wu's brilliance and compared her to Wu's heroine Marie Curie, whom Wu always quoted, but said that Wu was more \"worldly, elegant, and witty.\" Meanwhile, Lawrence described Wu as \"the most talented female experimental physicist he had ever known, and that she would make any laboratory shine.\" When it came time to present her thesis in 1940, it had two separate parts presented in very neat fashion. The first was on bremsstrahlung, the electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration of a charged particle when deflected by another charged particle, typically an electron by an atomic nucleus, with the latter being on radioactive Xe. She investigated the first study using beta-emitting phosphorus-32, a radioactive isotope easily produced in the cyclotron that Lawrence and his brother John H. Lawrence were evaluating for use in cancer treatment and as a radioactive tracer. This marked Wu's first work with beta decay, a subject on which she would become an authority.The second part of the thesis was about the production of radioactive isotopes of Xe produced by the nuclear fission of uranium with the 37-inch and 60-inch cyclotrons at the Radiation Laboratory. Her second part on Xe and nuclear fission so impressed her committee, which featured Lawrence and J. Robert Oppenheimer, whom Wu affectionately called, \"Oppie\", that Oppenheimer believed that Wu knew everything about the absorption cross section of neutrons, a concept that would be applied when Wu joined the Manhattan Project.\nWu completed her PhD in June 1940, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, the US academic honor society. In spite of Lawrence and Segrè's recommendations, she could not secure a faculty position at a university, so she remained at the Radiation Laboratory as a post-doctoral fellow. Because of her early achievements, the Oakland Tribune released an issue on her entitled \"Outstanding Research in Nuclear Bombardments by a Petite Chinese Lady\". The report quipped, A petite Chinese girl worked side by side with some top US scientists in the laboratory studying nuclear collisions. This girl is the new member of the Berkeley physics research team. Ms. Wu, or more appropriately Dr. Wu, looks as though she might be an actress or an artist or a daughter of wealth in search of Occidental culture. She could be quiet and shy in front of strangers, but very confident and alert in front of physicists and graduate students. China is always on her mind. She was so passionate and excited whenever \"China\" and \"democracy\" were referred to. She is preparing to return and contribute to the rebuilding of China. Her plans would have to change when the Second World War began.\n\n\n=== World War II and the Manhattan Project ===\n\nWu and Yuan were married at the home of Robert Millikan, Yuan's academic supervisor and the President of Caltech, on May 30, 1942. Neither the bride's nor the groom's families were able to attend due to the outbreak of the Pacific War. Wu and Yuan moved to the East Coast of the United States, where Wu became an assistant professor at Smith College, a private women's college in Northampton, Massachusetts, while Yuan worked on radar for RCA. She found the job frustrating, as her duties involved teaching only, and there was no opportunity for research. She appealed to Lawrence, who wrote letters of recommendation to a number of universities. Smith responded by making Wu an associate professor and increasing her salary. She accepted a job from Princeton University in New Jersey as the first female faculty member in the history of the physics department, where she taught for officers of the navy.\n\nIn March 1944, Wu joined the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories at Columbia University. She lived in a dormitory there, returning to Princeton on the weekends. The role of the SAM Laboratories, headed by Harold Urey, was to support the Manhattan Project's gaseous diffusion (K-25) program for uranium enrichment. Wu worked alongside James Rainwater in a group led by William W. Havens, Jr., whose task was to develop radiation detector instrumentation.\nIn September 1944, Wu was contacted by the Manhattan District Engineer, Colonel Kenneth Nichols. Wu was frustrated with her lack of professorships and volunteered to help out in the project. In the beginning, Wu was assigned to check the radiation effect of the reactor by building her own instruments; later, however, she was contacted for a much bigger role. The newly commissioned B Reactor, the first practical nuclear reactor ever built, which was located at the Hanford Site had run into an unexpected problem, starting up and shutting down at regular intervals. John Archibald Wheeler and partner Enrico Fermi suspected that a fission product, Xe-135, with a half-life of 9.4 hours, was the culprit, and might be a neutron poison or absorber. Segrè then remembered the 1940 PhD thesis that Wu had done for him at Berkeley on the radioactive isotopes of Xe and told Fermi to \"ask Ms. Wu\". The paper on the subject was still unpublished, but after Fermi contacted Wu, Segrè visited her dorm room together with Nichols and collected the typewritten draft prepared for the Physical Review. The suspicions of Fermi and Wheeler came true, Wu's paper unknowingly verified that Xe-135 was indeed the culprit for the B Reactor; it turned out to have an unexpectedly large neutron absorption cross-section. Wu, wary of her publication giving information to other nations on the arms race of the war, waited for a few months before November 1944, when she and Segrè submitted a complete study on these results, which was published months before the bombs were used the next year. Wu also used her findings in radioactive uranium separation to build the standard model for producing enriched uranium to fuel the atomic bombs at the Oak Ridge, Tennessee facility as well as build innovative Geiger counters. Wu, like most involved physicists in their later years, distanced herself from the Manhattan Project due to its destructive outcome and recommended to the Taiwanese president Chiang Kai-shek in 1962 to never build nuclear weapons. However, she was pleased to know that her family was safe in China. Years later, Wu in a rare occasion opened up on her involvement in building the bomb,Do you think that people are so stupid and self-destructive? No. I have confidence in humankind. I believe we will one day live together peacefully.\n\n\n=== Famous early experiments and academic leading career ===\n\nAfter the end of the war in August 1945, Wu accepted an offer of a position as an associate research professor at Columbia. She would remain at Columbia for the rest of her career, and was first named associate professor in 1952, which made her the first woman to become a tenured physics professor in university history.In November 1949, Wu experimented with the conclusions of Einstein's EPR thought experiment, which called quantum entanglement \"spooky action at a distance\". Wu was the first to establish the phenomenon and validity of entanglement using photons through observing angular correlation, as her result confirmed Maurice Pryce and John Clive Ward's calculations on the correlation of the quantum polarizations of two photons propagating in opposite directions. Specifically, the experiment carried out by Wu was the first important confirmation of quantum results relevant to a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox.\n\n\n== Civil war and permanent residency ==\n\nAfter the second world war, communication with China was restored, and Wu received a letter from her family, but plans to visit China were disrupted by the civil war. Due to the civil war and communist takeover led by Mao Zedong, Wu would not return to China until decades later to meet her surviving uncle and younger brother. Though Wu did not support Mao, she also did not particularly respect the now deposed president Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling. Wu found Soong to be class-conscious, while Chiang, now president of Taiwan, was too complacent with foreign affairs and willing to let Soong handle diplomatic issues for him. However she decided to lend a bit more support to the Republic of China or Taiwan, as her teacher Hu carried close ties with the old republic. Due to the war, many were displaced and younger students would leave for the United States, while scholars in America could not return home. She missed China deeply and would often go with Luke to buy fabric to make her own qipao as a way to remember the country, which she always wore under her lab coat.Wu was also busy at this time due to the birth of her son, Vincent, in 1947.(袁緯承). Vincent would later grow up to become a physicist like his parents and attend Columbia to follow Wu's footsteps. By the end of the civil war in 1949, Yuan joined the Brookhaven National Laboratory, and the family bought another home in Long Island. Yuan would regularly travel to Brookhaven in Long Island, and on weekends return to the family's Manhattan home near Columbia University where Wu worked as its first female physics professor. After the communists came to power in China that year, Wu's father wrote urging her not to return. Since her passport had been issued by the Kuomintang government, she found it difficult to travel abroad as places such as Switzerland did not recognize her passport. Sometimes her friend in Switzerland, physicist Wolfgang Pauli, had to secure her special visas just to enter the country. This eventually led to her decision to stay in the United States. With the help of Columbia chairman Charles H. Townes, Wu would become a US citizen in 1954.\n\n\n== Establishing beta decay ==\n\nIn her post-war research, Wu, now an established physicist, continued to investigate beta decay. Enrico Fermi had published his theory of beta decay in 1934, but an experiment by Luis Walter Alvarez had produced results at variance with the theory. Wu set out to repeat the experiment and verify the result. Wu was already heavily invested in working on beta decay as she took on the subject at UC Berkeley. In the year 1949, Wu completely established Fermi's theory and showed how beta decay worked, especially in creating electrons, neutrinos, and positrons. Supposedly, most of the electrons should come out of the nucleus at high speeds.\nAfter careful research, Wu suspected that the problem was that a thick and uneven film of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4) was being used as a copper-64 beta ray source, which was causing the emitted electrons to lose energy. To get around this, she adapted an older form of the spectrometer, a solenoidal spectrometer. She added detergent to the copper sulfate to produce a thin, even film. She then demonstrated that the discrepancies observed were the result of experimental error; her results were consistent with Fermi's theory. The speeds of the electrons that were commonly produced in experiments were now shown to be significantly slower. Thus by analyzing radioactive materials used by previous researchers, she proved that this was the cause of the problem and not from theoretical flaws. Wu thus established herself as the leading physicist on beta decay. Her work on beta decay became hugely beneficial to her later research and to modern physics in general.\n\n\n== Parity experiment ==\n\nAt Columbia, Wu knew the Chinese-born theoretical physicist Tsung-Dao Lee personally. In the mid-1950s, Lee and another Chinese theoretical physicist, Chen Ning Yang, grew to question a hypothetical law of elementary particle physics, the \"law of conservation of parity\". One example highlighting the problem was the puzzle of the theta and tau particles, two apparently differently charged, strange mesons. They were so similar that they would ordinarily be considered to be the same particle, but different decay modes resulting in two different parity states were observed, suggesting that Θ+ and τ+ were different particles, if parity is conserved:\n\nLee and Yang's research into existing experimental results convinced them that parity was conserved for electromagnetic interactions and for the strong interaction. For this reason, scientists had expected that it would also be true for the weak interaction, but it had not been tested, and Lee and Yang's theoretical studies showed that it might not hold true for the weak interaction. Lee and Yang worked out a pencil-and-paper design of an experiment for testing conservation of parity in the laboratory. Because of her expertise in choosing and then working out the hardware manufacture, set-up, and laboratory procedures, Wu then informed Lee that she could carry out the experiment.\nWu chose to do this by taking a sample of radioactive cobalt-60 and cooling it to cryogenic temperatures with liquid gases. Cobalt-60 is an isotope that decays by beta particle emission, and Wu was also an expert on beta decay. The extremely low temperatures were needed to reduce the amount of thermal vibration of the cobalt atoms to almost zero. Also, Wu needed to apply a constant and uniform magnetic field across the sample of cobalt-60 in order to cause the spin axes of the atomic nuclei to line up in the same direction. For this cryogenic work, she needed the facilities of the National Bureau of Standards and its expertise in working with liquid gases, and traveled to its headquarters in Maryland with her equipment to carry out the experiments.Lee and Yang's theoretical calculations predicted that the beta particles from the cobalt-60 atoms would be emitted asymmetrically and the hypothetical \"law of conservation of parity\" was invalid. Wu's experiment showed that this is indeed the case: parity is not conserved under the weak nuclear interactions. Θ+ and τ+ are indeed the same particle, which is today known as a kaon, K+. This result was soon confirmed by her colleagues at Columbia University in different experiments, and as soon as all of these results were published—in two different research papers in the same issue of the same physics journal—the results were also confirmed at many other laboratories and in many different experiments.The discovery of parity violation was a major contribution to particle physics and the development of the Standard Model. The discovery actually set the stage for the development of the model, as the model relied on the idea of symmetry of particles and forces and how particles can sometimes break that symmetry. The wide coverage of her discovery prompted the discoverer of fission Otto Frisch to mention that those at Princeton would often say that her experiment was the most impactful since the Michelson-Morley experiment that inspired Einstein's Theory of Relativity. The AAUW called it the solution to the biggest riddle in science. Beyond showing the distinct characteristic of weak interaction from the other three conventional forces of interaction, this eventually led to the general CP violation or the violation of the charge conjugation parity symmetry. This violation meant researchers could distinguish matter from antimatter and create a solution that would explain the existence of the universe as one that is filled with matter. This is because the lack of symmetry gave the possibility of matter-antimatter imbalance which would allow matter to exist today through the Big Bang. In recognition of their theoretical work, Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957. Wu's critical contribution providing the experimental confirmation proving the CP violation through her rigorous experiment was omitted by the Nobel committee. Yang and Lee tried to nominate Wu for a future Nobel prize and thanked her in their speeches. She was nominated at least seven times before 1966, when the Nobel committee announced they would conceal their list of nominees to avoid further public controversy.1988 Nobel laureate Jack Steinberger frequently called it the biggest mistake of the Nobel committee. Wu's role in the discovery was not publicly honored until 1978, when she was awarded the inaugural Wolf Prize. \nWu's friend Pauli, who was notable for being the creator of the Pauli exclusion principle, was certain parity was true and was shocked with the discovery; he, like many other known physicists, he lost a large hypothetical bet for wagering against the eventual outcome. He later wrote about his feelings on the discovery to Princeton colleague John M. Blatt: \"I don't know whether anyone has written you as yet about the sudden death of parity. Miss Wu has done an experiment with beta-decay of oriented Co nuclei which shows that parity is not conserved in β decay. ... We are all rather shaken by the death of our well-beloved friend, parity.\" He later became even more confounded when he learned that Wu was denied the Nobel prize, and even believed that he had predicted the event through his dream analysis conducted by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung.\n\n\n== Weak force and conserved vector current ==\n\nWu quickly became a full professor in 1958, and later on was named the first Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1973. Some of her impish students called her the Dragon Lady, after the character of that name in the comic strip Terry and the Pirates due to Wu's strictness and high standards of excellence. Regardless of this, Wu actually treated her students like her children and often ate lunch with them as well as got to know their entourages. She would do this while working from 8 am to 7 or 8 in the evening, with her pay still very low until it was drastically increased after Robert Serber was installed as the new chairman. Her discoveries proved to be important in physics and her work even crossed over to biology and medicine, where her contributions became extremely influential to certain studies on the molecular changes in red blood cells that caused sickle-cell disease or anemia.In December 1962, Wu experimentally demonstrated a universal form and more accurate version of Fermi's old beta decay model, confirming the conserved vector current (CVC) hypothesis of Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann on the road to the Standard Model. She would release the results in the succeeding year. In this experiment, she was approached by Gell-Mann after he and Feynman realized they needed an expert on experimental physics to prove their hypothesis. Gell-Mann pleaded to Wu, \"How long did Yang and Lee pursue you to follow upon their work?\" Their hypothesis was influenced by Wu's demonstration that parity was not conserved, which brought other assumptions that physicists have made about the weak interaction into question. The question was if parity cannot be conserved in weak force interaction, then the conservation of charge conjugation could also be in dispute. Conservation and symmetry were basic laws that held true for electromagnetism, gravity, and the strong interaction, so it had been assumed for decades that they should also hold for the weak interaction until Wu debunked these laws. This was also crucial to the future discovery of the electroweak force.\nWu worked with a number of student assistants including Y.K. Lee, Mo Wei or L.W. Mo, and Lee Rong-Gen from Korea. Using a Van de Graaff accelerator at Columbia with proton, heavy hydrogen, and helium beams, they were able to perform their notable experiment. The beta ray spectra were measured in the magnetometer spectroscopy fifty feet from the accelerator. The beta decay sources B-12 and N-12 were produced in the magnetometer. The laboratories were locked during midnight and Mo had to create a duplicate key for everyone to sneak in and out of the laboratory during the wee hours of the morning. Mo would escort Wu to her Manhattan apartment home. Wu's discovery was presented at the Hilton hotel on January 26, 1963. Wu was pleased with the achievement and mentioned that it gave a complete foundation for Fermi's theory of beta decay as well as provide support for the theory of the two-component neutrino, which her parity experiment first established. Feynman was very happy with the announcement and was so proud of the outcome that he called the CVC theory, together with his diagram and work in quantum electrodynamics, one of his finest scientific accomplishments. Later in the 1960s, Wu conducted more experiments on beta decay, specifically on double beta decay. She went inside a 2,000 ft deep salt mine below Lake Erie in Ohio to investigate on muonic atoms in which muons take the place of\nelectrons in normal atoms. The work conducted here would paved the way for its future discovery in the 1980s.Wu later wrote a textbook with Steven Moszkowski entitled Beta Decay, which was published in 1966. It was the first comprehensive study on beta decay, and the book quickly became the standard reference on the subject; it remains one of the standard references in the 21st century.\n\n\n== Later years and social advocacy ==\n\nWu's older brother died in 1958. Her father died the next year, and her mother would follow him in 1962. The United States State Department had imposed severe restrictions on travel to Communist countries by its citizens, so Wu was not permitted to visit mainland China to attend their funerals. She saw her uncle, Wu Zhou-Zhi, and younger brother, Wu Chien-Hao, on a trip to Hong Kong in 1965. After the 1972 Nixon visit to China, relations between the two countries improved, and she visited China again in 1973. Wu nearly visited in 1956, but decided to stay in the US to finish her famous experiment while her husband visited China. By the time she returned, her uncle and brother had perished in the Cultural Revolution, and the tombs of her parents had been destroyed. She was greeted by Zhou Enlai, who personally apologized for the destruction of the tombs. After this, she returned to China and Taiwan several times.During the late 20th century, Wu continued to be seen as the top experimental physicist in the world and many continued to ask for her guidance in proving certain hypotheses. Herwig Schopper, who was the director general of CERN, commented that physicists believed \"if the experiment was done by Wu, it must be correct.\" She conducted experiments on Mössbauer spectroscopy and its application in the study of sickle-cell anemia. She researched on the molecular changes in the deformation of hemoglobins that cause this form of anemia. She also did research on magnetism in the 1960s. Wu would later work on Bell's theorem, which showed results that confirmed the orthodox interpretation of quantum mechanics.\nIn later life, Wu became more outspoken. She protested the imprisonment in Taiwan of the in-laws of physicist Kerson Huang in 1959 and of the journalist Lei Chen in 1960. With the help of her teacher Hu Shih, Huang's in-laws were eventually released on bail. Lei's sentence was reduced to ten years by President Chiang Kai-shek. In 1964, she spoke out against gender discrimination at a symposium at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. \"I wonder,\" she asked her audience, \"whether the tiny atoms and nuclei, or the mathematical symbols, or the DNA molecules have any preference for either masculine or feminine treatment\", which garnered heavy applause from the audience. When men referred to her as Professor Yuan, she immediately corrected them and told them that she was Professor Wu. In 1975, physics department chairman Serber discovered that Wu had a much lower pay than her male colleagues but that she had never reported on it, so he adjusted her pay to make it equal to that of her male counterparts even if Wu only cared about the research at Columbia. Wu later quipped, In China there are many, many women in physics. There is a misconception in America that women scientists are all dowdy spinsters. This is the fault of men. In Chinese society, a woman is valued for what she is, and men encourage her to accomplishments, yet she remains eternally feminine. Wu's advocacies and conviction maintained a strong priority for the advancement of the sciences. Later in 1975 as the first female president of the American Physical Society, Wu met with President Gerald Ford to formally request him to create an advisory scientific body for the president, which President Ford granted and signed into law the formation of the Office of Science and Technology Policy.Wu also continued to be an advocate for human rights issues as she protested the crackdown in China that followed the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989. In 1978, she was awarded the first Wolf Prize in Physics. One of its criteria considered those who were thought deserving to win a Nobel Prize without receiving one. She retired in 1981 and became a professor emerita.\n\n\n== Final years and legacy ==\n\nWu would spend most of her time in her later years visiting China, Taiwan, and different American states. She became renowned for her steadfast promotion of teaching STEM subjects to all students regardless of gender or any other discriminating cause. Wu suffered a stroke on February 16, 1997, in New York City. An ambulance rushed her to St. Luke's–Roosevelt Hospital Center where she was pronounced dead. Her granddaughter, Jada Wu Hanjie, remarked \"I was young when I saw my grandmother, but her modesty, rigorousness and beauty were rooted in my mind. My grandmother had emphasized much enthusiasm for national scientific development and education, which I really admire.\"During her retirement, Columbia hosted a celebration \"to honor the First Lady of Physics\", which garnered a huge reception, and subsequently held a banquet at the Qian Jia Fu restaurant along Broadway. The Polish-American award-winning professor Isidor Rabi called Wu one who had made greater contributions to science than Marie Curie, in spite of her nickname as the \"Chinese Madame Curie\". Maurice Goldhaber later quipped, \"People avoid doing experiments in beta decay, simply because they know that Wu Chien-Shiung will do a better job than anybody!\" The other physicists were surveyed for their opinions on the finest female physicists, with Wu, Lise Meitner, and Curie coming in different orders depending on their standards; Leon Lederman noted that Curie and Wu were equally above Meitner while Valentine Telegdi ranked Wu first among female physicists. Regardless of the differing views, Wu was highly regarded by members of the scientific community.In accordance with her wishes, her ashes were buried in the courtyard of the Ming De School that her father had founded and that she had attended as a girl.\n\n\n== Honors, awards, and distinctions ==\n\nElected a fellow of the American Physical Society (1948)\nElected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1958)\nWu was the first woman with an honorary doctorate from Princeton University. The citation called Wu, \"top woman experimental physicist in the world\". (1958)\nAchievement Award, American Association of University Women (1959)\nHonorary degree from Smith College (1959)\nWu won the Research Corporation Award, and dedicated the award to her teacher Hu Shih. The award is now housed in Nangang District, Taipei, where Hu's memorial is located. Wu spent two hours at the memorial, which was built after Hu suddently collapsed and succumbed to a heart attack in the middle of a conference. Wu and her husband happened to be in that conference which was supposed to celebrate her career. (1958)\nJohn Price Wetherill Medal, The Franklin Institute (1962)\nAmerican Association of University Women Woman of the Year Award (1962)\nFirst female to win the Comstock Prize in Physics, National Academy of Sciences (1964)\nChi-Tsin Achievement Award, Chi-Tsin Culture Foundation (1965)\nReceived an Sc.D. from Yale University (1967)\nHonorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1969)\nWu was bestowed an honorary L.L.D. from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The citation stated, \"The charming lady who is being honoured on this occasion is reputed as the world's foremost female experimental physicist ... Dr. Wu has made one of the greatest contributions to the knowledge of the universe.\" (1969)\nFirst Pupin Professor in the history of Columbia University, which went with a citation that described Wu as \"the first lady of physics research\" (1973)\nScientist of the Year Award, Industrial Research magazine (1974)\nHonorary degree from Harvard University (1974)\nTom W. Bonner Prize, American Physical Society (1975)\nFirst female president of the American Physical Society (1975)\nHonorary doctorate from Dickinson College (1975)\nFirst female to be honored with the National Medal of Science in Physics, which is the highest presidential honor for American scientists (1975)\nFirst person selected to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics (1978)\nWoman of the Year award from the St. Vincent Culture Foundation under UNESCO, which was presented by the president of Italy (1981)\nHonorary degree from the University of Southern California (1982)\nHonorary degree from the University at Albany, SUNY\nHonorary degree from Columbia University (1982)\nLifetime Achievement Award from Radcliffe College, Harvard University\nHonorary professorship from the University of Padua, where Wu was asked to deliver a lecture in the same hall as the Renaissance astronomer Galileo Galilei (1984)\nGolden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1984)\nWu received only the second Blue Cloud Award from the Institute of China for her outstanding contributions to cultural exchanges between China and America. (1985)\nTo celebrate the centennial of the creation of the Statue of Liberty, 80 distinguished Americans were chosen to be honored with the Ellis Island Medal of Honor. Wu was the only physicist in a group that featured Rosa Parks, Gregory Peck, and Muhammad Ali, whom she took a photo with on the day of the ceremony. (1986)\nAwarded only the second mayor's award of honor from then-New York City mayor Ed Koch (1986)\nHonorary degree from National Central University (1989)\nHas an asteroid (2752 Wu Chien-Shiung) named after her (1990)\nPupin Medal, Columbia University (1991)\nWu was awarded the Science for Peace prize from the Ettore Majorana Centre for Scientific Culture in Erice, Italy \"for her intense and vast scientific activity that has permitted the understanding of weak forces and for her engagement in the promotion of the role of women in science.\" The Ettore Majorana Centre, founded by the Sicilian government in 1963, is known worldwide for its scholarly meetings and graduate institutes with a membership of more than 56,000 scientists from over 100 nations. (1992)\nElected one of the first foreign academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1994)\nNobel laureates Chen-Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Samuel C. C. Ting, and Yuan Tse Lee, together with other top physicists, established the Wu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation with the goal of promoting science to youths in Chinese communities worldwide. The foundation holds camps every summer that invite the top students in Science to participate, with many Nobel laureates of any ethnicity usually speaking in the camp's lectures. Competitions and face-to-face discussions are usually held with prestigious scholarships serving as the top prizes. Dialogues are all in Mandarin with professional translators who are hired to translate from other languages in real time. (1995)\nInducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame (1998)\nSoutheast University, one of the successors of National Central University, opened a college named in her honor. Wu was previously honored as an honorary professor in the university in 1990. (2003)\nThe Taicang Normal School of Jiangsu Province was renamed into the \"Suzhou Chien-shiung Institute of Technology\" in her honor. (2004)\nFirst female nuclear and particle physicist to be honored with a street name at CERN called, Route C.S. Wu, and the second woman given the honor after Marie Curie (2004)\nMingde Middle School held a memorial ceremony at Wu's cemetery located in the school campus. The 1,300 sq m cemetery was designed as a rounded viewing stand surrounded by flowers and trees, and was built by Southeast University in collaboration with the famous architect Ioeh Ming Pei. An educational activity titled \"Promoting the Scientific Spirit of Chien-Shiung, and Be a Person of Moral Integrity\" was launched among primary and middle school students across the city. Honorary president Jada Wu Hanjie was in attendance, as she habitually visited the school every month. The ceremony was sponsored by the Taicang municipal government. (2012)\nThe Suzhou Chien-shiung Institute of Technology celebrated Wu's 100th birthday with a 23-foot bronze statue that weighed 8 tons at the center of the school in front of Xinjing lake, where it is surrounded by pine trees and cypresses. It was designed by Professor Zhang Yonghao and was based on her visit to the White House in the 1970s. Together with the statue was the inauguration of the Chien-Shiung Wu museum in the school. Other monuments, structures, and edifices include a stone inscription of Wu's biography, a large park called the Knowledge Square, and plenty of other tributes. (2012)\nPortrait was added into New York City Hall (2020)\nFor the centennial of the 19th amendment that gave suffragettes the right to join fair elections, Time magazine released the 100 Women of the Year. This list was to represent each woman of the year from 1920 to 2019. The woman of the year would be the female counterpart to the disused, so-called \"man of the year\" that Time changed to \"person of the year\". Wu was on the magazine cover where she was called the woman of the year in 1945 for her crucial role in the Manhattan Project. This was the same year when US President Harry Truman was labeled man of the year for fully utilizing the very bomb Wu built, which he tested on Japan. (2020)\nWu became only the eighth full-time physicist to be honored with a United States Postal Service postage stamp. The others include John Bardeen, Feynman, Fermi, Millikan, Einstein, and Josiah Gibbs. (2021)\nThe United States Postal Service issued a Forever stamp featuring a portrait of Wu, designed by Ethel Kessler with art from Kam Mak. (2021)\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nWu, C.-S. (1950). \"Recent Investigation of the Shapes of β-Ray Spectra\". Reviews of Modern Physics. 22 (4): 386–398. Bibcode:1950RvMP...22..386W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.22.386.\nWu, C. S.; Moszkowski, S. A. (1966). Beta Decay. New York: Interscience Publishers. LCCN 65-21452. OCLC 542299.\nWu, C.-S. (1975). \"Can We Save Basic Research?\". Physics Today. 281 (12): 88. Bibcode:1975PhT....28l..88W. doi:10.1063/1.3069274.\n\n\n== See also ==\nTimeline of women in science\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\nChiang, Tsai-Chien (2014). Madame Chien-Shiung Wu: The First Lady of Physics Research. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4374-84-2.\nCooperman, Stephanie H. (2004). Chien-Shiung Wu: Pioneering Physicist and Atomic Researcher. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8239-3875-9.\nGardner, Martin (2005). The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry from Mirror Reflections to Superstrings. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-4864-4244-0.\nHammond, Richard (2007). Chien-Shiung Wu: Pioneering Nuclear Physicist. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8160-6177-8.\nHeilbron, J. L.; Seidel, Robert W. (1989). Lawrence and his Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06426-3. OCLC 19455957. Retrieved May 24, 2015.\nMcGrayne, Sharon Bertsch (1998). Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (Revised ed.). Joseph Henry Press. pp. 254–260. ISBN 978-0-309-07270-0.\nWang, Zuoyue (1970–1980). \"Wu Chien-Shiung\". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 25. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 363–368. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nReynolds, Moira Davison (2004). American Women Scientists: 23 Inspiring Biographies, 1900–2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2161-9. OCLC 60686608.\nTeresa, Robeson (2019). Queen of Physics: How Wu Chien Shiung Helped Unlock the Secrets of the Atom. Sterling Children's Books. illustrated by Rebecca Huang. New York. ISBN 978-1-4549-3220-8. OCLC 1086482902. (won the Asian/Pacific American Awards for Literature for Picture Books in 2020.)\n\n\n== External links ==\nWu Chien-Shiung Education Foundation\nEulogy-biography (Columbia University)\nThe Fall of Parity Photo Gallery with Short Biographies, NIST\nOptional view: large-scale black & white photo from the above\nWu, Chien-Shiung National Women's Hall of Fame\nE-Book: Madame Wu Chien-Shiung\nChien-Shiung Wu\nMedal of Science: Wu Chien-Shiung\nConfidence and Crises in the Second World War: Chien-Shiung Wu\nLegendary Scientists: Chien-Shiung Wu\nChien-Shiung Wu, Notable Chinese-American Scientist" ] }

{ "title": [ "Something to Hide", "Yau Nai-hoi", "Pal Joey (film)", "Australian+Directors+Guild", "The Teahouse (film)", "Mike Erwin", "America's Most Wanted", "Antony Szeto", "/Film", "Shed Skin Papa", "Truth or Dare (2018 film)", "10th Writers Guild of America Awards", "The Edge of Seventeen", "Alastair Reid (director)", "7th Heaven (TV series)", "Big+Brother+Cheng+%28film%29", "Hayden Szeto", "36th Hong Kong Film Awards", "2018 Teen Choice Awards" ], "text": [ "Something to Hide (in the U.S. also reissued as Shattered), is a 1972 British thriller film, written and directed by Alastair Reid, based on a 1963 novel by Nicholas Monsarrat. The film stars Peter Finch, Shelley Winters, Colin Blakely, Linda Hayden and Graham Crowden. Finch plays a man harassed by his shrewish wife (Winters) who, after picking up a pregnant teenage hitchhiker (Hayden), is driven to murder and madness. The film was not released commercially in the United States until 1976.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nPeter Finch as Harry Field\nShelley Winters as Gabriella\nColin Blakely as Blagdon\nJohn Stride as Sergeant Tom Winnington\nLinda Hayden as Lorelei\nHarold Goldblatt as Dibbick\nRosemarie Dunham as Elsie\nHelen Fraser as Miss Bunyan\nJack Shepherd as Joe Pepper\nGraham Crowden as Lay Preacher\n\n\n== References ==", "Yau Nai-hoi (Chinese: 游乃海; pinyin: You Nai Hai) is a Hong Kong screenwriter and director. He is best known as a frequent screenwriter for films produced by the independent Hong Kong production company Milkyway Image, notably films directed by Johnnie To and Wai Ka-Fai. Yau often collaborates with fellow Milkyway Image writers Wai Ka-Fai, Szeto Kam-Yuen, Au Kin-Yee and Yip Tin-Shing. His directorial debut arrived with the 2007 film Eye in the Sky.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\nBlind Detective (2013) (writer)\nDrug War (2012) (writer)\nRomancing in Thin Air (2012) (writer)\nLife Without Principle (2011) (writer)\nDon't Go Breaking My Heart (2011) (writer)\nTactical Unit – Comrades in Arms (2009) (writer)\nTriangle (2007) (writer)\nEye in the Sky (2007) (director) (writer)\nElection 2 (a.k.a. Triad Election) (2006) (writer)\nElection (2005) (writer)\nThrow Down (2004) (writer)\nRunning on Karma (2003) (writer)\nTurn Left, Turn Right (2003) (writer)\nPTU (2003) (writer)\nLove For All Seasons (2003) (writer)\nMy Left Eye Sees Ghosts (2002) (writer)\nFat Choi Spirit (2002) (writer)\nRunning Out of Time 2 (2001) (writer)\nLove on a Diet (2001) (writer)\nWu yen (2001) (writer)\nNeeding You... (2000) (writer)\nHelp!!! (2000) (writer)\nThe Mission (1999) (writer)\nRunning Out of Time (1999) (writer)\nWhere a Good Man Goes (1999) (writer)\nA Hero Never Dies (1998) (writer)\nExpect the Unexpected (1998) (writer)\nThe Longest Nite (1998) (writer)\nLifeline (1997) (writer)\nA Moment of Romance III (1996) (writer)\nLoving You (1995) (writer)\nThe Bare-Footed Kid (1993) (writer)\n\n\n== Awards ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nYau Nai-hoi at IMDb", "Pal Joey is a 1957 American musical comedy film directed by George Sidney, loosely adapted from the Rodgers and Hart musical play of the same name, and starring Rita Hayworth, Frank Sinatra, and Kim Novak. Jo Ann Greer sang for Hayworth, as she had done previously in Affair in Trinidad (1952) and Miss Sadie Thompson (1953). Novak's singing voice was dubbed by Trudy Stevens. The choreography was managed by Hermes Pan. Nelson Riddle handled the musical arrangements for the Rodgers and Hart standards \"The Lady Is a Tramp\", \"I Didn't Know What Time It Was\", \"I Could Write a Book\", and \"There's a Small Hotel\".\nSinatra won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role as the wise-cracking, hard-bitten Joey Evans. Along with its strong box-office success, Pal Joey earned four Academy Award nominations and one Golden Globe Award nomination. \nPal Joey is one of Sinatra's few post-From Here to Eternity films in which he did not receive top billing, which surprisingly went to Hayworth. Sinatra was, by this time, a bigger star, and his title role was predominant. When asked about the billing, Sinatra replied, \"Ladies first.\" He was quoted as saying that, as it was a Columbia film, Hayworth should have top billing because \"For years, she was Columbia Pictures\" and that with regard to being billed \"between\" Hayworth and Novak: \"That's a sandwich I don't mind being stuck in the middle of.\" As Columbia's biggest star, Hayworth had been top-billed in every film since Cover Girl in 1944, but her tenure was to end in 1959 with Gary Cooper in They Came to Cordura.\nSinatra's earnings from the film paid for his new home in Palm Springs. He was so delighted that he also built a restaurant there dedicated to the film, named Pal Joey's.\n\n\n== Plot ==\n\nThe setting is San Francisco; Joey Evans (Frank Sinatra) is a second-rate singer, a heel known for his womanizing ways (calling women \"mice\"), but charming and funny. When Joey meets Linda English (Kim Novak), a naive chorus girl, he has stirrings of real feelings. However, that does not stop him from romancing a former flame and ex-stripper (Joey says, \"She used to be 'Vera Vanessa the undresser...with the Vanishing Veils'\"), now society matron Vera Prentice-Simpson (Rita Hayworth), a wealthy, willful, and lonely widow, in order to convince her to finance Chez Joey, a night club of his own.\nSoon Joey is involved with Vera, each using the other for his/her own somewhat selfish purposes. however, Joey's feelings for Linda are growing. Ultimately, Vera jealously demands that Joey fire Linda. When Joey refuses (\"Nobody owns Joey but Joey\"), Vera closes down Chez Joey. Linda visits Vera and agrees to quit in an attempt to keep the club open. Vera then agrees to open the club and even offers to marry Joey, but Joey rejects Vera. As Joey is leaving for Sacramento, Linda runs after him, offering to go wherever he is headed. After half-hearted refusals, Joey gives in, and they walk away together.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\nRita Hayworth as Vera Prentice-Simpson\nFrank Sinatra as \"Pal\" Joey Evans\nKim Novak as Linda English\nBarbara Nichols as Gladys\nBobby Sherwood as Ned Galvin\nJudy Dan as hat check girl (uncredited)\nHank Henry as Mike Miggins\n\n\n== Notable changes ==\nThe happy ending of the film contrasts with the conclusion of the stage musical, where Joey is left alone at the end.\nThe transformation of Joey into a \"nice guy\" diverges from the stage musical, where Joey's character is an anti-hero. Joey is also older in the film—on stage he was played by 28-year old Gene Kelly; here, 42-year old Sinatra takes the reins. \nThe film differs from the stage musical in other key points: the setting was moved from Chicago to San Francisco, and the stage Joey was a dancer. The plot of the film drops a blackmail attempt, and two roles prominent on stage were changed: Melba (a reporter) was cut, and Gladys became a minor character. Linda became a naive chorus girl instead of an innocent stenographer and some of the lyrics to \"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered\" were changed. Also in the film, Vera Prentice-Simpson is a wealthy widow and former stripper (billed as Vanessa the Undresser) and thus gets to sing the song \"Zip\". (Since that number requires an authentic burlesque drummer to mime the bumps and grinds, the extra playing the drums is disconcertingly swapped with a professional musician in a jump cut).\n\n\n== Song list ==\nOf the original 14 Rodgers and Hart songs, eight remained, but with two as instrumental background, and four songs were added from other shows.\nPal Joey: Main Title\n\"That Terrific Rainbow\" - chorus girls and Linda English\n\"I Didn't Know What Time It Was\" (introduced in the 1939 musical Too Many Girls) - Joey Evans\n\"Do It the Hard Way\" - orchestra and chorus girls\n\"Great Big Town\" - Joey Evans and chorus girls\n\"There's a Small Hotel\" (introduced in the 1936 musical On Your Toes) - Joey Evans\n\"Zip\" - Vera Simpson\n\"I Could Write a Book\" - Joey Evans and Linda English\n\"The Lady Is a Tramp\" (introduced in the 1937 musical Babes in Arms) - Joey Evans\n\"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered\" - Vera Simpson\n\"Plant You Now, Dig You Later\" - orchestra\n\"My Funny Valentine\" (introduced in the 1937 musical Babes in Arms) - Linda English\n\"You Mustn't Kick It Around\" - orchestra\nStrip Number - \"I Could Write a Book\" -Linda English\nDream Sequence and Finale: \"What Do I Care for a Dame\"/\"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered\"/\"I Could Write a Book\" - Joey Evans\n\n\n== Soundtrack ==\nSome of the recordings on the soundtrack album featuring Sinatra only are not the same songs that appeared in the film. \"The Lady Is a Tramp\" is a mono-only outtake from Sinatra's 1957 album A Swingin' Affair!, while three others (\"There's a Small Hotel\", \"Bewitched\", and \"I Could Write a Book\") were recorded in mono only at Capitol Studios. \"I Didn't Know What Time It Was\" appeared in an odd hybrid: The first half of the song was recorded at Columbia Pictures but differs from the version used in the film, while the second half is the same as used in the film, also recorded at Columbia. \"What Do I Care for a Dame\" is the film version, as recorded at Columbia. The Sinatra songs as they appear in the film as well as those performed by Rita Hayworth and Kim Novak (both were dubbed), Jo Ann Greer (Hayworth) and Trudi Erwin (Novak) were recorded at Columbia Pictures studios in true stereo.\n\n\n=== Charts ===\n\n\n== Critical reception and box office ==\nOpening to positive reviews on October 25, 1957, Pal Joey was an instant success with critics and the general public alike. Variety stated, \"Pal Joey is a strong, funny entertainment. Dorothy Kingsley's screenplay, from John O'Hara's book, is skillful rewriting, with colorful characters and solid story built around the Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart songs. Total of 14 tunes are intertwined with the plot, 10 of them being reprised from the original. Others by the same team of cleffers are 'I Didn't Know What Time It Was', 'The Lady Is a Tramp', 'There's a Small Hotel' and 'Funny Valentine'.\"The New York Times stated, \"This is largely Mr. Sinatra's show...he projects a distinctly bouncy likeable personality into an unusual role. And his rendition of the top tunes, notably \"The Lady Is a Tramp\" and \"Small Hotel,\" gives added lustre to these indestructible standards.\"With theatrical rentals of $4.7 million in the United States and Canada, Pal Joey was ranked by Variety as one of the 10 highest-earning films of 1957. It earned rentals of $7 million worldwide.\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\nOther honors\nThe film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:\n\n2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:\n\"My Funny Valentine\" – Nominated\n2006: AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nMonder, Eric (1994). George Sidney: A Bio-Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-3132-8457-1.\n\n\n== External links ==\nPal Joey at IMDb\nPal Joey at AllMovie\nPal Joey at the American Film Institute Catalog\nPal Joey at the TCM Movie Database", "", "The Teahouse is a 1974 Hong Kong crime drama directed by Kuei Chih-Hung. Written by On Szeto, the film is about an immigrant restaurant owner trying to protect his family from juvenile gangs. It was such a hit that the film was followed by a 1975 sequel, Big Brother Cheng, with kung fu star Kuan Tai Chen reprising the eponymous role.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nThe Teahouse at IMDb", "Mike Erwin (born August 31, 1978) sometimes credited as Michael Erwin, is an American actor who is best known for playing Colin Hart from 2002 to 2006 in the WB television series Everwood.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nErwin was born in Dalton, Georgia, on August 31, 1978. He graduated from James Martin High School.\n\n\n== Career ==\nHe has been more widely heard as the voice of Jak in the Jak and Daxter series from Jak II onward except in the case of Jak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier and PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale. He is the voice of Speedy in Teen Titans. He has been a guest star on many TV shows and has also appeared in film.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n=== Film ===\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n=== Video games ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMike Erwin at IMDb", "America's Most Wanted (often abbreviated as AMW) is an American television program whose first run was produced by 20th Television, and second run is under the Fox Alternative Entertainment division of Fox Corporation. At the time of its cancellation by the Fox television network in June 2011, it was the longest-running program in the network's history (24 seasons), a mark since surpassed by The Simpsons, although the program was revived ten years later. The show started off as a half-hour program on February 7, 1988. In 1990, the show's format was changed from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. The show's format was reverted to 30 minutes in 1995, and then back to 60 minutes in 1996. A short-lived syndicated spinoff titled America's Most Wanted: Final Justice aired during the 1995–96 season.\nThe following September, the show's host, John Walsh, announced that it would resume later that year on the cable network Lifetime, where it ran until its March 28, 2013 cancellation. This was reportedly due to low ratings and the level of royalty payments to Fox which holds the trademark and copyright. It was succeeded by John Walsh Investigates, a one-off special on Lifetime.\nThe show featured reenactments of dangerous fugitives that are portrayed by actors, interspersed with on-camera interviews, with Walsh in a voiceover narration. Each episode also featured photographs of dangerous fugitives, as well a toll-free hotline number where viewers could give information at 1-800-CRIME-TV (1-800-274-6388). On 2 May 2008, the program's website announced its 1,000th capture. Many of the series' cases have some connection outside the United States or have not taken place in the United States at all. The series' first international capture was in Nova Scotia in 1989. With Walsh at the helm, America's Most Wanted began to broaden its scope. In addition to the regular segments narrated by Walsh, the show expanded its segments and correspondents.\nThe first two-hour quarterly special aired on Saturday, October 29, 2011, on Fox. The second two-hour special aired on Saturday, December 17, 2011, the third two-hour special aired on Saturday, February 11, 2012, and the fourth and final two-hour special aired on Saturday, April 21, 2012.\nOn July 13, 2014, a successor premiered on CNN called The Hunt with John Walsh, which added more international stories to its predecessor. The series ran until the end of its fourth season on November 19, 2017. In 2019, Walsh began hosting the Investigation Discovery series In Pursuit with John Walsh.In January 2020, Fox announced plans to revive America's Most Wanted. The revival premiered on March 15, 2021 and is hosted by Elizabeth Vargas.\n\n\n== History ==\n\n\n=== Conception and early airing ===\n\nThe concept for America's Most Wanted originally came from a German show, Aktenzeichen XY ... ungelöst (German for File Reference XY ... Unsolved), that first aired in 1967, and the British show Crimewatch, first aired in 1984, with the US version conceived by Fox executive Stephen Chao and Executive Producer Michael Linder in the summer of 1987. Even earlier, however, CBS aired a three-month half-hour similar series hosted by Walter McGraw in the 1955–1956 season titled Wanted.\n\nWhile Linder was shooting the pilot episode in Indiana, Chao and Fox attorney Tom Herwitz conducted a hurried search for a host. Chao's first choice was former police officer and best-selling author Joseph Wambaugh, but Wambaugh refused, saying he didn't believe a national dragnet would work in the United States. Chao also considered asking then-recently resigned U.S. Attorney (and future New York City mayor) Rudolph Giuliani, former Virginia governor Chuck Robb and former Oklahoma governor Bob Curry before deciding a politician might use the show as a platform for personal political ambitions. Other potential candidates included former Marine Corps Commandant General P. X. Kelly, journalists Linda Ellerbee and Bob Woodward, and victims' advocate Theresa Saldana. Then, during a marathon telephone conference call, Herwitz suggested John Walsh. Walsh had gained publicity after his six-year-old son, Adam, was kidnapped and murdered in 1981. The crime had been the subject of the 1983 television film Adam, and Walsh's later advocacy had resulted in new legislation to protect missing children, as well as the creation of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. After lengthy discussions, Walsh agreed to host the pilot episode.America's Most Wanted debuted as a half-hour program on February 7, 1988, on the then-seven Fox owned and operated stations, located in New York; Los Angeles; Washington, D.C.; Houston; Chicago; Dallas; and Boston. Within four days of the first broadcast, FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive David James Roberts was captured as a direct result. He was a convicted killer who had recently escaped from prison by digging his way out with a small axe. This demonstrated the effectiveness of the show's \"Watch Television, Catch Criminals\" premise to skeptical law enforcement agencies. Ten weeks later, the program premiered nationwide on the Fox network and became the fledgling network's first hit series. In 1990, the show's format was changed from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. The show was cut back to 30 minutes in 1995, and back to 60 minutes in 1996. From 1995 to 1996, a short-lived syndicated spinoff titled America's Most Wanted: Final Justice aired.\nThe announcer heard on the show from 1996 until his death in 2008 was well-known voice-over artist Don LaFontaine. The first new episode aired after his death was dedicated to him. He was replaced by voice actor Wes Johnson, who served in the role until end of the show's run.\nNotable writers have included Peter Koper and Greg Scott.\n\n\n=== Logos ===\nThe show's first logo ran from 1988 to 1990, which consisted of an eagle sitting on a tree branch in a circle, with lines, stars, and zigzags below, and it has \"AMERICA'S MOST WANTED\" written on it. The show's second and final logo ran from 1990 to 2012, which would be used for the rest of the show's run. In 1996, the show was retitled America's Most Wanted: America Fights Back, which ran until 2003. Its current logo utilizes the popular motif of utilizing the Stars and Stripes of the American flag as the \"E\" in \"America's\".\n\n\n=== 1996 cancellation and revival ===\nThe program was canceled for a month and a half in the fall of 1996, per a decision made the previous spring in the wake of high production costs. In its place, Fox moved Married... with Children (then entering what soon became its final season) to 9/8c, with the new sitcom Love and Marriage following it at 9:30. Cops remained in its hour-long 8/7c block. However, protests from the public, law enforcement, and government officials, including the governors of 37 states, encouraged Fox to bring the show back, though low ratings for Married... and Love and Marriage ultimately sealed the return of AMW. Love and Marriage was canceled, and Married... was moved back to Sundays. In 1996, the show was retitled America's Most Wanted: America Fights Back, which ran until 2003. For the next 15 years afterward, the America's Most Wanted/COPS combination made Saturday evening Fox's most stable night, along with the longest unchanged primetime schedule on U.S. television as of 2011.\nOn March 6, 2010, Fox aired the 1,000th episode of America's Most Wanted, and Walsh interviewed then President Barack Obama at the White House. In the interview, they discussed the Obama Administration's crime-fighting initiatives, as well as the impact the show has had on law enforcement and crime prevention.\n\n\n=== Covering criminals in the War on Terrorism ===\nThe show expanded its focus so it could also cover criminals in the War on Terrorism when, on October 12, 2001, an episode which featured 22 most-wanted al-Qaeda operatives was aired. The show was put together due to a request by White House aides after the same list of men had been released to the nation two days earlier. However, the first show that focused mainly on terrorism aired after the September 11 attacks and was two hours long.\n\n\n=== From Fox to Lifetime ===\nOn May 16, 2011, Fox Entertainment President Kevin Reilly announced that after 23 years, America's Most Wanted, in its weekly format, would be canceled. The final weekly episode aired on June 18, 2011, though Reilly said four two-hour specials would air on Fox in the fall 2011 television season. However, Walsh said he was looking to other networks to keep the show going, saying he had \"many, many offers\" from other networks. Fox News Channel confirmed that its chairman Roger Ailes had been in preliminary discussions with Walsh about bringing the show to Fox News, but said \"nothing has been decided.\" On the final Fox episode, Walsh promised to continue the show elsewhere and told the Associated Press: \"I want to catch bad guys and find missing children—and we're not done.\"During the 2010–2011 season, the show averaged an audience of five million. Within hours of Fox's announcement of the show's cancellation, campaigns to save the show were started by fans through Facebook and Twitter, among other social networking sites.In September 2011, it was announced that Lifetime had picked up America's Most Wanted from Fox and it began airing on the former on December 2, 2011. On March 13, 2012, Lifetime ordered an additional 20 episodes. However, on March 28, 2013, it was announced that Lifetime had cancelled America's Most Wanted.\n\n\n=== 2021 revival ===\nIn January 2021, Fox announced that it would revive America's Most Wanted, with a new host Elizabeth Vargas, with the full endorsement of John Walsh, who could appear if contractual requirements with Discovery for his series In Pursuit are relaxed. The revival premiered on March 15, 2021, and includes augmented reality components to show a person's profile in full, including a full-body render of suspects or missing children as they were last seen or artificially aged, along with identifying features such as scars and tattoos. The toll-free number for tips changed to 833-3AMWTIP (833-326-9847) & the website changed to AMWTips.com as opposed to AMW.com, though the latter domain has remained under Fox's control since 1997. Tipsters' identities are anonymous, and as always, are eligible for a cash reward for information leading to the apprehension of criminal(s) involved. An extension series hosted by Nancy Grace, America's Most Wanted Overtime, will also be carried on the Fox Nation streaming service.\n\n\n== AMW Dirty Dozen ==\nThe AMW Dirty Dozen was John Walsh's list of notorious fugitives who had been profiled on the show who were at that time at large. It was similar in function, though not identical with, the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list; four of the Dirty Dozen were on the FBI's list.\nThese are the Dirty Dozen, as of January 8, 2013. Currently, there are 8 fugitives still wanted despite the idea of the list being John Walsh's 12 personal most wanted. The eleventh, Andre Neverson was arrested in 2018. Paul Jackson was arrested in 2015. Resort killer Beacher Ferrel Hackney was removed after his body was discovered in September 2012. Alleged murderer William Joseph Greer has also been removed from Walsh's Dirty Dozen before despite him seemingly still on the run.\n\nJason Derek Brown is wanted for the murder of an armored car driver and robbery of $56,000 in front of a movie theater in Phoenix, Arizona, on November 29, 2004. He is charged in Phoenix with first-degree murder and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution. He is believed to be in either British Columbia, or Mexico. On December 8, 2007, Brown was added to the FBI's Ten Most Wanted List.\nJose Fernando Corona is wanted out of Lewisville, TX for brutally murdering his wife with a chainsaw on April 26, 2010. The murder has shaken the quiet community to the core, particularly his daughter with whom he was close. Despite no criminal record, the otherwise mild-mannered father of six had a nervous breakdown and carried out this grisly act that was considered atypical of his character. Corona has since been on the run from the law, possibly hiding out with his friends in Friona.\nBerny Figueroa is wanted for the murder of two-year-old Alexia Lopez in Brenham, Texas. On March 11, 2008, Figueroa punched Lopez in the stomach, separating her large and small intestines at the daycare facility where she worked.\nRobert Fisher is wanted for the murder of his wife, Mary, and his children, Brittany and Bobby Jr. in Scottsdale, Arizona, on April 10, 2001, and then burning down their house to try to cover up the crime. He is also on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted List and is considered to be AMW's Public Enemy Number 1.\nAlexis Flores is wanted for the kidnapping and murder of five-year-old Iriana DeJesus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in July 2000. The DNA Match returned in March 2007. Flores was also placed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list on June 2, 2007.\nFrancisco Javier Lopez Gonzalez is wanted for the murder of his step son.\nElby Hars was wanted for sexually abusing young girls in Columbia, South Carolina. He had previously served time for sexually abusing his own daughter, Terri Hars. When he was released, he found young girls to abuse, leading to him going to prison.\nDaniel Hiers is wanted for the murder of his wife, Ludimila Hiers, in Goose Creek, South Carolina, in March 2005. He is also wanted for sexually abusing a child in Charleston, South Carolina, shortly before. Hiers, a former police officer, is on the U.S. Marshals 15 Most Wanted List, and they are offering a $10,000 reward for information leading to his capture. Hiers was arrested in 2018 in Shanghai, China after being on the run for 13 years.\nPaul Erven Jackson and sibling Vance Roberts were believed by police to have lured teenage girls to a homemade sex-torture chamber they built in the residence they once shared in Hillsboro, Oregon. While Roberts turned himself in and was sentenced to 108 years in prison, Jackson escaped in June 1990 and was on the run until September 2015. On September 28, 2015, he was arrested by immigration officials in Guadalajara, Mexico, where Jackson appeared to have been living for years using an alias. He was transported back to the U.S. and is currently awaiting trial on kidnapping charges in Hillsboro.\nAndre Neverson is wanted for the murders of his sister, Patricia Neverson, and his ex-girlfriend, Donna Davis, both in Brooklyn, New York, in July 2002. He is also on the U.S. Marshals 15 Most Wanted list. Neverson was captured on September 4, 2018.\nYaser Abdel Said was wanted for shooting his two teenage daughters to death in an \"honor killing\" on January 1, 2008, in Irving, Texas. He was also wanted for questioning in the girls' sexual abuse nearly a decade prior. He was added to the FBI's Ten Most Wanted List on December 4, 2014. On August 26, 2020, Said was captured in Justin, Texas.\n\n\n== Presumption of innocence ==\nGiven that a significant number of the fugitives on America's Most Wanted had yet to face trial in a criminal court, the show adhered to the presumption of innocence as afforded under the law. For this reason, in the cases where fugitives had not yet been convicted, John Walsh would always precede his narrative of the crime with the either the terms \"Police say...\", \"According to police...\", or other such similar terms followed by a description of the crime to which the person had allegedly committed.\nIn a handful of rare cases, America's Most Wanted profiled persons who were involved in controversial cases or who had fled to avoid prosecution on what they believed to be unfair or even framed charges. One female fugitive, who had fled to Canada, later had charges against her dismissed even after being profiled on the show. In another case, a judge ordered a change of venue for a suspected child murderer after learning that nearly the entire county had seen the suspect profiled on America's Most Wanted and believed him guilty. During its entire run, Walsh refused to ever issue a retraction, and never updated viewers on any fugitives who were later found not guilty of the crimes to which they had been profiled.\n\n\n== Timeline ==\n1988: America's Most Wanted debuted as a half-hour program on Fox, with David James Roberts as the show's first fugitive. The show originally aired on Sunday nights at 8:00e/7:00c.\n1989: The show marks its first international capture from Nova Scotia.\n1990: The 100th episode of America's Most Wanted airs. The show moved to Friday nights at 9:00e/8:00c. The show introduced a brand new logo, and the format changed from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. Original executive producer Michael Linder leaves the show, and Lance Heflin became executive producer.\n1992: The 200th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n1994: The 300th episode of America's Most Wanted airs. The show moved to Saturday nights at 9:00e/8:00c.\n1995: The show's format changed back to 30 minutes. America's Most Wanted: Final Justice debuts in first-run syndication.\n1996: The 400th episode of America's Most Wanted airs. America's Most Wanted: Final Justice ends. The show's format changed back to 60 minutes, and was retitled America's Most Wanted: America Fights Back, which stayed until 2003.\n1998: The 500th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2000: The 600th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2002: The 700th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2003: The show was reverted to America's Most Wanted, which would be used for the rest of the show's run.\n2005: The 800th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2006: The 900th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2010: The 1,000th episode of America's Most Wanted airs.\n2011: The last episode of America's Most Wanted airs on Fox. The show moved from Fox to Lifetime on Friday nights at 9:00e/8:00c, which stayed until the end of the series in 2012.\n2021: The first episode of the revival series, hosted by investigative journalist Elizabeth Vargas debuts on Fox. The show currently airs Monday nights at 9:00e/8:00c.\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nThe Simpsons season 1 episode \"Some Enchanted Evening\" featured a parody of America's Most Wanted called \"America's Most Armed and Dangerous\", which featured a profile of Ms. Botz, the Simpson's babysitter, who is nicknamed the Babysitter Bandit. In season six of The Simpsons, John Walsh appeared as the host of Springfield's Most Wanted, a fictitious version of America's Most Wanted which was designed to serve as a lead-in to the resolution to the \"Who Shot Mr. Burns?\" cliffhanger from the end of season six. It was also referenced during the episode Lisa’s Rival, in which the name of the character Millhouse van Houten is mentioned because he is going to be featured on the show. This event is reinforced by armed men who chase him multiple times in the episode.\nIn season six of The Golden Girls, the fictitious mobster The Cheese Man boasts that his most recent appearance on America's Most Wanted was the highest rated episode ever.In the 2019 science fiction action film Terminator: Dark Fate, Sarah Connor reveals that she was featured in an entire episode of America's Most Wanted and is wanted in fifty American states, due to escaping Pescadero State Hospital, destroying Cyberdyne Systems and allegedly killing Miles Dyson 25 years earlier.\nIn an episode of the sitcom 30 Rock, Liz Lemon mentions that she once appeared on America’s Most Wanted, playing a woman who was strangled on the toilet.\n\n\n== See also ==\nAktenzeichen XY … ungelöst, a similar program in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.\nCrimewatch, a similar program in the United Kingdom.\nCops, usually aired back-to-back with America's Most Wanted on the Fox Network\nEfterlyst, a similar program in Sweden.\nIndia's Most Wanted, an inspired program in India.\nLinha Direta, a similar program in Brazil.\nPolice Ten 7, a similar program in New Zealand.\nPolice Report, a similar program in Hong Kong.\nThe Hunt with John Walsh, a similar program which Walsh also hosts.\nUnsolved Mysteries, a similar program\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n Media related to America's Most Wanted at Wikimedia Commons\n\nOfficial website\nTips website\nAmerica's Most Wanted at IMDb\n\"America's Most Wanted\". Archived from the original on December 31, 1996. Retrieved March 9, 2010.CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)", "Antony Szeto 司徒永華, (born 9 December 1964) is a film director and martial artist. \n\n\n== Early life and education ==\nSzeto was born in Sydney, Australia. He studied martial arts at Beijing Sport University. Upon graduation, he returned to Australia and double-majored in film and finance at Bond University, going to the United Kingdom for his master's degree.\n\n\n== Career ==\nSzeto directed Hong Kong's first CGI animated feature film, DragonBlade (2005). Voiced by Daniel Wu, Karen Mok, Stephen Fung and Sandra Ng, DragonBlade earned a Golden Horse Awards nomination and won an award from the Australian Directors Guild. Szeto also directed a family action film produced by Jackie Chan, Jackie Chan Presents: Wushu (2008) starring Sammo Hung and Max Zhang. In 2011 Szeto was hired by the Hollywood producer Roger Corman to direct two films, Palace of the Damned (2013) and Fist of the Dragon (2014). Szeto was also stunt coordinator for The Meg.\n\n\n== Personal life ==\nOn 1 October 2019, Szeto married actress, JuJu Chan Szeto, in Los Angeles.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAntony Szeto on Instagram\nAntony Szeto on Facebook\nAntony Szeto at IMDb", "/Film, also stylized as Slashfilm, is a blog that covers movie news, reviews, interviews, and trailers. It was founded by Peter Sciretta in August 2005.\n\n\n== Podcasts ==\nSix podcasts have run on the site. The /Filmcast, hosted by David Chen, Devindra Hardawar, and Jeff Cannata airs weekly and focuses on a discussion of a recently released film, along with current film news and other related entertainment topics (Adam Quigley co-hosted the show with Chen and Hardawar from 2008 to 2013). In July 2021, the show became independent from the site and was rebranded The Filmcast. The Tobolowsky Files, hosted by Chen, features character actor Stephen Tobolowsky talking about his career, life and other topics. The JustifiedCast, also hosted by Chen, followed season 3 of the TV series Justified. A Cast of Kings is a podcast hosted by Chen and Joanna Robinson of Vanityfair.com in which they discuss and analyze each episode of Game of Thrones. The Ones Who Knock is Chen and Robinson's other podcast, where they dissect each episode of Breaking Bad. /Film Daily is hosted by Peter Sciretta and a rotating cast of /Film writers, where they discuss the days movie news.\n\n\n== Awards and nominations ==\n/Film won Total Film's Movie Blog Award in the Majors category.\nTime magazine named /Film one of the 25 Best Blogs of 2009.\nG4's Attack of the Show listed it as one of the Best Movie Blogs.\nPC Magazine listed the site in its Best Web Sites for Movie Fans.\n/Film won the Performancing Blog Award for \"Best Entertainment Blog of 2007.\"\nThe site was nominated for, and was a finalist for, Best Major Blog for the 2008 Weblog Awards.\nIt was nominated for \"Best Entertainment Weblog\" in the 2008 Bloggies.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "Shed Skin Papa is a 2016 Hong Kong comedy-drama film written by Norihiko Tsukada and Roy Szeto based on Tsuksda's Japanese play Nukegara, and directed by Szeto, who had previously directed an award-winning Hong Kong stage adaptation of the play titled Shed Skin in 2011. The film stars Louis Koo as a washed-out, debt-ridden film director who must take care of his seventy nine-year-old dementia-ridden father (Francis Ng), who begins to shed a layer a skin everyday where regains his youth. Shed Skin Papa made its world premiere at the 29th Tokyo International Film Festival on 26 October 2016 where it was shown in competition for the Tokyo Grand Prix The film was theatrically released in Hong Kong on 10 May 2018.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nWashed-out film director Tin Lik-hang (Louis Koo) is encountering a series of crisis in life. His mother has recently passed away, his film company is bankrupt and debt-ridden as a result, while wife wants a divorce. On the other hand, he must now take care of his 79-year-old dementia-ridden father, Yat-hung (Francis Ng). In the midst of Lik-hang's miserable plight, Yat-hung suddenly begins to shed a layer of skin every day like a cicada, each time making him look ten years younger, from ages 60 to 52 to 37 to 28 to 19. As Yat-hung approaches the same age as his son, they bond at a football stadium where they used to spend their weekends. Yat-hung even helps frighten debt collectors after his son, and charms both Lik-hang's wife and his mistress. With Yat-hung's six stages of life reappearing, Lik-hang, who never seriously got along with his father, was able to travel into the six eras of his father's life, and gain new understandings for his father, who struggled to make a better life for his family. Lik-hang also has the opportunity to have one final meal with his mother, before returning to his reality with passion anew to revive his own career and marriage after learning from the twists and turns experienced by his father.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nFrancis Ng as Tin Yat-hung (田一雄)\nLouis Koo as Tin Lik-hang (田力行)\nKristal Tin as Yam Sa-sa (任莎莎)\nJacky Cai as Chuk Lai-wah (祝麗華)\nJessie Li as Choi Chi-miu (蔡籽苗)\nPower Chan as Frankie\nChen Kuan-tai as Brother Tai (泰哥)\n\n\n== Production ==\nTo prepare for his role as Louis Koo's father, Francis Ng asked Koo whether he could meet Koo's father and had a meal with Koo and his father to observe their relationship and emulate it into his acting. Ng, whose role's age spans from youth to elderly, was initially only interested in playing the roles closest to his age, but was persuaded by director Roy Szeto to play all age versions of the role.\n\n\n== Accolades ==\n\n\n== References ==", "Truth or Dare, also known as Blumhouse's Truth or Dare, is a 2018 American supernatural horror film directed by Jeff Wadlow and written by Michael Reisz, Jillian Jacobs, Chris Roach, and Wadlow. The film stars Lucy Hale, Tyler Posey, Violett Beane, Hayden Szeto, Sophia Taylor Ali, and Landon Liboiron, and follows a group of college students who play a game of truth or dare while on vacation in Mexico, only to realize it has deadly consequences if they don't follow through on their tasks. Jason Blum produced through his Blumhouse Productions banner, and Universal Pictures distributed the film.\nReleased in theaters on Friday, April 13, 2018, the film received mostly negative reviews from critics, who said it was \"neither inventive nor scary enough to set itself apart from the decades of dreary slashers that came before it.\" Regardless, the film was a box office success, grossing $95 million worldwide against its $3.5 million production budget.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nOlivia Barron is a college senior who is seen by others as a good girl who always puts others' needs before her own. During her last spring break, although she initially plans to build houses with Habitat for Humanity, her best friend Markie convinces her to come to Mexico with their friends instead. At a bar, Olivia meets a man named Carter who invites them to go drinking at an abandoned church. There, Carter suggests they play truth or dare. During the game, their friend Tyson reveals that Olivia has a secret crush on Lucas, Markie's boyfriend, which she denies. Carter admits that he tricked them into playing a supernatural version of the game and warns them to do whatever the game asks or they will be killed.\nBack at school, Olivia sees hallucinations calling on her to pick truth or dare. She picks \"truth\" and blurts out that Markie has been serially unfaithful to Lucas. The friends learn that Ronnie, another friend, was forced to kill himself after failing to complete a dare. Lucas picks \"truth\" and admits that he has always had feelings for Olivia. Markie is forced to break Olivia's hand while their closeted friend Brad is forced to admit to his father that he is gay.\nTyson remains in disbelief of the reality of the game’s consequences. He is then killed when he lies during his turn. The group discovers a story online about a woman named Giselle who lit a woman on fire in Mexico while playing truth or dare. They arrange a meeting with her through social media. Giselle reveals that her friends were playing the game in that same church. One friend, Sam, got drunk and began trashing the place. When they got home, the game somehow continued and only she and Carter survived. Carter was dared to involve more players in the game to give themselves more time before it became their turn again. Giselle reveals that she has been dared to kill Olivia and tries to shoot her, but her friend Penelope dives in front and is killed instead. Having failed her dare, Giselle is forced to kill herself.\nOlivia is dared to sleep with Lucas. While they have sex, Lucas is forced to admit that while he cares about her, he is still in love with Markie. Olivia and Lucas drive to Tijuana and meet Inez, a former nun at the church who cannot speak. By writing on paper, Inez tells them how she summoned an ancient demon named Calux who possessed the game of Truth or Dare to save herself from a sadistic priest. However, Calux kept the game going and killed all her friends. She trapped Calux with a ritual involving cutting off her tongue and sealing it in a pot. The group realize Sam must have broken the pot and released Calux, and to trap him, they need to find Sam.\nBrad is dared to threaten his father with a gun. As he does so, he is shot and killed by an approaching officer. Olivia learns that Carter and Sam are the same person. She is dared to speak the truth and tells Markie that the night Markie's father killed himself, he had sexually assaulted Olivia and she had told him that Markie would be better off if he was dead. Though at first angry and hurt, Markie, after contemplating suicide with her father's handgun, forgives her friend, and tells her it is not her fault as her father had tried to kill himself before.\nOlivia, Markie, and Lucas find Sam and force him back to the ruins of the church. As Sam goes through the ritual to trap Calux, Lucas is dared to kill either Olivia or Markie. When he refuses, Calux possesses him and forces him to kill himself after killing Sam so the latter cannot complete the ritual. When Markie's turn comes, Olivia tells her to choose dare, then refuse to complete it. Calux possesses Markie, at which point Olivia forces Calux into the game by asking him to pick truth or dare. The demon is forced to tell the truth that there is no way they can make it out of the game alive because Sam is dead. They'll die unless they add more people to delay their next turn.\nOlivia uploads a YouTube video, in which she briefly warns viewers about the game and its rules. She then asks \"Truth or Dare,\" involving whoever hears the phrase into the game, delaying her and Markie's next turn for the time being.\n\n\n== Cast ==\nLucy Hale as Olivia Barron\nTyler Posey as Lucas Moreno\nViolett Beane as Markie Cameron\nHayden Szeto as Brad Chang\nLandon Liboiron as Carter / Sam Meehan\nNolan Gerard Funk as Tyson Curran\nSophia Taylor Ali as Penelope Amari\nSam Lerner as Ronnie\nAurora Perrineau as Giselle Hammond\nTom Choi as Officer Han Chang\nJoe Ochman as the voice of Callux\nVera Taylor as Inez Reyes\nEzmie Garcia as Young Inez Reyes\nAndrew Howard as Randall Himoff\nGary Anthony Williams as the voice of the demon\n\n\n== Production ==\n\n\n=== Development ===\nInitially, director Jeff Wadlow explained that he was hired to direct the film after spitballing an opening scene based on the film's title in his initial meetings with Blumhouse. Subsequently, he joined with his friend Chris Roach, and his wife, Jill Jacobs, and started thinking of ideas to approach the final concept.\n\n\n=== Filming ===\nPrincipal photography on the film began on June 7, 2017, and wrapped on July 12, 2017, in Los Angeles.\n\n\n== Release ==\nThe film was initially set for release on April 27, 2018. But in January 2018, the date was moved up two weeks and premiered on April 13, 2018. The official trailer for the film was released on January 3, 2018.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Box office ===\nTruth or Dare grossed $41.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $53.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $95.3 million, against a production budget of $3.5 million.In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Rampage and Sgt. Stubby: An American Hero, as well as the wide expansion of Isle of Dogs, and was projected to gross $12–15 million from 3,029 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $8.3 million on its first day (including $750,000 from Thursday night previews), $6.8 million on Saturday and a total of $18.7 million over the weekend, finishing third behind Rampage ($35.7 million) and fellow horror film A Quiet Place ($32.6 million). It fell to 58% in its second weekend, grossing $7.8 million and finishing fifth. The film continued to hold well in its third weekend, dropping 58% again to $3.3 million, finishing in seventh place.\n\n\n=== Critical response ===\nOn review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 16% based on 160 reviews, and an average rating of 3.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"Truth or Dare's slick presentation isn't enough to make this mediocre horror outing much more frightening than an average round of the real-life game.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating \"generally unfavorable reviews.\" Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B–\" on an A+ to F scale.Simon Abrams of RogerEbert.com gave the film two stars out of four and wrote that \"director Jeff Wadlow and his three credited co-writers don't go far enough towards either of their film's primary impulses—humanizing their immature subjects and/or making them die amusingly sadistic deaths.\"Variety's Owen Gleiberman called it a \"scare-free horror film\" and wrote, \"The movie isn’t scary, it isn’t gripping, it isn’t fun, and it isn’t fueled by any sort of clever compulsion. It’s just a strangely arduous exercise that feels increasingly frantic and arbitrary as it goes along.\"\n\n\n=== Accolades ===\nThe film was nominated at the 2018 Teen Choice Awards as Choice Drama Movie.\nLucy Hale was also nominated as Choice Drama Movie Actress for her performance in this film.\n\n\n== Sequel ==\nIn April 2018, Jeff Wadlow discussed ideas of a sequel, stating, \"If the movie is a success and I'm asked to come up with other good ideas, there are other stories that could be told through the filter of a supernatural game of truth or dare.\"In February 2020, Blumhouse Productions announced that the sequel of Truth or Dare is in development.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nTruth or Dare at IMDb\nTruth or Dare at Rotten Tomatoes", "The 10th Writers Guild of America Awards honored the best film writers and television writers of 1957. Winners were announced in 1958.\n\n\n== Winners & Nominees ==\n\n\n=== Film ===\nWinners are listed first highlighted in boldface.\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n=== Special Awards ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nWGA.org", "The Edge of Seventeen is a 2016 American coming-of-age comedy-drama film written and directed by Kelly Fremon Craig, in her directorial debut. The film stars Hailee Steinfeld, Woody Harrelson, Kyra Sedgwick, and Haley Lu Richardson. Principal photography began on October 21, 2015, in Vancouver and ended on December 3, 2015.\nThe film premiered at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival on September 16, 2016, and was theatrically released on November 18, 2016, by STXfilms.It received positive reviews, with Steinfeld's performance being critically acclaimed, and grossed over $19 million against a budget of $9 million.\n\n\n== Plot ==\nNadine Franklin, a seventeen-year-old high school junior in the suburbs of Portland, has tempestuous relationships with her popular older brother Darian and her image conscious mother Mona, and only felt close to her father Tom, who died of a heart attack when Nadine was thirteen, leaving her best friend Krista the only person keeping her buoyed.\nAt Nadine's home, Nadine and Krista get drunk while Darian throws a pool party. Nadine falls asleep and Krista goes downstairs and talks to Darian. The next morning Nadine finds Krista giving a handjob to a naked Darian in bed, straining their friendship. The next day they run into each other at school and Darian asks Krista to be his girlfriend. Nadine feels desperately alone and turns to her classmate Erwin Kim, who has a crush on her, though Nadine is attracted to older student Nick Mossman.\nDarian invites Krista to a house party, who insists Nadine join. There, Krista is introduced to other students, leaving Nadine on her own. After failed attempts at mingling, Nadine sits outside with another partygoer, who remarks how inferior Nadine seems compared to her brother, and Nadine leaves the party. She invites Erwin to an amusement park, where his attempt to kiss her is rejected. They still finish their date, and at the end of the night Nadine tells him he is a great guy and they become close friends.\nAt school, Krista confronts Nadine for ignoring her, and Nadine tells her that Darian does not care about her and will soon drop her, to which Krista retorts by saying he asked her to be his girlfriend and to prom, which is months away. Nadine makes her choose between herself and Darian. Krista does not want to choose, and Nadine angrily ends their friendship.\nMr. Bruner becomes Nadine's source of support at school; she frequently vents to him and he jokingly guilts her by revealing she is his favorite student. Nadine has become lost due to not seeing Krista and one night Erwin calls Nadine who hangs up on him. Nadine calls him back soon after and invites herself to go swimming in his pool, much to his excitement. Nadine learns that he is rich after showing up to his house and that he is an animation filmmaker and accepts his invitation to their school's short-film festival.\nDriving to school, Mona and Nadine have a fight that leads to Mona bringing Nadine with her to work. There, they argue about her father, and Nadine steals Mona's car and drives away. She writes a sexually explicit text to Nick, and accidentally sends it when trying to delete it.\nNadine confides in Mr. Bruner she is going to kill herself, and he tries to reassure her. She receives a reply from Nick asking her to hang out. Mona calls Darian, telling him that Nadine is missing and Darian leaves to find her. On their date, Nick repeatedly attempts to have sex with Nadine in his car. Embarrassed and heartbroken, Nadine runs away and calls Mr. Bruner, who drives her to his house where they wait with his wife and infant son until Darian arrives. Darian tells Nadine that he has been suffering from the pressures of taking care of the family in their father’s place. Darian confesses that he feels trapped and did not apply to colleges far away because he has to be there for the family. And it upsets him that Nadine doesn't like his relationship with Krista who is the best person in his life. Nadine confesses her own feelings of self-hatred, intensified by her envy of Darian. They hug, ending their feud.\nAs Nadine leaves for the film festival, she is met by Darian and Krista; the friends reconcile and agree to catch up later. Realizing that Mona is still worried she has run away, Nadine texts her that she is safe, and Mona decides to trust her word. Erwin's animated film is revealed to be a story about an alien boy who falls in love with a girl at high school but is rejected. Nadine apologizes to Erwin for taking so long to accept his love. Erwin is congratulated by his colleagues, and introduces Nadine, who greets them with a smile, finally opening up to others.\n\n\n== Cast ==\n\n\n== Production ==\nIn 2011, screenwriter Kelly Fremon Craig sent a copy of her screenplay, Besties, to producer James L. Brooks, hoping that Brooks would produce the film. Craig recalled, \"I had written a spec version of this film, and had been just an insane fan of Jim's for years and years. He was the crazy longshot I took in the beginning! And one I never thought would actually work. But I sent him the script and he ended up taking on the project.\" The Edge of Seventeen is Craig's directorial debut. She also produced the film.On August 4, 2015, Hailee Steinfeld was cast in the film to play the lead role, while Richard Sakai was also attached as a producer of the film. On September 24, 2015, Woody Harrelson and Kyra Sedgwick joined the film's cast, with Harrelson playing the role of a high school teacher and Sedgwick as the main character's mother. On October 6, 2015, Blake Jenner was cast in the film as Nadine's older brother, a popular and handsome soccer player who begins dating Nadine's best friend Krista. Hayden Szeto was cast in the film as Erwin Kim, Nadine's earnest classmate, who fumbles several attempts to win her affection through much of the story. Haley Lu Richardson joined the film to play the role of Nadine's best friend Krista.Principal photography on the film began on October 21, 2015, in Hollywood North, then in Anaheim, California. Filming also took place in the Metro Vancouver area, then at Guildford Park Secondary School and near Guildford Town Centre in Surrey, British Columbia. Port Moody was also shown, with the film festival taking place in City Hall. Filming wrapped on December 3, 2015.\n\n\n== Release ==\nThe Edge of Seventeen, distributed by STX Entertainment, was originally scheduled to be released on September 30, 2016, before being moved to November 18. Stage 6 Films and Sony Pictures Releasing International handle some distribution rights to the film outside the United States.The film was released on Blu-ray and DVD by Universal Home Entertainment on February 14, 2017.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Box office ===\nThe Edge of Seventeen grossed $14.4 million in the United States and Canada and $4.4 million in other territories for a total of $18.8 million, against a production budget of $9 million.In North America, the film was released alongside the openings of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Bleed for This, as well as the wide expansions of Moonlight and Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk, and was initially expected to gross around $8 million from 1,900 theaters. However, after grossing $1.8 million on its first day, weekend projections were lowered to $4–5 million; it ended up opening with $4.8 million, finishing number seven at the box office.\n\n\n=== Critical response ===\nOn review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 94% based on 216 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Edge of Seventeen's sharp script – and Hailee Steinfeld's outstanding lead performance – make this more than just another coming-of-age dramedy.\" On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A-\" on an A+ to F scale.\n\n\n== Accolades ==\n\n\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n== Cancelled spin-off ==\nIn May 2018, it was announced that YouTube Premium began development for a spin-off web series based on the film that would be exclusive to their platform. Annabel Oakes would pen the pilot, while Fremon Craig would executive produce the series. In May 2020, it was confirmed by Oakes that the series had been cancelled.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nThe Edge of Seventeen at IMDb\nThe Edge of Seventeen at AllMovie", "Alastair Reid (21 July 1939 – 17 August 2011) was a British television director whose credits include the TV series Selling Hitler (1991) based on the Hitler diaries, and Traffik and Tales of the City and Shout at the Devil.Reid studied at Edinburgh College of Art before studying directing at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School. In 1964 he directed episodes of Emergency-Ward 10 for ATV and worked regularly in television for over thirty years. One of his later works was directing the 1997 TV adaptation of Joseph Conrad's Nostromo.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\nBaby Love (1969)\nThe Night Digger (1971)\nSomething to Hide (1972)\nSix Faces (1972)\nSouth Riding (1974)\nShades of Greene (1975)\nThe Flight of The Heron (1976)\nShout at the Devil (1976)\nGangsters (1976–77)\nCurriculee Curricula (1978)\nHazell (1979)\nArtemis 81 (1981)\nDr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1980)\nTraffik (1989)\nSelling Hitler (1991)\nTales of the City (1993)\nNostromo (1996)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAlastair Reid at IMDb", "7th Heaven is an American family drama television series created and produced by Brenda Hampton that centers on the Camden family and their lives in the fictional town of Glenoak, California. The series debuted on August 26, 1996, on The WB, where it aired for ten seasons, making it the longest running series in the history of the network. Following the shutdown of The WB and its merger with UPN to form The CW, the series aired on the new network on September 25, 2006, for its eleventh and final season, airing its final episode on May 13, 2007. 7th Heaven was the last series to be produced by Spelling Television (later produced by CBS Paramount Network Television for the eleventh and final season) before it was shut down and became an in-name-only unit of CBS Television Studios.\n\n\n== Premise ==\n\nThe series follows the Reverend Eric Camden—a Protestant minister living in the fictional town of Glenoak, California—as well as Eric's wife Annie and their seven children. Except for Lucy, the children are all named after key biblical figures. Originally, there are five children (making it a family of seven). The twins are born in season three, in the episode \"In Praise of Women\". Four of the children, Matt, Mary, Lucy, and Simon, at different times, move away from home during the show's run. Simon goes to college, Mary goes to live with her grandparents and Matt marries and pursues his career as a doctor, far away from the family. Despite these three being absent from the Camden home, the house is always full. When Lucy marries, they move into the garage apartment. Their daughter is born while they are there. Later, they move into a home next door. Ruthie leaves for a short while in the final season to go to Scotland. The Camdens offer shelter to various house guests at different points in the show.\n\n\n== Main cast and characters ==\n\n\n== Episodes ==\n\n\n== Production ==\nAlthough originally produced for Fox in 1996, the show aired on The WB. It was produced by Spelling Television and distributed for syndication by CBS Television Distribution. Its producers, including Aaron Spelling, considered it wholesome family viewing, incorporating public service announcements into the show. The final season of 7th Heaven was shown on the inaugural season of The CW. The show wrapped production on the final episode March 8, 2007, about one month before most shows film their last episodes of the season. This was due largely to the fact that after ten years of working together, the actors, producers and crew had gotten production down to a steady pace, slashing costs repeatedly and routinely coming in well under budget. This resulted in 7th Heaven filming episodes in shorter time during the final seasons.\n\n\n=== 2006 renewal ===\nAfter much deliberation within the now-defunct WB network, it was made public in November 2005 that the tenth season would be the program's final season because of high costs, which were revealed to be due to a poorly negotiated licensing agreement by the WB network a few years earlier. The program's future was hanging in the balance and it was entirely in the hands of the newly established CW network whether to renew it for an eleventh seasonal run. In March 2006, the main cast of characters were approached about the possibility of returning for an eleventh season. After further consideration by the CW network, it was decided three days after the airing of its \"series finale\", that 7th Heaven would be picked up for an eleventh season, which would air on their network in the Monday-night slot that had helped make it famous. Originally the show was renewed for thirteen episodes, but on September 18, 2006, the renewal was extended to a full twenty-two episodes.\nAlong with the show's unexpected and last-minute renewal came some changes. The show's already-low budget was moderately trimmed, forcing cuts in the salaries of some cast members and shortened taping schedules (seven days per episode instead of the typical eight). David Gallagher, who played Simon, chose not to return as a regular. Furthermore, Mackenzie Rosman, who played youngest daughter Ruthie, did not appear in the first six episodes. Catherine Hicks missed three episodes in Season 11, as another cost-cutting move. Additionally, George Stults was absent for a few episodes at the beginning of season 11. Also, after airing Monday nights at 8/7c for ten seasons, plus the first two episodes of season 11, the CW unexpectedly moved 7th Heaven to Sunday nights as of October 15, 2006. The Sunday/Monday lineup swap was attributed to mediocre ratings of shows on both nights. While 7th Heaven did improve in numbers over the CW's previous Sunday night programming, it never quite hit its Monday-night momentum again.\n\n\n== Reception ==\n\n\n=== Critical reception ===\nThe Parents Television Council often cited 7th Heaven among the top ten most family-friendly shows. The show was praised for its positive portrayal of a cleric and for promoting honesty, respect for parental authority, and the importance of a strong family and a good education through its storylines. It was proclaimed the best show in 1998-1999 by the Parents Television Council. The council also explained \"7th Heaven manages to provide moral solutions to tough issues facing teenagers without seeming preachy or heavy-handed. Additionally, unlike most TV series, 7th Heaven shows the consequences of reckless and irresponsible behavior.\" It was also noted that \"While addressing topics such as premarital sex and peer pressure, these parents [Annie and Eric] are eager to provide wise counsel along with love and understanding.\"However, other critics feel differently about the show, citing 7th Heaven as \"arguably one of the worst long-running shows on television\". Reasons given include heavy-handed moralizing, Christian propaganda, and depiction of a caricature of a real family, that is \"so clean it is obscene\".Some criticize the predictable plotlines of each episode, that follow always the same pattern: \n\"One of the Camden family has a problem and/or secret; some sort of \"Three's Company\"-esque misunderstanding ensues as a result of that problem and/or secret; a confrontation and/or intervention takes place, usually involving a minisermon by one of the Camden parents; and whoever stands at the center of the drama eventually figures out how to \"do the right thing.\" On top of this, implausible scenarios are seen to be regularly included, such as the daughter Mary's absence from the show for several seasons being scarcely explained with the character being busy, wayward or in New York.According to one critic, \"the sappiness and sanctimony of the characters often made the moral lessons impossible to swallow\". Also, the show is said to show an obsession with premarital sex. In this regard, the parents and the oldest son Matt sometimes depict a sense of ownership of the sexuality of their daughters (respective sisters) Lucy and Mary, by threatening potential romantic interests or negotiating their daughters' romantic rights.\n\n\n=== U.S. ratings ===\n7th Heaven was the most watched TV series ever on the WB. It holds the record for the WB's most watched hour at 12.5 million viewers, on February 8, 1999; 19 of the WB's 20 most watched hours were from 7th Heaven. On May 8, 2006, it was watched by 7.56 million viewers, the highest rating for the WB since January 2005. When the show moved to the CW, ratings dropped. Possible reasons for the decline include an aired \"Countdown to Goodbye\" ad campaign for the last six months of the 2005–06 season, which promoted it as the final season ever; though the CW announced the series' unexpected renewal, it didn't promote the new season strongly via billboards, bus stops, magazine or on-air promos. Lastly, the network moved 7th Heaven from its long-established Monday night slot to Sunday nights, causing ratings to drop further. The series had a season average of just 3.3 million on the new network, losing 36% of the previous year's audience. It was the third most watched scripted show on the CW. Overall, it was the seventh most watched show.\n\n\n=== Awards and nominations ===\nEmmy Awards1997: Outstanding Art Direction for a Series (Patricia Van Ryker and Mary Ann Good) – Nominated\nASCAP Film and Television Music Awards2000: Top TV Series (Dan Foliart) – Won\n2001: Top TV Series (Dan Foliart) – Won\nFamily Television Awards1999: Best Drama – Won\n2002: Best Drama – Won\nKids' Choice Awards1999: Favorite Television Show – Nominated\n2000: Favorite Animal Star (Happy the dog) – Nominated\n2001: Favorite Television Show – Nominated\n2002: Favorite Television Show – Nominated\n2003: Favorite Television Show – Nominated\nTV Guide Awards1999: Best Show You're not Watching – Won\n2000: Favorite TV Pet (Happy the dog) – Nominated\nTeen Choice Awards1999: TV Choice Actor (Barry Watson) – Nominated\n1999: TV Choice Drama – Nominated\n2000: TV Choice Drama – Nominated\n2001: TV Choice Actor (Barry Watson) – Nominated\n2001: TV Choice Drama – Nominated\n2002: TV Choice Drama/Action Adventure – Won\n2002: TV Choice Actor in Drama (Barry Watson) – Won\n2002: TV Choice Actress in Drama (Jessica Biel) – Nominated\n2003: TV Choice Drama/Action Adventure – Won\n2003: TV Choice Actor in Drama/Action Adventure (David Gallagher) – Won\n2003: TV Choice Breakout Star – Male (George Stults) – Won\n2003: TV Choice Actress in Drama/Action Adventure (Jessica Biel) – Nominated\n2003: TV Choice Breakout Star – Female (Ashlee Simpson) – Nominated\n2004: TV Choice Breakout Star – Male (Tyler Hoechlin) – Nominated\n2004: TV Choice Actor in Drama/Action Adventure (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n2004: TV Choice Drama/Action Adventure – Nominated\n2005: TV Choice Actor in Drama/Action Adventure (Tyler Hoechlin) – Nominated\n2005: TV Choice Actress in Drama/Action Adventure (Beverley Mitchell) – Nominated\n2005: TV Choice Parental Units (Stephen Collins and Catherine Hicks) – Nominated\n2005: TV Choice Drama/Action Adventure – Nominated\n2006: TV Choice Breakout Star – Female (Haylie Duff) – Nominated\n2006: TV Choice Parental Units (Stephen Collins and Catherine Hicks) – Nominated\nYoung Artist Awards1997: Best Family TV Drama Series – Won\n1997: Best Performance in a Drama Series – Young Actress (Beverley Mitchell) – Won\n1997: Best Performance in a Drama Series – Young Actor (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n1997: Best Performance in a TV Comedy/Drama – Supporting Young Actress Age Ten or Under (Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n1998: Best Family TV Drama Series – Won (tied with Promised Land)\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actress (Beverley Mitchell) – Won (tied with Sarah Schaub)\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actor (Bobby Brewer) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Danielle Keaton) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Molly Orr) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actor (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actress (Jessica Biel) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Supporting Young Actress (Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n1999: Best Family TV Drama Series – Nominated\n1999: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actor (Craig Hauer) – Nominated\n1999: Best Performance in a TV Series – Young Ensemble (Beverley Mitchell, Barry Watson, Jessica Biel, David Gallagher, Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n2000: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Kaitlin Cullum) – Won\n2000: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actress (Beverley Mitchell) – Won\n2000: Best Family TV Series – Drama – Nominated\n2001: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Brooke Anne Smith) – Won\n2001: Best Family TV Drama Series – Nominated\n2001: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Jamie Lauren) – Nominated\n2002: Best Family TV Drama Series – Nominated\n2002: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Guest Starring Young Actress (Ashley Edner) – Nominated\n2002: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Leading Young Actor (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n2002: Best Performance in a TV Drama Series – Supporting Young Actress (Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n2004: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Supporting Young Actress (Mackenzie Rosman) – Won\n2005: Best Family Television Series (Drama) – Nominated\n2005: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Leading Young Actor (Tyler Hoechlin) – Nominated\n2006: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Young Actor Age Ten or Younger (Drake Johnston) – Nominated\n2007: Best Family Television Series (Drama) – Nominated\n2007: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Supporting Young Actress (Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n2007: Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Young Actor Age Ten or Younger (Nikolas Brino and Lorenzo Brino) – Nominated\n2008: Best Performance in a TV Series – Young Actor Ten or Under (Lorenzo Brino) – Nominated\n2008: Best Performance in a TV Series – Young Actor Ten or Under (Nikolas Brino) – Nominated\nYoung Star Awards\n1997: Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama TV Series (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance by a Young Actress in a Drama TV Series (Beverley Mitchell) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance by a Young Actress in a Drama TV Series (Jessica Biel) – Nominated\n1998: Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama TV Series (David Gallagher) – Won\n1999: Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama TV Series (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n2000: Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Drama TV Series (David Gallagher) – Nominated\n2000: Best Young Ensemble Cast – Television (David Gallagher, Jessica Biel, Beverley Mitchell, Mackenzie Rosman) – Nominated\n\n\n== Availability ==\n\n\n=== Syndication ===\nCBS Media Ventures handles the domestic and international distribution of the series. Season one episodes were retitled 7th Heaven Beginnings. Although the series did not receive a rating other than TV-G throughout its 11-season run, reruns on some cable/satellite channels have been given either a TV-PG or TV-14 rating (depending on the subject matter).\nIn the United States, the show began airing reruns in off-network syndication on September 25, 2000, but ceased to air in syndication in September 2002, while the series was still in first-run broadcast on The WB and later on The CW. The show then aired on the ABC Family channel from the fall of 2002 until 2008. Then, it was announced on April 1, 2010, that ABC Family had re-obtained the rights to the series, and would begin airing it at 11 a.m. (ET/PT) on weekdays beginning April 12, 2010. However, after one week, ABC Family abruptly pulled the show and replaced it with a third daily airing of Gilmore Girls.\nIt started airing on \"superstation\" WGN America on September 8, 2008, though it had previously aired on from 2000 to 2008 during its initial off-network syndication run. Incidentally, the series aired in first-run form on WGN from the show's 1996 debut on The WB until 1999, when WGN ceased to carry WB network programming on its national feed (7th Heaven, along with Sister, Sister, The Parent 'Hood and The Wayans Bros. are the only WB series to air in both first-run broadcast and off-network syndication on WGN America). Since September 2010, 7th Heaven no longer airs on WGN America.\nThe series also began airing on Hallmark Channel around the same time as when WGN America began to carry reruns of the series again. Hallmark Channel airings of the series, however, truncated the opening credit sequence removing the majority of the theme song except for the first stanza and the last few seconds of the theme. Both channels removed it in 2010.\nAs of 2010 Crossroads Television System aired the show in Canada. In August 2011, the show was dropped from the lineup.\nIt can now be seen on Joytv, as of 2012.\nAs of 2012, GMC (now known as UP) is the first network to air 7th Heaven in the United States since 2010 and began airing the series with a marathon on July 7, 2012. Due to allegations of child molestation against Stephen Collins, the network pulled the series from its schedule as of the afternoon of October 7, 2014. 7th Heaven briefly returned to UP in December 2014; however, it was quickly removed from the schedule. UP CEO Charley Humbard stated, \"We brought the show back because many viewers expressed they could separate allegations against one actor from the fictional series itself. As it turns out, they cannot.\" However, in the summer of 2015, UP brought back the series, where from then until 2019 it aired weekdays from 12:00PM to 3:00 PM. It was again pulled from UP's schedule afterwards. Previously, it aired on GetTV and Hallmark Drama.\nIn the United States, all eleven seasons of 7th Heaven are available to stream on Hulu and Paramount+.In the United Kingdom, it aired on Sky One on a weekly basis as a part of its primetime slots at 8pm.\nIn Australia, 7th Heaven was originally broadcast on Network Ten. Reruns of the series have been aired weekdays on satellite channel FOX8 and Network Ten's digital channel Eleven.\nIt is on RTE (Radio Telefis Eireann) in Ireland.\n\n\n=== Home media ===\nCBS DVD (distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment) has released 7th Heaven on DVD. They have released all 11 seasons in Region 1. In region 2, seasons 1-7 have been released while in region 4 the first 6 seasons have been released on DVD.\nOn August 22, 2017, it was announced that the complete series would be released on DVD for November 14.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website \n7th Heaven at IMDb", "", "Hayden Chun Hay Szeto (born September 11, 1985; Chinese: 司徒頌曦) is a Canadian actor of Hong Kong descent, known for his role as Erwin Kim in the comedy-drama film The Edge of Seventeen (2016). In 2017, he portrayed Ken Luang in the NBC comedy series The Good Place.\n\n\n== Early life ==\nSzeto was raised in the Richmond, British Columbia area, with two parents from Hong Kong. His father, Nigel Szeto, is a painter, and his paternal grandfather, Kei Szeto, was a revered Chinese sculptor. He studied sociology at Kwantlen Polytechnic University. Szeto graduated from the New York Film Academy's Acting for Film program in 2011.\n\n\n== Career ==\nIn 2016, Szeto made his breakthrough role playing Erwin Kim in Kelly Fremon Craig's coming-of-age comedy-drama The Edge of Seventeen alongside Hailee Steinfeld. He had a recurring role in the second season of NBC's comedy series The Good Place, portraying a Buddhist monk named Ken Luang.On May 24, 2017, Szeto was cast as Brad Chang in the Blumhouse supernatural thriller film Truth or Dare. The film was released in theaters on April 13, 2018.\n\n\n== Filmography ==\n\n\n=== Film ===\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nHayden Szeto at IMDb", "The 36th Hong Kong Film Awards presentation ceremony took place at Hong Kong Cultural Centre on 9 April 2017.\n\n\n== Winners and nominees ==\nWinners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double dagger ().\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website of the Hong Kong Film Awards\nHong Kong Film Awards 2017 University of Hong Kong Library", "The 2018 Teen Choice Awards ceremony was held on August 12, 2018, at the Forum in Inglewood, California. The awards celebrated the year's achievements in music, film, television, sports, fashion, comedy, and the internet, and are voted on by viewers aged 13 and over living in the United States through various social media sites.The biggest winner of the night was Riverdale, earning nine of its twelve nominations, including Choice Drama Series for the second year running, and only losing to itself in categories where it was nominated twice. The Greatest Showman also won big, earning five of its nine nods including Choice Drama Movie and Choice Movie Drama Actor, won by Zac Efron.\n\n\n== Performers ==\n\n\n== Winners and nominees ==\nThe first wave of nominations were announced on June 13, 2018. The second wave was announced on June 22, 2018. Winners are listed first, in bold.\n\n\n=== Movies ===\n\n\n=== Television ===\n\n\n=== Movies and television ===\n\n\n=== Music ===\n\n\n=== Digital ===\n\n\n=== Fashion ===\n\n\n=== Sports ===\n\n\n=== Miscellaneous ===\n\n\n== References ==" ] }

{ "title": [ "220 Volt Live", "2000s in music", "A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld", "The Dream Mixes", "26 Mixes for Cash", "One More Night (Cascada song)", "Ayu-mi-x", "TimeSquare – Dream Mixes II", "Boy George", "Aubrey Mixes: The Ultraworld Excursions", "Collect – 12\" Mixes Plus", "Amazon.com", "Avex", "Sweet Reggae Mix", "Mixes (Kylie Minogue album)" ], "text": [ "220 Volt Live is the forty-eighth release and seventh live album by Tangerine Dream. It was recorded live in the USA in 1992. It would be the last live album to feature new compositions until Inferno (2002). This may be considered some of the band's most rock oriented music so far, with guitarist Zlatko Perica's playing being a more prominent element. Re-issued in 1999 and then again in 2009 on Membran. It was nominated for Best New Age Album at the 1994 Grammy Awards.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nAll music is composed by Edgar Froese, Jerome Froese.\n\n\n== Personnel ==\nTangerine DreamEdgar Froese – keyboards, guitar\nJerome Froese – keyboards, guitar\nLinda Spa – saxophone, keyboards\nZlatko Perica – guitar\n\n\n== Single ==\nDreamtime was released alongside 220 Volt Live in 1993. It contains three shortened tracks from the album, plus the studio track Treasure of Innocence which is a non-album version of their cover of \"Purple Haze\", and an alternate version of Dreamtime. This alternate version had lyrics written and performed by Jayney Klimek and Julie Ocean contributed to the lyric writing process.\n\n\n=== Track listing ===\n\n\n== References ==", "For music from a year in the 2000s, go to 00 | 01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | 06 | 07 | 08 | 09\n\nThis article is an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 2000s.\nIn American culture, various styles of the late 20th century remained popular, such as in rock, pop, metal, hip hop, R&B, EDM, country and indie. As the technology of computers and internet sharing developed, a variety of those genres started to fuse in order to see new styles emerging. Terms like \"contemporary\", \"nu\", \"revival\", \"alternative\", and \"post\" are added to various genres titles in order to differentiate them from past styles, nu-disco and post-punk revival as notable examples.\nThe popularity of teen pop carried over from the 1990s with acts such as *NSYNC, Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, and Christina Aguilera dominating the charts in the earlier years of the decade. Previously established Pop Music artists such as Michael Jackson and Madonna made a comeback in the early 2000s with successful releases such as Invincible and Music.\nContemporary R&B was one of the most popular genres of the decade (especially in the early and mid-2000s), with artists like Usher, Alicia Keys, Beyoncé, and Rihanna. In 2004, the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 had 15 of its top 25 singles as contemporary R&B.The decade was dominated by the garage rock revival and the birth of a new indie rock style. In this decade, grime was a genre invented in the UK, while chillwave became popular in the United States in the latter part of the decade.In Britain, Britpop, post punk revival and alternative rock were at the height of their popularity with acts such as Coldplay, The Libertines, Oasis, Lynda Thomas, Travis, Dido, Blur, The Hives, Björk, and Radiohead, which still continued at the top of the major charts in the rest of the world since the 1990s.Hip hop music achieved major mainstream status after the 1990s following the deaths of many prominent artists such as 2Pac and The Notorious B.I.G. Artists outside of New York and Los Angeles in cities like Atlanta, Houston, New Orleans, Las Vegas, Toronto, and the Bay Area all achieved mainstream success. Popular rap movements of the 2000s include Crunk, Snap, Hyphy, and Alternative Hip Hop.\nDespite the hip hop dominance, such as Southern hip hop which lasted for most of the decade (particularly the middle years), rock music was still popular, notably alternative rock, and especially genres such as post-grunge, post-Britpop, nu metal, pop punk, emo, post-hardcore, metalcore, and in some cases indie rock; the early and mid-2000s saw a resurgence in the mainstream popularity of pop rock and power pop.Even though the popularity amidst the mainstream audience dipped slightly, Country music continued to rise in sales, having a strong niche in the music industry. The genre saw the rise of new front-runners like Taylor Swift, Carrie Underwood, and Miley Cyrus, who were able to score top hits on all-genre Billboard charts, apart from the country charts, by appealing to a wider audience outside the genre.Electronic music was also popular throughout the decade; at the beginning of the 2000s, genres such as trance, chillout, house, indietronica, and Eurodance (in Europe) were popular. By the end of the decade, late 1980s/early 1990s inspired dance-oriented forms of electronic music such as synthpop, electropop, and electro house had become popular.\nBy the end of the decade, a fusion between hip hop and electronic dance similar to the Freestyle music of the late 1980s and early 1990s, known as Hip House and Electrohop also grew successful.In many Asian musical markets, with the increase of globalization and the spread of capitalism, music became more Westernised, with influences of pop, hip hop, and contemporary R&B becoming ever-present in Eastern markets. American and European popular music also became more popular in Asia.\nGenres such as J-pop and K-pop remained popular throughout the decade, proliferating their cultural influence throughout the East and Southeast of Asia. In other parts of Asia, including India, Indian pop music, closely linked to Bollywood films and filmi music, was popular alongside Western pop music.In Latin America, whilst R&B, hip hop, and pop rock did have influence and success, Latin-based pop music remained highly popular.\nReggaeton became a definitive genre in 2000s Latin music, as well as salsa and merengue. Subgenres fusing Latin music such as merengue and reggaeton with hip hop and rap music became popular from the middle of the decade onwards.\nThe continued development of studio recording software and electronic elements was observed throughout this decade. One such example is the usage of pitch correction software, such as auto-tune that appeared in the late 1990s. Another great impact to this decade was the ongoing development of the internet and user-friendly media players, such as iTunes, and music and video sharing websites such as Napster and YouTube, respectively. The internet in general allowed for unprecedented access to music and made it possible for artists to distribute their music freely without label backing. Innumerable online outlets and sheer volume of music also offers musicians more musical influences to draw from.\n\n\n== North America ==\n\n\n=== Hip hop ===\n\nHip hop dominated popular music in the early 2000s. Artists such as Eminem, OutKast, The Black Eyed Peas, T.I., 50 Cent, Kanye West, Nelly, Nas, Jay-Z, Ghostface Killah, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott, M.I.A., Lil' Kim, Gorillaz, Young Jeezy, Lil Wayne, The Game, and Ludacris were among the dominant mainstream hip hop artists to have represented the hip hop genre for the decade. Distinct regional differences also developed outside the hip hop/rap strongholds of the 1990s, New York City and Los Angeles. Though the Los Angeles style of the 1990s waned, Gangsta rap continued to be popular through the 2000s, and more commercially oriented party rap dominated the charts. The emergence of hip-hop from the south and the midwest was starting to take place, and by the end of the decade, hip-hop was starting to spread internationally.\nDuring the 2000s, Eminem, who is perhaps best known for being one of the few successful white rappers in the music industry, enjoyed a massive commercial success and maintained commercial relevance by attempting to be controversial and subversive. According to Billboard, two of Eminem's albums are among the top five highest-selling albums of the 2000s. After the release of his album Relapse, Eminem became the best-selling rapper of all time and the top selling artist of the decade across all genres. \"Ringtone rap\", which is rap music that was made popular for ringtones, which includes more \"laid back\" and \"silly\" elements along with repetitive hooks, became very popular in the later part of the 2000s.\n\nIn late 2005, the Southern hip hop subgenre reached the peak of its popularity, especially its sub-subgenres of crunk and snap music (which started the dance craze movement in hip hop from 2005 to 2009). The number one selling crunk artist as well as paving the way to its popularity was Lil Jon who shot to fame in 2003, with his group The Eastside Boyz. Then snap music became a staple for the remainder of the decade in hip hop with artists such as, Dem Franchize Boys, D4L, Yung Joc, Soulja Boy, Unk, Jibbs, Da Backwudz, Purple Ribbon All-Stars, V.I.C., GS Boyz, the Fast Life Yungstaz, New Boyz, and Cali Swag District, to name a few. These artists have all contributed to starting some dance craze accompanied to one of their songs, with the most popular being Soulja's \"Crank Dat\" move, which gained popularity throughout 2007 and 2008. By the end of the decade this sound began to decline in popularity as well as the dance-crazes that came along with them, as pioneer hip hop artists and hip hop purists such as Ice-T and Nas denouncing the crunk and snap craze, with Nas's 2006 song \"Hip Hop Is Dead\" brought dislike to the new path hip hop was directing.\nBy early 2000, the Hyphy movement became popular in Northern California, specifically the Bay Area. Bay Area artists like Mac Dre, Keak Da Sneak, E-40, The Pack, and Too Short were prominent Hyphy rappers. Hyphy culture included the use of party drugs like ecstasy, slang terms like \"Go dumb\" and \"yadadamean\", Ghost Riding, and Sideshows.\n\nBy mid-2008 the sound began to fade as indie rap and alternative began to come in with artists such as Kid Cudi and The Cool Kids, who fused hip hop with electro and hipster influences. This trend continued on into the early 2010s. Alternative hip hop, almost unknown in the mainstream, except for a few crossover acts, evolved throughout the decade with the help of artists such as Mos Def, Lupe Fiasco, The Roots, MF Doom, Aesop Rock, and Common, who achieved unheard-of success for their field. Throughout the 2000s, Alternative Hip hop continued its philosophical, positive, and complex lyrical subject matter, while denouncing materialism, fashion, and money. This subgenre also includes spoken word and a branch of slam poetry. The subgenre could be said to be related to both the old school hip-hop culture of the 1980s and 1990s, and the indie rock and hipster subcultures.\nBy 1999, more 2000s styled glam started coming in, along with dirty south and crunk, with artists such as Mannie Fresh, Cam'ron, Lil Jon, Ludacris, Trina, Three 6 Mafia, Ying Yang Twins, Bubba Sparxxx, Neptunes, Timbaland, and Jay-Z.Auto-Tune became popular by mid-2007, with R&B artist T-Pain starting the craze. Auto-Tune was popular in the earlier part of the decade as well (primarily in 2000 and 2001), but then only called \"synthesizer\" and it was used casually as just an effect. Artists such as Daft Punk, Eiffel 65, *NSYNC, 98 Degrees, Willa Ford, and even Faith Hill have used Auto-Tune in their songs. It was first known as the \"Cher effect\" since it was used in the song \"Believe\" by Cher in 1998. The Black Eyed Peas began utilizing Auto-Tune and electropop–dance in their most successful album to date, The E.N.D., which spawned five top ten hit singles: \"Boom Boom Pow\", \"I Gotta Feeling\", \"Meet Me Halfway\", \"Imma Be\", and \"Rock That Body\". Due to hip-hop's increased moulding with pop music, some, such as rapper Nas have declared the death of the genre.\n\n\n=== Rock ===\n\n\n==== Pop rock ====\n\nIn the early 2000s, there was an astounding resurgence of interest in pop rock and power pop. This was kickstarted in the year 2000 with the success of Blink-182's song \"All the Small Things\" and Nine Days' song \"Absolutely (Story of a Girl)\", both of which peaked at #6 on the Billboard Hot 100. The trend kicked off the brief musical careers of Ryan Cabrera, Ashley Parker Angel, Teddy Geiger, Evan and Jaron, The Click Five, Jet, and Snow Patrol\nthroughout the early and mid-2000s. This also paved the way for a second wave of pop punk bands such as Good Charlotte, New Found Glory, and Sum 41, who made use of humor in their videos and had a radio-friendly tone to their music. Later pop-punk bands such as Simple Plan, The All-American Rejects, and Fall Out Boy had a sound that had been described as closer to late 1970s and early 1980s hardcore, with similarities to the band Cheap Trick, while still achieving considerable commercial success. In addition, some of the most successful pop-punk bands of the 1990s, such as Green Day, Blink-182, Weezer, and The Offspring continued their success during the early 2000s.In the early 2000s, the power pop and pop rock trend also spread to female musicians. Michelle Branch became successful in 2001 with her song \"Everywhere\". Her success continued with her second album singles \"Are You Happy Now?\" and \"Breathe\". Kelly Clarkson was also another prominent female artist of this movement, rivaling the success of Avril Lavigne. The first winner on the hit reality TV show \" American Idol\", Clarkson started off her musical career with Contemporary R&B hit songs such as \"A Moment Like This\" and \"Miss Independent\" and catapulted to cultural icon status in the mid 2000s with aggressive songs such as \"Since U Been Gone\" and \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\". Clarkson strayed away from this sound in the late 2000s but continued to make pop rock hits. Other female pop rock and power pop artists who experienced Top 40 success in the 2000s included Alanis Morissette, Liz Phair, Ashlee Simpson, and Stacie Orrico.\n\n\n==== Pop punk ====\n\nAfter the breakthrough of punk rock in the 1990s, by the 2000s the genre had evolved more into pop punk due to major label records taking interest and signing on bands such as Blink-182. Green Day kick-started the 2000s with the release of their sixth studio album Warning in 2000 to lukewarm success. The following year, Blink-182 released their fourth studio album Take Off Your Pants And Jacket in 2001 which went on to sell 14 million copies worldwide. It was a commercial and critical success, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 within its first week of release and securing the status of the pop punk trio as one of biggest bands of the genre. Also in that year, Canadian band Sum 41 released their debut album All Killer No Filler, which went platinum in the United States. The second-wave bands dominated the pop punk genre in the early years with bands like Good Charlotte, New Found Glory, Simple Plan, and Sum 41 receiving platinum status and gaining large fan bases worldwide. In 2002, Avril Lavigne became popular in the pop punk scene thanks to her pop punk-based sound, and was arguably the most prominent artist to take this new direction in pop music, with hits such as \"Complicated\" and \"Sk8er Boi\". In 2003, Blink-182 released their untitled album blink-182, which demonstrated a darker and more mature tone than previous albums. This was mainly due to the side-project Box Car Racer. Even so, the album was yet another commercial and critical success. It was to be their last album released before taking an indefinite hiatus in 2005. The band would reunite four years later. After their 1994 breakthrough, Green Day's fame was fading, mainly due to rising popularity of other bands like Good Charlotte and Sum 41. Realizing this, they retreated to the studio and produced their seventh studio album American Idiot released in 2004. It saw a significant sales boost, selling 14 million copies worldwide and awarding the band 3 Grammy awards. Fall Out Boy's From Under The Cork Tree gained commercial success in 2005 and put the band on the pop punk map. Fall Out Boy’s follow up album Infinity On High went number 1 on the billboard 200 in 2007. The last successful pop punk album of the decade was Green Day's eighth studio album 21st Century Breakdown released in 2009 which achieved their best chart performance to date by reaching number one on the album charts of various countries as well as winning a Grammy, including the United States Billboard 200, the European Top 100 Albums, and the UK Albums Chart.\n\n\n==== Post-grunge ====\n\nPost-grunge continued to be popular in the 2000s, with the genre reaching its peak in the early years of the decade. Artists include Foo Fighters, Creed, Alter Bridge, Nickelback, Lifehouse, Incubus, Hoobastank, 3 Doors Down, Puddle of Mudd, Our Lady Peace, Switchfoot, Shinedown, Three Days Grace, Staind, Seether, and Daughtry. These bands took post-grunge into the 21st century with considerable commercial success, at times abandoning the angst and anger of the original movement for more conventional anthems, narratives, ballads and romantic songs.\n\n\n==== Nu metal ====\n\nDuring the early 2000s, a new wave of metal began with interest in the newly emerging genre nu metal and genres of a similar style such as rap metal and the later mainstream success rap rock. The popularity of nu metal music carried over from the late 1990s, where it was introduced by early work from bands such as Korn, Deftones, Limp Bizkit, Slipknot, Incubus, Coal Chamber, and Rage Against the Machine into the early 2000s with the similar genre, rap rock, bringing in a wave of monster-hit artists such as System of a Down, Evanescence, P.O.D, Staind, Papa Roach, and Disturbed. The success of Korn's third studio album, Follow The Leader and Limp Bizkit's Significant Other and Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water, brought nu metal to the mainstream. Limp Bizkit's Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water would sell over 1,050,000 in its first week - making it the highest selling rock record with first week sales ever. Linkin Park's debut album Hybrid Theory, released in 2000, sold over 24 million copies worldwide. Beginning in 2002, nu metal rapidly began to lose mainstream appeal. Since then, many bands have changed to other genres of music, such as post-grunge (Staind), heavy metal (Slipknot, Disturbed, Drowning Pool), and alternative rock (Linkin Park, Papa Roach).\n\n\n==== Metalcore ====\nBy 2004, the up-and-coming genre metalcore was dominated by bands such as Killswitch Engage, Underoath, Bullet for My Valentine, Trivium, and most successfully Avenged Sevenfold, all of whom releasing successful albums. The rise of metalcore led to increased popularity and exposure of nearly every other subgenre of heavy metal including death metal, black metal, and thrash. In 2002, heavy metal saw a new subgenre called deathcore, which would gain moderate success from 2005 to present day.\n\n\n==== Hard rock/Heavy metal ====\n\nAC/DC released Stiff Upper Lip in 2000 and Black Ice in 2008. Guns N' Roses released the long-awaited Chinese Democracy in 2008 after over a decade of work by Axl Rose. Metallica released two albums in the 2000s, St. Anger in 2003 and Death Magnetic in 2008. Aerosmith released the platinum-selling Just Push Play in 2001 followed by the blues-infused Honkin' on Bobo in 2004; the band also toured every year of the decade except 2008. Bon Jovi released five albums during the decade: Crush (2000), Bounce (2002), Have a Nice Day (2005), Lost Highway (2007), and The Circle (2009). Crush fared best, going double platinum, and spawning the hit \"It's My Life\", while Have a Nice Day and Lost Highway also launched Top 40 singles, went platinum, and saw the band mix hard rock with country. Bon Jovi's Lost Highway Tour was the highest-grossing tour of 2008.\n\n\n==== Emo ====\nEmo broke into mainstream culture in the early 2000s with the platinum-selling success of Jimmy Eat World's Bleed American. The new emo had a far greater appeal amongst adolescents than its earlier incarnations. In the following years, use of the term \"emo\" expanded beyond the music world, becoming associated with fashion, hairstyle, and other aesthetic attributes of culture.\nLater in the decade, the term 'emo' was applied by critics and journalists to a variety of artists, including multi-platinum acts such as Fall Out Boy and My Chemical Romance and disparate groups such as Paramore and Panic! at the Disco, although some artists branded as such rejected the label. Despite its success, the emo genre never quite surpassed post-grunge in popularity during the 2000s.\n\n\n==== Garage rock, post-punk and new wave revival ====\n\nIn the early 2000s, a new group of bands emerged into the mainstream which drew primary inspiration from post-punk and new wave and were variously characterised as part of a garage rock, post-punk, or new wave revival. Because the bands came from across the globe, cited diverse influences (from traditional blues, through new wave to grunge), and adopted differing styles of dress, their unity as a genre has been disputed. There had been attempts to revive garage rock and elements of punk in the 1980s and 1990s and by 2000 scenes had grown up in several countries. The Detroit rock scene included The Von Bondies, Electric Six, The Dirtbombs, and The Detroit Cobras and that of New York which included Radio 4, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and The Rapture. Social networking sites such as MySpace and Purevolume enabled amateur artists to promote their music, and thanks to the internet, many underground unsigned artists become discovered and well known amongst alternative subcultures. The revival hit a peak in 2003–04. Franz Ferdinand from Scotland, also became popular with their debut album in 2004. Though drawing on an indie sound, none of the groups were derivative in a way that could be described as retro. In 2004, Las Vegas-based alternative rock band The Killers released their successful debut album Hot Fuss, spawning hits like \"Mr. Brightside\" and \"All These Things That I've Done\". New York-based act The Bravery became popular the following year.Three of the most successful bands from these scenes were The Strokes, who emerged from the New York club scene with their début album Is This It (2001); The White Stripes, from Detroit, with their third album White Blood Cells (2001); and Interpol from New York, with their debut album Turn On the Bright Lights (2002). They were christened by the media as the \"The\" bands, and dubbed \"The saviours of rock 'n' roll\", because of their connections with the indie rock underground, leading to accusations of hype. Other popular \"The\" bands were The Hives, The Vines, and The Darkness; as well as Jet, whose 2003 smash-hit \"Are You Gonna Be My Girl\" catapulted to the top of the charts and was frequently used in commercials primarily for music products such as the Apple iPod. Canadian punk band, Sum 41 poked fun at the start of the \"The\" band craze in their music video for \"Still Waiting\" in 2003 off the album Does This Look Infected? (2002). Will Sasso makes a cameo in the video, coining the band as \"The Sums\".\n\n\n==== Indie rock ====\n\nDuring the mid-2000s, bands such as Modest Mouse, Death Cab for Cutie and Arcade Fire released indie rock albums that broke into the mainstream and gave indie rock recognition. The late 2000s also saw more indie rock bands such as MGMT, Spoon, Interpol, Tegan and Sara, Wilco, The Decemberists, The White Stripes, The Strokes, Animal Collective, Bright Eyes, Rilo Kiley, She & Him, The New Pornographers, Feist, Cat Power, Grizzly Bear, Arcade Fire, The Shins, The Killers, and Vampire Weekend gain popularity around the world, including in the United States, thanks to the rise of independent internet music blogs. The rising popularity of Internet radio also contributed to high album sales for Indie rock bands, despite little to no mainstream radio play. By the end of the decade several of these bands released albums that topped the Billboard 200. This trend has been viewed as heralding a new era for rock in the wake of an era of pop dominance by the likes of Lady Gaga, and Katy Perry.\n\n\n=== Pop ===\n\nTeen pop continued to be an extremely popular genre in the early 2000s with success of teenage pop singers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. Spears' \"Oops!...I Did It Again\" and Aguilera's \"Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You)\" became huge hits in the year 2000. By 2001 and 2002, however, the teen-pop trend faded due to modern R&B and hip-hop influenced music that later dominated throughout the middle of the decade. Spears' 2001 album Britney and Aguilera's 2002 album Stripped are examples of teen pop artists transitioning from teen pop to more grown-up, modern R&B influenced records.Boy bands maintained their popularity during the beginning of the decade, but their popularity also faded, with the exception of Backstreet Boys, who continued their popularity post-2005, (after a short hiatus between 2002 and 2004). As the typical \"boy band\" sound was no longer mainstream, they began to transition to more of an adult contemporary, soft-rock and ballad styles of music for the remainder of the decade. By 2003, records by boy bands were very sparse on the Billboard Hot 100, and some members of boy bands left to pursue other projects and solo endeavors, such as Jesse McCartney from Dream Street, Nick Lachey from 98 Degrees, and most successfully Justin Timberlake from 'N Sync, whose foray into Blue-eyed soul R&B/Pop spawned a successful solo career. A new strain of boy bands, such as V Factory, Varsity Fanclub, Click Five, NLT, and the Jonas Brothers, emerged at the end of the decade, but this new generation of boy bands did not reach the glamor and success of those of the 1990s and early 2000s. Other girl groups included Danity Kane (2005–09), Dream (2000-03), and Sugababes, along with shorter-term girl groups such as No Secrets, A Girl Called Jane, Girlicious, and Paradiso Girls.\n\nPop rock artist Pink, who would go on to be one of the biggest pop singers of the 2000s, released her debut album Can't Take Me Home in 2000, her second studio album Missundaztood, and later, her I'm Not Dead album in which features \"Stupid Girls\" and \"Who Knew\". Her following album, Funhouse, released in 2008 also included \"So What\" and \"Sober\". Pink's song, \"You Make Me Sick\", which debuted January 6, 2001, reached 33 on the Hot 100 list. \"Family Portrait\" got up to number 20, debuting on November 16, 2002.\n\nSinger Anastacia achieved worldwide commercial success with singles such as \"Not That Kind\", \"I'm Outta Love\", \"Paid My Dues\", \"One Day in Your Life\", and \"Left Outside Alone\". She was highly successful in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, South Africa, and South America, but had only minor success in her native United States. She is one of the fastest and biggest-selling artists of the new millennium.\nIn 2001, triple-threat entertainer Jennifer Lopez debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart with her J.Lo album and in addition her film, The Wedding Planner, opened at number one at the box office at the same time making her the first actress and singer in history to have both a film and an album at number one in the same week.In 2006, Shakira with Hips Don't Lie became the first South American woman, also one of the few women ever to have a number-one single on the official charts of the United States, Australia, The United Kingdom, and Latin charts. The song is regarded as the best-selling single of the decade, and one of the best-selling singles of all time. Her massive crossover success in 2001 generated many global smash hits throughout the decade like Whenever, Wherever, La Tortura, Hips Don't Lie, Beautiful Liar, and She Wolf. Shakira also broke the record for the highest-selling Spanish-language album in the United States with Fijacion Oral Vol. 1.\n\nArtists such as Madonna, Janet Jackson, Anastacia, Kylie Minogue, Mariah Carey, and Nelly Furtado experienced revived success. Justin Timberlake shot to stardom with his debut solo album, Justified (2002). In 2005, Cher ended her 3-year-long \"Farewell Tour\" which became the highest grossing female and solo tour at that time. Madonna enjoyed success throughout the decade. Her albums Music (2000) and Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005) are among the best-selling of the decade. Both were universally acclaimed by critics. The first was also nominated for five Grammy Awards while the second won one. Madonna also had four highly successful tours in the 2000s. The Re-Invention Tour which grossed $125 million in just 56 shows making it the highest grossing of 2004, The Confessions Tour went on to gross over $190 million in 60 shows becoming the highest-grossing tour by a female ever. Her final tour in 2008/09 was Sticky and Sweet Tour which become the highest grossing female tour and the highest grossing solo tour of all-time making $408 million in 85 shows.\nJustin Timberlake released his sophomore studio album FutureSex/LoveSounds in 2006, producing the chart-topping singles \"SexyBack\", \"My Love\", and \"What Goes Around... Comes Around\", and winning four Grammy Awards for the record.\nFergie released her first solo album in 2006 called The Dutchess. The album produced five top five singles in the United States, including three number-one hits on the US Billboard Hot 100, London Bridge, Big Girls Don't Cry, and Glamorous, as well as the number two single Fergalicious and the number five single Clumsy. All five of the aforementioned singles have sold over two million digital downloads each in the United States, thus setting a new record in the digital era for the most multi-platinum singles from one album.The Dutchess sold over six million copies worldwide becoming one of the most successful albums of the era.\nWhile predominantly focusing on R&B music during this time, Beyoncé also ventured into a pop sound with her third studio album I Am... Sasha Fierce in 2008, producing the top-ten singles \"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) (#1), \"If I Were a Boy (#3), \"Halo\" (#5), and \"Sweet Dreams\" (#10). The album and its accompanying songs went on to win five Grammy Awards, helping Beyoncé set a record for the most Grammy Awards won by a female artist in one night.\n\nLady Gaga took the latter part of the decade by storm and revived the electronic influence of pop music that had not been prominent since 2000. Her debut album, The Fame (2008), reached number-one in Canada, Austria, Germany, United Kingdom and Ireland and topped the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart. Its first two singles, \"Just Dance\" and \"Poker Face\", became international number-one hits, topping the Hot 100 in the United States as well as other countries. The album later earned a total of six Grammy Award nominations and won awards for Best Electronic/Dance Album and Best Dance Recording. By the fourth quarter of 2009 she had released her second studio album The Fame Monster, with the global chart-topping lead single \"Bad Romance\".\nIn 2001 Michael Jackson, one of popular music's most successful artists of all-times, released his final studio album Invincible, though it did not receive a lot of exposure compared to previous releases. In 2009, the album was voted by readers of Billboard as the Best Album of the Decade.\nMichael Jackson died in June 2009, creating the largest public mourning since the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997.\n\nChildren's music rose significantly in sales, especially with Disney (The Cheetah Girls, High School Musical, Hannah Montana: The Movie, and The Jonas Brothers among others). All The Cheetah Girls, High School Musical and Hannah Montana albums were among the best-sellers of 2006 and 2007 and reached the number 1 position, left many artists produced by Disney in the 2000s, The Cheetah Girls, Hilary Duff, Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato, Jonas Brothers, Raven-Symoné, the best-selling artists of the decade.\nThe musical style of the 1980s influenced pop music to some extent in the later stages of the decade, especially around late 2009, as seen in Rihanna's hit \"SOS\" (a sampling of Soft Cell's \"Tainted Love\"), Lumidee's \"She's Like The Wind\" and Flo Rida's \"Right Round\", a reworking of the Dead or Alive hit \"You Spin Me Right Round\". Other hits include Aaron Carter's cover of Bow Wow Wow's \"I Want Candy\", and Britney Spears' covers of \"My Prerogative\" and \"I Love Rock 'n' Roll\". Pop rock groups such as Metro Station, The Veronicas, and Owl City also displayed 1980s influences. Beyoncé's hit \"Sweet Dreams\" was not a direct sampling of a 1980s pop hit but Anne Hagerty of Billboard magazine was quoted as saying, \"this track will fit right on a Michael Jackson or Madonna instrumental.\" Alien Ant Farm successfully covered Michael Jackson's \"Smooth Criminal\", and Fall Out Boy came out with their own cover of \"Beat It\", later on. Bowling for Soup also had a hit with \"1985\", a nostalgic ode to the 1980s.\n1980s pop star Cyndi Lauper released several albums, experimenting with different styles, like adult contemporary, pop, pop rock, electronic music and blues. These were critically acclaimed and received several nominations for Grammy Award, and Lauper saw significant sales throughout the decade.\n\n\n=== Adult contemporary ===\n\nThe radio format called Adult contemporary music (primarily \"soft rock\" or \"lite-rock\"), began to somewhat decrease in popularity starting in the late 1990s (due to the increasing popularity of Top 40 music) into January 2000 until September 11, 2001. After 9/11, popularity for Adult Contemporary Music (as well as Contemporary Christian Music crossovers) increased trifold during the grieving process, when the 25–44 Conservative Female Demographic favoured listening to songs with appropriate, positive and uplifting lyrics containing love and hope. Upon the eventual return to normalcy after 9/11, the popularity of Adult Contemporary music held steady until about 2003, when Billboard began to change their chart formats. This led to Adult Contemporary stations to program their music \"not-as-soft\" or \"cheesy\" as they used to and ended up substituting the words \"soft-rock\" with \"lite-rock\", which has a more modern-edged connotation. Yet, AC stations remained careful to not cross the Adult Top 40 format line. Because of all these changes, AC Stations slowly increased in popularity.\n\nIn the late 2000s, artists like Coldplay, Daughtry, The Fray, and Gavin Rossdale were finding more success crossing over onto the Adult Contemporary charts.\nOn the female side, artists like Sara Bareilles, Colbie Caillat, Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Kelly Clarkson, Alicia Keys, and Leona Lewis continued to find crossover success on the Adult Contemporary charts as well. AC veterans such as Celine Dion, Rod Stewart, Phil Collins, The Eagles, Cyndi Lauper, Alanis Morissette and Sheryl Crow continued to release music only on the Adult Contemporary formats. There are three songs which experienced longevity atop the chart, \"Love Song\" by Sara Bareilles, \"Bubbly\" by Colbie Caillat, and \"Breakaway\" from Kelly Clarkson spent a longevity 20 weeks atop the chart.\nAlicia Keys is considered the most successful R&B singer of the decade with 30 million records sold worldwide. Keys scored hits in the US charts with seven songs on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and four songs on the Billboard 100. She shares a record with Britney Spears, being the only two female singers to have their first four albums debuting in first place in the chart Billboard Hot 200. Beyoncé would become the third female singer to accomplish this feat in 2011.Norah Jones is considered the greatest Jazz singer of the decade with 37 million records worldwide. She broke worldwide in 2003, a year after releasing her debut album Come Away With Me with 10 million copies sold in US and 20 million sold worldwide. Jones continued her success with her second album becoming the biggest selling album in one week with 1,900,000 million copies sold, going on to release two more bestselling albums in the 2000s, and having 3 albums debut in the Billboard 200 and winning eight Grammys with her debut album and 12 Grammys in total during the decade.\n\n\n=== Contemporary R&B ===\n\nThe continued popularity of contemporary R&B was seen during this decade in the global success of established artists such as Beyoncé, both as a solo artist, and with the help of Destiny's Child, Mariah Carey, Jennifer Lopez, Mary J. Blige, Craig David and Usher, whose careers began in the 1990s and continued in the dawn of the new millennium. The year 2001, in particular its summer, has been described as a golden age for contemporary R&B and urban soul music, with artists such as Janet Jackson, Jill Scott, Mariah Carey and Destiny's Child, who paved the way for Alicia Keys, Blu Cantrell, and the revival of Aaliyah.Janet Jackson was awarded the American Music Awards' Award of Merit in March 2001 for \"her finely crafted, critically acclaimed and socially conscious, multi-platinum albums.\" She became the inaugural honoree of the \"mtvICON\" award, \"an annual recognition of artists who have made significant contributions to music, music video and pop culture while tremendously impacting the MTV generation.\" Jackson's seventh album, All for You, was released in April 2001, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200. Selling 605,000 copies, All for You had the highest first-week sales total of her career. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic stated \"[Jackson's] created a record that's luxurious and sensual, spreading leisurely over its 70 minutes, luring you in even when you know better\", and Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented, \"[a]s other rhythm and blues strips down to match the angularity of hip-hop, Ms. Jackson luxuriates in textures as dizzying as a new infatuation.\"\n\nThe album's title-track, \"All for You\", debuted on the Hot 100 at number fourteen, the highest debut ever for a single that was not commercially available. Teri VanHorn of MTV dubbed Jackson \"Queen of Radio\" as the single made radio airplay history, \"[being] added to every pop, rhythmic and urban radio station that reports to the national trade magazine Radio & Records\" in its first week. The single peaked at number one, where it topped the Hot 100 for seven weeks. It received the 2001 Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording. The second single, \"Someone to Call My Lover\", which contained a heavy guitar loop of America's \"Ventura Highway\", peaked at number three on the Hot 100. All for You was certified double platinum by the RIAA and sold more than nine million copies worldwide.Beyoncé was ranked the 4th Artist of the 2000s decade by Billboard, and was listed the most successful female artist of the 2000s, as well as the top radio artist of the 2000s. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), also recognized Knowles as the top certified artist of the 2000s.Beyoncé, Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland, better known as Destiny's Child is the most successful female R&B group of all time, selling over 50 million records worldwide during the 2000s. The group has many chart topping singles worldwide, such as \"Survivor\", \"Say My Name\", \"Bootylicious\", \"Independent Women Part 1\" and \"Jumpin' Jumpin'\".\nUsher was named the number-one Hot 100 artist of the 2000s decade and the 2nd most successful artist of the 2000s decade. He released the album Confessions which went on to become the best-selling album of 2004 and the second best-selling album of the 2000s. He also had the overall total most number #1 singles of the decade with seven going top. Confessions is now certified Diamond by the RIAA. Other emerging acts from the early 2000s include Ashanti, Rihanna, Trey Songz, Ne-Yo, Chris Brown, Bobby V, Keyshia Cole, Pretty Ricky, B2K, Jaheim, Musiq Soulchild, Fantasia, and Ciara.\nSinger Mary J. Blige topped the Billboard Hot 100 in 2001 with her smash single, \"Family Affair\", taken from hit album No More Drama. She scored a big hit with, \"Be Without You\", which peaked at #3 on the Hot 100. During the 2000s decade, Mary released five platinum albums. Billboard Magazine ranked Blige as the most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years. The magazine also lists \"Be Without You\" as the top R&B song of the 2000s, as it spent an unparalleled 15 weeks atop the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.\nAfter experiencing a dominant run of success throughout the 1990s, Mariah Carey experienced a commercial lull with Glitter and Charmbracelet, the first two albums she released in the 2000s. However, she made an astounding comeback in 2005 with the release of The Emancipation of Mimi, which debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The album included the #1 singles \"We Belong Together\", which shattered airplay records and was named the Song of the Decade by Billboard, and \"Don't Forget About Us,\" as well as \"Shake It Off,\" which peaked at #2 (it was blocked from the #1 spot by \"We Belong Together\", making Carey the first female artist in Billboard history to occupy the top two spots on the Hot 100 as a lead artist). Additionally, Carey's 2008 album E=MC² spawned her 18th chart-topper, \"Touch My Body,\" with which she surpassed Elvis Presley to become the solo artist with the most Hot 100 #1 songs in history.\nR&B artist Robin Thicke topped the R&B Charts with his hit single \"Lost Without U\". He was the first white artist to top these charts since George Michael. His album The Evolution of Robin Thicke went on to be certified platinum by the RIAA.\n\n\n=== Country ===\n\nCountry music sales continued to rise, as the Billboard 200 all-genre album chart frequently had albums recorded by country music artists listed; several of those titles were certified double platinum or better, indicating the genre continued to have a strong niche in the music industry.\nIn 2002 The Statler Brothers effectively retired from music, truly bringing an end to an era of Country Music. Jimmy Fortune struck out on his own as a solo artist with the help of The Oak Ridge Boys and continues to record music and tour today.\n\nOne of the most successful new artists of the decade was Carrie Underwood. In 2005, the Checotah, Oklahoma native became the first American Idol winner to record primarily country music, instead of pop, rap or rhythm and blues. By the end of the decade, Underwood had amassed eight No. 1 songs on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, along with numerous awards from the Country Music Association, Academy of Country Music and others.\nCountry pop, a subgenre which has its roots in the Nashville Sound of the late 1950s-early 1960s, continued to flourish in popularity. The most prominent act was Shania Twain, with her album Up!, released in 2002, Other top performers in the genre included Dixie Chicks, Lonestar, Martina McBride, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Keith Urban and Rascal Flatts. In the middle of the decade, an informal group of singers and songwriters called the MuzikMafia formed to promote their mesh of honky-tonk and outlaw brand of country music; the most prominent members were \"Big\" Kenny Alphin and John Rich (of the duo Big & Rich) and Gretchen Wilson, who enjoyed success in the middle part of the decade.\n\nMany non-country artists enjoyed success in the country music during the 2000s. The most successful of these artists has been former Hootie & the Blowfish lead singer Darius Rucker, who had three No. 1 hits in 2008–09: \"Don't Think I Don't Think About It\", \"It Won't Be Like This for Long\" and \"Alright.\" The Eagles, a California-based country-rock group, had their first major success on the Hot Country Songs chart in more than 30 years in 2007–08 with the songs \"How Long\" and \"Busy Being Fabulous.\" Pop-rock singers Michelle Branch and Jessica Harp forced The Wreckers and had two top 10 hits, including the No. 1 hit \"Leave the Pieces.\" Other non-country artists who had success in the genre were Kid Rock, Sheryl Crow, Robert Plant, Jewel, Jessica Simpson, Bon Jovi and Miley Cyrus.\n\nIn the late 2000s, teenager Taylor Swift became the first country act to enjoy widespread mainstream popularity since the 1980s. Her self-titled debut studio album produced several top-ten hits on Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, while her second album Fearless spawned two of Swift's biggest international hits—\"Love Story\" and \"You Belong With Me\"—both reached the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 (and atop several of the Hot 100 component charts) after topping the Hot Country Songs chart. At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, Swift became the first country artist in history to win a VMA award, with \"You Belong With Me\". The self-titled album became the longest charting album of the 2000s decade on the Billboard 200 chart, across all music genres. Fearless topped the same chart for 11 weeks, a feat that has not been matched by another country album since then. In 2016, Billboard wrote that \"the country landscape is much different today, thanks in part to Swift and her insistence on following a game plan that many considered unorthodox\", noting the favorable views toward country music since her debut, and reported that following her rise to fame, labels have become more interested in signing young country singers and artists who write their own music.\n\nNot everyone celebrated the success of artists such as Underwood and Swift, reflecting the continued discontent and debate over what constituted \"real\" country music, a debate that had been on and off since the 1970s. Despite the fact that country music songs had long been crossing over to pop radio (and charting since the start of the Billboard charts in 1940), some critics continued to state opinions that the pop-oriented sound was little more than repackaged pop music. In 2009, legendary country music artist George Jones proclaimed that \"they've (the new artists) stolen our identity. ... They had to use something that was established already, and that's traditional country music. So what they need to do really, I think, is find their own title, because they're definitely not traditional country music.\" In addition, several forums, including the classic country-oriented Pure Country Music Web site, regularly included posts that were openly critical of artists such as Swift and Rascal Flatts. Songs such as \"Murder on Music Row\" (by George Strait and Alan Jackson) and \"Too Country\" (by Brad Paisley) gained widespread acceptance and radio airplay, despite criticism in the lyrics over the eschewing of traditional sounds by radio programmers.\nHowever, traditional country music retained a large following during the decade, thanks to the ongoing successes of veteran artists such as Strait, Jackson, Reba McEntire, Brooks & Dunn, Toby Keith and Kenny Chesney, and newer artists such as Paisley, Blake Shelton and Billy Currington. Rogers, Parton and Willie Nelson, all artists who had No. 1 country hits as far back as the early 1970s, all had No. 1 songs during the 2000s decade – either as soloists (Rogers), as part of one-time duo pairings (Nelson) or as featured background vocalists (Parton). McEntire's success came with two albums hitting No. 1 on the all-genre Billboard 200 albums chart (Reba Duets and Keep On Loving You ), and at the end of the decade had her biggest hit of her career (\"Consider Me Gone\"). In addition, veteran songwriters such as Bill Anderson and Bobby Braddock also enjoyed continued success with newly written songs. Late in the decade, newcomers such as Jamey Johnson and Miranda Lambert were widely hailed for their songwriting and performance talents.\nThe legendary group Alabama retired from touring in 2004 after nearly a quarter century of mainstream success, primarily during the 1980s and 1990s. Its band members – cousins Randy Owen, Teddy Gentry and Jeff Cook; and drummer Mark Herndon – remained active performers and recorded a successful series of albums containing gospel and traditional old-time songs.\nMany legendary country music figures died during the decade. Some of the more prominent names included Pee Wee King, Chet Atkins, Waylon Jennings, June Carter Cash, Johnny Cash, Skeeter Davis, Buck Owens, Hank Thompson, Porter Wagoner, Eddy Arnold, Jerry Reed, Vern Gosdin and Hank Locklin.\n\n\n=== Electronic music ===\n\nIn Europe, Trance music was popular in the early 2000s, but this style diminished as the decade wore on. Hard House became the next big craze after trance in 2001, with a certain amount of cross-over between the two genres (in some cases creating Hard Trance tracks). As a kind of backlash, ambient, Chillout music achieved mainstream popularity in the early 2000s, with a successful market of chillout compilations and the genre even making it into television commercials and soundtracks.\nDisco house and funky house, popular in the late 1990s, continued to be successful through to the mid-2000s before the sound of electro house developed in late 2006. The electro sound began to merge with other genres such as Hip Hop as the decade drew to a close.\nFrom 2007, dance music started gaining popularity in North America with dance-pop hits by artists such as the pop singer Rihanna's song \"Don't Stop the Music\" and \"Disturbia\". Hilary Duff in her album Dignity has changed her style from pop rock to the more contemporary electropop, to go with the current trends. In 2008 and 2009, electropop and Nu-disco increased in popularity in North America, replacing hip-hop and R&B as the dominant genres of music. Artists like Britney Spears, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga brought this style to great popularity towards the end of 2008 with their hits such as Britney's \"Womanizer\", Beyonce's Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) and Gaga's Poker Face. Furthermore, Madonna's singles such as \"Hung Up\" (#1 in 45 countries) and \"4 Minutes\" (#1 in 32 countries) become huge dance hits. (See hip hop, urban pop and R&B above for more information.)\nPop duo Aly & A.J. explored electropop and 1980s new wave influences in their second album \"Insomniatic\". In addition, some of the most successful Electronica American artists and DJs in the 1990s, such as Moby and The Crystal Method, also continued their success during the 2000s.\n\n\n=== Jazz ===\n\nIn the 2000s, straight-ahead jazz continued to appeal to a core group of listeners. Well-established jazz musicians, such as Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Sonny Rollins, Wayne Shorter and Jessica Williams, continue to perform and record. In the 2000s, a number of young musicians emerged, including the pianist Jason Moran, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeter Roy Hargrove, and bassist Christian McBride.\nIn addition, a number of new vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum. Norah Jones and Diana Krall, due to their massive international success during the 2000s are considered the first and second most successful female jazz singers of the decade, respectively. Diana Krall has topped the Music Billboards multiple times in the year 2000. The week of April 15, 2000, Krall's album \"When I Look in Your Eyes\" reached number one, followed by Al Jarreau's \"Tomorrow Today\" and Kenny G's \"Classics in the Key of G.\" Norah Jones was named the top jazz artist of the 2000–2009 decade by Billboard. Jones had many albums come out in the 2000s decade, including Jazz and Adult Contemporary. These include, \"Come Away with Me\" in 2002, \"New York City\" in 2003, and \"Feels Like Home\" in 2004.\n\n\n=== Reggae ===\n\n\n==== Dancehall ====\n\nThe early 2000s saw the success of newer charting acts such as Elephant Man, Akon, and Sean Paul, who has achieved mainstream success in the US and has produced several top 10 Billboard hits, including \"Gimme the Light\", \"We Be Burnin'\", \"Give It Up To Me\", and \"Break It Off\" (a duet with Rihanna). He has also had several No. 1 singles, \"Get Busy\", \"Temperature\" and \"Baby Boy\" (a duet with Beyoncé).\n\n\n==== Reggaeton ====\nReggaeton gained mainstream exposure and massive popularity in North America during the mid-2000s. Reggaeton blends West-Indian music influences of reggae and dancehall with those of Latin America, such as bomba, plena, salsa, merengue, latin pop, cumbia and bachata as well as that of hip hop, contemporary R&B, and electronica. The influence of this genre has spread to the wider Latino communities in the United States, as well as the Latin American audience. Shakira has sold more than 100 million copies in the 21st century.\n\n\n=== Christian music ===\nChristian music continued to gain popularity after the success in the 1990s with acts such as Jars of Clay and Audio Adrenaline. Relient K's work in the pop punk/pop rock scene earned them three albums certified gold—The Anatomy of the Tongue in Cheek, Two Lefts Don't Make a Right...but Three Do, and MMHMM—and a Grammy nomination. Skillet recorded two Grammy-nominated albums—Collide and Comatose—and achieved Platinum-selling status with Awake, and Gold with Comatose.\n\n\n=== Billboard Artist of the Decade ===\nOn December 11, 2009, Billboard Magazine named Rapper Eminem as the best Artist of the Decade for the 2000s. He joins the list with Elvis Presley, The Beatles, Elton John, and Michael Jackson who have also been awarded this honor in their respective decades.\n\n\n== Europe ==\n\n\n=== Rock ===\n\nFollowing after the success of Radiohead and The Verve in the 1990s, Post-Britpop act Coldplay saw major success in European album charts during the decade. British Indie rock and indie pop returned to popularity in the mid-late 2000s with artists such as Arctic Monkeys, Franz Ferdinand, Belle and Sebastian, Amy Winehouse, Kaiser Chiefs, Keane, The Libertines, Editors, Lily Allen, Kate Nash, Florence And The Machine, and The Ting Tings achieving substantial chart success. Post punk bands such as Bloc Party, Foals and Editors also saw some popularity. Britpop act Oasis also remained popular in the 2000s (decade), spawning four number one albums in the UK until the disbandment of the group in autumn 2009.\nU2 continued their popularity into the 2000s, releasing three critically acclaimed albums, and were credited with influencing many prominent acts of the decade such as Coldplay and Muse.\n\nIn the early and mid-2000s, British Indie rock groups such as The Libertines, Arctic Monkeys, Bloc Party and Kaiser Chiefs witnessed commercial and chart success not seen by guitar music since Britpop in the 1990s. Regional indie rock scenes such as New Yorkshire also appeared at this point in the decade. Indie music itself increased in popularity due to the increased commercialization of alternative, and major labels begin marketing indie bands with mainstream appeal. American indie/rock band The Killers also became very popular in Britain with their singles \"Mr. Brightside\", \"When You Were Young\" and \"Smile Like You Mean It\".\nRadiohead enjoyed further success in the 2000s, moving away from their experimental sound of the Kid A/Amnesiac era to a more \"typical\" Alternative rock sound. Coldplay also enjoyed success with four number one albums and a US No. 1 single with \"Viva la Vida\", the first English band to do so since The Beatles. Muse saw a similar level of commercial acclaim, with the rock trio releasing three chart-topping albums.\nThe late 2000s (entering into the early 2010s) saw the revival and influence of synthpop music, also known as 'new urban' pop. Notable acts include Hot Chip, Junior Boys, Little Boots and La Roux. The late 2000s also saw acts such as Irish rock band The Script have international success.\nThe era also saw solo success for singer-songwriters, including David Gray, Dido, James Blunt, James Morrison, KT Tunstall and Amy Macdonald.\n\n\n=== Alternative Rock ===\n\nThe eponymous debut album of Gorillaz, created by Damon Albarn in 2001, sold over seven million copies and earned them an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records as the Most Successful Virtual Band.\n\n\n=== Pop ===\n\nGirl groups Sugababes, Girls Aloud and t.A.T.u. spanned successful careers throughout most of the decade, while 1990s act Spice Girls announced their breakup in 2001 and later reformed in 2007. S Club 7 broke up in 2003, after five years of considerable chart success. Blue also knew success in the 2000s.\nIrish singer Enya continued to enjoy steady success during the 2000s; her 2000 album A Day Without Rain sold 15 million copies and she was named the world's best selling female artist of 2001.\n\nAudience-voted reality talent shows became very popular with UK TV audiences in the 2000s. Such programmes included Popstars, Pop Idol, Fame Academy and The X Factor, and many contestants progressed onto mainstream chart success. The Eurovision Song Contest also retained its important status within European music.\n1980s female pop stars Madonna and Kylie Minogue enjoyed a large presence on the European music scene, both having numerous hits in the 2000s including \"Music\", \"Hollywood\", \"Hung Up\" and \"Celebration\" for Madonna and \"Spinning Around\", \"Can't Get You Out of My Head\", \"Slow\" and \"In My Arms\" for Kylie. Britney Spears retained a huge impact throughout the continent and was one of the most successful artists of the decade in that region.\nIn 2004, Moldovan pop music trio O-Zone's hit single \"Dragostea din tei\" witnessed major European and international success. Later in the decade, Romanian pop/dance singer Inna spawned a European hit single with \"Hot\" and became the first Romanian internationally known female star in modern history.When American boyband Backstreet Boys returned to the music scene in 2005 with a more adult rock sound, some of their 1990s contemporaries from Europe followed. Take That reunited in 2006 without Robbie Williams and managed to recreate their earlier success. Bands such as Boyzone also experienced second-time success, whilst others of the same era such as 5ive and East 17 did not and subsequently disbanded. The Irish boy band Westlife were very successful and emerged as the top selling Irish group of the decade with 44 million records sold and a number of record-breaking hit singles and albums.\n\n\n=== Soul ===\n\nBritish soul in the 2000s was dominated by female singers. Joss Stone, Natasha Bedingfield, Corinne Bailey Rae, Estelle, Amy Winehouse, Adele and Duffy enjoyed success in the American charts, leading to talk of a \"Third British Invasion\", \"Female Invasion\" or \"British soul invasion\".\n\nAlso, in America Christina Aguilera released her third studio album with soul and jazz influences, Back To Basics in 2006.\n\n\n=== Electronic music ===\n\nThe popularity of the Eurodance genre in the 1990s led to the considerable popularity of the trance genre in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Popular artists of the decade included ATB, Ian Van Dahl, Alice Deejay, BT, Fragma, Lasgo, iiO, Sylver, Groove Coverage, Robert Miles, Tiësto, Armin Van Buuren, Paul van Dyk, Paul Oakenfold, John Digweed and Safri Duo.\nPopular electronic artists of the decade in other electronic genres included Fatboy Slim, The Chemical Brothers, The Prodigy, Groove Armada, Basement Jaxx, Daft Punk, Massive Attack, Röyksopp, Pendulum, Justice, Portishead, Björk, Goldfrapp, M83, Orbital, Boards of Canada, Autechre, Above & Beyond, Eric Prydz, DJ Shadow, Scooter, Underworld, Aphex Twin, Squarepusher, The Crystal Method, deadmau5, The Knife, Fever Ray, Ladytron, Lamb, Zero 7 and David Guetta.\nMedia commentators did however observe during the 2000s that electronic dance music had returned somewhat to the 'underground', with mainstream commercial interest in the genre waning following its peak in the 1990s. This was symbolised in the Brit Awards' decision in 2004 to remove its 'Best Dance Act' category.Electro, as well as House, became mainstream in the dance music scene in the middle of the decade, replacing the mainstream of more jazzy and Latin influenced sounds from the beginning of the decade. Electro house artists such as Benny Benassi, Bob Sinclar and MSTRKRFT gained popularity in clubs around the world. Dubstep and Bassline House achieve more mainstream success within the dance music scene, with artists like Skream and T2 becoming well known. Dance and eurodance singers and groups such as Kate Ryan, September, Alcazar, Basshunter, and Cascada become popular around the world during the 2000s.\nGrime music emerged in the early 2000s and achieved commercial success, particularly in the UK, through artists such as Dizzee Rascal and Wiley.\n\n\n== Australia and New Zealand ==\n\n\n=== Pop ===\n\nThe most successful Australian female artist, Kylie Minogue still had a huge presence on the Australian music scene with all four albums she released during the decade, with X being the last one, and charting at number one along with its lead single \"2 Hearts\" becoming her 10th Australian number 1 single.\nEx-Neighbours star, Delta Goodrem released her debut album Innocent Eyes in 2003 which became a monster smash hit – it went to No. 1 and stayed for 29 non-consecutive weeks, being certified 14x Platinum for selling over one million copies, the second most of all time in Australia.\nIn New Zealand, pop singer Brooke Fraser has seen large success throughout her music career with number one songs and countless New Zealand Music Awards wins. Other popular artists include, Aaradhna, Vince Harder, Anika Moa, Gin Wigmore, whose debut album Holy Smoke peaked at number one in New Zealand in 2009 and Ladyhawke, who achieved substantial international success following the release of her self-titled debut album in 2008, which peaked at number one in New Zealand and charted in the top twenty in Australia and the United Kingdom. In 2009 she received several New Zealand Music Awards and ARIA music awards and was nominated for a BRIT award in 2010.\n\n\n=== Rock ===\nMany new rock and alternative groups/bands form during the early years of this decade. Groups/bands such as The Vines and Jet become very popular amongst others around 2002–03, paving the way for a mass of new groups midway through the decade such as Wolfmother.\nOther popular artists include Powderfinger, The Vines, You Am I, Silverchair, AC/DC, Pendulum, The Living End, Spiderbait, Grinspoon, Kisschasy and Eskimo Joe.\nMany rock artists in New Zealand were popular throughout the 2000s decade including, Evermore, The Feelers, Neil Finn, Tim Finn, and Liam Finn.\n\n\n==== Alternative ====\n\nFrom 2003 up until 2007 a popular American television show, The O.C., popularized many New Zealand alternative rock bands by playing their music during the years of the series run. These bands included, Evermore and Youth Group.\nAustralian electronic group The Avalanches released their debut album Since I Left You in 2000, composed completely by samples and gained critical acclaim.\n\n\n=== R&B and soul ===\nThroughout the 2000s decade, R&B and soul music had become more popular in Australia and New Zealand. Most Australian R&B artists from the early 2000s, such as Guy Sebastian, Paulini and Ricki-Lee Coulter, were known as contestants on Australian Idol and have established themselves in the Australian music market and continued to enjoy success after the show. Sebastian's debut album Just as I Am debuted at number one on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), becoming the highest selling album ever released by an Australian Idol contestant. He also has received 14 ARIA Music Awards nominations and is the only Australian male artist in Australian music history to achieve five number one singles. Other Australian R&B/soul artists from the early 2000s include Jade MacRae, Israel Cruz, female duo Shakaya and boy band Random, who were best known for winning The X Factor (Australia) in 2005. The late 2000s saw the rise of 2009 Australian Idol winner Stan Walker and 2006 Idol runner-up Jessica Mauboy.\nIn New Zealand, R&B/soul groups Adeaze and Nesian Mystik have enjoyed success throughout their careers. Singer Aaradhna has released three top-ten singles \"Down Time\", \"I Love You Too\", and \"They Don't Know\" with rapper Savage. Other R&B singers include Pieter T and Vince Harder. The late 2000s saw the rise of J.Williams and Erakah.\n\n\n=== Hip hop ===\nEarly into this decade, Australian Hip Hop have proved ultimate success through an Adelaide Hip-Hop trio, Hilltop Hoods. They became the first successful Australian Hip Hop outfit, followed by a Sydney Hip-Hop trio, Bliss n Eso. Each has achieved ARIA awards.\nThe New Zealand hip hop scene have seen the success of artists such as, Scribe, Savage, Smashproof, David Dallas, Young Sid, Nesian Mystik and P Money. In 2009 Smashproof and Gin Wigmore collaborated on the successful single Brother, which stayed at number one on the New Zealand charts for eleven weeks, breaking the 23-year-old record for longest consecutive run at number one on the charts by a local artist. The single also charted in Germany.\n\n\n== Latin America ==\n\n\n=== Pop ===\n\nThe Colombian Latin pop singer Shakira breakthrough at the early 2000s led to her major international success in many non-Spanish-speaking countries, especially the United States in addition to the music scene of Latin America. In 2001, and aided by heavy rotation of the music video, \"Whenever, Wherever\", she broke through into the English-speaking world with the release of Laundry Service, which sold over 13 million copies worldwide. Four years later, Shakira released two album projects called Fijación Oral Vol. 1 and Oral Fixation Vol. 2. Both reinforced her success, particularly with one of the most successful song in the 21st century to date, \"Hips Don't Lie\" which sold over 10 million copies and downloads worldwide and hit number 1 in many countries. From October–November 2009 Shakira released her latest album She Wolf worldwide. Due to her massive international success during the 2000s she is considered the second most successful female Latin singer. In addition, in the early 2000s, Mexican pop star Paulina Rubio became the best-selling artist thanks to the success of her eponymous album Paulina (2000). It remained on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart for 99 weeks, and became the first Latin pop album by a Mexican artist to receive a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 units in the United States. Her follow-up album, Border Girl (2002), also achieved gold certification. Rubio is the best-selling Mexican pop singer in the United States.Pop rock begins to take shape in Latin music with acts such as Camila, Kany García, Jesse & Joy, Belinda Peregrin and Ha*Ash. Also, more established pop acts such as Pepe Aguilar, Alejandro Fernández, Luis Fonsi, and ex-OV7 member Kalimba would use pop rock in their repertoires. Pop-rock music hits new highs in the 2000s with acts such as Maná, Juanes, Julieta Venegas and the highly anticipated comeback of 90's Mexican Pop Queen, Gloria Trevi in the second half of the decade. Gloria Trevi released her first studio album, Como Nace el Universo, in ten years in late 2004. In 1992 Vikki Carr an American from El Paso, Texas, born to parents of Mexican ancestry won the Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album for Cosas del Amor an album with the lead single being a duet with Ana Gabriel of the same name. The track earned awards such as a Lo Nuestro Awards for Best Pop Song and the Single of the Year mention by the Radio y Música journal. Selena became the first non-crossover act to have an album (Amor Prohibido; released March 1994) to enter the Billboard 200 since Luis Miguel's Aries (1993). The album was credited with popularizing Tejano music and catapulting the genre into an \"unprecedented level of mainstream success\"; eventually becoming the best-selling Tejano record of all-time. It holds the record for most weeks in the top ten of the Top Latin Albums chart—at 110 weeks—while the record holds the record for most weeks at number one on the Regional Mexican Albums chart at 96 weeks.\n\n\n=== Rock ===\nDuring the early 2000s, Lynda Thomas had notable success as an alternative rock act around the world, including the US Latin market, a success carried over since the 1990s, first as a eurodance act; she scored successful rock singles in 2000 and 2001 including \"A Mil por Hora\", Lo Mejor de Mi and Estoy Viva.\n\n\n=== Reggaetón ===\n\nIn 2002, New York-based group Aventura would reinvent bachata, thus making it a dominant Latin genre. By 2004, reggaeton would become a staple in music with acts such as Don Omar, Daddy Yankee, Ivy Queen and Wisin & Yandel. By mid-2000s Reggaetón had replaced salsa, merengue and cumbia as the main dance genre in nightclubs for young people all over Latin America, reaching popularity in parts of Spain and Italy as well. But by the end of 2007, this craze soon declined in popularity.\n\n\n=== Salsa and merengue ===\nAlthough salsa and merengue began to decline in popularity, merengue would have new life injected thanks to the subgenre known as, \"merengue de calle\" (or street merengue). Beginning in 2004, this subgenre combining elements of merengue, rap, and reggaeton would be popularized by Dominican acts such as Omega, Silvio Mora, El Sujeto, and Tito Swing.\n\n\n== Asia ==\n\nWith the rapid development of Asian economies during the 1990s and 2000s, the independent music industries of Asia have seen considerable growth. Asian countries like Japan and India have some of the largest music markets in the world. Supported by their own large markets, the music charts in Asia are largely dominated by local Asian artists, with very few artists from the Western world managing to break those markets.\nJ-pop and K-pop have become increasingly influenced by contemporary R&B, hip hop music and Eurobeat, and they have become popular all over the Far East region. Meanwhile, in the Southern Asia region, the rising independent Indian pop scene, often characterized by its fusion of Indian and non-Indian sounds, has begun to increasingly compete with the popularity of Bollywood filmi music in the region. In Southeast Asia, especially Singapore and Indonesia, straight-ahead jazz saw a revival in the second half of the decade.\n\n\n=== J-pop ===\n\nJ-pop continues to be in the mainstream and stays as the most popular style of music in Japan. Japanese Pop's popularity continues to expand through Asia and the rest of the world, with various Japanese artists debuting in the US. J-pop starts to enjoy a relatively big global online fan base. It continues to influence worldwide styles of music, as Japanese culture has continuously become more popular around the world. Japan also remains as the second most powerful music industry in the world, and the second largest music market, after the US. R&B is popular at the beginning of the era, with Hip hop also becoming more popular as time passes. At the end of the decade, Dance music and Techno become the most popular genres. Bubblegum pop remains popular during the entire decade.\nAyumi Hamasaki becomes one of the most popular Japanese star of the 2000s, experiencing her biggest peak at this time, becoming known as \"The Empress of Japanese Pop\", and greatly influencing music, fashion and pop culture. Ken Hirai becomes the most popular male solo artist. 1990s divas like Namie Amuro, Misia, and Hikaru Utada also remain extremely popular during this era, with the former having a second popularity boom in 2008. Starlet Kumi Koda also becomes insanely popular in this era, thanks to her fresh dance style and provocative dance moves. Boy bands are the most popular musical format at the moment, with girl bands like Morning Musume (very popular in the past) experiencing a decline in popularity. While Johnny's boy bands, notably Arashi, become very popular, other vocal groups like Exile and Tohoshinki also gained popularity and pop/rock bands like Mr. Children, Tokio and Glay remained popular. Duets also become popular, such as M-Flo. Like all countries, English pop music popularity expands at a very high rate with popular US artist receiving success such as Backstreet Boys and Britney Spears who become the most popular and two of the most successful non-Japanese artists.\n\n\n=== Indian pop ===\n\nThe Indian music industry was previously dominated by the Filmi music of Bollywood for much of the late 20th century. The 2000s saw an increasing popularity of independent Indian pop music that could compete with Bollywood film music. Indian pop music began distinguishing itself from mainstream Bollywood music with its fusion of Indian and non-Indian sounds, which later had on influence on Bollywood music itself. Indian pop has itself been partly influenced by the Asian Underground scene emerging in the United Kingdom among British Asian artists such as Bally Sagoo, Apache Indian, Panjabi MC, Raghav and the Rishi Rich Project (featuring Rishi Rich, Jay Sean and Juggy D). India has one of the largest music markets in the world, though like other developing nations, suffers from high levels of piracy.\nIndian music has also had an increasing influence on popular music in the Western world. The music of South Asia has influenced Europe's pop mainstream as acts like Björk, Bananarama, Erasure, and Siouxsie and the Banshees all released singles or remixes featuring South Asian instrumentation. Indian music has also influenced mainstream American hip hop, R&B and urban music in the 2000s, including artists/producers such as Timbaland, Jay-Z, Dr. Dre, Truth Hurts, The Black Eyed Peas, Missy Elliott and Britney Spears. According to DJ Green Lantern, \"Indian beats have now become a fixture on the R&B scene\". Several Hollywood musical films such as Moulin Rouge! have incorporated Bollywood songs, while several Indian music composers have gained international fame, particularly A. R. Rahman who, having sold over 300 million records worldwide, is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. M.I.A., a British-born Sri Lankan electronic artist incorporates Bollywood songs in her music.\n\n\n=== Asian pop ===\n\nMost of the big Asian pop singers who had been popular in the 1990s, such as Jacky Cheung, Panda Hsiung, Dick Cowboy, and Andy Lau, were relatively quiet in the 2000s.\nThe appearance of Hong Kong national William Hung on American Idol in 2004, proved to be very popular with many locals of East Asia and Southeast Asia. This resulted in a new generation of young local artistes, both solo singers as well as bands, having hit records during this period. Later in 2004, Hung would hold his first solo concert at the Esplanade Theatre in Singapore.One of the first of these was Taiwanese boyband F4, who with their first big hit \"Meteor Rain\", from the album of the same name, established them as the dominant boyband of the first half of the decade. The four members of F4 also had solo hits, such as Jerry Yen's \"One Metre\", Vanness Wu's \"My Friend\" (an adaptation of the Robert Burns poem \"Auld Lang Syne\"), Ken Chu's \"Never Stopping\", and Vic Chou's \"Make a wish\".Though back in 1999 he had already written a song, \"Snail\", that had been famously performed by Valen Hsu, Chyi Chin, Panda Hsiung, and Power Station, singer-songwriter Jay Chou proved to be a singer in his own right. Beginning with his first solo album Jay in 2000, his style showcased a unique fusion of Asian music with American R&B. Chou would go on to become the dominant force in Asian music of almost all of the 2000s and the first half of the next decade.\nAmong solo female artists of the 2000s, Stefanie Sun of Singapore was the most outstanding. Her 2000 eponymous debut album featured a remake of an old Hokkien pop song, Cloudy Day; and it earned her a Golden Melody Award for Best New Artist.\n\nSun's compatriot, singer-songwriter-guitarist Tanya Chua, also enjoyed growing success during this period as a leading Mandopop artist. Her 2000 album I Do Believe garnered a nomination for the Best New Artist at the Golden Melody Awards. Chua also wrote songs or produced albums for several other established singers during this period, for instance \"Wrong Number\" for Faye Wong.The most popular girl group of this period was S.H.E, comprising Selina Jen, Hebe Tien, and Ella Chen. Their first big hit, from their fourth album Super Star, was their cover of the Bee Gees' \"I.O.I.O.\". In Taiwan alone, 250,000 copies of Super Star were sold.\nIn the second half of the decade, straight-ahead jazz saw a surge of popularity in Asia, in particular after the release in 2006 of the debut album, Let Me Sing!, from 15-year-old Indonesian jazz virtuoso Nathan Hartono. Singapore-based wind orchestra The Philharmonic Winds, formed at the beginning of the decade, also played a major part in the revival of jazz in Asia. In 2009, Singapore's Esplanade Theatre would found its own jazz festival especially meant for young bands and artistes; it was originally called Bright Young Things, but it would later be renamed Mosaic Jazz Fellows.Contemporary Christian music artistes also found their way into Asian secular music charts for the first time ever during the 2000s. Mi Lu Bing was a three-piece band which had originally started out playing for worship in their church, but later would release secular-themed albums and songs, including their opening and ending theme songs to 2007 local television serial, The Golden Path. Sun Ho had been the worship pastor at megachurch City Harvest Church before she released her first album of secular material, Sun With Love, in 2002. She would go on to release another four more albums between 2003 and 2007, although her secular music career eventually came to an abrupt ending with the City Harvest Trial.\nTaiwanese supergroup SuperBand, comprising Wakin Chau, Jonathan Lee, Chang Chen-yue, and Lo Ta-Yu, emerged in 2008 and went on to hold several concerts and release two studio EP's of new material, Northbound (2009) and Go South (2010), before finally resuming their individual solo careers in 2010.\n2003 saw the deaths of Hong Kong popular singers Leslie Cheung, 46, who committed suicide; and Anita Mui, 40, who died of cervical cancer. Both singers were highly respected in Cantopop music.\nIn early until middle of 2000s, most popular music genre in Indonesia is pop and pop rock music. Some group bands like Dewa 19, Sheila On 7, Padi (band), Radja, ST 12 are becoming top group bands and their songs are the most played songs by teens and young adults. Some of those 2000s bands' most popular songs were like Sheila on 7 – Sebuah Kisah Klasik, Dewa 19 - Separuh Nafas, Padi - Menanti Sebuah Jawaban, etc.\n\n\n== Middle East and Africa ==\nMusic charts in the Middle East are largely dominated by local Arabic-language artists, with an equivalent population of Western world artists as well. The music industry within the Middle East and Africa is international and diverse. In Arabic country, Amr Diab dominates by his music and variation of genres (R&B, House, Trance, Latin and Rock). Such artist like Angelique Kidjo from Benin and Nigerian descent Sade gained major success.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\n1980s in music\n1990s in music\n2000s in the music industry\n2000s\n2010s in music\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Sources ==\nNovas, Himilce (1995). Remembering Selena (1st ed.). Sagebrush Education Resources. ISBN 0-613-92637-4.\nRichmond, Clint (1995). Selena! : The Phenomenal Life and Tragic Death of the Tejano Music Queen (1st ed.). New York, N.Y.: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-54522-1.", "\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld\" is the debut single by the ambient house group The Orb. It was originally released in October 1989 and made the UK Singles Chart in 1990, peaking at #78. The 'Peel Session' version was also voted into #10 place in John Peel's 1990 Festive Fifty. In April 1991, it was released on the debut album The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld. The title is taken from a sound effects track from Blake's 7 on BBC Sound Effects No. 26 - Sci-Fi Sound Effects titled \"The Core, A Huge Evergrowing Pulsating Brain which Rules from the Centre of Ultraworld\".\nThe ethereal chord progression used throughout was sampled from the Grace Jones classic \"Slave to the Rhythm\" in particular the album version (6'35)\nThe song was featured on the soundtrack of the video game Grand Theft Auto: Episodes from Liberty City on the fictional in-game station Self-Actualization FM.\n\n\n== History ==\nThroughout 1989, The Orb, along with Martin \"Youth\" Glover, developed the musical genre of ambient house through use of a diverse array of samples and recordings. The culmination of their musical work came when The Orb recorded a session for John Peel on BBC Radio 1. The track, then known as \"Loving You\", was largely improvisational; it included sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays, nature sounds, and Minnie Riperton's \"Lovin' You\". For its release as a single on record label Big Life, The Orb changed the title to \"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules From the Centre of the Ultraworld\". Upon the single's release, Riperton's management forced Big Life to remove the unlicensed Riperton sample, ensuring that only the initial first-week release of the single contained the original vocals of Minnie Riperton; subsequent pressings used vocals from a sound-alike.The single is 19 minutes and seven seconds long. It reached #78 on the UK singles chart.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\n\n=== 12\": WAU! Mr.Modo / MWS 17T (UK) ===\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain... – Loving You\" (Orbital Mix) – 19:07\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain...\" (Bucket and Spade Mix) – 5:50\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain...\" (Why Is Six Scared of Seven?) – 5:30Released October 1989\n\n\n=== 12\": WAU! Mr.Modo / MWS 17R (UK) ===\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Remix\" (Orbital Dance Mix) – 7:05\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Remix\" (Orbital Radio Mix) – 3:34\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Remix\" (Aubrey Mix Mk 2) – 8:38Released January 1990\n\n\n=== CD: Big Life / BLR 270CD (UK) ===\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain... – Loving You\" (Orbital Mix) – 19:07Called \"Compactdisc\"\nReleased June 1990, re-issued March 1994 [BLRDB 27]\n\n\n=== CD: Big Life / BLR 27CD (UK) ===\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain...\" (Orbital Dance Mix) – 8:19\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain...\" (Orbital 9AM Radio Mix) – 3:11\n\"A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain...\" (Aubrey Mix Mk 1) – 6:06Labeled as \"Jimmy Cauty Remixes\"\n\"Aubrey Mix Mk 1\" is an edit of \"Aubrey Mix Mk 2\"\nCalled \"Compactdisco\"\nReleased July 1990, re-issued March 1994 [BLRDA 27]\n\n\n== References ==", "The Dream Mixes is the first remix album by Tangerine Dream and their fifty-second overall. The album is a collection of extant Tangerine Dream songs remixed with a dance beat by Jerome Froese and is the first in a series that includes TimeSquare – Dream Mixes II (1997), DM3 – The Past Hundred Moons (2001), DM 4 (2003), DM 2.1 (2007), and DM V (2010). In 1996, the album was re-released as a two-CD set that included six new songs. This set was released again in 1998 as Dream Mixes One.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nBonus Tracks from The Club Dream Mixes\n\n\n== References ==", "26 Mixes for Cash is a compilation album of remixes produced by Richard D. James (under his recording alias Aphex Twin), mainly for other artists between 1990 and 2003. It was released on 24 March 2003 by Warp Records.\n\n\n== Background ==\nDespite becoming a sought-after remixer during the 1990s, James admitted to not actually using the original source material in the case of some of his \"remixes\" for artists he disliked (such as Nine Inch Nails), explaining: \"I never heard the originals...I don't want to, either.\" In some cases, he submitted his own original work, or the work of his flatmate Global Goon in place of his own work.Along with the 22 remixes on this release, four original Aphex Twin tracks are also included. Two are new versions of previously released tracks: \"Windowlicker, Acid Edit\" and \"SAW2 CD1 TRK2, Original Mix\". The other two were previously available only on Further Down the Spiral, the remix album by Nine Inch Nails: \"The Beauty of Being Numb Section B\" and an edited version of \"At the Heart of It All\".\nIn addition to the remixes featured on this release, James has also remixed tracks by Beck, DJ Pierre, and Soft Ballet, as well as additional remixes of tracks by Seefeel, Gavin Bryars, Jesus Jones, Saint Etienne, and Mescalinum United.\n\n\n== Release ==\n26 Mixes for Cash was released on CD only, although a vinyl promotional disc entitled 2 Mixes on a 12\" For Cash, featuring the two Aphex Twin originals exclusive to this compilation, was released in limited quantities in Japan only. Online orders of the compilation through Warp Records came with two silver-wrapped chocolate coins, featuring the Aphex Twin logo on one side and Richard's profile on the other (with \"ELECTRONICA REX\" written alongside it). The cover is by The Designers Republic.\nJames later clarified that the album was named 26 Mixes for Cash by the late Warp Records co-founder Rob Mitchell because James exchanged the remix DATs for cash in person so that the record companies would not know his bank account details or address.\n\n\n== Critical reception ==\nAllMusic states that the compilation \"comprises some of the most creative, breathtaking music produced by anyone in electronica\". NME wrote that \"the more cash at stake the less effort Aphex puts into honouring the spirit of the artist – an often hilarious greenie in the face of pop careerism\". Pitchfork states that \"frustrating gestation period aside, many of the tracks here are certified classics, and it's nice to have them all in one place\".\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\n\n== Charts ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n26 Mixes for Cash at the Warp Records discography", "\"One More Night\" is a song written and performed by Cascada, which was first released as part of an EP in 2004 and later released as a Maxi-single (in e-Single format) in 2007 in Canada only. The 3-track e-Single features 2 remixes by Wild Ace and the original album version. The Wild Ace Club Mix is also found on a mixed-compilation CD called \"HitMix 2007\" sponsored by a Toronto (Canada) radio station called Z103.5 and mixed by DJ Danny D. As with most electronic music, there are many remixes. Due to the remix package leaking online, many unofficial mixes were made in addition to the official mixes. Finally, all of the official mixes can be found on promo-series CDs worldwide. \n\n\n== Track listing ==\nOfficial remixes\nOne More Night (Radio Edit) 3:43\nOne More Night (Dan Winter Remix) 6:05\nOne More Night (Club Mix) 5:36\nOne More Night (Wild Ace Club Mix) 7:21\nOne More Night (Wild Ace Radio Mix) 4:07Unofficial remixes include, but are not limited to\nOne More Night (Mike Wind Vs. DJ Roxx Remix) 7:01\nOne More Night (DJ Money Mix) (Feat. Lil' Wayne & Drake) 4:15\nOne More Night (Geek Kidz Remix) 6:34\nOne More Night (Geek Kidz Radio Edit) 4:03\nOne More Night (Lockhard vs. Incoming Radio Edit) 3:35\nOne More Night (Hypersnap Remix) 5:35\nOne More Night (Lockhard vs. Incoming! Club Mix) 4:54\nOne More Night (Bootystylerz Remix) 4:29\nOne More Night (Thomas Veex Remix) 6:57\nOne More Night (DJ Deect Remix) 4:02\nOne More Night (DJ Deect Remix) 4:53\nOne More Night (Squadstylerz Remix) 4:27\nOne More Night (Flashtune Remix) 6:10\nOne More Night (Royal Playboys Remix)\nOne More Night (Earthshakerz Remix) 5:26\nOne More Night (Mannton Remix) 4:07\n\n\n== External links ==\nLyrics of this song at MetroLyrics", "Ayu-mi-x (stylized as ayu-mi-x) is the first remix album by Japanese musician Ayumi Hamasaki. It was released on March 17, 1999, to promote A Song for ××. Ayu-mi-x remix album contains 2 discs. Disc 1 is the Remix Club Side which contains dance remixes. Disc 2 is the Acoustic Orchestra Side which contains orchestral remixes and 3 dub mixes.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nAll lyrics are written by Ayumi Hamasaki.\n\n\n=== Acoustic Orchestra Side ===\nPrologue\nA Song for ××\nHana\nPoker Face\nWishing\nYou\nAs If...\nPowder Snow\nDepend on You\nFor My Dear...\nWishing (Refreshing Mix)\nYou (Fine Mix)\nFrom Your Letter (Dub You Crazy Mix)\n\n\n== Chart positions ==\nTotal Sales: 396,800 (Japan)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAyu-mi-x information at Avex Network.\nAyu-mi-x information at Oricon.", "TimeSquare – Dream Mixes II is the fifty-seventh release by Tangerine Dream and the second of their Dream Mixes albums on their own label after The Dream Mixes (1995). It is their fifty-seventh album overall. The album, as well as reworkings of past tracks, includes a remix of a track from Dream Mixes One. Further releases in this series were DM3 - The Past Hundred Moons (2001), DM 4 (2003) and DM V (2010). The album was reissued as TD - DM 2:1 (2007), a mix of tracks from this album and Dream Mixes One.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nAll tracks are written by Edgar Froese and Jerome Froese.\n\n\n== References ==", "George Alan O'Dowd (born 14 June 1961), known professionally as Boy George, is an English singer, songwriter, DJ, fashion designer, photographer and record producer. He is the lead singer of the pop band Culture Club. At the height of the band's fame, during the 1980s, they recorded global hit songs such as \"Karma Chameleon\", \"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me\" and \"Time (Clock of the Heart)\". George is known for his soulful voice and his androgynous appearance. He was part of the British New Romantic movement which emerged in the late 1970s to the early 1980s.\nHis music is often classified as blue-eyed soul, which is influenced by rhythm and blues and reggae. His look and style of fashion was greatly inspired by glam rock pioneers David Bowie and Marc Bolan. He was the lead singer of Jesus Loves You between 1989 and 1992. In 2015, Boy George received an Ivor Novello Award from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors for Outstanding Services to British Music. In 2002, he was voted 46th in a BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.\n\n\n== Career ==\n\n\n=== Early life, family and career ===\nBoy George was born George Alan O'Dowd at Barnehurst Hospital, Kent, England, on 14 June 1961 and raised in Woolwich, the second of five children born to builder Jerry O'Dowd (born Jeremiah; 1932 – 2004) and Dinah O'Dowd (born Christina Glynn; 1939). He was raised in a working-class Irish Catholic family; his father was born in England of Irish descent and his mother is from Dublin. He has one older brother Kevin, as well as two younger brothers Gerald and David and a younger sister Siobhán. George also has an older half-brother Richard, who was born out of wedlock in Dublin in 1957 when his mother was just 18; she moved to London with him to start a new life and escape the stigma of being an unmarried mother.George has compared his family history to a \"sad Irish song.\" His maternal grandmother was permanently taken from her family at age 6 after being found outside the family home alone, and placed into an Industrial School. His great uncle Thomas Bryan was executed by the British in 1921 during the Irish War of Independence. According to George's mother, who published a memoir in 2007, Jerry O'Dowd was physically and mentally abusive and beat her even when she was pregnant with George. George said of his father, \"He was a terrible father and a terrible husband.\" In 1995, George's youngest brother Gerald, who suffers from schizophrenia, was convicted of killing his wife in an episode of paranoia.George was a follower of the New Romantic movement, which was popular in the UK in the early 1980s. He lived in various squats around Warren Street in Central London. He and his friend Marilyn were regulars at Blitz, a London nightclub run by Steve Strange and Rusty Egan. The pop artists that inspired him were Siouxsie and the Banshees, Roxy Music, Patti Smith, and the two major glam rock pioneers, David Bowie and T. Rex frontman Marc Bolan. On the impact of Bolan and Bowie on him, George states, \n\n\"They represented a kind of bohemian existence that I – at that point – could only imagine living. I loved the music. The first time I ever saw Marc Bolan really, properly was singing ‘Metal Guru’ and just loved him. I don’t think you can separate an artist from what they wear or what they sing – it’s kind of the complete package. It’s something which is very organic and individual\".\n\n\n=== Culture Club ===\n\nBoy George's androgynous style of dressing caught the attention of music entrepreneur Malcolm McLaren (previously the manager of the Sex Pistols), who arranged for George to perform with the group Bow Wow Wow. Going by the stage name Lieutenant Lush, his tenure with Bow Wow Wow proved problematic with lead singer Annabella Lwin. George eventually left the group and started his own band with bassist Mikey Craig. They were joined by Jon Moss (who had drumming stints with the Damned and Adam and the Ants) and then guitarist Roy Hay. Originally they were named Sex Gang Children, but settled on the name Culture Club, referring to the various ethnic backgrounds of the members.\n\nThe band recorded demos that were paid for by EMI Records, but the label declined to sign them. Virgin Records expressed interest in signing the group in the UK for European releases, while Epic Records handled the US and North American distribution. They recorded their debut album Kissing to Be Clever (UK No. 5, US No. 14,) and it was released in 1982. The single \"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me?\", became an international hit, reaching No. 1 in multiple countries around the world, plus top ten in several more countries (US No. 2). This was followed by the Top 5 hit \"Time\" in the US and UK, and \"I'll Tumble 4 Ya\" which reached US No. 9. This gave Culture Club the distinction of being the first group since the Beatles to have three Top 10 hits in the US from a debut album.Their next album, Colour By Numbers was an enormous success, topping the UK charts and hit No. 2 in the US. The single \"Church of the Poison Mind\" became a Top 10 hit, and \"Karma Chameleon\" became an international hit, peaking at No. 1 in 16 countries, and the top ten in additional countries. It hit No. 1 in the US where it stayed for three weeks. It was the best-selling single of the year in the United Kingdom, where it spent six weeks at No. 1. \"Victims\" and \"It's a Miracle\" were further Top 5 UK hits, while \"Miss Me Blind\" reached the Top 5 in the US.\n\nThe band's third album Waking Up with the House on Fire (UK No. 2, US No. 26) was not as big a hit as its predecessors internationally, but still achieved chart success. The first single, \"The War Song\", was a No.2 hit in the UK, but further singles performed below expectations. George then provided a lead vocal role on the Band Aid international hit single \"Do They Know It's Christmas\". The single featured mostly British and Irish musical acts, and proceeds from the song were donated to feed famine victims in Africa during the 1984–1985 famine in Ethiopia. Unlike many of the bands featured on the single, Culture Club did not perform at Live Aid in July 1985.In 1986, George performed a guest-starring cameo role in an episode of the television series The A-Team titled \"Cowboy George\". Also in 1986, Culture Club released their fourth album, From Luxury to Heartache (UK No. 10, US No. 32) which featured the hit single, \"Move Away\". With George's subsequent drug addiction, the underwhelming performance of their last two albums, a soured romance between band members shrouded in secrecy, and a wrongful death lawsuit looming, the group ultimately disbanded.\n\n\n==== Reunions ====\nIn July 1998, a reunited Culture Club performed three dates in Monte Carlo and then joined the Human League and Howard Jones in a \"Big Rewind\" tour of the US. The following month, the band appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman and made an appearance in Britain, their first in 14 years. Later that year, the band hit the UK charts at No.4 with \"I Just Wanna Be Loved\" and later a top 25 hit with \"Your Kisses are Charity\". A new Culture Club album, Don't Mind If I Do, was released in 1999.\nIn 2006, the band decided to again reunite and tour, but George declined to join them. As a result, two members of Culture Club replaced him with vocalist Sam Butcher. George expressed his displeasure. After only one showcase and one live show, the project was shelved.\nOn 27 January 2011, George announced to the BBC that there would be a 30th anniversary Culture Club reunion tour sometime later in the year, and that they would be releasing a new album in 2012. Although the 2011 tour never took place, Culture Club did play two live concerts, in Dubai and Sydney, the latter being a New Year's Eve concert.On 20 May 2014, it was announced on Culture Club's official Facebook page the band were back together. A new picture of the four members was also posted, along with a list of 11 concert dates through the UK. Alison Moyet would be a special guest at the concerts. The band were scheduled to perform dates in America in 2014 before the UK tour in December.The band was scheduled to tour New Zealand in 2016. Tickets were sold for performances in Christchurch and Auckland. In November 2016, in a pre-tour interview on TVNZ, Boy George walked out after the interviewer asked him about his 2009 criminal conviction. The band then cancelled its Christchurch performance, saying it was due to changes in its international touring schedule. Later in November, the December performance in Auckland was also cancelled.\n\n\n=== Solo career: late 1980s ===\nAfter the dissolution of Culture Club in 1986, Boy George entered treatment and was prescribed narcotics to treat his addiction to heroin. In 1987, George released his first solo album, Sold, which garnered success in Europe. It spawned the UK singles \"Everything I Own\" (UK No. 1), \"Keep Me in Mind\" (UK No. 29), \"To Be Reborn\" (UK No. 13), and the title song, \"Sold\" (UK No. 24). The singles were also hits in various other European countries. The album's success, however, was not duplicated in America. This may have been due in part to the fact that George was prohibited by US authorities from travelling to the United States for several years because of his British drug charges. He was therefore unable to be in America to help promote the album.\nGeorge did score his first solo US Top 40 hit with the single \"Live My Life\" (US No. 40) from the soundtrack to the film Hiding Out. Tense Nervous Headache (1988) and Boyfriend (1989) would be his next two internationally released albums; however, these two albums would not be distributed in the US. Instead, Virgin Records selected several songs from each of these albums for a North American-only release called High Hat (1989). High Hat scored a US Top 5 R&B hit in \"Don't Take My Mind on a Trip\", produced by Teddy Riley. George's next single in the UK was \"No Clause 28 (Emilio Pasqez Space Face Full Remix)\", a protest song against a legal provision banning local authorities from promoting homosexuality. The song was an underground acid house hit.\n\n\n=== Solo career: 1990s ===\nIn 1989, George formed his own record label, More Protein, and began recording under the name Jesus Loves You, writing under the pseudonym Angela Dust, a word play on angel dust. He released several underground hits in the early 1990s; \"After the Love\", \"Generations of Love\" and \"Bow Down Mister\", the last giving him a UK Top 30 hit in 1991. Inspired by his involvement in the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON), George had written the song during a trip to India. Another single, \"One on One\", featured a remix by Massive Attack.\nFrom March 1990 to April 1991, George presented a weekly chat and music show on the Power Station satellite channel called Blue Radio. In 1992, George had a major US and UK hit with the song \"The Crying Game\", from the soundtrack for the film of the same name. The film became a surprise hit and the single reached the No. 15 in the US. Although he had had several solo hits in Europe, this would be Boy George's biggest US hit since Culture Club's \"Move Away\" reached the US Top 20 six years previous.\n\nHe has also enjoyed a second career as a notable music DJ. His first gig as a DJ was at Phillip Sallon's new nightclub, Planets, located in London's Piccadilly. In the 1990s he came to the attention of legendary rave/house promoters Fantazia who asked him to mix 1 of the discs on the 2 volume in their new compilation series Fantazia The House Collection 2. This compilation was a success in the UK, going gold. The album was also sold to Sony for European-wide release. London nightclub Ministry of Sound hired him to compile one of their first CDs, and it promptly sold 100,000 copies. He then completed some compilations for them, five of them being the Annual I to V. In 1993, George was featured on the P.M. Dawn single \"More Than Likely\" which became a moderate US and UK hit.\nGeorge released the rock-driven album Cheapness and Beauty in 1995. The single \"Same Thing in Reverse\" became a minor US hit. The Unrecoupable One Man Bandit – Volume One was the next album release, first being sold on the internet only then distributed by independent labels. Another project from the time was a new group that would include Boy George and two long-time musicians, John Themis and Ritchie Stevens. Initially named 'Shallow', it was later renamed 'Dubversive'. The project took place in 1997 and was to include trip-hop, dub and reggae. The project was not picked up by any major labels but some of the songs were later included on the 2002 Culture Club Box Set, and some others appeared on eBay in 2004.\nOn some other labels, several dance-oriented songs were released in various countries. For example, \"Love Is Leaving\" went Top 3 in Italy and \"When Will You Learn\" reached the top position in the Swiss charts. \"When Will You Learn\" was also nominated for the Best Dance Recording, at the Grammy Awards. In 1999, Boy George collaborated on songs with dance-oriented acts. For example, \"Why Go?\", a slow-paced track with Faithless, from their Sunday 8pm LP, was later released in a remixed form in some European countries and Australia. A track was done with Groove Armada, named \"Innocence is Lost\", but was only released on a promo 12\" in 1999.\n\n\n=== Solo career: 2000s ===\nBoy George remained a figure in the public eye, starring in the London musical Taboo, based on the New Romantic scene of the early 1980s (George did not play himself, opting instead to take on the persona of Australian-born performance artist Leigh Bowery). Boy George was nominated for a Tony Award for the \"Best Musical Score\" and Taboo was a great success in London's West End, though a heavily altered American production produced by Rosie O'Donnell in New York City was short-lived (100 performances, versus the two-year run in London).\n\nIn 2002, Boy George released U Can Never B2 Straight, an \"unplugged\" collection of rare and lesser known acoustic works. It contained unreleased tracks from previous years as well as some ballads from Cheapness and Beauty and the Culture Club album Don't Mind if I Do. It received the best reviews of Boy George's solo career, many of them highlighting his strong song writing abilities. The record was only released in the UK and Japan, and reached No. 147 on the UK album charts.\nFrom 2002 to 2004, under the pseudonym \"The Twin\", Boy George experimented in electronica, releasing limited edition 7\" singles and promo records. The limited releases included four 7\" singles, one limited 12\" single (for \"Sanitised\") and a promo CD, a 13-track album Yum Yum. Two years later, it was released via digital outlets such as iTunes. An album recorded in the spring of 2003 was also shelved. A collaboration with electronic combo T–Total, the album was a collection of covers of songs by Jefferson Airplane, David Bowie, John Lennon, Dusty Springfield, T. Rex and Eurythmics among others.\nDuring 2003, he presented a weekly show on London radio station LBC 97.3 for six months. He wrote the foreword for a feng shui book called Practical Feng Shui by Simon G. Brown (published in 1998). He also appeared as a guest on the British comedy-talk show The Kumars at No. 42. In March 2005 he was the guest host for an episode of The Friday Night Project, for Channel 4 television.\nIn 2005, George released Straight, the second volume of his autobiography. On his \"More Protein\" website, he also announced another album, also named Straight, for mid-2005. The album was never released but a four track sampler was released with the book of the same name. A reggaeton oriented EP was also planned for August 2006 but was never released. Some recent tracks were shared by George himself in late 2006 and early 2007 on his YouTube account, his three Myspace pages and sometimes on his official site. In January 2007, Boy George released \"Time Machine\" on Plan A Records. \"Time Machine\" was co-written by double Ivor Novello Award-winning songwriter Amanda Ghost who also co-wrote \"You're Beautiful\" with James Blunt.Boy George has run his own fashion line for some years, called \"B-Rude\". B-Rude has shown at fashion shows in London, New York and Moscow. On 24 December 2006, George appeared on a one-off BBC TV programme Duet Impossible in which he performed with himself from the 1980s and joked about his street cleaning.\nLater in 2007, two electronica/dance collaborations were released in limited editions. In the spring, the track \"You're Not the One\" was remixed from an old demo and released with the dance combo \"Loverush UK\" reaching the top 20 in the UK dance chart. It was a digital-only release, available in many digital retailers like iTunes. Also on iTunes, a new collaboration with trip-hop/electro band Dark Globe, called \"Atoms\", was released on 19 November. The single contains eight versions, from the slow original to electro remixes by Ariya and Henrik Schwarz. Also in late 2007, an EP titled \"Disco Abomination\" appeared on the internet, available for download on several underground outlets. It included new remixes of tracks like \"Turn 2 Dust\", \"Love Your Brother\", and covers of \"Don't Wanna See Myself\" and \"Go Your Own Way\". Most of the versions are remixes done by German producer Kinky Roland.\nOn 25 February 2007, George was special guest DJ at LGBT nightspot, the Court Hotel in Perth, Australia. On 4 March 2007, he performed as a DJ at the Hordern Pavilion in Sydney for the Mardi Gras Festival. On 11 May 2007, he performed as a DJ at the launch party for the Palazzo Versace in Dubai, UAE. George cancelled his planned 2007 October tour via an announcement on his official website. In 2007, he toured as a DJ, visiting many venues in locations such as Stuttgart, Rotterdam, Auckland, Brisbane, Melbourne, Sydney, Dubai, Montreal, Toronto, London, Blackpool, Coventry, Munich, Lyon, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Brussels and Moscow.George played a special residency at the Shaw Theatre in London from 23 January 2008, followed by a full UK tour. In April 2008, The Biography Channel featured a documentary on the life of Boy George. The American tour which was planned for July/August 2008 had to be cancelled because he had been denied a United States visa due to a pending London court case scheduled for November 2008. On 2 July six concert dates in South America were announced. Boy George participated in RETROFEST held in Scotland in August 2008, and a 30-date UK tour took place in October/November 2008.\nIn 2009, he signed a new record deal subsequently releasing the album Ordinary Alien – The Kinky Roland Files in the autumn of 2010. The album consisted of previously recorded tracks mixed by long-time dance partner Kinky Roland. He took part in Night of the Proms, which is a series of concerts held yearly in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Spain which consist of a combination of pop music and popular classical music (often combined).\n\n\n=== Solo career: 2010–present ===\n\nGeorge's 2012 appearances included the Melbourne International Arts Festival in October, both as featured guest DJ and also performing with Antony Hegarty in the festival's presentations of Swanlights, the Museum of Modern Art's musical artwork commission, which had only ever been performed one night previously, at Radio City Music Hall in New York City.\nJune 2013 saw the release of a new song, \"Coming Home\". Mikey Craig, former bandmate in Culture Club, co-wrote the song with George. It was written during the song writing sessions for his album This Is What I Do released in October 2013. It has been remixed by the likes of Marc Vedo and Kinky Roland. The artist listed for the song is Dharma Protocol featuring Boy George. A video was released on YouTube shot and directed by Boy George, though he did not appear in the video. It was set on the Epping Ongar Railway and starred Danie Cox, lead singer and guitarist of London-based band the Featherz.On 19 August 2013, it was announced George would release his new studio album of original material, This Is What I Do, his first in 18 years. The album was written by George and long-time writing partners John Themis, Kevan Frost and Richie Stevens. Stevens produced the record at London's Cowshed Studios and it was released by Kobalt Label Services. The album also features writing collaborations with Youth, and a version of Yoko Ono's \"Death of Samantha\". It was mixed by Dave Bascombe and features a string of guest musicians including DJ Yoda, Kitty Durham, Ally McErlaine, MC Spee and Nizar Al Issa.In January 2016, George joined the fifth series of The Voice UK, replacing Tom Jones as a mentor. His final act, Cody Frost, finished third place overall. George left the series after just one season and later went on to join The Voice Australia as a coach for its sixth season to replace The Madden Brothers. His final contestant, Hoseah Partsch, was the runner-up. He returned for the show's seventh season, in 2018, its eighth season, in 2019 where his final contestant, Diana Rouvas won the competition, and its ninth season in 2020. George did not return for the tenth season.In October 2016, Boy George performed David Bowie's “Starman” – nine months after his idol's death from liver cancer – along with the National Health Service choir, as part of Channel 4’s Stand Up to Cancer UK programme. In 2017, Boy George participated in the last season of The New Celebrity Apprentice on NBC, in which he supported the charity Safe Kids Worldwide and came in second place. Also in 2017 he collaborated on Pitbull's album Climate Change.In August 2017, Boy George signed a recording deal with BMG, reuniting him with his songwriting catalogue, as BMG had acquired the Virgin Records songwriters in 2012.In 2019, he joined Marc Almond and Chrisse Hynde as a vocalist on “Don’t Go Changing Soho”, a single by Jocasta's Tim Arnold for the Save Soho campaign.On 2 and 26 March 2020, through his YouTube channel, George respectively released (as videos) 2 new solo songs entitled \"Clouds\" and \"Isolation\" taken from his forthcoming album Geminis Don't Read The Manual which was due to be released later in the year, but was postponed. On 6 April 2020 on his own record label BGP (Boy George Presents) he released the Isolation Limited Edition 2-track CD Single (Catalogue No: BGP015) including the title track and a new \"Spatial Awareness Meets The Boy Uptown Dub\" mix of the track \"Clouds\".In 2021, he was a guest on the BBC's Paul Weller - Live at the Barbican, joining Weller and conductor Jules Buckley for a version of The Style Council's “You're The Best Thing”. In late 2021 he is set to be a judge on Irish talent show The Big Deal \n\n\n== Personal life and sexuality ==\nWhen George was with Culture Club, much was made of his androgynous appearance, and there was speculation about his sexuality. When asked by Joan Rivers in an interview on her show in 1983, \"Do you prefer men or women?\", George replied, \"Oh both.\" In 1985, when asked by Barbara Walters about his sexual orientation, George said he was bisexual and had various girlfriends and boyfriends, in the past. He gave a famous, oft-quoted response to an interviewer that he preferred \"a nice cup of tea\" to sex.In his 1995 autobiography Take It Like a Man, George stated that he was actually gay, not bisexual, and that he had secret relationships with punk rock singer Kirk Brandon and Culture Club drummer, Jon Moss. He stated many of the songs he wrote for Culture Club were about his relationship with Moss.In a 2008 documentary Living with Boy George, he talked about his first realisation he was gay, when he first told his parents, and why men fall in love with one another as well as with women.Concurrently with developing his career as a DJ in the late 1990s, George adopted a macrobiotic diet, which he had been attempting to follow since 1988. In 2001, he published the Karma Cookbook, co-written with Dragana Brown, a private macrobiotic cook and teacher whom George met in 1986. By 2014, George had become a raw vegan after years of occasionally trying the diet.George appeared on an episode of BBC television genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are? in 2018, on which it was revealed that he was related to executed Irish revolutionary Thomas Bryan, a member of the \"Forgotten Ten\".As of 2012, Boy George has credited his practice of Nichiren Buddhism and chanting Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō for his newfound spiritual strength to remain sober.\n\n\n=== Drug abuse and legal troubles ===\n\nBy the late 1980s, George had been struggling with heroin addiction for many years. He attempted to perform concerts while under its influence. Addictions to other drugs soon followed. Determined to save George's life, his younger brother David made an appearance on UK national television and discussed George's drug habit, which George had been publicly denying at that time. In 1986, Boy George was arrested for heroin possession as part of \"Operation Culture.\"In 1986, keyboardist Michael Rudetsky, who co-wrote the song \"Sexuality\" on Culture Club's From Luxury to Heartache album, was found dead of a heroin overdose in George's London home. George would lose another friend, Mark Vaultier, who overdosed on methadone and Valium at a party. In December 1986, yet another friend, Mark Golding, died of an overdose, with Scotland Yard police stating there was no suggestion of foul play. It was during this period that George decided to seek treatment for his addiction.In 1995, Kirk Brandon sued George for libel claiming that George mentioned a love affair between them in George's autobiography, Take It Like a Man. George won the court case and Brandon was ordered to pay £200,000 to Virgin Records, EMI Virgin Music and the book publisher in costs. Brandon declared himself bankrupt, which resulted in Boy George paying over £20,000 in legal fees.On 7 October 2005, George was arrested in Manhattan on suspicion of cocaine possession and falsely reporting a burglary. George denied that the drugs were his. In court on 1 February 2006, the cocaine possession charge was dropped and George pleaded guilty to falsely reporting a burglary. He was sentenced to five days of community service, fined US$1,000 and ordered to attend a drug rehabilitation programme. On 17 June 2006, a Manhattan judge issued a warrant for the arrest of Boy George after he failed to appear in court for a hearing on why George wanted to change his sentence for the false burglary report. George's attorney informed the court that he had advised George not to appear at that hearing. On 14 August 2006, George reported to the New York City Department of Sanitation for his court-ordered community service. As a result of the swarming media coverage, he was allowed to finish his community service inside the Sanitation Department grounds.\n\n\n=== Assault and false imprisonment conviction ===\nOn 5 December 2008, George was convicted in Snaresbrook Crown Court, London, of the April 2007 assault and false imprisonment of Audun Carlsen, a Norwegian model and male escort, who initially stood for a photography session with George, but on their next meeting George handcuffed him to a wall fixture and beat him with a metal chain. George's defence presented the effects of his long-term drug use as a mitigating factor. On 16 January 2009, George was sentenced to 15 months' imprisonment for these offences. He was initially incarcerated at HM Prison Pentonville in London, but was then transferred to HM Prison Highpoint North in Suffolk. He was given early release after four months for good behaviour on 11 May 2009. He was required to wear an ankle monitor and submit to a curfew for the remainder of his sentence.On 23 December 2009, while he was still on licensed release from prison following an assault conviction earlier that year, George had his request to appear on the final series of Celebrity Big Brother (to be broadcast on Channel 4) turned down by the Probation Service. Richard Clayton QC, representing the Probation Service, said George's participation would pose \"a high level of risk\" to the service's reputation. Clayton argued that if he used the show to promote his status as a celebrity and earn \"a lucrative sum of money\" it could undermine public confidence in the criminal justice system.\n\n\n== Memoirs ==\nHarper Collins published his first autobiography, Take It Like a Man, in 1995, written with Spencer Bright. The book was released at the same time as George's solo album Cheapness and Beauty and dealt with the same themes, including a number of photographs. Take It Like a Man was a best-seller in the UK.\nIn 2005, Century published Straight, his second autobiographical book, this time written with author Paul Gorman. It was in The Sunday Times best-seller list for six weeks.\n\n\n== References in popular culture ==\nAppeared as himself with the Culture Club in a Season 4 episode of The A-Team\nBoy George appeared as himself in the British soap opera Hollyoaks in January 2003.\nBoy George was portrayed on film by Douglas Booth in the 2010 BBC2 drama documentary Worried About the Boy.Moe Bandy and Joe Stampley's 1984 song \"Where's the Dress\" satirizes Boy George's androgynous fashion. Boy George later sued the singers for incorporating riffs from \"Karma Chameleon\" without his permission.\n\n\n== Awards ==\n\n\n== Discography ==\n\n\n== Bibliography ==\nGeorge, Boy (2007). Foreword. Cry Salty Tears. By O'Dowd, Dinah. Century. ISBN 9781846052361.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\n\n\n== External links ==\n\nOfficial website\nBoy George at IMDb\nBoy George at the Internet Broadway Database", "Aubrey Mixes: The Ultraworld Excursions is a remix album compilation by The Orb, which was deleted on the day it was released. The album consists of seven alternate mixes of their first album, The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld. Five of these mixes are also available on the 2006 Deluxe Edition re-release of The Orb's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nBig Life – BLR LP14, 511811-1:\n\n\n== References ==", "Culture Club Collect – 12\" Mixes Plus is a compilation album by British band Culture Club, first released in 1991 by Virgin for the VIP Series. The album includes remixes and extended versions of Culture Club songs that were recorded for their first four albums (1982–1986) plus a couple of their stand-out tracks, some B-sides as well as the P. W. Botha 12\" Remix of lead singer Boy George’s solo British and European Number One single \"Everything I Own\".\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\"Move Away\" (12\" Mix) – 7:28 (Culture Club, Pickett)\n\"It's a Miracle/Miss Me Blind\" (US 12\" Mix) – 9:10 (Culture Club, Pickett)\n\"God Thank You Woman\" (Extended Version) – 7:04 (Culture Club, Pickett)\n\"I'll Tumble 4 Ya\" (US 12\" Remix) – 4:38 (Culture Club)\n\"Love Is Cold (You Were Never No Good)\" – 4:22 (Culture Club)\n\"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me\" (Dub Version, featuring Pappa Weasel) – 3:38 (Culture Club)\n\"Everything I Own\" (Extended P.W. Botha Mix) – 7:13 (Gates)\n\"Colour by Numbers\" – 3:57 (Culture Club)\n\"From Luxury to Heartache\" – 4:23 (Culture Club, Pickett)\n\"Time (Clock of the Heart)\" (Instrumental Mix) – 3:46 (Culture Club)\n\"Black Money\" – 5:19 (Culture Club)\n\"Love Is Love\" – 3:51 (O’Dowd, Hay)\n\"Man Shake\" – 2:35 (Culture Club)\n\"The War Song\" (Ultimate Dance Mix) – 6:18 (Culture Club)\n\n\n== Musicians/Personnel/Staff/Production ==\nBoy George – male vocals\nMikey Craig – bass\nRoy Hay – guitar, piano, keyboards, sitar, electric guitar\nJon Moss – percussion, drums; mix on track 8\nHelen Terry – female vocals\nArif Mardin, Lew Hahn: production on tracks 1, 3\nSteve Levine: production on tracks 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14; mix on track 8\nStewart Levine: production on track 7\nTony Swain: production on track 9\nRichard Lengyer: engineer on track 5\nGordon Milne: assistant engineer on track 6\nGlen Skinner: engineer on track 7\nAcos Kaikitis for P.D.S.: sleeve design\n\n\n== Release details ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nAmazon.com", "", "", "Sweet Reggae Mix is the third and last remix album that was released on September 10, 2008 by Sweetbox. Two of the songs on the album are remixed and performed by Tina Harris, while the rest of them are performed by Jade Valerie. These remixes, however, are new mixes and have never before been released on any other album than this one. All of these songs in their original versions can be found on some of the other albums, and other remixes for some of them can be found on compilation albums, and even on other remix albums as well. The remix found on this album, titled \"A Whole New World (Reggae Disco Rocker's Remix)\" is the first remix of the original version to be officially released. The original version, however, is only released on the Complete Best album. Two other remixes, titled \"That Night (Young Lover's Mix)\" and \"Vaya Con Dios (Gold-Dust Remix)\" are also the first remixes to be made and released on any album.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\nEverything's Gonna Be Alright (Home Grown Remix) - 3:11\nCinderella (Boom! Me Run Remix) - 3:22\nSomewhere (The Caveman's Remix) - 4:10\nA Whole New World (Reggae Disco Rocker's Remix) - 4:52\nBoyfriend (Digikal Rocky Remix) - 3:35\nShout -Let It All Out- (\"DJ Genius\" Mix) - 3:47\nEvery Step (Dancehall Remix) - 3:24\nKilling Me DJ (1 & Indivisable Ragga Dancehall Remix)\t- 3:46\nVaya Con Dios (Gold-Dust Remix) - 3:05\nThat Night (Young Lover's Mix) - 3:35\nFor The Lonely (Dub's Lonely Dub) - 5:40\nLife Is Cool (Feel The Echo Remix) - 3:48\n\n\n== References ==", "Mixes is the fifth remix album by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue. It was released on 3 August 1998, by Deconstruction Records. The album contains remixes of tracks from her sixth studio album, Impossible Princess (1997). The remixes were done by DJs such as Brothers in Rhythm, Junior Vasquez, and Todd Terry. The remixes was influenced by various genres of dance music, such as electronica and dance-pop. The album was originally scheduled for a 1999 release, but Deconstruction pre-poned the release date of Mixes in the United Kingdom to August 1998, since the Australian counterpart, Impossible Remixes (1998), had been released earlier than its original date. With favourable critical reception, Mixes charted in the United Kingdom at number sixty-three on the UK Albums Chart, her highest remix album at the time. The Brothers in Rhythm remix of \"Too Far\" was released as a promotional single in the UK and North America.\n\n\n== Background ==\nIn October 1997, Minogue released her sixth studio album, Impossible Princess. Then in January 1998, Minogue begun rehearsals on the low-budget tour, Intimate and Live. Minogue intended to only perform in Australia, but strong public demand in the United Kingdom prompted her to schedule dates there. With tickets selling out instantly, more shows were announced in both Australia and the UK. Minogue started the tour in early June 1998 and confirmed that she would release \"Cowboy Style\", the fourth single from the Impossible Princess album, and revealed plans of two remix albums, one for Australia and one for the UK.In July 1998, Deconstruction and Mushroom confirmed the release of two remix albums entitled Mixes and Impossible Remixes respectively. Deconstruction said the Mixes album would be released as a triple-vinyl set and set the release date for the following year. However, fans voiced their concerns on expensive import prices for global shipping and with increasingly popular demand, Deconstruction scrapped the idea and released the remixes on a two-set compact disc, and forward the triple vinyl at a later date. This allowed Deconstruction to release the album earlier and Mixes was released on 3 August 1998 in the UK. Mushroom released Impossible Remixes on 8 July 1998, but initial pressings were on sale two months earlier.\n\n\n== Material ==\nThe album shares nine remixes from the Impossible Remixes album; three remixes of \"Breathe\", two remixes of \"Did It Again\" and one remix of \"Some Kind of Bliss\", along with three remixes of Minogue's promotional single \"Too Far\". The remixes had all been previously featured in Minogue's CD singles. All tracks were co-written by Minogue, with additional song writing assistance by James Dean Bradfield, Dave Ball, Ingo Vauk, Steve Anderson and David Seaman. In 1997, Minogue travelled to Los Angeles, California to re-record her vocals for the \"Breathe\" remixes.Mixes is a dance–remix album, and according to Brendan Swift at AllMusic, the songs are well-noted \"where constant repetition is heard at its most catchy with a hint of something we know: other dance melodies used 'again and again.'\" Charlie Porter from Amazon.co.uk commented about some songs remixes; \"Brothers in Rhythm work their slinky magic on \"Too Far\", Sash! Takes the album down a Euro-trance path, then the good old Trouser Enthusiasts turn \"Did It Again\" even more saucy.\"\n\n\n== Artwork and sleeve ==\nThe artwork was photographed by British photographer Simon Emmett and designed by Farrow Design, who both contributed to the cover sleeve of Impossible Remixes. The artwork shows a \"simple yet subtle\" silhouette of Minogue which later appeared on the tour guide for the Intimate and Live concerts. After completing the shoot, Emmett was asked by Minogue to shoot the sleeve for her single \"Cowboy Style\", and his most recent work with Minogue was shooting her on Glamour magazine in July 2012.\n\n\n== Release and reception ==\nJenny Stanley-Clarke, who wrote the biography Kylie: Naked, felt the release \"seemed nothing more than to run out Kylie's contractual obligation for a required third Deconstruction album.\" She favoured the contributions of \"high profiled\" DJ's. Charlie Porter from Amazon.co.uk discussed Impossible Princess' \"sob story\", highlighting the album's title change, single releases, and album release as factors to it. He then stated \"This remix album takes away some of that records pretensions (yes, it was a touch flawed), and puts our favourite Australian back on the party floor, where she belongs.\" He concluded \"Yes sir, that girl can boogie—please don't try and turn into an indie queen again.\" Mixes debuted at sixty-three on the UK Albums Chart on the entry date 15 August 1998. The album was Minogue's highest charting remix album in the UK, until it was taken over by Boombox, which peaked at twenty-eight. Mixes also charted on the UK Physical Albums Chart, which compile the top 100 albums based on physical CD sales; it also reached at number sixty-three. It is also Minogue's final album from Deconstruction.\n\n\n== Singles and promotion ==\nThe Brothers in Rhythm remix of \"Too Far\" served as the album's promotional single on 21 May 1998. \"Too Far\" was originally selected as a potential single for Impossible Princess, but Deconstruction decided to release \"Some Kind of Bliss\" instead. \"Too Far\" was released as a promotional single in the UK by Deconstruction and North America by BMG, but Deconstruction refused to promote it after BMG released it without discussion. The vinyl included a bonus remix side by Junior Vasquez. Both the original version, and the remix version received critical acclaim from most critics, whom highlighted it as an album stand out. \"Too Far\" has been included on two of her concert tours; Intimate and Live Tour and Showgirl: The Homecoming Tour.\n\n\n== Track listing ==\n\n\n== Personnel ==\nAll credits and personnel adapted from Mixes liner notes:\n\n\n== Charts ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nMixes at Kylie.com." ] }

{ "title": [ "Chevrolet Tahoe", "Ford TowCommand", "International Harvester Travelall", "Wayne Cherry", "Ford Explorer", "Ford Expedition", "GMT900", "Nissan Armada", "Lincoln Navigator", "Chevrolet" ], "text": [ "The Chevrolet Tahoe, and its badge engineered GMC Yukon counterpart, are full-size SUVs from General Motors, offered since 1994 and 1991, respectively. Since 1982, Chevrolet and GMC sold two different-sized SUVs under their 'Blazer' and 'Jimmy' nameplates, by introducing the smaller S-10 Blazer and GMC S-15 Jimmy for the 1983 model year, below the full-size Blazer and Jimmy models. This situation lasted into the early 1990s. GMC first rebadged the full-size Jimmy as the 'Yukon' in 1991. Chevrolet however waited until 1994, when they rebadged the redesigned mid-size S-10 Blazer as their 'new Blazer', while renaming the full-size Blazer as the 'Tahoe'. The name Tahoe refers to the rugged and scenic area surrounding Lake Tahoe in the western United States. The name Yukon refers to the Yukon territory of northern Canada. \nFor the 1995 model year, the Tahoe and Yukon gained a new, longer 4-door model, slotting in size between the 2-door models and the longer wheelbase Chevrolet/GMC Suburbans.\nThe Tahoe is sold in North America, parts of Asia such as the Philippines and the Middle East, plus other countries including Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Angola as a left-hand drive vehicle. The Yukon is only sold in North America and the Middle East.\nThe Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon currently serve as a part of General Motors' full-size SUV family and are differentiated from similar models the Chevrolet Suburban and GMC Yukon XL primarily by the length of the passenger and cargo area behind the C pillar. An upscale trim Denali sub-model joined the Yukon lineup for the 1999 model year and the Cadillac Escalade is a closely related upscale version sharing the same platform. \nThe Tahoe's main competition comes from the Ford Expedition, but it also competes with the Toyota Sequoia and Nissan Armada.\nAs of February 2014, the 2014 Tahoe was the top-ranked Affordable Large SUV in U.S. News & World Report's rankings. The Tahoe has regularly been the best selling full-size SUV in the United States, frequently outselling its competition by 2 to 1.\n\n\n== First generation (1992) ==\n\nThe new GMC Yukon was introduced in 1991 for the 1992 model year, succeeding the 2nd generation (K5) Jimmy, while Chevrolet continued to use the Blazer name on their 3rd gen K5 model, through the 1994 model year. Removable hard-tops were dropped. All models now had a full-length steel roof, and were 2-door wagons only, through 1994. \nHowever in 1995, for the '95 model year, the 'Blazer' name was discontinued, and the model was reintroduced as the Chevrolet Tahoe, while simultaneously adding all-new, longer 4-door versions, for both brands. Four-door Yukon and Tahoe production started on January 20, 1995 at Janesville Assembly. The Tahoe was Motor Trend magazine's Truck of the Year for 1996.\nThe Tahoe/Yukon are considerably shorter than the Suburban on which they are based, but share that vehicle's GMT400 platform. This is a true truck chassis, derived from the one in the Chevrolet Silverado full-size pickup truck. Both two-door and four-door models were produced in rear- and four-wheel drive versions. Four-doors got a 6 in (15 cm) longer wheelbase, and 11 in (28 cm) greater length than the two-doors. Two-doors weigh roughly 4,500 lb (2,041 kg) while four-doors weigh about 5,500 lb (2,495 kg). \"AutoTrac\" full-time all-wheel drive and a programmable Homelink transmitter were added for 1998. The upscale Denali trim line to the Yukon was introduced in 1999.\nThe standard engine was Chevrolet's 350 cu in (5.7 L) LO5 small-block V8, while a turbocharged 6.5 L (395 cu in) Detroit Diesel V8 was available beginning in 1994.In Mexico, the Tahoe 2-door was released in 1995, called the Chevrolet Silverado, and in 1998 the 4-door was released as the Silverado 4-door, and both were available in Base, LS, and luxury LT trim lines. In Venezuela, the Tahoe 2-door was released in 1993 (4WD only), called the Chevrolet Grand Blazer, and in 1996 the 4-door was released as the Grand Blazer 4-door (2WD). In 1996 the 2-door was discontinued. In 1996 only Grand Blazer 4-door 4WD was available. In Bolivia, 1995 the 4-door was released as the Tahoe 4-door (4WD).\nBeginning in 1994, GM began making numerous annual changes to the Blazer/Yukon, including:\n\nRevised front clip - Blazer (1994)\nRevised interior including a driver-side air bag, revised side mirrors, Blazer renamed Tahoe, 4-door option included (1995)\nRevised Vortec 5700 (350 cu in) engine with increased power and fuel efficiency, electronic 4WD shifting, daytime running lights, illuminated entry, and some new interior features (1996)\nRevised front clip - Silverado Mexican market (1996)\nRevised automatic transmission, new EVO (electronic variable orifice) speed-sensitive power steering system and added passenger-side airbag, Yukon 2-door option dropped (1997)\nProgrammable Homelink transmitter, PassLock security system, heated front seating surfaces optional, air conditioning for rear seat passengers, AutoTrac automatic 4WD option added, second-generation airbags, transmissions revised again (1998)\nTahoe 2-door option dropped (1999)\n\n\n=== Tahoe Limited and Tahoe Z71 ===\n\nWhen the GMT800 platform based Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon was released for the 2000 model year, a 2WD Tahoe Limited and 4WD Tahoe Z71 remained in production on the GMT400 platform as special edition vehicles. These special edition vehicles were produced in the Arlington, Texas assembly plant for the 2000 model year only.\nThe Chevrolet Tahoe Limited was based on the Chevrolet Tahoe SS concept vehicle introduced in 1996 that never made it to production. It is reported that GM disliked the idea of an SS badged vehicle at a time when insurance companies were already demanding higher premiums for SUVs. The Tahoe SS prototype vehicles made in 1996 were painted either an unspecified metallic green or metallic blue, but the Tahoe Limited was produced only in Onyx Black. The Tahoe Limited had a distinctive exterior appearance that included a factory equipped ground effects, a monochromatic theme with bumpers and grille painted in the same high gloss black as the body, removal of the roof rack, and fog lamps integrated into the front bumper. Other notable features of the Tahoe Limited included the Z60 high-performance chassis package (commonly known as the police package) which places the body of the vehicle 2 in (51 mm) lower than the 4WD Tahoe, two-tone gray and charcoal leather interior seating surfaces, a 120 mph (190 km/h) gauge cluster, 46 mm (1.8 in) Bilstein shock absorbers, a 3.42 or optional 3.73 rear gear ratio, a limited slip rear differential, an engine oil cooling system, and distinctive 16 inch Ronal R36 five-spoke aluminum wheels.\n\nThe Chevrolet Tahoe Z71 also exhibited a monochromatic appearance similar to the Tahoe Limited, but instead of Onyx Black the Tahoe Z71 was offered in either Light Pewter Metallic, Victory Red, Emerald Green Metallic, or Indigo Blue Metallic. Features of the Tahoe Z71 were similar to those of the Tahoe Limited with a few key differences to distinguish the 2WD Tahoe Limited from the 4WD Tahoe Z71. Features that differ from those previously mentioned on the Tahoe Limited included the Z71 off-road chassis package (46 mm (1.8 in) Bilstein shock absorbers, a standard 3.73 rear gear ratio G80 locking differential), color-keyed wheel flares, trim, grille and bumpers, underbody skid plates, inset driving lights built into the center of the front bumper, oversized two row radiator, two-tone leather seating surfaces in either a gray or neutral theme, distinctive taillamp lens protectors, black tubular side assist step bars, black brush guard, and distinctive 16 inch Alcoa five spoke 6 bolt polished aluminum wheels.\nThe L31 5.7 L Vortec V8 powerplant and 4L60E four-speed automatic transmission shared with other GMT400 Chevrolet Tahoe vehicles were not modified in these special edition vehicles, and as such these special editions were mostly appearance packages, albeit with unique-handling suspension options.\n\n\n== Second generation (2000) ==\n\nOther than the Tahoe Limited Edition, the vehicle was redesigned and launched in March 2000 for the 2000 model year on the new GMT800 platform, still shared with the full-sized pickups and SUVs. Two new engines replaced the old Chevy 5.7 L (350 cu in) small-block V8, and while both were smaller, both produced more horsepower but less torque. In Mexico, the GMT800 Chevy Tahoe is called the Chevrolet Sonora. A 2-door GMT800 Tahoe prototype was made but never entered production. Suburban and Tahoe models sold in Mexico offered the 5.7 L Small-Block Chevrolet V8 (RPO Code R31) as an option in early models, whereas it was replaced by the new 5.3L Vortec V8 engine in all other markets.\nBoth vehicles received significant updates with only the grille, headlights and body-side moldings distinguishing one from the other. Both vehicles now featured softer lines as part of a more aerodynamic design. The interior was also updated with new seats, dashboard, and door panels.\n\n\n=== 2000 ===\nAll-new Tahoe and Yukon are launched. Side-impact airbags are standard for driver and front passenger, OnStar communications system optional, automatic headlamp control standard, Power-operated sunroof optional for first time, new uplevel 9-speaker audio system with rear mounted subwoofer, Driver Message Center, new PassLock II theft-deterrent system, Autoride Suspension system optional on Tahoe LT and Yukon SLT, all-new independent SLA front suspension with torsion bars and all-new five-link rear suspension with coil springs.\nThe GMT400 Tahoe was carried over into the 2000 model year as two \"Limited Edition\" models: the 4X2 Limited, and the 4X4 Z/71. Both models were discontinued after the 2000 model year. The GMC Yukon Denali was redesigned for the 2001 model year, and the Cadillac Escalade was redesigned in 2002 (there was no Escalade for the 2001 model year).\n\n\n=== 2001 ===\nNew colors Forest Green Metallic and Redfire Metallic are introduced while Dark Copper Metallic and Dark Carmine Red Metallic are canceled. Two-tone paint is discontinued, optional Z71 package available on LS 4x4 includes: tube side steps, unique lower molding and wheel flares with extensions, color-keyed grille, bumpers, door handles and mirrors, unique front foglamps, unique luggage carrier with rear roller (roof rack), specifically tuned shock absorbers, 17-inch wheels, P265/70R17 all-terrain tires and OnStar. 40/20/40 bench seat gets revised cupholder design, Tan/Neutral replaces Light Oak/Medium Oak interior trim. Onstar is now optional on Tahoe LS.\n\n\n=== 2002 ===\nTahoe LS receives a plethora of new standard features, including: six-way power adjustable seats, heated exterior mirrors with drivers-side auto-dimming feature, electric rear-window defogger and HomeLink Universal Transmitter. Base trim is discontinued. Vortec 5300 V8 is now flex-fuel E85 capable. Tahoe LT models ordered in Redfire Metallic now come with body-color front bumper cap, bodyside moldings and wheel flares. Premium ride suspension is made standard on all models (excluding Z71).\n\n\n=== 2003 ===\nGM's full-size SUVs saw a major refresh for the 2003 model year. New features include: StabiliTrak stability enhancement system, dual-level airbags, passenger-sensing system, adjustable brake and accelerator pedals with memory. New radio systems with Radio Data System (RDS), custom designed Bose audio system available on models with front bucket seats, XM Satellite Radio, and Panasonic rear-seat DVD entertainment system. Tri-Zone climate control with manual controls standard on LS and Z71, automatic controls standard on LT. Second-row bucket seats optional on models with leather seating surfaces. LT models feature power-adjustable, body-color exterior mirrors with power folding, memory and integrated turn signal indicators.\n2003 Tahoe's provided early compliance to the 2005 LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children) federal safety standards. A redesigned instrument cluster featured a new Driver Information Center, which can monitor and report on up to 34 different vehicle system functions including: Service StabiliTrak, Ice Possible and Door Ajar. The interior was refreshed, including a new eight-button steering wheel that allows the driver to safely access new infotainment features as well as a redesigned center console.\nThere were also new improvements to the powertrain and electrical system for 2003. These included a new Electronic Throttle Control (ETC) system to improve throttle feel and new oxygen sensors to improve durability and reduce emissions during engine warm-up. Models sold in California received a more robust catalytic-converter to meet Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) standards. A new battery-rundown protection system automatically turns off the headlamps, parking lamps, and interior lighting if left on for more than 10 minutes with the key removed from the ignition.\nNew colors for 2003 include Sandalwood Metallic and Dark Spiral Gray Metallic.\n\n\n=== 2004 ===\nThe Tahoe received minor updates for 2004, most notably newly designed 16 and 17-inch wheel choices and a tire pressure monitoring system. Hydroboost brakes and a front passenger seat belt reminder were also added as was a 7-to-4 pin trailer brake wiring adapter. 2004 was the final year Tahoe could be ordered with rear barn doors.\nThe 5.3L Vortec 5300 V8 is now rated at 295 hp (220 kW) and 335 lb⋅ft (454 N⋅m).\nNew colors for 2004 were Dark Blue Metallic, Silver Birch Metallic, and Sport Red Metallic.\n\n\n=== 2005 ===\nNew features for 2005 include, StabiliTrak standard on all models, Z71 package now available on 2WD models, upgraded tire pressure monitoring system, new OnStar system featuring Gen 6 hardware with analog/digital coverage and upgraded hands-free capabilities. OnStar is now standard on all trims. Touch-screen navigation system now optional. 160-amp alternator, new interior trim, and redesigned aerodynamic side-sill assist steps to improve efficiency. All Tahoes come standard with a rear liftgate and liftglass.\nA new all-electric cooling system helps with quiet operation as well as fuel efficiency. New aerodynamic changes, including a new front air deflector, help the Tahoe improve fuel efficiency by one MPG.\nThe 4.8L Vortec 4800 V8 is now rated at 285 hp (213 kW) and 295 lb⋅ft (400 N⋅m).\nNew colors include Sandstone Metallic and Bermuda Blue Metallic.\n\n\n=== 2006 ===\n2006 marked the final year of the Tahoe and Yukon on the GMT800 platform and because of this only minor changes were made. These changes included combining the OnStar and XM Satellite Radio antennas into one single unit, removal of the Chevrolet badging on the liftgate, relocating the catalytic converter closer to the engine to improve emissions performance and a new manual parking brake adjuster.\nThe flex-fuel capable Vortec 5300 V8 is now available on all retail packages.\n\n\n=== Engines ===\n\n\n== Third generation (2007) ==\n\nGeneral Motors redesigned the Tahoe and Yukon on the new GMT900 platform in late 2005 as a 2007 model. A hybrid version of the Tahoe/Yukon, which uses the shared GM/Chrysler Advanced Hybrid System 2, followed with the 2008 models. The GMT900 based Tahoe and Yukon exceeded initial sales expectations and continued to sell well despite a weakening market for large SUVs. The short-wheelbase Tahoe and its police counterpart began production at Arlington Assembly on December 1, 2005. SWB Yukon production began in early 2006, with Janesville Assembly coming online as well. For the first time, GM used the Tahoe name in Mexico.\nFor 2007, the GMC Yukon and Chevrolet Tahoe received different front fascias, hood, and tail lights. The GMC Yukon boasted a monolithic grille and headlights, while the Chevrolet Tahoe grille was divided by a body-colored bar similar to the chrome bar found on the GMT800 Tahoe. Both the redesigned Yukon and Tahoe featured a more angular design that gave the vehicles a more upscale appearance than their predecessors. The interior was significantly redesigned as well, features a faux wood trim dashboard with chrome-accented instrument controls. New door panels, as well as new seats, were also added to the interior it still retains its nine-passenger seating availability on LS and SLE models only like the Chevy Suburban and GMC Yukon XL.\nHighway mileage was improved from 19 mpg‑US (12 L/100 km; 23 mpg‑imp) to 21 to 22 mpg‑US (11 to 11 L/100 km; 25 to 26 mpg‑imp) with the addition of Active Fuel Management cylinder deactivation. For 2009, the 6.2 L engine in the Yukon Denali got a power increase to 403 hp (301 kW), while a 395 hp (295 kW) 6.2 L was added as an option for the Tahoe LTZ. A 6-speed 6L80 automatic transmission replaced the 4-speed on all trucks except 2WD models with the 4.8 L engine. The 2011 model has a NHTSA rollover risk of 24.6%, and a lateral roadholding of 0.79g.In 2008, a two mode hybrid was offered with two trim levels, HY1 or HY2. A 332 hp (248 kW) 6.0L Vortec 6000 with a pair of 80-hp, 184 ft.-lb. torque electric motors was offered. It had a 0.36 to 0.34 drag coefficient from upgraded body panels and a 12V/300V battery system. The hybrid models also included 300V Electric AC, 42V power steering, and LED taillights (only an option from 2008 to 2013).\nDuring the 2009 model year, LTZ models had the option of the 405 hp (302 kW) 6.2L Vortec 6200. The option was dropped after only one model year.2010 models underwent a mild mid-cycle refresh including a slightly raised bumper, removal of the GM \"Mark of Excellence\" door badge, revised interior door trim, improved side structure, side torso airbags and optional side blind zone alert.\nFor 2012, the GMC Yukon offered a special Heritage Edition package, featuring unique Heritage Edition exterior badging, embroidered color-keyed carpeted floor mats, embroidered headrests, SLT-2 Equipment Group standard features (such as 10-way memory leather seats and power liftgate), and optional 20-inch wheels. The Heritage Edition added $1,970 to the price of the Yukon and Yukon XL and was offered in three colors, Heritage Blue, White Diamond Tricoat and Onyx Black.\n\n\n=== The Apprentice make-your-own-ad contest ===\nIn 2006, the 2007 Tahoe was featured on and promoted through Donald Trump's TV series, The Apprentice, where the two teams put together a show for the top General Motors employees to learn about the new Tahoe. Also, The Apprentice sponsored a controversial online contest in which anyone could create a 30-second commercial for the new Tahoe by entering text captions into the provided video clips; the winner's ad would air on national television. An early example of user-generated marketing, headed by ad agency Campbell Ewald, the campaign began to backfire when hundreds of environmentally conscious parodies flooded YouTube and Chevy's website critiquing the vehicle for its low gas mileage. Over 400 negative ads were created in total; however, over 20,000 positive ads were created which Chevrolet viewed as successful, despite the negative media attention.\n\n\n=== Engines ===\n\n\n== Fourth generation (2015) ==\n\nThe Chevrolet Tahoe, Chevrolet Suburban, GMC Yukon, GMC Yukon XL, Cadillac Escalade, and Cadillac Escalade ESV had a shortened 2014 model year starting in June 2013, and was replaced with a new version in February 2014 as a 2015 model.The Tahoe and Yukon are built on the GMT K2XX platform and assigned as K2UC (for Chevrolet Tahoe) and K2UG (for GMC Yukon). Production on the Tahoe and Yukon began in December 2013 with the first completed SUVs being used for testing purposes, and started officially shipping the vehicles to dealerships on February 5, 2014. The 2015 Tahoe was later named the fastest-selling vehicle for February 2014, averaging seven days of sales upon its release. On September 12, 2013, GM released photos and press release of the fourth-generation Tahoe and Yukon. Like its larger siblings Suburban and Yukon XL, the front fascias of the Tahoe and Yukon are distinct, but from the base of the A-pillars back, they share most of the same styling cues. This now includes inlaid doors that tuck into the door sills, instead of over them, improving aerodynamics and fuel economy, and lessens interior noise. The hoods and liftgate panels now are made of aluminum in an effort to reduce vehicle weight. A more-efficient, direct-injected EcoTec3 powertrain coupled with improved aerodynamics help increase fuel economy for the SUVs. Both fourth-generation SUVs do not share a single piece of sheetmetal or lighting element with the brands' full-size pick-up trucks, and the front grilles of both vehicles are slightly altered to give them their own identity. The front headlights features projector-beam headlamps that flanks the Chevrolet-signature dual-port grille – chrome on all models, sweeping into the front fenders, while the LTZ trims feature high-intensity discharge headlamps and light-emitting diode daytime running lamps.\nAlso new are the addition of fold-flat second- and third-row seats, now a standard feature but can be equipped with an optional power-folding feature for the upgraded trims, and an additional two inches of leg room for second-row passengers. The Tahoe now has an available power-tilt, telescoping steering wheel. For the Yukon variant, this feature is carried over from 2009 to 2014 Yukon Denali, now available in the SLT trim as well. The third-row fold-flat feature is accomplished using a raised platform that reduces available cargo space behind the third-row seats. Standard third-row seats and raised \"fold-flat\" platform significantly reduce available cargo space compared with previous Tahoe models. Multiple USB ports and power outlets are now spread throughout their interiors, including one 110-volt, three-prong outlet, with the Tahoe adding an available eight-inch color touch-screen radio with next-generation MyLink connectivity along with an available rear-seat entertainment system (but will not feature a Blu-ray option that is exclusive to the Suburban for 2015), while the Yukon added a standard eight-inch-diagonal color touch screen radio with enhanced IntelliLink and available navigation.\nThe Yukon interior has more features including seats stuffed with dual-firmness foam, a standard Bose sound system and SD card slots, and laminated glass for the windshield and front windows, decreasing interior noise. GM's third-generation magnetic ride control suspension is optional on the Tahoe LTZ models, whose upgraded features include third-generation magnetic ride control, a real-time damping system that delivers more precise body motion control by \"reading\" the road every millisecond, and changing damping in just five milliseconds.\nThe new platform is based on the 2014 Chevrolet Silverado 1500 and GMC Sierra 1500. Both SUVs feature sound deadening material to improve cabin quietness. A new Cadillac Escalade and Cadillac Escalade ESV arrived in dealerships in April 2014. Models continued for the Tahoe and Suburban as LS, LT, and LTZ, and the Yukon and Yukon XL as SLE, SLT, and Denali. The Tahoe and Yukon went on sale in February 2014 as an early 2015 model year vehicle. Prices for the all-new GM SUVs are expected to stay the same as the current-generation GMT900 SUVs. The Tahoe Hybrid, Yukon Hybrid, and Yukon Denali Hybrid models were dropped along with their powertrains, as well as the Cadillac Escalade Hybrid and Cadillac Escalade Hybrid Platinum. The Yukon Denali AWD was also dropped as well.\nOn September 26, 2014, Chevrolet debuted the updated Z71 Tahoe at the State Fair of Texas, along with the debut of the Texas Edition Tahoe, the latter due to Texas having the largest units of Tahoes sold in the United States (as of August 2014, sales of the Chevrolet SUVs in Texas were up 37 percent) and to celebrate the 60th anniversary of GM's Arlington Assembly plant; production began in October 2014. As with the previous Z71 Tahoe, this version will continue to be offered in a 4WD LT trim only, featuring a front skid plate, off-road tires mounted on 18-inch wheels, a unique grille, running boards and \"Z71\" identification inside and out. Fog lamps, front tow hooks and front parking assist are also included. The Texas Edition will be available in both LT and LTZ trims, featuring a maximum trailering package, twenty-inch polished aluminum wheels (on LT models), twenty-two-inch premium painted aluminum wheels (on LTZ models), and an exclusive \"Texas Edition\" badge. The Texas Edition Tahoe package will be part of a lineup that will also use the Texas Edition package, alongside the Suburban and Silverado.The demand and interest in the redesigned Tahoe has also translated into a 108 percent sales spike since it went on sale in February 2014, with most dealers reporting the units being sold within 17 days after they arrive on the dealership lots, with most customers opting for the fully optioned LTZ model, making it one of Chevrolet's fastest-selling vehicles in 2014 along with Suburban, who posted higher sales and quicker inventory turnovers.\n\n\n=== Engines ===\n\n\n=== Safety recalls ===\nOn March 23, 2014, a 2015 GMC Yukon caught fire and went up in flames in Anaheim, California, after a couple, who along with the sales representative who was giving them a test drive, noticed the vehicle stopping and that smoke was starting to make its way into the cabin, prompting the three individuals to park the car and escape before it was destroyed within 15 minutes. The cause of the fire was traced to an oil leak and an engine malfunction. Despite being an isolated incident, the 2015 Tahoe and Yukon are not believed to be tied to GM's announced recall of its vehicles that was made on March 17, 2014. But five days later on March 28, 2014, GM announced a recall on the 2015 Tahoe and Yukon in order to fix a “transmission oil cooler line that is not securely seated in its fitting”, causing the vehicle to stop and rupture the oil cooling line, resulting in the engine to malfunction and catching fire immediately. On June 6, 2014, GM issued another recall on the 2015 Tahoe and Yukon because their radio control modules may not work, and thus prevent certain audible safety warnings.\n\n\n=== 2015 mid-year update ===\nThe Tahoe received 4G LTE, WiFi, and Siri capability, a new color palette, Brownstone Metallic, and added a hands-free power liftgate feature that is standard on LTZ, but included on LT with the optional Luxury Package. The MyLink with Navigation feature became standard on the LTZ trim, while E85 capability is removed from retail ordersThe Yukon, in addition to receiving the aforementioned features, sees the 6.2-liter EcoTec3 V8 engine being updated with the new 8L90E eight-speed automatic transmission for the interim model year, allowing it to improve fuel economy.A body-colored painted Shark Fin antenna was added with the 2015 mid-year refresh for all models.\n\n\n=== 2016 ===\nFor the 2016 model year, the Chevrolet Tahoe received more upgraded changes and new features, similar to the ones added to the Suburban. The changes included power-adjustable pedals, forward collision alert, IntelliBeam headlamps, lane keep assist and a safety alert seat as part of the newly introduced enhanced driver alert package as an available option on the LS trim. The inside floor console with storage area-SD card reader was removed and a new infotainment system was introduced, officially ending the CD player era for the Tahoe; the 8-inch MyLink feature was expanded to the LS trim and became standard (replacing the 4-inch display), although the navigation feature remains as an option on LT and standard on LTZ. A new liftgate shield was added to the Theft Protection Package, along with the new lane keep assist which replaced the lane departure warning. The capless fuel fill tanks became standard on all trims. Siren Red Tintcoat and Iridescent Pearl Tricoat became the new color trims, replacing Crystal Red Tintcoat and White Diamond Tricoat. The instrument cluster was re-configured with a new multi-color enhancement and a heads-up display was introduced as a standard only on the LTZ trim.The 2016 GMC Yukon also sees similar changes, with liftgate, power, hands-free now packaged on SLT trims, a free-flow feature that replaced the Premium package, and two new premium colors (Crimson Red Tintcoat and White Frost Tricoat) replacing Crystal Red Tintcoat and White Diamond Tricoat respectively.The 2016 Tahoe came equipped with both Apple CarPlay and Android Auto Capability features. However, only one of their phone brands at any one time can be used. The 2014 and 2015 LTZ and Denali packages came equipped with a \"wireless\" charging accessory. while the Android Auto option will only be available on LT and LTZ trims featuring 8 inch screens.In 2015, the Russian-built Chevrolet Tahoe received the 6.2L V8 L86 EcoTec engine, which was the only engine offered in the region as an exclusive to the Russian and CIS markets only, as GM had no plans to make it available to North America.\n\n\n=== 2017 ===\nFor the 2017 model year, Chevrolet made upgraded changes to the Tahoe. New additions include the teen driver feature, the App Store feature, a rear seat reminder, and low speed forward automatic braking. Two new colors, Blue Velvet and Pepperdust Metallic, were added to replace four colors. The 22-inch wheels option was expanded to three, and the rear seat entertainment system was overhauled. Chevrolet also made changes in the level trims, with the c-pillar badge now removed from LS models and the LTZ trim is renamed to Premier, which will continue to be the top of the line model.The 2017 model year Yukon also received similar changes, but with a few exceptions. Two new colors, Dark Blue Sapphire Metallic and Mineral Metallic were introduced, the latter exclusive to the Denali, which is also adding a new 22-inch ultra bright aluminum wheels with midnight silver premium paint and a head-up display to its features. The interior backlights changed from red to blue. The heated and vented driver and front passenger seats are now standard on the SLT and Denali trims.\n\n\n=== 2018 ===\nFor the 2018 model year, the 6.2-liter EcoTec3 V8 engine will be available in the Tahoe RST (when bought with the Performance Package). All M.Y. 2018 Tahoe and Suburban trim levels will now be standard with LED Daytime Running Lights which will replace the high beam projector DRLs on LS and LT trim levels. The 2018 Tahoe will have the Custom Edition package added as an option on the base LS trim level. The Chevy Tahoe LS trim level will feature a chrome grille, 18\" painted aluminum wheels, 18\" all season blackwall tires, and third row seat delete (which reduces passenger capacity to 5 seats from 8 seats) if ordered with the Custom Edition package. The GMC Yukon received a 10 speed automatic transmission on the Denali trim level and the GMC Yukon is facelifted for 2018 with a refreshed grille similar to the one from the 2017 GMC Acadia and 2018 GMC Terrain. \n\n\n=== 2019 ===\nThe 2019 model year Tahoe/Yukon will only see minor changes. One exterior color, Shadow Gray Metallic, will replace both Havana Metallic and Tungsten Metallic, and the Premier model receives a newly redesigned badge on the liftgate.\n\n\n=== 2020 ===\nThe 2020 model year Tahoe/Yukon will have a short tenure due to this being the final year for the fourth generation. Accordingly, Chevrolet is deleting the All Season Package and the LT Signature Package, along with the Pepperdust Metallic exterior color from the Tahoe, while the 2020 GMC Yukon replaced its Pepperdust Metallic color with Carbon Black Metallic with no additional changes.\n\n\n== Fifth generation (2021) ==\n\nOn December 10, 2019, Chevrolet introduced a fifth generation Tahoe at Little Caesars Arena in Detroit, Michigan. This time around, GM chose to introduce the Chevrolet full size SUVs first, followed by the GMC Yukon in January 2020 and the Cadillac Escalade in February 2020. Following the industry shutdown due to the coronavirus pandemic, the SUVs started production at the Arlington plant on May 18, 2020, and arrived in dealerships in June 2020.\n\n\n=== Tahoe ===\nBased on the same GMT T1XX platform as the Silverado 1500, the Tahoe distinguishes itself by swapping that truck's live axle and leaf springs for an independent rear multilink suspension setup with coil springs, thus lowering the floor of the vehicle and creates more room in both the cargo area and the second- and third-row seats. The Tahoe expanded its size length to 210.7 inches, and the wheelbase to 120.9 inches while shortened down by 15 inches longer due to the rear wheelbase moving back by 5 inches, making it the largest SUV in the full size length segment. It gains 11 cubic feet of cargo space behind the third row and 10 inches of third-row legroom.\nCarryover trims include the basic LS, LT, and Premier, with Z71 and RST moving from package to trim level, along with the newly-added top of the line High Country trim, giving the Tahoe the highest number of trims of any vehicle in its segment. Quad exhaust tailpipes are available on LT and standard on Premier and High Country.\nAlthough the Tahoe retains a boxy look, it adds a more rounded design and adopts the same Chevrolet design language as the Silverado, featuring a sharply curved front grille and LED lighting. The Tahoe nameplate is given greater prominence, being placed front and center on the higher liftgate.\nThe dashboard and entertainment system have been fleshed out, moving away from the traditional design. Newly updated features include a 10.25-inch touch screen that is now standard on all trims, and a pair of 12.6-inch LCD rear screens that can play movies and offer content from passengers’ smartphones, and can play different programs on the two screens. A new push button shifter column (P, R, N, D) is placed on the dashboard, nine camera displays for enhanced towing capabilities and a total of 30 additional safety features have been implemented throughout the Tahoe. An Air Ride Adaptive Suspension is standard on the higher trims, likewise with an 8-inch driver screen.\nIt also features a Duramax diesel engine as an option (available on all trims and packages except for the Z71) for the first time; a 3.0L I6 which produces 277 horsepower and 460 lb-ft of torque, a segment exclusive. Pending any changes due to the 2020 global coronavirus pandemic that has slowed down production, the fifth generation Tahoe will go on sale in the second quarter of 2020 as a 2021 model.Although GM had been making plans to bring the Tahoe to right-hand drive countries for the first time, those plans were temporarily put on hold for the Australasian region due to a low demand for large SUVs and a local company (expected to be Holden Special Vehicles) that was prepared to do the conversions focusing on other productions.In November 2020, GM announced that their large SUV lineup will be imported to China, marking the Tahoe and Yukon Denali's maiden entry into the country, starting with the 5th generation models. However, General Motors cancelled these plans in February 2021, citing the difficulty of having an import being sold alongside its Chinese-built offerings, the makeup of the facilities that would be required to assemble the full-size SUVs, and concerns that the full-size SUVs won't be able to comply with the stringent emission standards imposed by the Government of China.\n\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Yukon ===\nGMC unveiled its fifth generation Yukon in Vail, Colorado on January 14, 2020, alongside its extended size sibling Yukon XL. Like the Tahoe, the Yukon will also feature an independent rear suspension, a 3.0-liter inline-six turbodiesel engine, and a top-shelf suspension option featuring air springs and magnetic-ride shocks, a standard 5.3-liter V-8, an optional 420-hp 6.2-liter V-8, and a 10-speed automatic transmission that is standard across the lineup. It also gains 4.9 inches in the wheelbase but only 0.4 inch in overall length, making it still short of the Tahoe's length. The dashboard will have two versions, one similar to the Tahoe while a different one with a larger entertainment screen will be exclusive to the Denali. The Yukon's design follows GMC's design language, with the front grille mimicking the Sierra but the tailgate mimicking the GMC crossover SUV lineup with the lights extended to the tailgate doors.\nThe lineup of level trims also expanded as well, with the SLE, SLT, and Denali now joined by the 4WD-exclusive AT4, the latter of which comes standard with the Magnetic Ride Control electronically adaptive dampers, AT4-exclusive leather-appointed seats and stitching with a unique Jet Black interior color and Brandy accents, a heated steering wheel, heated and ventilated front seats, heated second-row outboard seats, a two-speed transfer case, 20-inch Goodyear all-terrain tires, Traction Select System with off-road mode, hill descent control, and skid plates.\nThe fifth generation Yukon debuted in July 2020 as a 2021 model.\n\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Recalls/safety issue ===\nOn August 3, 2020, GM sent out a new TSB (Technical Service Bulletin) that addresses a potential issue related to the engine oil cooler lines on the 2021 Tahoe and Yukon. The issue was sent out to dealerships ahead of receiving the vehicles and were instructed to inspect the engine oil cooler lines at the quick connector on the radiator in order to ensure they are properly seated before selling or dealer-trading the vehicle. No parts were needed for replacement but cautioned customers to have it checked as catastrophic engine failure could occur if not repaired.\n\n\n== GMC Yukon Denali ==\n\nThe GMC Denali nameplate started as the luxury version of the Yukon for the 1999 model year. The Denali is available on both standard and XL versions and is the top-of-the-line trim in the GMC Yukon lineup.\n\n\n=== 1999–2000 ===\nIn 1998, at the time of its introduction, the Yukon Denali was GM's answer to the Lincoln Navigator, but then GM introduced a clone to the Yukon Denali and rebadged it \"Escalade\" under the Cadillac nameplate. The Yukon Denali's exterior was shared with the Cadillac Escalade, with the entire front clip and lower side body panels differing from the standard Yukon. In the interior, in addition, the Denali features luxury options not available in the Yukon. These included an upgraded leather interior, power seats, heated seats front and rear, Bose stereo system, and some woodgrain on the dashboard. The 1999 Yukon Denali and Escalade also saw the first application of GM's OnStar communications system in a full-size SUV. \n\n\n=== 2001–2006 ===\n\nEven though the Yukon was redesigned alongside the Chevrolet Suburban and Tahoe in 2000, the Denali and Escalade remained on the GMT400 platform. It was not until 2001 that the Denali and Escalade were redesigned. While the Escalade departed from its Yukon based exterior design scheme in attempt to hide its roots, the Yukon Denali's exterior is almost the same as that of a post-2000 model year GMT800 Yukon. Embossed side body panels and slightly reworked headlights with projector-beam lenses along with 17\" polished wheels and a unique grille and front bumper differentiate the Yukon Denali from the regular Yukon. 2001 also saw the introduction of the \"punch\" grille which now has become the hallmark of the Denali nameplate.\n\n\n=== 2007–2014 ===\n\nThe Yukon Denali was redesigned for the 2007 model year alongside the regular mainstream Yukon. The biggest change was in the styling, such as the flattened tailgate reminiscent of the new Tahoe, and particularly the grill and headlight shapes, which made the Yukon look less aggressive than previous models. The only exterior difference between the Yukon Denali and the standard Yukon are the chrome grille and extensive use of chrome accents; and of course the insignias, embeveled rockerpanels, chromed headlights and the Vortec 6200 engine which it shares with the Cadillac Escalade. For the 2009 model year, the Yukon comes with a standard power-tilting steering wheel, exclusive to the Denali trim.\n\n\n=== 2015–2020 ===\n\nThe Yukon Denali was redesigned and updated along with other GM SUVs in September 2013 and went to dealerships on February 5, 2014 as a 2015 model. The Yukon Denali continues with the top-of-the-line features (using the similar features found in the Tahoe LTZ trim) and the front grille honeycomb design, equipped with a new active noise-cancellation technology and GM's third-generation magnetic ride control suspension as a standard feature. In November 2014 The Yukon Denali saw its MSRP bumped up by $1,300 in part due to the loaded features added to its 2015 mid-year updates.\n\n\n=== 2021-present ===\nThe fifth generation Yukon Denali was introduced in January 2020. The updated and redesigned vehicle will move up in its top of the line level trim due to the introduction of the AT4 that was slotted above the SLT level. It will also have a different dashboard feature that will be exclusive to this trim.\n\n\n== Hybrid vehicle ==\n\nThe Tahoe made its hybrid electric debut in late 2007. In January 2008, starting price was US$50,540. The starting price of the 2009 model was increased to US$51,405.The Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid uses a combination of its dual displacement 3.0/6.0 L V8 engine and two 60 kW (80 hp) (continuous) electric motors with a 300-volt nickel-metal hydride battery. The vehicle can run on either gasoline, electricity or a mixture of the two using automatic Two-Mode Hybrid system that monitors the vehicle's torque, and state of the battery to choose the most efficient source of power. The battery is charged either directly by generating electricity through driving one or both electric motors using the gasoline engine (while the vehicle is coasting or being driven by the gasoline engine), or by the wheels driving one or both electric motors through what is called \"Regenerative braking\" when the vehicle is decelerating, thus regaining some of the energy invested in forward momentum. The Tahoe is considered a strong or full hybrid, in that it can run entirely on the battery (for a limited range) at low speeds. In city driving, the EPA rating of fuel consumption for the 2WD version of the hybrid is 21 mpg‑US (11 L/100 km; 25 mpg‑imp). In comparison, non-hybrid varieties of the Tahoe are rated no higher than 15 mpg‑US (16 L/100 km; 18 mpg‑imp) in city driving. In highway driving, the EPA rating is 22 mpg‑US (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg‑imp).The Tahoe and Yukon Hybrid models were discontinued after the 2013 model year as GM moved to make their SUVs more fuel efficient with the introduction of the EcoTec engine that they would later install in the 2015 Tahoe and Yukon.\n\n\n== Outside the United States ==\nIn Brazil the Tahoe GMT400 was sold under the name of \"Grand Blazer\", sourced from Argentina with rear-wheel drive only, regionally-sourced 6-cylinder engines (the late-type 4.1 M.P.F.I. Chevrolet straight-6 as the only gasoline-powered option and the 4.2L MWM Sprint 6.07T for those who preferred Diesel) and manual transmission. The GMT400 is used by Brazilian elite police units, such as the BOPE (Batalhão de Operações Policiais Especiais) in Rio de Janeiro and the ROTA (Rondas Ostensivas Tobias de Aguiar) and GATE (Grupo de Ações Taticas Especiais) in São Paulo. It is also used by the São Paulo State Police and the Rio Grande do Sul State Police. But as the cars grew old, the great majority of them were substituted, mainly by the smaller Chevrolet Blazer midsize SUV. The Tahoe name was not used in Brazil because it would be unfamiliar to most Brazilians since it refers to the Lake Tahoe on the border of Nevada and California.\nAnother South American country, Chile, has incorporated the Tahoe as a transport vehicle for the special operations unit (GOPE) of the Chilean Police (Carabineros de Chile) to carry communication equipment.\nThe Tahoe was also assembled in Venezuela from CKD kits for three generations, being phased out in 2014 along most of the local Chevrolet range due to unfavorable economic conditions and political circumstances. The fourth generation of the Tahoe has not been available in Venezuela.\nIn Ecuador, due to the tax benefits hybrid vehicles offer, the third generation of the Tahoe was offered only in the hybrid version until 2011. A review of the benefit to exclude hybrid vehicles with a displacement greater than 1.8L rendered the Tahoe Hybrid less cost-effective than the non-hybrid in Ecuador.\n\n\n== Police package ==\n\nIn North America, the Tahoe is used by many law enforcement agencies, fire departments, and EMS agencies. Prior to the announcement of the Z56 police package model the civilian base & LS models based on the GMT400 were used in police service. During the 1997 model year, the Tahoe was offered with the Z56 police option using suspension components from the discontinued 454SS truck – the first Tahoe Z56s were available only in 2WD until the GMT400 was phased out. The original prototype had rear disc brakes based on the B-body 9C1s whereas the production Z56s came with rear drum brakes. Plans for outfitting the Tahoe with the Z56 police package originated around the 1994 model year when GM broke news about phasing out its B-platform sedans (Caprice, Impala SS, Roadmaster) at the end of the 1996 model year where a replacement was imminent since GM ended production of its body-on-frame passenger sedans due to SUV sales. Since the introduction of the GMT900, Chevrolet currently offers two versions of the police package Tahoe; a four-wheel-drive version and a two-wheel-drive version. Just like the GMT400 based models civilian GMT800 Tahoe base & LS models were also used for police use until the Z56 police package option was reintroduced in 2004 late in the GMT800's life cycle by some agencies.\nChevrolet refers to the four-wheel drive (4WD) version as \"Special Service Vehicle\" (SSV) which has the 5W4 code. This version of the Tahoe can be used for all purposes except pursuits and high speed responses due to its high center of gravity just below the front window (height, not location), thus having a higher probability of rolling-over at high speeds. This version is preferred by agencies where snow, ice, flooding, rough terrain, and ground clearance are common issues.[34]\nChevrolet refers to the two-wheel drive (2WD) version—also known as the rear-wheel drive (RWD) version—as \"Police Pursuit Vehicle\" (PPV). This version be used for all purposes including pursuits and high speed responses. The center of gravity in this vehicle is lower than that of the four-wheel-drive version and the ground clearance is about 1 in (25 mm) less, with a standard rear bumper replacing the tow hitch on civilian Tahoes. Highway patrol agencies prefer the two-wheel-drive version, where pursuits and long distance responses are more common. As of the 2012 model year, the Tahoe was the last body-on-frame, rear-wheel drive police vehicle manufactured for the United States market since Ford phased out its aging Panther platform, the Volvo XC90-based Ford Police Interceptor (known as the Ford Explorer in civilian trim). Other SUVs like the Ford Expedition are used by many law enforcement and EMS agencies, but are not pursuit rated.[35]\nChevrolet built a 2015 Chevrolet Tahoe Police Patrol Vehicle that was previewed as a concept at the 2013 SEMA Show in Las Vegas. The vehicle became available in 2WD and 4WD drivetrains with orders coming in the first quarter of 2014 for special service models, followed by the orders for the police pursuit models afterwards.\n\n\n=== 2021 PPV ===\nThe 2021 Tahoe PPV marks the most drastic change from the standard Tahoe. Rocker covers are borrowed from the GM LT4 engine found in high performance Corvettes, Camaros and Cadillacs. Engine and transmission coolers are PPV specific. Bridgestone co-developed Firehawk Pursuit tires with GM for the 20 inch steel wheels. 6 piston,16 inch rotor Brembo brakes are standard issue on the PPV. The suspension is lowered and further fortified. All wheel drive is standard and sent to the front as needed with a limited slip clutch in the transfer case. 160 MPH speedometer is standard and alternator almost doubles the amperage of the standard Tahoe.\n\n\n== Military applications ==\n\nWhen production of the CUCV II ended in 2000, GM redesigned it to coincide with civilian truck offerings. The CUCV nomenclature was changed to Light Service Support Vehicle in 2001. In 2005, LSSV production switched to AM General, a unit of MacAndrews and Forbes Holdings. The LSSV is a GM-built Chevrolet Silverado 1500, Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HD, Chevrolet Tahoe, or Chevrolet Suburban that is powered by a Duramax 6.6 liter turbo diesel engine. As GM has periodically redesigned its civilian trucks and SUVs from 2001 to the present, LSSVs have also been updated cosmetically.The militarization of standard GM trucks/SUVs to become LSSVs includes exterior changes such as CARC paint (Forest Green, Desert Sand, or 3-color Camouflage), blackout lights, military bumpers, a brush guard, a NATO slave receptacle/NATO trailer receptacle, a pintle hook, tow shackles and a 24/12 volt electrical system. The dashboard has additional controls and dataplates. The truck also can be equipped with weapon supports in the cab, cargo tie down hooks, folding troop seats, pioneer tools, winches, and other military accessories. In the Canadian Army these vehicles are nicknamed \"Milverado\".\nThe Enhanced Mobility Package (EMP) option adds an uprated suspension, 4-wheel anti-lock brakes, a locking rear differential, beadlock tires, a tire pressure monitoring system and other upgrades. About 2,000 LSSV units have been sold to U.S. and international military and law enforcement organizations.\n\n\n=== Variants ===\nCargo/Troop Carrier Pickup (2-door, Extended Cab, or 4-door Silverado)\nCargo/Troop Carrier/Command Vehicle (4-door Tahoe)\nCargo/Troop Carrier/Command Vehicle/Ambulance (4-door Suburban)\n\n\n== Yearly American sales ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\nChevrolet TAHOE RST 2018\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website", "The optional factory in-dash installed Ford Motor Company \"TowCommand\" integrated TBC (Trailer Brake Controller) system available and compatible on the heavy duty commercial Ford Super Duty line of trucks starting with the 2005 models. TowCommand has since been added to the full-size Ford F-150 pickup and the full-size Ford Expedition SUV. It is built and engineered jointly with Tekonsha who are known for their Prodigy TBC. \nWith adjustable +/- trailer braking gain in a digital readout from 0.0 (no trailer brakes) to 10.0 (full trailer braking) in 0.5 increments and a manual override lever (to test trailer braking action), the Ford 'built into the dash' TBC provides smooth braking even when pulling up to a 15,000 lb 4-axle conventional (receiver mounted) or 26,000 lb 4-axle 5th Wheel (bed/frame mounted) trailer. TowCommand being different from most aftermarket TBCs, ties into the trucks' computer and hydraulics, so it senses truck brake pressure and can apply trailer brakes as fast as the truck's brakes. Master Brake Systems 'BrakeSmart' TBC is the only other TBC that taps into the trucks hydraulic lines in modern trucks.\nThe TowCommand TBC is made of three major components; the in-dash TBC module, a TowCommand master cylinder with a brake pressure transducer, and an activated PCM (Powertrain Control Module) parameter by a Ford dealer's NGS or WDS programming method. All 2005 and newer Ford Super Duty trucks are pre-wired for the TBC from the factory, no matter if the TBC option was ordered and installed at the time of the trucks assembly or not. \nBefore ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) came to trucks in the 1980s, most TBCs were activated by the trucks' brake hydraulic action. In an emergency situation with the trucks ABS activated, Ford's TowCommand can automatically reduce the trailer brake pressure (gain) as it communicates with the truck's computer for faster reaction time with proportional trailer brake control, to prevent the trailer brakes from locking up even though trailers do not have ABS sensors. TowCommand will also inform the driver with an audible alarm and in the digital readout if the trailer wires and/or trailer disconnects from the truck. Next to the TowCommand is an empty storage tray or the $85 optional 4 AUX (auxiliary) toggle switches for winches, snow plow, off-road lights, etc. \nThe only disadvantage, unlike aftermarket TBCs, is that it cannot be transferred from one truck to another. Another advantage, unlike aftermarket TBCs, any Ford service center can have it serviced. The TowCommand is covered by the standard bumper-to-bumper warranty as long as it is not discovered to be an actual trailer problem. The TowCommand has only been verified to be compatible with trailers having electric-actuated drum brakes (one to four axles) and not hydraulic surge or electric-over-hydraulic types.\n\n\n== External links ==\nFord TowCommand TBC Inspection Bulletin", "The International Harvester Travelall is a model line of vehicles that were manufactured by International Harvester; four generations were produced from 1953 to 1975. Derived from the International light truck line, the Travelall was a truck-based station wagon. One of the first competitors to the Chevrolet Suburban, the Travelall was a forerunner of modern people carriers and full-size sport utility vehicles.As International withdrew from light-truck sales, the Travelall and pickup truck lines were discontinued after the 1975 model year, followed by the Scout in 1980.\n\n\n== Background ==\nPrior to 1953, International Harvester did not produce a station wagon as part of its model range. Though traditionally derived from passenger cars, wood-bodied station wagons using International truck chassis were constructed on a third-party basis (called station wagons). Moving away from woodies, following World War II, K-series panel vans served as the basis for airport people movers, adding windows and rear seats.Following its introduction for the R/S light trucks, the Travelall would follow the development of the International pickup truck model line. In 1958, a third door was added, nine years before the Suburban; the fourth door came in 1961 (12 years before GM). The Travelette was a four-door crew-cab pickup, sharing its bodywork with the Travelall wagon.\n\n\n== First generation (1953-1957) ==\n\nInternational introduced the R-Series truck range in 1953, replacing the L-Series. Ranging from 1⁄2-ton trucks to heavy commercial trucks, the R-Series introduced the Travelall as a metal-bodied station wagon. Replacing the previous wood-bodied wagons, the Travelall was a windowed panel van with rear seats. In line with sedan-based wagons of the time, access to the rear seats of the R-Series Travelalls was gained by flipping up the passenger-side front seat. Two or three rear seats were offered; panel-truck \"barn doors\" were standard, with a wagon-style tailgate as an option. \nIn addition to the International name badge, a Travelall name badge was mounted on the front cowl. A few L-Series trucks were also produced with windows and seats in 1952, but whether the Travelall name was used that year is unknown. \nThe first-generation Travelall was offered in the R-110 series on the 115 in (2,921 mm) wheelbase. A 220 cubic-inch \"Silver Diamond\" I6 was rated at 100 hp. \nIn 1955, the R-Series was replaced by the S-Series, with the Travelall offered as the S-110 or heavier duty S-120. A BD 220 engine was similar to the R-Series. Four-wheel drive became a factory option for 1956.\n\n\n== Second generation (1958-1960) ==\n\nIntroduced in 1957 for the 1958 model year, the A-series (for \"Anniversary\", marking fifty years of International Harvester truck production) offered a 2nd passenger side door for improved access to the rear seats. Models A-100, A-110, and A-120 all came with 113 to 154 hp (84 to 115 kW) six-cylinder engines, with four-wheel drive optional on the A-120. The design changes paralleled those of the A-series pickups. \nAlthough only lightly modified, the B-Line trucks that appeared in 1959 offered upgraded options for the Travelall. Power steering, power brakes, V-8 engines, and other comfort, convenience, and visual appeal features were introduced to make the Travelall more mainstream and less commercial. The Travelall was offered in the B-100/B-110/B-112 ½-ton range only in 4x2 form. The B-120 was a ¾-ton rated model and that was the only Travelall to come in four-wheel drive in this era. A B-122 model featured uprated springs for a higher GVW. The B-Line trucks carried on into the 1961 model year, when another mild facelift transformed them again into the C-Line.\n\n\n== Third generation (1961-1968) ==\n\nIn April 1961 the Travelall underwent the same changes as the pickup range upon which it was based. The new C-series Travelall benefitted from a whole new chassis with all new independent front torsion bar suspension. Aside from the lower body, the most obvious visual difference were that the twin headlights were now mounted side-by-side, and a new grille of a concave egg-crate design. The wheelbase for the C-100/C-110 Travelall went up to 119 inches, as the front wheels were mounted further forward. This adjustment increased the front clearance angle in spite of the lower body.\n\nThis series was available either with a flip-down tailgate or two doors. The fold down gate had a window which wound down electrically. Development continued in a gradual fashion, becoming the D-series in 1965. A steady stream of new grilles and headlight treatments set the model years apart until a more thorough makeover took place in 1969. Until this model change, the Travelall had been considered merely a version of the related pickup truck; after the facelift the Travelall became a separate series.\n\n\n== Fourth generation (1969-1975) ==\n\nFor 1969 production, International released the fourth-generation Travelall alongside the redesigned D-series pickups. Sized roughly between the Jeep Wagoneer and the Chevrolet/GMC Suburban, the Travelall was marketed as a truck-based station wagon. While still maintaining mechanical commonality with the Light Line pickup trucks, International had largely split the Travelall into a distinct model line, slotting it above the Scout. \nAt its 1969 introduction, the fourth-generation Travelall was offered in 1000, 1100, and 1200 payload series. As with the third generation, the 1969 Travelall was offered in both two-wheel drive and four-wheel drive configurations (optional on 1100 and 1200 series). In line with the Suburban, the Travelall was also offered with up to three rows of passenger seating. While offered in a single trim level, the Travelall was offered in multiple interior configurations, ranging from relatively spartan to well-equipped versions sharing features in line with full-size station wagons (including exterior woodgrain trim).For 1971, the Travelall received an update of the front fascia, shared with the Light Line pickups; the model series nomenclature was changed to 1010, 1110, and 1210; for 1972, the grille was revised again. For 1974, the Travelall underwent a second nomenclature change, offering 150 and 200 series. The model line adopted the chassis revisions of the pickup trucks, adopting a coil-sprung independent front suspension (replacing torsion bars).\n\n\n=== Mechanical details ===\nThrough its production, the fourth-generation Travelall was equipped with four different engines (shared between the Scout and the Light Line trucks). An AMC-supplied 232 cubic-inch inline-6 as a standard engine for the 1000 from 1969 to 1971; as an option, International offered 304, 345, and 392 cubic-inch V8s. For 1973 and 1974, in response to a short supply of IHC V8 engines, the Travelall was offered with an optional AMC 401 cubic-inch V8 (named the V-400 by IHC). By 1975, following the adoption of net horsepower ratings, outputs were lowered to 141-172 hp. Engines were paired with either a manual or an automatic transmission.In late 1971, International introduced a Bendix-developed anti-lock brake system, named Adaptive Braking System. One of the first vehicles offered with any form of anti-lock brakes, the expensive option was rarely selected by owners. \n\n\n=== Wagonmaster ===\nFor 1973 and 1974, International marketed a pickup truck version of the Travelall, named the Wagonmaster. In contrast to the Travelette crew-cab pickup, the Wagonmaster shared its body with the Travelall wagon, removing the roof and windows of the cargo section. The pickup truck bed (integrated into the body) was 5 feet in length (reduced from the 61⁄2 feet and 8 feet offered with the Travelette).In contrast to the Light Line pickups, the intended primary market for the Wagonmaster was owners of fifth-wheel RV trailers. In a critical design flaw, the shared wheelbase placed the fifth-wheel bed hitch behind the rear axle, providing unfavorable handling characteristics. Alongside decreasing demand for the Travelall, the Wagonmaster was discontinued after 1974 production; it is unknown how many were produced (ranging from 500 to under 2000).Following the discontinuation of the Wagonmaster, a half-cab version of the Scout II (the Terra) was produced from 1976 to 1980, serving as one of the first mid-size pickup trucks. The concept of the Wagonmaster was revisited in the 2000s by the Chevrolet Avalanche pickup truck, deriving its body from the Suburban; the Avalanche was not marketed as a 5th-wheel tow vehicle.\n\n\n=== Discontinuation ===\nDespite very high owner loyalty and satisfaction, International discontinued the Travelall in May 1975 (alongside the Light Line pickup). In 1974, sales of the model line collapsed in response to the 1973 oil crisis (with owners averaging 10-12 mpg); it also faced increased competition from the Chevrolet/GMC Suburban, which added a fourth passenger door in 1973 (introduced by the Travelall 12 years previously).\nAfter 1975, International Harvester pared down its passenger model line exclusively to the Scout II; after 1980, the company exited the segment entirely.\n\n\n== Variants ==\nTravelalls were also produced with raised roofs and extended wheelbases for applications such as school buses, ambulances and airport limos. Many of these modifications were performed by the Springfield Equipment Company and were marketed by International.\n\n\n== In popular culture ==\nIn the films Grumpy Old Men and Grumpier Old Men Max Goldman drives a 1974 Travelall.In the apocalyptic novel Lucifer's Hammer by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, Harvey Randall uses a Travelall extensively.Folk musician Greg Brown sings about a Travelall in his song Laughing River.The cinematic musical group Calexico titled an instrumental, largely improvisational 2000 album Travelall.\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== Further reading ==\nCrismon, Fred W. (2001). International Trucks: 100 Years 1907-2007. Crestline. ISBN 978-0970056726.\nFoster, Patrick (2015). International Harvester Trucks, The Complete History. Motorbooks. ISBN 978-0-7603-4860-4.\n\n\n== External links ==\n\"International® 1010 Travelall®\". International Harvester. 1972. \n\"International Light-Duty Trucks and Scout\". International Trails. 1961.", "Wayne K. Cherry (born 1937) is an American car designer educated at Art Center College of Design and employed by General Motors from 1962 through 2004, retiring as Vice President of Design. Cherry worked for General Motors in the United States from 1962 until 1965, when he moved to the United Kingdom to take a position with General Motors' Vauxhall Motors subsidiary, becoming Design Director at Vauxhall in 1975. In 1983 General Motors consolidated all European passenger car design under Cherry and made him Design Director at General Motors' Adam Opel AG subsidiary. Cherry returned to the United States in 1991 and in 1992 became General Motors Vice President of Design. Cherry retired from General Motors in 2004.\nCherry was one of twenty-five nominees for the 1999 Car Designer of the Century.\n\n\n== Education ==\nIn the 1950s, Cherry read an article about the Art Center College of Design and wrote to the college, asking how to become a car designer. The college replied, telling Cherry to submit a portfolio. Cherry submitted a portfolio that included sketches of cars and engines, and was accepted to the college. Cherry graduated with a bachelor's degree in industrial and transportation design in early 1962.\n\n\n== Career ==\nCherry joined General Motors in 1962 after graduating from the Art Center College of Design, initially working at General Motors in the US as an Associate Creative Designer. Cherry was a member of the team that designed the original Chevrolet Camaro/Pontiac Firebird and the team that designed the 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado.\nIn 1965, Cherry transferred to General Motors' United Kingdom-based Vauxhall Motors subsidiary. His first project was in 1965 under Assistant Director of Design Leo Pruneau working on the Vauxhall XVR concept car. became Assistant Design Director at Vauxhall in 1970. In that same year, the Vauxhall SRV concept car was shown. Under Cherry, General Motors released the redesigned 1973 Vauxhall Firenza with its aerodynamic \"droopsnoot\". Cherry became the Design Director for Vauxhall in 1975.In 1983, General Motors consolidated the design activities of its Vauxhall and Opel subsidiaries. As part of the consolidation plan, Cherry became Design Director at General Motors' Rüsselsheim, Germany-based Adam Opel AG subsidiary and became responsible for overall design of passenger cars in Europe. During his time at Opel, Cherry supervised the design of the Astra, Corsa, Calibra, Tigra, among many others.\nCherry returned to the United States in 1991 to direct the design studios of General Motors' Chevrolet and Geo divisions. In 1992 Cherry became Vice President of Design for General Motors worldwide, the fifth head of design in General Motors' history. While Cherry was Vice President of Design, he oversaw the designs of the Pontiac Solstice, Cadillac Sixteen concept car, Hummer H2, Chevrolet SSR and many other vehicles, including the Cadillac CTS introduced in 2002.\nCherry retired from General Motors on January 1, 2004.Automobiles designed as GM President of Design:\n\n1995-1999 Chevrolet Tahoe\n1995-1999 GMC Yukon\n1999-2007 Chevrolet Silverado\n1999-2007 GMC Sierra\n2000-2005 Chevrolet Monte Carlo\n2000-2006 Chevrolet Suburban\n2000-2006 GMC Yukon XL\n2000-2006 Chevrolet Tahoe\n2000-2006 GMC Yukon\n2003-2006 Chevrolet SSR\n2007-2014 Chevrolet Silverado\n2007-2014 GMC Sierra\n2007-2014 Chevrolet Suburban\n2007-2014 GMC Yukon XL\n2007-2014 Chevrolet Tahoe\n2007-2014 GMC Yukon\n2002-2009 Hummer H2 (oversaw design)\n1996-1999,2000-2005 Pontiac Bonneville (Note: Cherry designed the facelifted Bonneville that were the model years 1996-99)\n2006-2010 Pontiac Solstice\n1997-2004 Buick Regal\n1997-2005 Buick Century\n1999-2000 Cadillac Escalade\n2000-2005 Cadillac DeVille\n2002-2006 Cadillac Escalade\n2003-2007 Cadillac CTS\n2003 Cadillac Sixteen concept car\n\n\n== Awards ==\nThe 1993 Opel Corsa received 20 international design awards. In 1999, the Global Automotive Elections Foundation nominated Cherry to a group of twenty-five designers competing for Car Designer of the Century. In June, 2013, Cherry received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Detroit Institute of Ophthalmology.\n\n\n== References ==\n\nWinding-Sørensen, Jon (June 20, 2003). \"75 Years of General Motors Design: Wayne Cherry - The Transformer\". Car Design News. Car Design News, Inc. ISSN 1546-3117. OCLC 52964653. Archived from the original on November 19, 2010. Retrieved July 28, 2013. Cherry, Indianapolis born and Art Center educated, joined GM in 1962, as Associate Creative Designer.\n\n\n== External links ==\nW. K. Cherry Design LLC", "The Ford Explorer is a range of SUVs manufactured by Ford Motor Company since the 1991 model year. The first four-door SUV produced by Ford, the Explorer was introduced as a replacement for the two-door Bronco II. Within the current Ford light truck range, the Explorer is slotted between the Ford Edge and Ford Expedition. As with the Ford Ranger, the Explorer derives its name from a trim package previously offered on the Ford F-Series pickup trucks. \nCurrently in its sixth generation, the Explorer has been offered with multiple chassis and powertrain layouts. The first two generations were directly derived from the Ford Ranger, switching to a model-specific chassis for the third and fourth generations. The fifth generation was repackaged as a CUV, adopting a variant of the Ford Taurus chassis architecture (developed for SUV use).\nAlongside the five-door Explorer wagon, a three-door Explorer wagon was offered from 1991 to 2003, serving as the direct replacement of the Bronco II; the 2001-2010 Ford Explorer Sport Trac was a crew-cab pickup derived from the model line. For police use, the Ford Police Interceptor Utility has been derived from the fifth and sixth-generation Explorer to replace Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor (and the later Taurus-based Police Interceptor Sedan). Through rebranding, Mazda, Mercury, and Lincoln have sold versions of the Explorer; Lincoln currently markets the sixth-generation model line as the Lincoln Aviator. \nThe first four generations of the Explorer were produced by Ford at its Louisville Assembly Plant (Louisville, Kentucky) and at its now-closed St. Louis Assembly Plant (Hazelwood, Missouri); the model line is now currently produced at Chicago Assembly (Chicago, Illinois).\nIn 2020, CNBC reported the Ford Explorer range as the best selling SUV of all time in America.\n\n\n== First generation (UN46; 1991 - 1994) ==\n\nThe first-generation Ford Explorer was introduced in March 1990 as a 1991 model-year vehicle. While again sharing a visual commonality with the Ford Ranger, the Explorer differed significantly from its Bronco II predecessor, becoming a family-oriented vehicle with off-road capability. In a significant design change, a five-door body style joined the model line, competing against the Jeep Cherokee and Chevrolet S-10 Blazer (the Explorer and five-door S-10 Blazer were introduced within a month of each other). \nTo further attract family buyers, Ford aerodynamically optimized the passenger compartment of the Explorer, adopting flush-mounted glass and wraparound doors; a wider body allowed for three-across rear seating. To optimize cargo space, the traditional swing-away spare tire carrier was deleted in favor of an underfloor location. Similar to the Ford Taurus station wagon, the rear liftgate was fitted with a flip-up rear window. \n\n\n=== Chassis ===\nAs with the Bronco II, the first-generation Explorer (design code UN46) shares its chassis underpinnings with the 1983-1992 Ford Ranger. The three-door version uses a 102.1-inch wheelbase (8.1 inches longer than the Bronco II); the five-door uses a 111.9 wheelbase (17.9 inches longer). \n\n\n==== Powertrain ====\nThe Explorer was introduced with a 155 hp 4.0 L Cologne V6, replacing the 2.9L V6 of the Bronco II; the engine was shared with the Ford Aerostar and the Ranger. A Mazda M5OD 5-speed manual was the standard transmission offering, with the option of the Ford 4-speed A4LD overdrive automatic transmission. For 1993, the engine output was increased to 160 hp (119 kW). \nAlong with the standard rear-wheel drive powertrain, at its launch, the Explorer was also offered with various configurations of part-time four-wheel drive, powered by a Borg Warner 13–54 transfer case. The \"Touch Drive\" electric-shift transfer case was standard (shared with the Ranger and the previous Bronco II); it allowed the vehicle to be shifted from two-wheel drive into high-range 4x4 drive (at any speed) and into low-range 4x4 (when stopped). As an option, the Explorer was also offered with a manual-shift transfer case (the option was paired with manual-locking hubs).All Explorers were equipped with the Ford 8.8 axle in either a limited-slip differential or open version; multiple rear-axle ratios could be specified. Four-wheel-drive front axles were the TTB (\"Twin Traction Beam\") Dana 35 with some Dana 44-spec components; 4x2 models shared Twin I-Beam components with the Ranger. \n\n\n=== Body ===\n\nShifting into the midsize SUV size class, the Explorer is far larger than the Bronco II. In comparison to its predecessor, the three-door Explorer is 12.6 inches longer and 2.2 inches wider; a five-door Explorer is 22.4 inches longer and 730 pounds heavier than the Bronco II.Again sharing a front fascia with the Ford Ranger (including front bumper, fenders, headlamps, wheels, and grille), the passenger compartment of the Explorer underwent major upgrades over its predecessor. Alongside the addition of a five-door body style, the body underwent multiple aerodynamic upgrades; the Explorer received its own door stampings, eliminating exterior drip rails (wrapping the doors onto the roof) and bracket-mount side-view mirrors (replaced by ones integrated onto the doors). In what would become a design feature of the model line, the B-pillar and D-pillars were blacked out (visually lowering the vehicle). \nThe interior of the Explorer shared its dashboard with the Ranger in its entirety. In line with its own door stampings, the Explorer received model-specific door panels and interior trim. Five passenger seating was standard; on five-door versions, a front split-bench seat was offered as an option, expanding seating to six. On three-door vehicles, four-passenger seating was standard, with front bucket seats and a split-folding rear bench. \n\n\n=== Trim ===\n\nIn line with other Ford light trucks, the five-door Explorer offered two primary trim levels. The XL served as the base-level trim with XLT serving as the higher-range trim. Sharing the features of the XLT, the outdoors-themed Eddie Bauer was the highest-range trim. The XL was distinguished by a black grille (chrome optional) with steel wheels, while the XLT offered a chrome grille and alloy wheels; the Eddie Bauer offered alloy wheels and two-tone paintwork.\nAlongside its five-door counterpart, the three-door Explorer offered the XL trim and Eddie Bauer trims. In place of the XLT trim, the three-door offered the Sport trim, distinguished by its black lower bodywork, grille, and standard alloy wheels. From 1991 to 1994, the Sport-trim three-door Explorer was rebranded as the Mazda Navajo (see below); the 1991 Navajo became the first SUV to win the Motor Trend Truck of the Year award.For 1994, Ford introduced the Explorer Limited as a luxury-trim version of the model line. Largely intended as a competitor for the Oldsmobile Bravada, the Limited was a five-door vehicle that equipped with nearly every available feature of the model line (the only available options were a sunroof, compact disc player, and towing package). The Limited standardized several optional features introduced for the 1994 Explorer, including an anti-theft system, keyless entry, and automatic headlights. In contrast to the two-tone Eddie Bauer, the Limited was styled with a monochromatic exterior, including a color-matched grille, headlight trim, and bumpers; the alloy wheels and lower bodywork were also model-specific. \n\n\n== Second generation (UN105/150; 1995 - 2001) ==\n\nFor the 1995 model year, Ford released a second generation of the Explorer. Following the success of the first generation, the redesign of the exterior was largely evolutionary, with the model line receiving front bodywork distinct from the Ranger. Rear-wheel drive remained standard, with four-wheel drive offered as an option; all-wheel drive was also introduced as an option. \nTo better compete against the Jeep Grand Cherokee, a 4.9 litres (302 cu in) V8 was introduced as an optional engine. The Explorer went from lacking airbags to having dual airbags (a first for an American-brand SUV). \nFor 1997, the Lincoln-Mercury division introduced its first SUV, the Mercury Mountaineer; in contrast to the Mazda Navajo, the Mountaineer was sold only as a five-door. For 2001, Ford introduced the Ford Explorer Sport Trac mid-size crew-cab pickup truck based on the five-door Explorer. Following the introduction of the third-generation Explorer for 2002, the three-door used the second-generation bodystyle through the 2003 model year. \n\n\n=== Chassis ===\nThe second-generation Ford Explorer is based upon the Ford U1 platform shared with its predecessor, adopting the UN105/UN150 model codes. Introducing key chassis upgrades that were also shared with the 1998 Ford Ranger, the long-running Twin I-Beam/Twin Traction Beam front suspension was retired in favor of a short/long-arm (SLA) wishbone front suspension configuration. Along with more compact packaging of front suspension components (allowing for a lower hoodline), the design allowed for improved on-road handling/feel. In line with the Ranger and F-Series trucks, the rear suspension remained a leaf-sprung live rear axle.The standard four-wheel ABS of the previous generation returned; the rear drum brakes were replaced by disc brakes. As with the first generation, rear-wheel drive remained standard with part-time four-wheel drive as an option; all-wheel drive became an option for the first time. \n\n\n==== Powertrain ====\n\nThe second generation Explorer carried over its 160 hp 4.0 L V6 from the previous generation (shared with the Ranger and Aerostar). For 1996, largely to match the V8 engine offerings of the Jeep Grand Cherokee and Land Rover Discovery, a 210 hp (157 kW) 4.9 litres (302 cu in) V8 (marketed as 5.0 L) was introduced as an option for rear-wheel drive XLT five-doors. By 1997, the V8 was offered with nearly all trims (except XL) and was paired with all-wheel drive; output was increased to 215 hp (160 kW) (from revised cylinder heads). \nFor 1997, a third engine was added to the model line, as Ford introduced an overhead-cam version of the 4.0 L Cologne V6. Differing from its predecessor primarily by its single overhead-cam drivetrain, the 210 hp engine rivaled the V8 in output. Introduced as standard equipment for Eddie Bauer and Limited trims, by 1998, the engine became offered on all non-XL trims. For 2001, the overhead-valve version of the 4.0 L V6 was discontinued, with the SOHC engine becoming standard (and the only engine of the Explorer Sport). \nFollowing the introduction of the overhead-cam Triton-series V8s for the 1997 Ford F-Series and E-Series, the 2001 Explorer would be the final Ford Motor Company vehicle in North America sold with an overhead-valve gasoline-powered V8 engine for nearly two decades (until the 2020 introduction of the 7.3 L Godzilla V8 for Super Duty trucks).\nFor 2000, Ford added flex-fuel capability to the Explorer for the first time.\nA Mazda-produced 5-speed manual was standard with the 4.0 L OHV V6 engine; the SOHC V6 was not offered with a manual transmission until 2000, receiving a heavier-duty version of the Mazda-sourced 5-speed. The V6 Explorers initially received a 4-speed automatic, shared with the Ranger and Aerostar, adopting a 5-speed automatic for 1997. The 4.9 litres (302 cu in) V8 was paired only with a 4-speed heavy-duty automatic (shared with the F-150, Crown Victoria/Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Mark VIII).\nFor the second-generation Explorer, the four-wheel drive system underwent a redesign. The previous Touch-Drive system (electrically-operated) was retired and replaced by ControlTrac, an electronically controlled full-time four-wheel drive system with a two-speed transfer case; in place of a center differential, software-controlled a multi-disc clutch. Similar to the previous push-button Touch-Drive system, a rotary dash selector was used for driver input, selecting two-wheel drive (rear wheels), and four-wheel drive (high and low range). As an intermediate mode, \"Auto\" mode allowed software to control the torque sent to the front wheels; if the front axle began to spin, torque was shifted from the rear wheels to the front wheels until traction is achieved. As a result of low demand from the first generation, manual hubs and manual transfer cases were withdrawn as an option.\nSimilar to the system used on the Aerostar van, the V8 Explorer used a full-time all-wheel drive system without separate high or low ranges. The all-wheel drive required no driver input; torque distribution was entirely managed by a viscous clutch with a 40/60 split.\n\n\n=== Body ===\n\nWhile bearing an evolutionary resemblance to the previous generation, nearly the entire body underwent a change, with only the roof and the side door stampings carried over. Coinciding with the lower hoodline allowed by the redesigned front suspension, much of the body was distinguished by a restyled front fascia, introducing a styling theme used by several other Ford light trucks during the late 1990s. The Ford Blue Oval was centered in a now-oval grille, joined by oval headlamp clusters wrapping into the fenders. In contrast to the front fascia, the rear body saw relatively few changes, receiving mildly restyled taillamps (with amber turn signals). In a functional change, the Explorer received a neon CHMSL (center brake light), adopted from the Lincoln Mark VIII.While again directly sharing its dashboard with the Ranger, the interior of the Ranger underwent a complete redesign (allowing for the fitment of dual airbags). To improve driver ergonomics, the instrument panel received larger gauges, rotary-style climate controls, and a double-DIN radio panel. \nFor 1997, export-market Explorers received a third-row seat as an option (expanding seating to seven passengers). \nFor 1998, Ford gave the exterior of the model line a mid-cycle revision. Distinguished by body-color rear D-pillars and larger taillamps, the rear license plate was relocated from the rear bumper to the liftgate (to better accommodate export); the neon CHMSL was replaced by an LED version. In another change, 16-inch wheels were introduced.\nThe interior received redesigned front and rear seats; alongside second-generation dual airbags, side airbags were introduced (as an option). Other options included load-leveling air suspension (on Eddie Bauer and Limited) and a reverse-sensing warning system. The rarely-specified 60/40 front bench seat was restricted to fleet vehicles after 1998 and was discontinued for 2000.For 1999, the front bumper underwent a second revision, adding a larger cooling inlet and standard fog lights. \nFor 2001, the three-door Explorer Sport underwent an additional revision, adopting the front fascia of the Explorer Sport Trac pickup truck. \n\n\n=== Trim ===\n\nAt its launch, the second-generation Ford Explorer retained the use of the previous trim nomenclature; the standard trim was the XL, with the XLT serving as the primary model upgrade. Along with the two-tone Eddie Bauer trim, the highest trim Explorer was the monochromatic Ford Explorer Limited. For 2000, XLS replaced XL as the base trim (introduced as an appearance package for 1999).\nIn contrast to five-door Explorers, second-generation three-door Ford Explorers shifted to a separate trim nomenclature. While the XL remained the base model (largely for fleets), most examples were produced under a single Sport trim level (again equipped similarly to the XLT). For 1995, Ford replaced the 3-door Eddie Bauer with the Expedition trim; in anticipation of the full-size Ford Expedition SUV, the trim line was withdrawn for the 1996 model year. \nFor 1998, all three-door Explorers became Explorer Sports; the model was produced alongside the third-generation Explorer through the 2003 model year. \n\n\n=== Epilogue ===\n\nOutside of North America, this generation of the Explorer was marketed in right-hand drive configurations As of 2018, RHD countries (such as Japan) export used examples of the Explorer to other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand) where there is demand for right-hand drive SUVs. Due to Japan's strict Shaken Laws, used vehicles tend to have low mileage with detailed repair histories.In the United States, the second-generation Ford Explorer has the (dubious) distinction of being two of the top five vehicles traded-in under the 2009 \"Cash for Clunkers\" program, with the 4WD model topping the list and the 2WD model coming in at number 4.\n\n\n== Third generation (U152; 2002 - 2005) ==\n\nThe third-generation Ford Explorer went on sale in January 2001 for the 2002 model year. Undergoing the first complete redesign since its introduction, the Explorer ended its direct model commonality with the Ford Ranger in favor of a purpose-built SUV design. Following a decline in demand for three-door SUVs, Ford developed the third-generation Explorer solely as a five-door wagon; the three-door Explorer Sport from the second generation continued production through the 2003 model year.\nThe primary objective behind the development of the model line was to make the Explorer more competitive in both domestic and export markets. Along with tuning the vehicle for higher-speed European driving, Ford also benchmarked the model line against the Lexus RX300 and the (then-in-development) Volkswagen Touareg. The Lincoln-Mercury division marketed the third-generation Explorer, with Mercury introducing a second generation of the Mercury Mountaineeer; Lincoln offered its first version of the Explorer, marketing the Lincoln Aviator from 2003 to 2005.\n\n\n=== Chassis ===\nThe third-generation Explorer (design code U152) marked a major change in the model line, ending chassis commonality with the Ford Ranger. While still retaining body-on-frame construction, the U152 chassis was developed specifically for the third-generation Explorer (and its Lincoln-Mercury counterparts). The wheelbase was extended slightly, to 113.7 inches. Along with rear-wheel drive, the third-generation Explorer was offered with both four-wheel drive and permanent all-wheel drive.\nFollowing the redesign of the front suspension of the previous-generation Explorer, Ford redesigned the suspension layout of the rear axle, replacing the leaf-sprung live rear axle with an independent rear axle located by two half-shafts (similar to the Ford MN12 chassis). The 4-wheel independent configuration was a first for Ford Motor Company trucks and American-market SUVs (with the exception of the HMMWV-derived Hummer H1). As with the previous generation, four-wheel disc brakes were standard with an anti-lock braking system.\n\n\n==== Powertrain ====\nCarried over from the previous generation, a 210 hp 4.0 L V6 was the standard engine. The 5.0 L V8 of the previous generation was retired, with the Explorer adopting a 239 hp 4.6 L Modular V8 as its optional engine (shared with the Ford Crown Victoria/Mercury Grand Marquis); the Explorer was the final V8-powered American Ford to adopt the 4.6 L engine.\nFor 2002, a 5-speed manual transmission was standard equipment with the 4.0 L V6, the final year a manual transmission was offered for the model line. From 2003 to 2005, the Ford 5R55 5-speed automatic transmission (previously optional for the 4.0 L V6) was paired with the 4.0 L V6 and the 4.6L V8.\n\n\n=== Body ===\n\nIn contrast with the second-generation Ford Explorer (a major revision of the first-generation model line), the third-generation Ford Explorer was a ground-up redesign (ending all body commonality with the Ford Ranger). Offered solely as a five-door wagon, the model line returned several exterior design elements from previous-generation Explorers (blacked-out B and D-pillars, quarter glass in the rear doors); the grille and taillights were elements adopted from the larger Ford Expedition. The 2002 Ford Explorer introduced a design theme adopted by multiple Ford vehicles, including the 2003 Ford Expedition, the 2004 Ford Freestar, and the 2005 Ford Freestyle wagon and Five Hundred sedan.\nProportioned nearly identically the same as the previous two generations, the third-generation Explorer was an inch shorter, two inches wider, and two inches longer in wheelbase. Several functional changes were brought to the Explorer as part of the rear suspension redesign. The change allowed for a lower rear cargo floor, adding nearly 10 cubic feet of additional cargo space. Offered on nearly all versions, a folding third-row seat was offered as either standard equipment or as an option (expanding seating to seven passengers). For 2004, a rear-bucket seat configuration became an option for higher-trim models, including a second center console (reducing seating to six). Following the design of previous generations, the third-generation Explorer again received a multi-opening rear liftgate, enlarging the rear window opening (covered partially by a filler panel, housing the rear windshield washer).\n\n\n=== Trim ===\n\nFor the 2002 model year, the third-generation Ford Explorer adopted the trim nomenclature of its predecessor. The base trim of the model line was the XLS (intended largely for fleet sale) with the newly introduced XLS Sport, which standardized many options offered for the XLS. The primary trim level of the Explorer was the XLT, split into two versions; the standard XLT received a monochromatic exterior and the XLT Sport received gray lower-body trim and 17-inch wheels. The Eddie Bauer and Limited returned as the highest-trim versions of the Explorer, with the Eddie Bauer distinguished by tan lower-body trim; the Limited was styled with a body-color exterior.\nFor 2003 and 2004, Ford marketed the Explorer NBX trim. Equipped between the XLT and Eddie Bauer/Limited, the Explorer NBX was an off-road oriented version of the Explorer equipped with all-terrain tires, black bumpers and body cladding, heavy-duty roof rack, and custom seat trim. The NBX was also offered with an Off-Road option package; offered with any four-wheel drive Explorer, the option featured skid plates, tow hooks, and upgraded suspension.\n\n\n=== Safety ===\nUndergoing development during the late 1990s, the third-generation Explorer adopted safety features in response to the tread separation controversy that affected the previous-generation model line. Along with the deletion of the Firestone Wilderness AT tires, to further reduce rollover risk, the front and rear axles were widened (the latter, coinciding with the introduction of independent rear suspension). As an option, AdvanceTrac was introduced as a stability control system. For 2005, AdvanceTrac was redesigned, becoming AdvanceTrac RSC (Roll Stability Control); included as a standard feature, the system used ABS, traction control, stability control, and yaw control to reduce rollover risk.\nIn addition to standard dual front-seat airbags, seatbelt pretensioners were added; side-curtain airbags became an option on all versions of the model line.\n\n\n== Fourth generation (U251; 2006 - 2010) ==\n\nThe Ford Explorer and the Mercury Mountaineer were both updated for the 2006 model year on a new frame, produced by Magna International rather than Tower Automotive. Along with this new, stronger chassis, Ford updated the interior, redesigned the rear suspension and added optional power-folding third-row seats. Also, a tire pressure monitoring system and electronic stability control became standard equipment. In 2007 power-deployable running boards, like the ones from the Lincoln Navigator, were also made available for Eddie Bauer and Limited trims on the Explorer and the Premier trim on the Mountaineer; the running boards lower to allow easier access when entering the vehicle, then retract upon door closure. Unlike previous generations, there was no right-hand drive option available for order, causing Ford to market Explorers in Japan in left-hand drive configuration. The LHD Explorers were desirable there because LHD vehicles are considered prestigious in Japan. Moreover, Ford switched to a one-piece rear liftgate design due to the problems associated with the previous generation's design. \nThis generation Explorer would be the last to use body on frame construction as future Explorers, beginning in 2011, would use unibody construction. Additionally, it was the last generation to be produced in Louisville, Kentucky.\nThe 210 hp (157 kW) 4.0 L 12-valve SOHC V6 was once again the standard engine. The 292 hp (218 kW) 4.6 L 24-valve SOHC V8, similar to the Fifth-generation Ford Mustang's engine, was available as an option. The 6-speed 6R automatic transmission, built by Ford and based on a ZF design, was made standard equipment with the V8 engine as well. The five-speed 5R55W automatic transmission was advanced and became the 5R55S. It was the only transmission available for the V6 engine, because the Mazda five-speed manual transmission was dropped in the previous generation.\nThe 2006 Ford Explorer was nominated for the North American Truck of the Year award for 2006.\nThe fourth generation Explorer was the last generation to also have a Mercury Mountaineer counterpart as Mercury was dissolved in 2011.\n\n\n=== Model year changes ===\nFor 2007, The Explorer received a few minor updates including a standard AUX input on all stereos, optional power running boards, a heated windshield, Ironman Package, XLT Appearance Package, and heated leather seat package. The XLS trim was also dropped for 2007, and the XLT became the base model. Additionally, the leather-wrapped steering wheel, power driver seat, and dual illuminated vanity mirrors were deleted as standard equipment on the XLT trim. Side curtain airbags were optional on Eddie Bauer and Limited trims, while XLT models were only available with seat-mounted side torso airbags. The Ford Explorer Sport Trac was also re-introduced for the 2007 model year after skipping 2006. For 2008, Ford added standard side curtain airbags on all Explorers. The 2008 Ford Explorer also became the first Ford vehicle to utilize the cap-less fuel filler system, though Explorers were not equipped with it until mid-year 2008. Three new colors were added for the 2008 model year: Stone Green clearcoat metallic, Vapor Silver clearcoat metallic, and White Suede clearcoat metallic. All Explorers now came standard with body-color fender lip and bumper cladding, while Eddie Bauer models received standard Pueblo Gold cladding. The AdvanceTrac badge on the trunk door was replaced with a \"4X4\" badge on 4WD models. In a reversal from the 2007 model year, a leather-wrapped steering wheel with audio controls, a power driver seat, and dual illuminated vanity mirrors were once again standard on the XLT. In addition to this, XLT models also now received faux carbon-fiber trim on the window switches, puddle lights, and a standard overhead console. Furthermore, Ford SYNC was now optional on all Ford Explorer models and the optional satellite navigation system was upgraded with voice control. The Ironman appearance package was dropped after the 2008 model year.\nFor 2009, the Explorer received a trailer sway control system as standard equipment, and the navigation system received traffic flow monitoring with updated gas prices from nearby stations. Revised front headrests were also standard for the 2009 model year.For the 2010 model year, Ford's MyKey became standard on all Explorers equipped with the Sync system, while V8s were restricted to 4-wheel-drive models.\nThe last fourth generation Explorer rolled off the assembly line on December 16, 2010.\n\n\n=== Engine specifications ===\n\n\n=== Explorer Ironman ===\nIn 2005, Ford signed a three-year deal to sponsor the Ironman Triathlon. Ford Explorer marketing manager Glen Burke compared the Explorer and the Ironman Triathlon; noting that both had the same attributes of strength, endurance, and passion. The Explorer Ironman debuted on June 25, 2006, for the 2007 model year was an interior and exterior appearance package for the XLT trim. It featured a blacked-out front grille, a protruding silver lower grille with rivet patterns and \"Ironman\" embossing, a unique rear fascia, Ironman badging, smoked headlights, amber fog lights, blacked-out fender flares with rivet patterns, and unique 18-inch wheels. The interior featured unique heated ten-way power-adjustable two-tone black and stone leather seats, as well as silver trim around the radio and climate controls. Additionally, a leather-wrapped steering wheel was standard. The Explorer Ironman was available in only five colors: Oxford White, Ebony, Redfire, Silver Birch, as well as Orange Frost; which was a unique color only available with the Ironman package. The Ironman could be had with either the standard 4.0 L SOHC V6 or the 4.6 L V8, and in either standard RWD or 4WD configurations. The Explorer Ironman went on sale in September 2006 as a 2007 model, and it was discontinued after the 2008 model year.\n\n\n=== Ford Explorer Sport Trac ===\nThe second generation Sport Trac came out in early 2006 for the 2007 model year. Unlike its predecessor sold through 2005, it featured the V8 engine as an option and was based on this generation Explorer's platform. AdvanceTrac with Roll Stability Control was made standard on the Sport Trac.\n\n\n=== Sport Trac Adrenalin ===\n \nFor the 2007 model year, the Ford Special Vehicle Team built the Sport Trac Adrenalin concept with a supercharged version of the 4.6 L Modular V8, with 390 hp (291 kW), and featuring 21-inch (533 mm) wheels. The model was planned by Ford SVT to be the successor to the F-150 Lightning sports pickup truck. However, the SVT version of the Adrenalin was cancelled in a cost-cutting move as part of The Way Forward. The Adrenalin was subsequently sold as an appearance package from 2007 to 2010. It had blacked-out headlights, black grill, monochrome color interior, unique front and rear bumpers, front fender vents, and molded-in running boards. It also came standard with 20-inch polished aluminum wheels, and the fender flares that came on the Explorer and standard Sport Trac were deleted.\n\n\n=== Explorer America concept ===\n\nFord unveiled an Explorer America concept vehicle at the 2008 North American International Auto Show. The Explorer America concept is built on a unibody platform to reduce weight and improve driveability, migrating from the body-on-frame platform of the fourth generation Explorer. It is designed for up to six passengers while improving fuel economy by 20 to 30 percent relative to the current V6 Explorer. The powertrain packages in the concept vehicle include a 2 L four-cylinder turbocharged direct injection EcoBoost gas engine with 275 hp (205 kW) and 280 ft⋅lbf (380 N⋅m) of torque, and a 3.5 L V6 version EcoBoost with 340 hp (254 kW) and up to 340 ft⋅lbf (461 N⋅m) of torque.\n\n\n== Fifth generation (U502; 2011 - 2019) ==\n\nThe 5th generation 2011 Explorer bore similarity to the Explorer America concept's construction, and includes a unibody structure based on the D4 platform, a modified version of the D3 platform. The move from traditional SUV to crossover effectively vacated the midsize SUV segment for Ford until the sixth generation Bronco arrived, which debuted in July 2020.The fifth generation Explorer features blacked-out A, B, and D-pillars to produce a floating roof effect similar to Land Rover's floating roof design used on its sport utility vehicles; a design which Ford previously used on the Ford Flex. The fifth generation Explorer features sculpted body work with stepped style headlamps similar to the Flex, Edge, Escape, Expedition and F-150, as well as new stepped style tail lamps. The grille features Ford's corporate three-bar design with upper and lower perforated mesh work, similar to that of the sixth-generation Ford Taurus.\nThe development of the fifth generation Explorer was led by chief engineer Jim Holland from February 2008 to October 2010, who was also a chief engineer for Land Rover; heading development of the Land Rover Range Rover (L322) 2005 facelift from December 2001 to December 2004. Holland also worked on the Ford Expedition (U324) during its initial development.The fifth generation Explorer made its debut online on July 26, 2010. Ford had set up a Ford Explorer Facebook page ahead of its debut. Assembly of the fifth-generation Explorer moved to Ford's Chicago Assembly plant commencing December 1, 2010, where it is built alongside the Ford Taurus and Lincoln MKS. The Louisville plant, where the previous generation was built, was converted to produce cars based on Ford's global C platform (potentially including the Ford Focus, Ford C-Max, and Ford Kuga). Like the Escape, the Explorer will continue to be marketed as an \"SUV\" rather than a \"crossover SUV\". It went on sale in December 2010, after pre-launch sales had by the end of November 2010 totaled around 15,000. The EPA rated fuel economy of 20/28 mpg city/highway for the four-cylinder EcoBoost engine option.\n\n\n=== Features ===\nAvailable features on the fifth generation Explorer include intelligent access with push button start, remote engine start, power liftgate, power adjustable pedals with memory, premium leather trimmed seating, heated and cooled front seats, dual headrest DVD entertainment system, adaptive cruise control, active park assist, SIRIUS Travel Link, MyFord Touch, Ford SYNC by Microsoft, Sony audio system with HD radio and Apple iTunes tagging, in-dash advanced navigation system, SoundScreen laminated acoustic and solar tinted windshield with rain-sensing wipers, 20-inch polished V-spoke aluminium wheels, and High-intensity discharge headlamps (HID) and LED tail lamps.\nUnlike the Explorer America concept vehicle which only seats five occupants, the production Explorer holds two rows of seating with available PowerFold fold-flat third-row seating (like the previous generation) and accommodates up to seven occupants.\n\n\n=== Capability ===\nThe Explorer is available in either front-wheel drive or full-time all-wheel drive. At first only one engine was available: the 290 hp (216 kW) (255 lb⋅ft (346 N⋅m) of torque) 3.5 L TiVCT (Twin independent Variable Camshaft Timing) V6 with either the 6-speed 6F automatic or 6-speed 6F SelectShift automatic.\nSoon thereafter, Ford offered the economical 240 hp (179 kW) (270 lb⋅ft (366 N⋅m) of torque) 2 L EcoBoost turbocharged, direct-injected I-4 mated to the 6-speed 6F automatic. The I-4 engine is not available with the optional 6-speed 6F SelectShift automatic, and will only be available in front-wheel drive.The Explorer is available with an automatic intelligent all-wheel drive system inspired by Land Rover, featuring a variable center multi-disc differential with computer controlled lock. Conventional front and rear differentials are used with 3.39:1 gearing. The center multi-disc differential controls the front-to-rear torque split, biasing as much as 100 percent of torque to either the front or rear wheels. Depending on the Terrain Management mode selected, the center multi-disc differential's intelligent lock will allow for a 50:50 torque split in off-road conditions. The power take off (PTO) unit includes a heavy-duty dedicated cooling system to allow the four-wheel drive system to supply continuous non-stop torque delivery to all four wheels indefinitely, without overheating. A \"4WD\" badge is advertised on the rear liftgate on the all-wheel drive models. Explorer's overall off-road crawl ratio is 15.19:1 with high range – no low range – gearing only.\nOff-road electronics include Hill Descent Control (HDC), Hill Ascent Assist (HAA), four-wheel electronic traction control and Terrain Management.\nFour-wheel electronic traction control (ABS braking) is employed to simulate front and rear differential locks via aggressively \"brake locking\" the front or rear differentials, transferring up to 100 percent of torque from side-to-side. In the right conditions, the Explorer can keep moving even if only one wheel has traction, regardless of which wheel it is.\nTerrain Management includes four selectable modes. Each mode is selected via a rotary control dial on the center console, aft of the transmission shifter.\n\nDepending on the mode selected, Terrain Management will control, adjust, and fine-tune the engine, transmission, center multi-disc differential lock, throttle response, four-wheel electronic traction control and electronic stability control (ESC) to adapt the SUV for optimal performance on the corresponding terrain.\nOff-road geometry figures for approach, departure and ramp breakover angles are 21°, 21° and 16° respectively. Minimum running ground clearance is 7.6 inches (193 mm). Standard running ground clearance is 8.2 inches (208 mm). Low hanging running boards are no longer offered from the factory to help increase side obstacle clearance.\nMoving to a monocoque body usually has a negative impact on towing capacity. The new Explorer will be available with an optional trailer tow package. The package includes a Class III trailer hitch, engine oil cooler, trailer electrics connector, trailer sway control (TSC), wiring harness and a rear-view camera with trailer alignment assistance to help in backing up to a trailer. If equipped with the trailer tow package the new 2011 Explorer will be able to tow up to 5,000 lb (2,268 kg) of braked trailer. That is 1,500 lb (680 kg) greater than the towing capacity stated for the Explorer America concept and 2,115 lb (959 kg) less than the outgoing Explorer's towing capacity, although that was only available with the 4.6 L V8 engine.\n\n\n=== Safety and security ===\nSafety features include: Dual front adaptive SRS airbags, dual front-seat side-impact airbags, dual rear safety belt airbags (beginning first quarter, 2011), and side curtain head, torso and rollover protection airbags. Other optional safety features include BLIS blind spot information system with rear cross traffic alert, forward collision warning with brake support precrash system, Auto high-beam, Roll Stability Control (RSC), Electronic stability control (ESC) and Curve Control.\nThe fifth-generation Explorer was the first-ever vehicle to be equipped with dual rear inflatable safety belts. Airbags are sewn into the inside of the seat belts, and inflate with cold air to prevent burns. Ford claims it will be released as an option and to introduce inflatable seat belts on other Ford models eventually.\n\n\n=== Global recall ===\nOn June 12, 2019, Ford announced a global recall of 1.2 million Explorers produced from 2011 to 2017 citing suspension issues. Ford stated if the car was subjected to frequent rides over rough terrain that the toe link on the rear suspension could fracture which would affect steering and lead to greater risks of traffic accidents.\n\n\n==== NHTSA ====\n*vehicle structure rated \"Poor\"\n\n\n=== Awards ===\nThe fifth generation Ford Explorer earned the 2011 North American Truck of the Year award. The rear inflatable seat belts won the 2011 Best New Technology Award from the Automobile Journalists Association of Canada.\n\n\n=== 2013 Ford Explorer Sport ===\n\nThe Ford Explorer Sport was announced March 28, 2012, as an option for the 2013 model year and went on sale in June 2012. The \"Sport\" trim level comprises blackened exterior treatments, stiffened chassis and suspension, larger brakes and the installation of the EcoBoost 3.5L Twin Turbo V6 rated at 365 hp (272 kW) and 350 lb⋅ft (470 N⋅m) of torque. It is the only version to feature a combined 4WD/EcoBoost option (a FWD version is not being offered for the Sport trim), allowing its MPG to average between 16/city and 22/highway. This version will be slotted above the Limited trim and is expected to compete in this segment against Jeep Grand Cherokee's SRT trim and Dodge Durango's R/T trims and a newly updated 2013 Chevrolet Traverse, the latter of which unveiled their new look on the same day as the Explorer Sport as their response to Ford's news.\n\n\n=== 2016 facelift ===\n\nThe refreshed 2016 model year Ford Explorer debuted at the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show, with a redesigned front fascia, hood, and lower bumper, standard LED low-beam headlights, and fog lamps that were inspired by the thirteenth generation Ford F-150. The rear of the Explorer was also refreshed with restyled LED tail lamps and dual exhaust outlets. The 2016 refresh bumped the I4 engine to a 2.3 L EcoBoost four-cylinder engine from the 2015 Ford Mustang. A newly introduced Platinum trim now tops out the range, slotting above the Sport and Limited trims. Similar to the Platinum editions of the F150 and Ford Super Duty trucks, the Platinum trim features front and rear cameras, enhanced active park assist with perpendicular park assist, park-out assist and semi-automatic parallel parking, hands-free liftgate from the Ford Escape, an exclusive 500-watt Sony surround sound system, and a heated steering wheel. The Platinum trim is paired with a 3.5 L EcoBoost Twin-turbo V6 with 365 bhp (272 kW) which was previously only available with the Sport trim. The 2016 Explorer went on sale at dealerships in the Summer of 2015. Other than the addition of the top-of-the-line Platinum trim, as well as standard eighteen-inch alloy wheels on the base Explorer trim, the changes are mainly in styling, exterior and interior color combinations, technology, and power.\n\n\n=== 2018 facelift ===\nThe Ford Explorer received a second facelift which includes a refreshed front end with revised LED headlights and redesigned LED fog lights as well as new exterior and interior colors in addition to new wheel designs.\n\n\n=== 2019 Update ===\nThe Ford Explorer received two new packages for the 2019 model year. XLT Desert Copper and Limited Luxury package. This was the last model year of this generation Explorer right before the 2020 Explorer entered production.\n\n\n=== Engines ===\n\n\n== Sixth generation (U625; 2020) ==\n\nThe sixth-generation Ford Explorer officially debuted on January 9, 2019, ahead of the 2019 North American International Auto Show. The 2020 Ford Explorer is built on the new rear-wheel-drive based CD6 platform shared with the new Lincoln Aviator. A high-performance Ford Explorer ST model will also be offered. The turbocharged 2.3 L EcoBoost inline-four is the standard engine on the new Explorer, with 300 hp (224 kW) and 310 lb⋅ft (420 N⋅m) of torque. It comes with a new 10-speed automatic transmission and either rear- or all-wheel drive. Its maximum tow rating is 5,300 lb (2,404 kg). An optional twin-turbocharged 3.0 L EcoBoost V6 makes 365 hp (272 kW) and 380 lb⋅ft (515 N⋅m) of torque, while the ST with the same engine makes 400 hp (298 kW) and 415 lb⋅ft (563 N⋅m) of torque. It also mates with a 10-speed automatic and sees an increase in towing capacity, to 5,600 lb (2,540 kg). An Explorer Hybrid will also be available in the US with an initially detuned 3.3 L V6 producing a combined 318 hp (237 kW). but in a possible future full tuned version could make over 500 hp (373 kW) combined output being the possible most powerful non turbo V6 engine ever. The European version includes a 350 hp (261 kW) 3.0 L V6 petrol engine and a 100 hp (75 kW) electric motor with a combined output of 450 hp (336 kW) and 600 lb⋅ft (813 N⋅m). It will have a fuel consumption of 3.4 L/100 km (69.2 mpg‑US) and can tow 2,500 kg (5,512 lb). The 2020 Explorer comes in four trim levels: XLT, Limited, ST, and Platinum. The base Explorer will be sold mainly to fleet buyers, and will not be available for retail sale.Thousands of initial Explorer and Aviator vehicles were shipped to Ford's Flat Rock Assembly Plant for repairs due to quality control problems. Later models have been shipped from the Chicago plant to dealerships; however, many required dealer repairs before they could be sold. Consumer Reports noted their purchased Aviator was having quality problems.\n\n\n=== Engines ===\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== Variants ==\n\n\n=== Ford Explorer Sport (1991–2003) ===\nAs the direct successor of the Bronco II, Ford developed a three-door version of the Explorer for the 1991 model year; while 10 inches shorter than its five-door counterpart, the three-door was still nearly 13 inches longer than the Bronco II. For the first generation, the three-door was available in any trim (except Limited), with Sport offered as a trim exclusive to the three-door. Distinguished by black-colored wheel wells and rocker panels, Sport was slotted between XL and XLT. For 1995, Expedition was offered as a trim package for the three-door Explorer; replacing the Eddie Bauer trim, the nameplate was retired after 1995 in preparation for the 1997 full-size four-door SUV.\nDuring the second generation, the XL and XLT trims were retired for the 1998 model year, with all three-door Explorers becoming Explorer Sports. For 2001, the Explorer Sport was split from the four-door Explorer, retaining the second-generation body and chassis and adopting the front fascia of the Explorer Sport Trac.\nFord discontinued the Ford Explorer Sport following the 2003 model year, with the final vehicle produced in July 2003.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Ford Explorer Sport Trac (2001–2010) ===\nIntroduced in 2000 as a 2001 model, the Explorer Sport Trac is a mid-size pickup truck derived from the second-generation Explorer, becoming the first mid-size Ford pickup. In contrast to the Ranger, the Sport Trac was marketed primarily as a personal-use vehicle rather than for work use.\nOffered solely as a four-door crew cab, the design of the Sport Trac shared commonality with multiple vehicles. Sharing the frame and wheelbase of the Ranger SuperCab, the Sport Trac combined the front fascia of the Explorer Sport with a crew cab derived from the four-door Explorer; the pickup bed (designed for the model line) shared its tailgate with the F-150 SuperCrew.\nThe 2001-2005 Sport Trac was the final version of the Explorer derived from the Ranger. After skipping the 2006 model year, a second-generation Sport Trac was produced from 2007 to 2010 (derived from the fourth-generation Explorer).\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Ford Police Interceptor Utility ===\n\nFollowing the end of production of the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor in 2011, Ford began the development of a police-service variant of the Ford Explorer. For the 2013 model year, Ford introduced the Police Interceptor Utility; as with the related Police Interceptor Sedan variant of the Ford Taurus, the Utility is referred to as a Ford Police Interceptor in lieu of being a Ford Explorer.\nAs with the Police Interceptor Sedan and the Ford Expedition SSV, the Utility is not sold for retail sale and is specifically designed for use by law enforcement or use by other emergency service agencies. Along with fleet-specific options such as steel wheels and provisions for user-specific paint schemes (such as contrasting doors), the Utility comes with provisions for fitting emergency equipment such as radios, lightbars, and sirens. To free up interior space on the center console for equipment, the transmission is fitted with a column-mounted shifter.\nThe Police Interceptor Utility comes with an all-wheel drive powertrain standard. Over a standard Explorer, the Utility is fitted with larger brake rotors, more advanced ABS and traction control systems, a more efficient cooling system, and other standard police equipment.\nAt its launch, the initial engine fitted was a 305 hp (227 kW) 3.7 L version of the Ti-VCT V6, shared with the Ford Mustang and F-150. For 2014, Ford added the 365 hp (272 kW) 3.5 L EcoBoost V6 (shared with the Police Interceptor Sedan and Ford Taurus SHO).\nThe California Highway Patrol now uses the Police Interceptor Utility because the current Ford Taurus, Chevrolet Caprice, and Dodge Charger patrol cars did not meet the payload the CHP requires for a universal patrol car. In May 2014, statisticians R.L. Polk declared the PI Utility the most popular police vehicle, based on 2013 U.S. sales figures.\n\n\n==== 2020 Ford Police Interceptor Utility ====\n\nFor the 2020 model year, Ford has created a second-generation Police Interceptor Utility, derived from the sixth-generation Explorer. Offered exclusively in an all-wheel drive configuration, the Utility is offered with a twin-turbocharged 3.0L V6 and as a hybrid, with a 3.3 L V6 and an electric motor. A naturally aspirated version of the 3.3 L V6 engine is also offered to departments, which is unavailable on civilian models.Following the shift from the D4 to the CD6 architecture, the Police Interceptor Utility gains cargo space (even with hybrid batteries onboard) over its predecessor. In total, the hybrid system increased the combined fuel economy of the Utility from 19 MPG to 24 MPG, a 26% increase.\n\n\n=== Mazda Navajo (1991-1994) ===\n\nThe first-generation Ford Explorer was sold by Mazda from 1991 to 1994 as the Mazda Navajo. Offered solely in a three-door configuration, only minor design details differed the Navajo from its Ford counterpart.\nAlong with a revised front fascia, the Navajo received new taillamps and wheels; the bumpers were painted dark gray (resulting in the deletion of all chrome trim). The interior was largely shared between the two model lines, with the Navajo receiving its own lettering for the instrument panel (in line with other Mazda vehicles); Mazda lettering was added to the Ford steering wheel hub.\nIn place of the three trims offered on the three-door Ford Explorer, Mazda offered the Navajo in base DX and top-tier LX trim (roughly the equivalent of the Explorer Sport and three-door Explorer XLT). Offered only with four-wheel drive at its launch, a rear-wheel drive version of the Navajo was introduced for 1992. As with the first-generation Explorer, all Navajos were fitted with a 4.0 L V6; a five-speed manual was standard, with a four-speed automatic offered as an option (on both the DX and LX).\nIn the early 1990s, SUVs transitioned into alternatives to station wagons, leading to a decline in demand for two-door SUVs. After the 1994 model year, Mazda withdrew the Navajo, returning in 2000 with the four-door Tribute (a counterpart of the Ford Escape).\n\n\n=== Mercury Mountaineer (1997-2010) ===\n\nThe Ford Explorer was sold by the Mercury division as the Mercury Mountaineer from 1997 to 2010. Developed as a competitor for the Oldsmobile Bravada, the Mountaineer was a four-door SUV slotted above the Explorer Limited. Marking the reintroduction of the waterfall grille to the Mercury brand, the model line was distinguished by two-tone (and later monochromatic) styling different from the Explorer.\nCoinciding with the 2010 closure of the Mercury brand, the Mountaineer was withdrawn after the 2010 model year; three generations were produced, with the Mountaineer serving as the largest Mercury SUV (above the Mariner).\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n=== Lincoln Aviator ===\n\nThe Ford Explorer has been sold twice by the Lincoln division as the Lincoln Aviator. From 2003 to 2005, the Lincoln Aviator was marketed as a counterpart of the third-generation Explorer. The first mid-size SUV sold by Lincoln, the model line was slotted between the Mercury Mountaineer and the Lincoln Navigator. Following the introduction of the fourth-generation Explorer, the model line was repackaged as a CUV based on the Ford Edge and renamed the Lincoln MKX (today the Lincoln Nautilus).\nFor 2020, the Lincoln Aviator was revived (after a 14-year hiatus) as a mid-size SUV; as before, the model line is a Lincoln counterpart of the Ford Explorer (now the sixth generation) and the Lincoln Navigator. The second-generation Aviator is the first Lincoln vehicle offered with plug-in hybrid capability as an option; its 494 hp combined output is the highest-ever for a Lincoln vehicle.\n\n\n== Export sales ==\n\n\n=== UK models ===\nIn the UK, the Ford Explorer was initially available as just one model, with the 4.0 L engine and with a high specification – the only dealer options being leather interior. Second and third-generation Explorers for the UK and other RHD markets utilized a center console-mounted shifter and hand parking brake instead of the steering column-mounted shifter and parking brake pedal used in the North American models. In 1998, a facelifted Explorer was available with minor cosmetic interior changes and a revised rear tail lift that centered the rear number plate. In 1999 the model range was revamped slightly, the base model becoming the XLT and a special edition North Face version marketed with a tie-in to North Face outdoor clothing. The North Face version was available in dark green or silver, with body-colored bumpers, heated leather seats, and a CD multichanger as standard. In 2000, the North Face was also available in black.\n\n\n=== Middle East and Asia ===\nIn the Middle East, Taiwan, and China, the 2012 Ford Explorer is currently available in several trims, all of which have a 3.5 L V6 engine and an automatic gearbox. Some GCC markets offer the front-wheel-drive version as a base model, while most of the trims have standard all-wheel-drive. The latest generation Explorer was made available in Japan the Fall of 2015.\n\n\n=== Exports ===\nAs of 2009, the Explorer is also sold in Bolivia, Chile, Canada, Mexico, Panama, Dominican Republic, Japan, South Korea, Israel, Republic of China (Taiwan), The Philippines, Turkey, Russia, Iceland, Germany, the Middle East, and certain countries in South America and Africa.\nAs of 2014, the Explorer is also available in Ukraine and Belarus. As of 2018, American-made Explorers are also exported to Vietnam.\n\n\n=== Other usage ===\nGothic black Ford Explorer vehicles are also used by federal agencies, such as the United States Secret Service.\n\n\n== Criticism and controversies ==\n\n\n=== Rollover and Firestone Tire controversy ===\n\n240 deaths and 3,000 catastrophic injuries resulted from the combination of early generation Explorers and Firestone tires. The tire tread separated and the vehicle had an unusually high rate of rollover crash as a result. Both companies' reputations were tarnished. This event led to a disruption in the 90-year-old Ford/Firestone partnership.\nRollover risk is inherently higher in truck-based vehicles, like the Explorer, than in ordinary passenger cars, as a modification for bulky 4-wheel-drive hardware requires increases in height to avoid compromising ground clearance (raising the center of gravity), while a short wheelbase further reduces stability. The previous Bronco II had already been cited by Consumer Reports for rollover tendencies in turns.The Explorer was cleared by the NHTSA as no more dangerous than any other truck when driven unsafely. It used the same tires as the Ford Ranger with a relatively low rating for high temperatures. Lowering tire pressure recommendations softened the ride further and improved emergency stability through increased traction, but increased the chances of overheating tires. A 1995 redesign with a new suspension slightly raised the Explorer's center of gravity, but it was called inconsequential by a Ford spokesman. Memos by Ford engineers suggested lowering the engine height, but it would have increased the cost of the new design.\nExplorer rollover rates, at the time of the controversy, were higher than any of its competitors. While Firestone turned out millions of sub-standard and potentially defective tires and was the initial cause of loss of control on many Ford Explorer Firestone tire tread separation rollovers, the blame shifted towards Ford for a defectively designed and unstable vehicle .In May 2000, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) contacted Ford and Firestone about a higher than normal incidence of tire failures on Ford Explorers, Mercury Mountaineers, and Mazda Navajos fitted with Firestone tires (later including Ford Ranger and Mazda B-Series pickup trucks). The failures all involved tread separation, in which the outer tread carcass would delaminate and cause a rapid loss of tire pressure. Ford investigated and found that several models of 15 in (381 mm) Firestone tires (ATX, ATX II, and Wilderness AT) had higher failure rates, especially those made at Firestone's Decatur, Illinois plant.\nFord recommended tire inflation of only 26 pounds per square inch (179 kPa) likely contributing to the tread separation problem by causing the tires to operate at higher than normal temperatures.Ford argued that Firestone was at fault, noting that the tires made by Firestone were very defective. Nevertheless, Ford subsequently recommended that front and rear tires should be inflated to 30 pounds per square inch (207 kPa) on all Explorer models and mailed a replacement tire pressure door sticker indicating the same to all registered owners.\nSome have argued that poor driver reaction to tire blowout was a contributing factor. When a tire blew, the vehicle would experience a sudden sharp jerk, and many drivers reacted by counter-steering in an attempt to regain control. This action would cause a shift of the vehicle's weight, resulting in a rollover especially at higher speeds (many reports of rollovers were of vehicles being driven at speeds of 70 mph (113 km/h) and above). In a test simulating dozens of tire blowouts, Larry Webster, a test-driver for Car & Driver magazine, was repeatedly able to bring a 1994 Explorer to a stop without incident from speeds of 70 mph (113 km/h). According to Forbes magazine, car experts and NHTSA claim that the vast majority of crash accidents and deaths were caused not by the vehicle, but by the driver, by road conditions or some combination of the two. Many vehicle injury attorneys dissent from this view.In response to Firestone's allegations of the Explorer's design defects, NHTSA undertook a preliminary investigation and reported that further action was not required. Its conclusion was that the Explorer was no more prone to rollover than other SUVs given their high center of gravity. The subsequent introduction and proliferation of electronic stability control systems have essentially addressed and mitigated this shortcoming.In May 2001, Ford announced it would replace 13 million Firestone tires fitted to Explorer vehicles.\n\n\n=== U-Haul trailers ===\nOn December 22, 2003, U-Haul, the largest American equipment rental company, announced it would prohibit its outlets from renting trailers to persons planning to tow behind Ford Explorers due to liability concerns, with no published data to substantiate the claim. Unofficial reports from employees indicated that it was due to the rear bumper separating from the vehicle, including the tow hook assembly. U-Haul did not alter its policies regarding the renting of trailers to persons planning to tow behind the Mercury Mountaineer, Mazda Navajo or earlier versions of the Lincoln Aviator, which are all mechanically identical to the Ford Explorer. In mid-2013, U-Haul began allowing Ford Explorers of model year 2011 and newer to tow their trailers. All other Ford Motor Company vehicles are allowed to tow U-Haul trailers.\n\n\n=== Reliability ===\nThe 4.0 L SOHC V6 engine found on second, third, and fourth generation Explorers was notorious for the plastic OEM timing chain guides, cassettes, and tensioners breaking resulting in timing chain ticking, rattle or \"death rattle\". This problem can occur as early as 45,000 mi (72,000 km) in some vehicles. When the engine is running for an extended period of time with this issue, the engine can jump timing or cease from running, damaging the heads and valves.\nTiming chain rattle was mitigated in later years of the SOHC (in most vehicles, after 2002) with updated cassettes and tensioners.The 5R55 series transmissions found on second through fourth generation Explorers were also notorious for premature failures. Common issues with this transmission include but are not limited to servo pin bore wear, premature transmission case wear, and excessive valve body wear.Water pumps on 2011 to 2019 Ford Explorer and 2013 to 2019 Ford Police Interceptor Utility equipped with the 3.5 L V6, 3.5 L EcoBoost V6, and 3.7 L V6 have a tendency to fail and potentially ruin the engine when they do. The water pumps on these engines are internally mounted and driven by the timing chain. As a result, when they fail, antifreeze is dumped directly into the crankcase; mixing with engine oil and potentially damaging the head gaskets and connecting rod bearings. Many of these water pump failures occur without warning and repairs often cost thousands of dollars as the engine needs to be disassembled or removed from the vehicle to access the water pump. In some cases, the engine will need to be replaced outright. A class-action lawsuit was started against Ford as a result of this issue.\n\n\n== Sales ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nFord Explorer Sport Trac\nMercury Mountaineer\nLincoln Aviator\nSaleen XP6\nSaleen XP8\nFirestone and Ford tire controversy\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nFord Explorer official website\nFord Explorer America Concept SUV at Ford Auto Shows\nFord Explorer America Concept SUV On Ford and the Environment SMPR\nHistory of the 1st Ford Explorer\nSerious Explorations – Ford Explorer Enthusiast Website\nVehicle Specs for the Ford Explorer models and variants from Where Can I Buy A Car Online", "The Ford Expedition is a full-size three-row SUV, manufactured by Ford. Introduced for the 1997 model year as the successor of the Ford Bronco, the Expedition was the first full-size Ford SUV sold with a four-door body. For its entire production life, the Ford Expedition has been derived from the corresponding generation of the Ford F-150 in production, sharing some body and mechanical components. The fourth-generation Ford Expedition began production for the 2018 model year. Similar to the configuration of the Chevrolet Tahoe and Suburban, the Ford Expedition is sold in regular and extended lengths (the Ford Expedition EL/Max); sold since 2007, the latter functionally serves as the replacement for the Ford Excursion.\nSince 1997, the Lincoln division has marketed the Ford Expedition as the Lincoln Navigator, the first full-size SUV sold by a luxury auto brand in North America (the Expedition was never sold as a Mercury). The third Ford vehicle to use the Expedition nameplate, the full-size SUV follows a 1992 F-150 Eddie Bauer concept vehicle and a 1995 trim level package on the two-door Ford Explorer Sport.\nPrior to 2009, the Ford Expedition was assembled at the Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan (previously home to the Ford Bronco). After 2009, the Ford Expedition was moved to the Kentucky Truck Plant in Louisville, Kentucky.\n\n\n== Background ==\nThe Expedition offered up to nine-passenger seating in model years before 2007 (with a front bench seat option in the first row); 2007–present model year Expeditions have bucket seats in the first row and seats eight passengers. It was equipped with a standard V8 engine from October 1996 until 2014 when it was replaced with more compact, yet more efficient and powerful 3.5 L EcoBoost V6 for model year 2015. It is similar to the Lincoln Navigator, especially in Limited (2005–present) or King Ranch (2005–2017; 2020–present) high-end trims; both of which were introduced for the 2005 model year. With the 2011 model year, the base model was designated XL, an upgraded XLT, and new for 2011 XLT Premium that replaced the Eddie Bauer trim (1997–2010) which was phased out from the entire Ford vehicle lineup. As of 2010, over 1,545,241 Expeditions (both standard and EL/Max) have been sold. A modified Special Service Vehicle version is available for law enforcement agencies, fire departments, and emergency medical services.\nThe Ford Expedition is also known for being one of the longest-lasting vehicles on the road. With 5% of vehicles over 200K miles, it landed the #4 spot in a 2016 study by iSeeCars.com listing the top 10 longest-lasting vehicles. The Expedition was also the last Ford vehicle to retain its older design found in the early to mid 2000s. Meaning, all the way up to 2017, it kept its triangular-styled taillamps and rounded-rectangular shaped headlamps along with the overall boxy shape of the body.\n\n\n== First generation (1997) ==\n\nKnown internally at Ford as the UN93, the first generation Expedition was developed under the UN93 program from 1993 to 1996, headed by chief engineer Dale Claudepierre at a cost of US$1.3 billion. Initial planning began in 1991 parallel to PN96 F-Series development, prior to the UN93 program fully being approved in 1993. Styling approval was completed in early 1993 (3 1/2 years ahead of 1996 production) under design chief Bob Aikins, with the UN93 design being frozen by September 1993, at 34 months prior to July 1996 production commencement.The all-new full-size SUV was unveiled on May 9, 1996 and launched on October 2, 1996 as a 1997 model. It replaced the aging two-door Ford Bronco. The XLT was the base model. The Expedition featured optional three row seating, first row captains chair seating, available second row captains chair seating, leather seating surfaces, illuminated running boards, heated side view mirrors, power moon roof, dual zone climate control and Ford's Mach audio sound system with rear subwoofer. Many of these features were standard on the Eddie Bauer version.\nExpedition was available with automatic full-time ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner 4406 transfer case and a center multi-disc differential. ControlTrac was introduced in 1995 and included four selectable modes: Two High, Auto, Four High (lock) and Four Low (lock). Two High mode and Auto mode with auto-lock was not available.A short- & long-arm (SLA) independent front suspension with speed-sensitive power-assisted steering was combined with a multi-link rear live axle. Optional equipment included off-road under-body skid-plate protection, Traction-Lok rear limited-slip differential, and a heavy-duty trailer towing package.\nOptional was an electronically controlled pneumatic air suspension system that would raise and lower the vehicle depending on road and load conditions. The system also included a kneel-down mode for easier ingress and egress, as well as loading cargo,Standard was the 4.6 liter Triton V8 with the 5.4 liter version optional. The first generation Expedition was rated as a Low Emission Vehicle (LEV). The latter engine combined with the heavy-duty trailer towing package and appropriate axle ratio can achieve a towing capacity of 8,100 lbs (3,674 kg).\n\n\n=== Powertrain ===\n\n\n=== Safety and security ===\nA two air bag supplementary restraint system (SRS) with 2-way occupant protection was standard. The air bags would adjust deployment force depending on crash severity. Features included SecuriLock with smart key and engine immobilizer, security approach lamps, four-wheel anti-lock braking system (ABS), side-intrusion door beams, post-crash fuel pump shut-off and three-point safety belts for all rows of seating with tension and locking retractors.\nAn optional four air bag SRS with 4-way occupant protection was available for the 2000–2002 model years. This included seat-mounted side torso side air bags.\nThe 2001 model introduced a BeltMinder system to detect when the driver did not have their safety belt secured.\n\n\n=== Model year changes ===\n\n\n==== 1998 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. A new exterior color was added: Wedgewood Blue. Limited availability for 4.6 Windsor versus Romeo engine. This limited run was available only for Ultimate Tow Package\n\n\n==== 1999 ====\n\nThe 1999 model year received a facelift similar to that of the 1999 model year Ford F-150. Included in the update was a new front grille which now dropped lower in the center, grille work, as well as a new front bumper that incorporated the fog lamps into the lower valance and larger center air intake. Both the 4.6 liter and 5.4 liter V8 engines received updates including more power and torque. The Two High mode for automatic full-time ControlTrac four-wheel drive equipped models was dropped, leaving only Auto, Four High (lock), and Four Low (lock) modes. The dashboard also received an updated radio and air conditioning controls and revised Gauge Cluster and a Digital Odometer for the first time.\n\n\n==== 2000 ====\nAvailable features on 2000 models included a hidden radio antenna (integrated into the rear quarter panel window glass), Gentex auto dimming electrochromatic rearview mirrors, lane departure indicators on side view mirrors (before on the glass portion of the mirror). The lower front bumper valance and illuminated running boards were changed over to Arizona beige to complement the standard Arizona beige exterior body trim on Eddie Bauer models. Estate Green Clearcoat Metallic replaces Spruce Green Clearcoat Metallic, and Arizona Beige Metallic replaces Harvest Gold Clearcoat Metallic in the color palette.\n\n\n==== 2001 ====\nNew trim packages included the XLT model. XLT versions could be optioned with the XLT No Boundaries package that included monochromatic black paintwork with chrome grille and special alloy wheels. Eddie Bauer versions could be optioned with the Eddie Bauer Premier package that included either monochromatic Arizona beige or solid black paintwork with painted alloy wheels and upgraded leather seating. A reverse sensing system was made optional.\n\n\n==== 2002 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. Last year model for the UN93. This was also the last model year for XLT No Boundaries and Eddie Bauer Premier trims.\n\n\n=== Ford SVT Thunder ===\nThis version of the Expedition is the Special Vehicle Team Thunder for the 2000 model year, this vehicles top speed is 140 mph (220 kmh). It was discontinued days later.\n\n\n== Second generation (2003) ==\n\nThe redesigned second-generation Expedition was developed under the U222 program code name from 1996 to 2002, under Ford chief vehicle engineer Steve von Foerster and chief program engineer John Krafcik from 1998 to 2002. Design work began in 1997, with a proposal by Tyler Blake being chosen by management and frozen for production in 1999. UN93-body mules were spotted testing in 2000, with full prototypes running from late 2000. The new Expedition was unveiled at the 2002 North American International Auto Show, in January. It was launched in May 2002 for the 2003 model year and featured a new four-wheel independent long-travel suspension system, becoming the first full-size sport utility vehicle to use a fully independent suspension.The new independent rear suspension (IRS) was perceived as being controversial by some at the time of its introduction. A misconception was that the Expedition's towing and off-road capabilities would be reduced, in comparison to the previous generation's rear live axle. Nevertheless, underbody obstacle clearance improved by half an inch, and up to two inches under the axle differentials. The new suspension reduces rear unsprung mass by 110 pounds, and allows for a full 9.4 inches of suspension travel (how much the wheels can travel up or down) improving its ability to traverse uneven terrain for improved control and ride quality. The four-wheel independent long-travel suspension itself is a purpose-built version of race suspensions found on off-road desert race vehicles.Towing capacity increased by 800 lbs (363 kg) for a high towing capacity of 8,900 lbs (4,037 kg) when properly equipped with the appropriate axle ratio and heavy-duty trailer towing package. Payload capacity was increased up to 1,614 lbs (732 kg). Expedition also gained a hydroformed fully boxed frame providing a 70 percent improvement in torsional stiffness. Heavy Towing versions received a heavy duty 9.75\" Rear Differential and Axle combination compared to the 8.8\" of the standard version.\nAlong with the high towing capability came all-new steering, braking and electronic systems to help the Expedition better control and maneuver long heavy trailers. Adaptive variable assist power rack-and-pinion steering was introduced along with the largest brake rotors in the segment at that time (13.5 inches up front, 13 inches in back) with brake calipers 100 percent stiffer than the previous generation Expedition. The four-speed 4R70W automatic transmission received all-new control software to allow the transmission to automatically adjust to the demands of towing, using new computer logic that recognizes changes in load and road conditions.The automatic full-time ControlTrac four-wheel drive system remained available, with an uprated two-speed dual range BorgWarner 4416 transfer case. The new transfer case featured an updated intelligent locking center multi-disc differential with front-to-rear \"torque biasing\" capability in Auto mode. A new dedicated microprocessor with new control software was added allowing the system to detect different terrain and surface conditions to predict traction loss before it happens. Two High mode was also reintroduced. Four-wheel electronic traction control was now available as an option, and simulated front and rear differential locks.The V8 engines offered on the previous generation were carried over, but not without major changes and improvements. Both the 4.6 and 5.4-liter Triton V8 engines received further refinements in design and overall efficiency. Expedition qualified as an Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (ULEV) and was certified under the Environmental Protection Agency Tier 2 regulations one year earlier than required. The 4.6-liter engine received an all-new redesigned cast aluminium engine block optimized for weight reduction and NVH improvements. The 5.4-liter engine received an all-new redesigned cast-iron engine block with computer designed ribbing and bracing, along with thicker side skirts and reinforcement at the oil pan flange. The new engine block helped reduce engine vibration and unwanted noise while providing refined performance.Both engines featured piston skirts coated with a teflon-based friction-reducing material, and fitted with low-tension, low oil consumption rings. In addition, a new fail-safe cooling mode provided protection even in the case of a catastrophic coolant loss (such as a punctured radiator). In the event of coolant loss, the engine control unit shuts off fuel to alternate cylinders to reduce the risk of engine damage from overheating. The valves continue to operate, in order to pump cooling air through the cylinders. The cooling system was designed to maintain an ideal engine temperature even when subjected to a prolonged 15 percent gradient in 46 °C (115 °F) weather. A returnless fuel supply system helped to reduce evaporative emissions by providing consistent pressure to the fuel injectors through a high-pressure pump.New active hydraulic engine mounts were introduced to prevent the powertrain from inducing vibrations into the chassis. By optimizing these engine mounts, the engine block can act as a mass damper, absorbing chassis resonance, improving ride comfort.Expedition's passenger cabin was better sealed than before, in an effort to eliminate intrusive outside noise from reaching the occupants. Wind, powertrain, road and vehicle body noise was reduced by improving interior acoustics through new damping materials, a total of 10 shear-style isolating body mounts, heavier sealing of body and panels, redesigned rubber door seals, and extensive use of interior structural acoustic foam in the upper B-pillars, upper and lower D-pillars and floor pan. Road noise was reduced by 2 decibels, body air leakage reduced by 56 percent, chances for sealant noise disturbances reduced from 15 percent to less than 0.5 percent and wind noise measured at 80 mph (130 km/h) was reduced from 35 sones to a world class level of 29 sones.The Expedition also received a thorough exterior and interior cosmetic redesign. Expedition featured an all-new front fascia, grille work, headlamps, body trim, rear fascia, tail lamps and liftgate. Interior fit and finish were improved with an all-new interior featuring new dash, door panels, genuine aluminium trim, and plush carpeting. Premium perforated leather seating surfaces were standard on Expedition Eddie Bauer (optional on Expedition XLT). Expedition FX4 models featured all of Expedition's optional off-road equipment as standard equipment. Expedition's drag coefficient was 0.41 Cd.Three-row seating was standard with all-new manual fold-flat stow away third row seats. No longer did owners have to remove the third rows seats for more storage. The third row could simply \"disappear\" into the floor. Power assisted PowerFold fold-flat third row seating was available as an optional extra. Available features included in-dash CD-ROM based navigation system, DVD based rear entertainment system, ultrasonic rear park assist/back up sensors, power moon roof, power adjustable accelerator and brake pedals (introduced on the first generation Expedition), Gentex auto dimming electrochromatic rear view mirror, [[Turn signals#Side marker lights and reflectors, second-row captain's chair luxury seating, premium audiophile sound system with in-dash six-disc CD changer and rear subwoofer and four-wheel independent pneumatic air-ride suspension system.\n\n\n=== Powertrains ===\n\n\n=== Safety and security ===\nLike the generation before, a 2 air bag supplementary restraint system (SRS) with 2-way occupant protection was standard on Expedition. The dual front SRS air bags now included the Personal Safety System (PSS). PSS would tailor air bag deployment for driver and first passenger and included occupant classification, seat position, crash severity, safety belt pretensioner, load-limiting retractor and safety belt buckle usage sensors.\nA new optional four-air-bag supplementary restraint system (SRS) with 6-way occupant protection was also available. This new air bag system included SafetyCanopy dual side curtain air bags for head, upper torso and rollover protection. SafetyCanopy would deploy along the A, B and C-pillars down to the vehicle's beltline. SafetyCanopy could remain inflated after deployment for extended protection and replaced the dual front side airbags featured on the first-generation Expedition.\nOther features included side-intrusion door beams, security approach lamps, SecuriLock with smart key and engine immobilizer, BeltMinder, three-point safety belts for all rows of seating, post-crash fuel pump shut-off, tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) and four-wheel, four-sensor, four-channel anti-lock braking system (ABS) with electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD) and emergency brake assist (EBA). AdvanceTrac electronic stability control with traction control system was introduced as an optional extra. The electronic traction and stability mitigation system would expand to include roll stability control (RSC) for the 2005 model year.\n\n\n=== Model year changes ===\n\n\n==== 2003 ====\nBefore the 2003 model year ended, Ford updated the running boards on Expeditions equipped with the Eddie Bauer trim. Earlier in the model year, Eddie Bauer models had received standard black running boards. Toward the end of the model year, Arizona beige running boards were reintroduced to complement the Arizona beige body work which came standard on Eddie Bauer. Body colored running boards had previously been offered on the first-generation Expedition from 2000 to 2002.\n\n\n==== 2004 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. The Expedition Eddie Bauer Premier model is reintroduced after being absent from the 2003 model trim line-up. Monochromatic paint work with blacked-out headlamps and special alloy wheels were standard on Eddie Bauer Premier versions. A new Expedition XLT Sport model is added with Dark Shadow grey exterior body trim. The FX4 trim level was renamed NBX.\n\n\n==== 2005 ====\nExpedition received new roof rails which replaced the traditional sliding cross-bar roof racks. A new high end Limited trim level replaced the Eddie Bauer Premier model (though the regular Eddie Bauer was still available) and featured chrome accented roof rails, chrome-clad aluminium wheels, PowerFold power assisted stowable side view mirrors and chrome tipped exhaust. An upper high end King Ranch trim level with Castano leather seating was also introduced. The base 4.6 liter Triton V8 engine was dropped for the 2005 model year as the 5.4-liter Triton V8 was made standard on all Expeditions and updated with 24-valve technology and variable valve timing. Along with the 2005 model V8 engine update, the Expedition also received a significantly updated version of the four-speed 4R70W automatic transmission.\nThe new four-speed automatic transmission, now called 4R75E, featured fully electronic Smart Shift technology. A turbine speed sensor improved transmission control and provided the basis for the fully electronic shift scheduling. The transmission's microprocessor speeds were improved for better responsiveness and precision of the control system. The transmission was continuously learning, and would calculate the torque in the next gear and schedule shift points based on the Expedition's projected performance in the next gear. For 2005 model Expeditions the 4R75E transmission is designated by the letter \"B\" on the manufacturers safety compliance certification label, located in the driver's-side doorjamb. For 2006 model Expeditions, the 4R75E transmission is designated by the letter \"Q\".\n\n\n==== 2006 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. Last year model for the U222. The Gentex auto dimming rear view mirrors were updated. Two new exterior colors were added later on within the model year. They were Pewter metallic and Dark Copper metallic. Medium Flint grey interior was also added to Limited models later on within the model year. Chrome tipped exhaust was made standard on King Ranch models. 2006 would be the last year model for the NBX trim. The ultrasonic rear park assist and SafetyCanopy side curtain airbags were offered as standalone options. Adjustable headrests were also added to the front seats to replace the one piece units.\n\n\n==== Russian Москва-Чукотка (Moscow-Chukotka) overland expedition ====\nOn April 12, 2006, three second-generation full-size Ford Expedition Eddie Bauer vehicles completed a 32-day overland expedition. This was a 28,000-mile (45,000 km) trip across North Asia and the Arctic Tundra. Six team members consisted of leaders, Alexey Mikhailov and Alexander Borodin, technical director, Andrey Rodionov, and professional off-road drivers,: Sergey Goryachev, Victor Parshikov, and Alexey Simakin. The route took them on permafrost and crossed the Arctic Circle twice. Visited landmarks included where American aviator Carl Ben Eielson was lost, and the birthplace of Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnev. The northernmost point on the route was latitude 69°42′ North (Pevek). The easternmost point visited was longitude 169°40′ West (Cape Dezhnev). Temperatures reached -36 °C (-32 °F) and the team encountered whiteouts and a polar cyclone. An estimated 200 kg (440 lbs) of snow was removed from each of the vehicles on the following day.The vehicles were modified with front end guards along with front and rear utility bumpers, winches, safari roof racks, high-powered off-road lights and extra underbody plating for the engines. Two of the vehicles towed a dual axle utility trailer. Two were equipped also with caterpillar track systems supplied by Mattracks. The rubber track systems were only used when off-road conditions became too demanding for conventional tires. The rear stabilizer bar failed on both vehicles fitted with the Mattracks system. The vehicles were also equipped with gas stoves (to prepare food) and high-capacity auxiliary fuel tanks (mounted in the rear cargo bay) and sometimes run on poor-quality gasoline.\n\n\n== Third generation (2007) ==\n\nIn 2006, Ford introduced the third generation of the Expedition developed under the U324 program code name which was an updated version of the second generation Expedition, now using a new ladder frame architecture called T1, an evolution of 11th generation P221 F-150 architecture. Most of the improvements were mechanical in nature, and included a sheet metal refresh and redesigned interior with upgraded materials, as well as a new long wheelbase version, called Expedition EL in the U.S. and Expedition Max in other markets.\n\nThe high-strength hydroformed fully boxed Ford T platform (chassis) was a modified version of the half-ton platform from the Ford F-150. The new T1 platform replaced the one dating to the original model, and provides 10 percent more torsional rigidity. T1 incorporates a four-wheel independent long-travel suspension system (first introduced on the second generation) with redesigned suspension geometry and an all-new five-link rear suspension with new rear lower control-arms. As with previous model years, the suspension system could be had with adaptive pneumatic air-ride springs.\nFord's new 6-speed 6R75 intelligent automatic transmission with dual overdrive gears was introduced. The transmission featured push-button overdrive lock-out, electronic shift scheduling, adaptive shift algorithms and a mechatronic transmission control module (TCM) that would save adaptive shift data in keep alive memory (KAM). This safeguarded against complete data loss in case of a power failure (such as disconnecting the battery). In the event of a power failure, the mechatronic unit would simply read the last saved data entry from the system's memory, thus, the transmission did not have to completely relearn] the owner's driving style.\nAdditionally, the Expedition is powered by the same 5.4 liter Triton V8 engine from the previous generation, rated at 300 hp (220 kW) and 365 lb⋅ft (495 N⋅m) of torque. When properly equipped with the heavy-duty trailer towing package, it can tow up to 9,200 lbs (4,130 kg). Expedition is classed under the Tier 2, Bin 5 / ULEV 2 Ultra Low Emission Vehicle environmental classification.Off-road geometry figures for approach, departure and ramp breakover angles are 22°, 21° and 18° respectively. Minimum running (lowest point) ground clearance is 8.7 inches (220 mm). Underbody (overall) ground clearance is 9.1 inches (230 mm).Selectable automatic full-time Control Trac four-wheel drive continues to be offered, and uses a two-speed dual range BorgWarner 4417 transfer case with intelligent locking center multi-disc differential and \"torque biasing\" capability. Four-wheel electronic traction control is standard and off-road underbody skid plate armor is optional. A new default off-road program with throttle response recalibration was added, and is automatically activated when Four Low (lock) mode is selected. Expedition can achieve an off-road crawl ratio of 41.06:1 with a low range ratio of 2.64:1 and rear axle ratio of 3.73:1.\nThe SUV also underwent a nip/tuck with a few cosmetic enhancements, both inside and out. Expedition's front end now featured Ford's signature three \"hollow-bar\" grille to complement the SUV's truck close relation to the F-150 and Super Duty pickups. New complex stepped style multifaceted headlamps, side view mirrors with updated LED lane departure indicators, sleeker body work and redesigned tail lamps were also added. The interior received a new dash, which would eventually appear on the 2008 Super Duty, new center console, and redesigned first row captains chairs, door panels and interior trim.\nTo further reduce outside noise intrusion for quieter, more isolated ride comfort, new SoundScreen laminated acoustic and solar tinted windshield was added with thicker laminated side window glass.\nThe new SUV was unveiled at the Houston Auto Show rather than at the North American International Auto Show, the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show, or the New York International Auto Show where most new models are, as 20 percent of all Expedition sales are in Texas. The third generation Expedition went on sale in August 2006. The first 2007 Expedition to roll off a Ford assembly line was donated by Ford to the Peter family of Jamaica, Queens, New York as part of an episode of the American Broadcasting Company series Extreme Makeover: Home Edition that aired May 7, 2006.\nIn late 2014, the third generation standard wheelbase U324 Expedition and long-wheelbase U354 Expedition EL/Max underwent a cosmetic and mechanical refresh for the 2015 model year.\n\n\n=== Powertrains ===\n\n\n=== Model year changes ===\n\n\n==== 2008 ====\nFor the 2008 model year, power deployable/retractable running boards became available, along with a rear view backup camera system. The camera, which is mounted under the Expedition's center liftgate appliqué, utilizes the Gentex auto dimming rear view mirror's picture-in-mirror technology to display what it sees. Expedition King Ranch was also reintroduced after being absent from the 2007 model year trim line-up. Expedition XLT models now get body colored lower body work, replacing the previous black plastic trim and was the Last Ford Model Year for the nine-passenger Front Bench seating option in the Ford Full-Size SUVs from Ford Motor Company (Ford discontinued the 9-passenger Front Bench Seating Option for 2009 and Forward on the old Ford Full-Size SUVs 2009–present)\n\n\n==== 2009 ====\nIn July 2008, Ford's Wayne, Michigan plant started production of the 2009 models until finishing the plants run in December of that same year. In January 2009 production of the Expedition was relocated to the Kentucky Truck Assembly in Louisville along with its sister SUV, the Lincoln Navigator, and the Ford F-Series Super Duty. That plant used to build the Ford Excursion until 2005.Expedition's 6-speed 6R75 automatic was replaced by an improved version, the 6-speed 6R80 automatic. 6R80 features more robust internals, new software logic and a tow/haul mode (replaces the overdrive lock-out) that utilizes new uphill/downhill gradient shift logic for improved performance while towing or hauling heavy loads. The 6-speed automatic can compensate for altitude, grade/slope and present load conditions. The system also reduces the transmission's tendency to \"hunt\" for the right gear(s) and provides engine braking when descending hills. The nine-passenger front bench seating option has been discontinued for the 2009 model year, leaving only the eight-passenger seating option left with two front bucket seats and two rear bench seats. and the chrome \"Expedition\" name plate badges have been removed from the left and right front doors. The chrome \"Expedition\" nameplate badge on the rear liftgate remains.\nAdditional features included the now standard FlexFuel capability, which can take gasoline, E85 (85% ethanol/15% gasoline), or any combination of the two, and the newly installed EasyFuel capless fuel-filler system. The 5.4 liter V8/FlexFuel feature also upgraded its power to 310 hp (231 kW), while the torque rating stayed the same at 365 lb⋅ft (495 N⋅m). The 2009 model year also boosted its maximum towing capacity to 9,200 lb (4,200 kg) for the 4x2 version, and up to 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) for the 4x4 version.\nThe new entertainment features added to the 2009 model year included the optional Ford SYNC, and an all-new DVD-based voice-activated, multi-entertainment/navigational system with liquid crystal touch display. The rearview camera system is now integrated to show the video feed through the navigation screen instead for the rearview mirror, however, the rearview mirror is still used to show images on Expeditions not equipped with the navigation system. The new navigation system features up to 10 gigabytes of storage space for more than 2400 songs, a jukebox function, a screened photo display, iPod/Zune capability for downloading and recharging, ripping CDs, and integrated compatibility for cellphones and Bluetooth; the newly compatible Sirius Travel Link, which allow drivers to access traffic, weather, sports, and local movie listings; and a \"Route Guidance\" mode for road and street information. The steering wheel also has a tilt feature and radio controls, including Ford SYNC buttons, allowing the driver to press the button and use voice commands to activate the system, which became standard on Eddie Bauer, Limited, and King Ranch. The tilt w/radio control feature was optional on the XLT during its Wayne plant built orders, but after production moved to Louisville it became standard. For accessory purposes, a HD radio can be installed upon request at a Ford dealership in the United States. New for 2009 were standard heated second row outboard seats on the Limited and King Ranch models only with either the second row bench seat or the optional bucket seats.\n\n\n==== 2010 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. For the 2010 model year optional packages have now been renamed (to Rapid Specificated Order Codes) and upgraded (100s for XLT, 200s for Eddie Bauer, 300s for Limited, 400s for King Ranch) for the newer models. It has also announced that the 2010 models will now feature Ford's MyKey and trailer sway control as a standard on all trims. The 2010 models were ranked 6th among the top 11 affordable large size SUVs in \"US News & World Report. A diesel version for the 2010 model year did not get past the planning stage. Rain-sensing windshield wipers were added as an optional extra for Eddie Bauer, but standard on the Limited and King Ranch versions.\n\n\n==== 2011 ====\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. HD Radio became a standard on all trims, and a dual DVD system that placed at the headrest area became an optional feature. Another change that was made was in the entry-level trim department, with the Expedition offering the newly designated standard XL entry level with lower black cladding, while the XLT level trim was upgraded along with a new XLT Premium trim with gold cladding, replacing the Eddie Bauer level trim. Also, silver cladding was added as an exterior trim as part of a newly optional XLT Premium Sport Appearance Package. Both Limited and King Ranch trims receive new paint and interior trim. The limited trim also has a chrome grille for a change.\n\n\n==== 2012 ====\n\nNo major cosmetic or mechanical changes. The second row heated seats option was added to XLT Premium and the front park assists became a standard feature on the Limited and King Ranch trims.\n\n\n==== 2013 ====\nNo major cosmetic changes; however the XL trim and XLT Sport options were dropped, leaving only the XLT, XLT Premium, Limited, and King Ranch trims. Updates made to the 2013 models (which went on sale in August 2012) included the TowCommand trailer brake controller system that is bundled with the heavy-duty trailer towing package, a new internal shift control module which allows the six-speed automatic transmission to tailor shifts to engine demand, 10 equipment levels, three new colors (Blue Jeans Metallic, Kodiak Brown Metallic and Ruby Red Metallic Tinted Clearcoat), and a new 20-inch chrome-clad aluminum wheels that was available on both the Limited and King Ranch trims. The latter trim also featured chrome roof racks and side mirrors. Another notable change can be found on the driver's instrumental panel, with the temperature and fuel gauge trading sides.\n\n\n==== 2014 ====\nNo major cosmetic changes. Only three trims, XLT, Limited and King Ranch are offered. The Sirius XM with Navlink and HD radio is added to the XLT as an optional feature. A new, quieter, mechanical Nivomat adaptive hydraulic load-leveling suspension system is available, in place of the adaptive pneumatic air-ride load-leveling suspension. When properly equipped the Expedition continues to offer top-end towing capability with a braked trailer towing capacity of 9,200 lbs (4,173 kg or 4.6 tons).\n\n\n==== 2015 ====\n\nOn February 18, 2014, Ford introduced a mid-cycle refresh of the Expedition (U324) and Expedition EL (U354), dubbed the U3242 and U3542 respectively, for the 2015 model year. The \"2\" signifying the second phase of the U324 and U354. The debut was at the Dallas-Fort Worth Auto Show on February 19, 2014; because Texas (especially Dallas and Houston) is an important market. Despite a 27% drop in sales since 2008, Ford is committed to continuing producing the Expeditions. Ford started production on the updated Expedition (and Expedition EL, which will continue to compete with the Suburban and Yukon XL) around the first quarter of 2014 and placed the 2015 models in dealerships in July 2014. Ford announced that the three level trims, XLT, Limited, and King Ranch, will continue to be offered along with a new top of the line Platinum trim. On September 12, 2013, (which was the same day that GM unveiled their next generation SUVs), Automobile Magazine posted a spy shot of the 2015 Expedition, which showed a repositioned tailpipe, and a more upright front fascia which bore a taller, wider grille that appeared inspired by the F-150 and Ford F-Series Super Duty trucks.Official photos released on February 18, 2014 revealed an all-new aggressive armadillo-like three-bar grille, which features step-stacked bars that evoke the appearance of stepped armor-plating on an armadillo's back. All-new thinner headlamps were added, in addition to an all-new front bumper with oversized lower air intake. The new bumper also features a lower chrome bar and twin LED fog lamps that flank the chrome bar. Brightwork was added on the rear liftgate; and the tailpipe was repositioned straight, instead of making a 90 degree turn behind the right rear wheel.Expedition remained a body-on-frame (BOF), allowing the SUV to retain its heavy-duty truck underpinnings for towing and hauling needs. The full-size SUV received the 3.5 liter 24-valve DOHC Ti-VCT EcoBoost V6 engine which features an aluminium engine block, twin-turbochargers, direct injection, and twin independent variable camshaft timing. Power output for the EcoBoost V6 will be rated around 365 horsepower and 420 lb-ft of torque, and will be the only engine featured, dropping the 5.4 liter V8 that was available in the 2007–2014 models due to Ford wanting to make the Expedition more fuel efficient. Despite the changeover from V8 to V6, the Expedition did boost its MPG to 16 (city)/23 (highway) for the 2WD and 15 (city)/21 (highway) for the 4WD, but it is now on par with the GM large-size SUVs, which also boasts the same MPGs as the Expedition. In addition to the new engine, Expedition received an updated 6-speed 6R80 SelectShift intelligent manumatic gearbox with manual shift mode. Expedition also features a new electric power servo-assisted steering and Pull-Drift Compensation (PDC) which detects crosswinds and compensates for it.\nThe interior remained similar to the outgoing models, but with upgraded materials and a revised prominent center stack, now derived from the 2009-2014 F-150 rather than the 2008-2010 Super Duty. Also new is the latest version of the 8-inch MyFord Touch touchscreen infotainment and telematics system. Push-to-start engine ignition with intelligent access was added and the four-wheel drive mode selector (for models with 4x4) was revised and repositioned. The TowCommand paddle controls were repositioned over the four-wheel drive mode selector, to make way for revised audio and climate controls on the center stack.The new features for 2015 included an optional, revised four-wheel independent suspension system with intelligent continuously-controlled damping (CCD) system that alters suspension settings constantly based on 46 parameters and offers comfort, normal, and sport modes. Expedition is the first Ford vehicle in North America to have continuously-controlled damping. Other new optional features includes blind-spot information system (BLIS) with cross-traffic alert, and a rearview camera and apps for the infotainment system to help with towing and off-road driving, all of which is standard in the Platinum trim, whose seating and interior features include Brunello leather, a red wine color with tuxedo-stripe accents and French seamed stitching, or black leather with Agate Gray accents.The selectable automatic full-time ControlTrac four-wheel drive system continues to be offered, but gains a trio of new off-road electronic systems in the form of Hill Ascent Assist (HAA), Hill Descent Control (HDC), and Ford Truck Apps (FTA). FTA gives off-road orientation/geometry, 4x4 system status, and traction control system status in real-time. The four-wheel electronic traction control system (brake differential locking control) was recalibrated to take into account the new EcoBoost V6's higher torque output and earlier torque delivery.\nEcoBoost Performance\nThe heavyweight 6,155 lb (3+ ton) as tested, 2015 Expedition Platinum with 3.5 EcoBoost V6 and selectable automatic full-time ControlTrac four-wheel drive was clocked from 0 to 60 mph in 6.4 seconds. The full-size SUV can clip 100 mph in 18.2 seconds, 110 mph in 24.3 seconds, and is electronically safety-limited to 113 mph. Expedition has a near perfect 50:50 front:rear balanced weight distribution and center of gravity positioned at 28.5 inches.Expedition Platinum averaged 39.2 mph in a 610 ft slalom run and pulled 0.78g in roadholding skidpad testing. High speed emergency braking from 70 mph to 0 (full stop) was completed in 170 ft. In comparison, the Expedition's main rival took a full 10 feet longer, completing the same emergency brake test in 180 ft.\n\n\n==== 2016 ====\nFor the 2016 model year, most of the features that were introduced from 2015 were carried over. However, the Expedition began adding Ford's upgraded enhanced SYNC3 to its trims, as an optional feature on the XLT and standard on Limited, King Ranch and Platinum. The Limited added Sony's Premium Audio System as a standard.\n\n\n==== 2017 ====\nIn June 2016, Ford began selling the 2017 model year Expedition, with no major changes being made and continued to be offered in XLT, Limited, King Ranch, and Platinum level trims. This is the final year of the third generation Expedition and Expedition EL (U324) and (U354)\n\n\n== Fourth generation (2018) ==\n\nThe fourth-generation Expedition, known internally at Ford Motor Company as the \"U553\", was unveiled on February 7, 2017 at the Dallas Cowboys training facility, Ford Center in Frisco, Texas, ahead of its Chicago Auto Show debut. Production of the new Expedition started on September 25, 2017. The vehicles arrived at dealerships in November 2017.The all-new Expedition features body-on-frame (BOF) architecture with high-strength lightweight material construction consisting of boron steel and aluminum. The four-door body is constructed from aluminium-alloy, while the frame is constructed from boron steel. The U553 will move to the all-new half-ton hydroformed T3 platform (chassis), which is a modified version of the half-ton platform underpinning the P552 2015 Ford F-150. The T3 platform will use a new four-wheel independent suspension system design. Updated powertrain systems (engines and transmissions) including a Hybrid variant with proprietary parallel hybrid electric-drive system to help increase fuel efficiency are expected. Expedition will gain Ford's new 10-speed 10R80 SelectShift automatic transmission which will feature artificially intelligent shifting, electronic range select, manual shift mode, and be controlled via a rotary dial on the center console. The next-generation Expedition's chief engineer is Jackie Marshall DiMarco, who is also the chief engineer for the next-generation F-150 pickup.The Expedition is one of the first vehicles in North America to use a new next-generation high speed Controller Area Network 3 (CAN-3) vehicle data bus system. The CAN-3 electrical architecture is akin to a human nervous system and allows the Expedition's various on-board microprocessors and electronic vehicle control systems to communicate or \"talk\" to one another through electronic data that is sent and received. With high speed CAN-3, the Expedition can learn and react faster than before.The Expedition is available with selectable automatic full-time four-wheel drive that routes torque through a two-speed dual range transfer case with electronic locking center multi-disc differential. A new electronic locking rear differential is available to augment the 4x4 system. Both the center and rear locking systems are teamed with four-wheel electronic traction control (ETC), which simulates a locking front differential by ABS \"brake locking\" the front differential. The Expedition's off-road electronic aids Hill Descent Control (HDC) and Hill Ascent Assist (HAA) are joined by the Terrain Management System adapted from the Ford Raptor. Terrain Management is capable of working with 4L mode, like the Ford Raptor, and has seven drive modes to choose from which include Normal, Eco, Sport, Tow/Haul, Gravel/Snow, Mud/Ruts, and Sand. The four-wheel drive system has three direct drive modes which include 2H, 4A, and 4L. The 4H mode has been dropped from the selection, as the Terrain Management computer now controls the electronic center lock of the four-wheel drive system. Terrain Management engages the electronic center lock for a 50:50 front:rear torque split while in 4A direct drive mode, when the Mud/Ruts or Sand modes are selected. The 4L direct drive mode engages the electronic center lock regardless of the off-road drive mode selected. A \"tap to lock/unlock\" button is located near the drive mode dial for operation of the electronic rear lock.Off-road geometry figures for approach, departure, and ramp breakover, improve slightly with 23.3°, 21.9°, and 21.4° of obstacle clearance. Minimum running (lowest point) ground clearance increases by a full inch, from 8.7 to 9.8 inches.The Expedition is certified by the Society of Automotive Engineers' independent SAE J2807 towing standard to tow a maximum 9,300 lbs (4,218 kg or 4.65 tons) of braked trailer. The tow rating increases by 100 lbs over the previous generation. Expedition will also feature Pro Trailer Backup Assist, a semi-autonomous system that allows the Expedition to reverse itself with a trailer coupled. The driver directs the system via a control dial, while the Expedition handles all steering and limits reversing speed.Among the new features that have been incorporated into the fourth generation Expedition are a 360-degree camera and park assist system, along with optional safety features that use both camera and radar technology, and include automatic braking, lane-keep assist, active cruise control, and blind-spot monitors. In addition, there are two USB ports per row, four 12-volt outlets and a 120-volt household outlet. Ford has also partnered with Sling on a twin-screen rear entertainment system, as well as personal tablets on the vehicle's Wi-Fi. The Wi-Fi can be used on up to 10 devices and features Apple CarPlay and Android Auto capabilities compatible with Ford SYNC3 and Ford Pass. A dual vista panoramic sunroof is available as an optional feature.The 2018 Expedition was only available in four trim levels, as the King Ranch trim was discontinued after the 2017 model year. The three primary trims, XLT, Limited, and the top-of-the-line Platinum, were available to regular customers, while the fourth trim, XL, was exclusive to rental companies, corporate fleets, and government agencies, as it did not have as many features as the other three trims. The Expedition retains its unique (standard) eight passenger seating on all trims like before, with optional seven passenger seating.\n\n\n=== Safety and security features ===\nAll 2018 Expedition models carry a power four-wheel disk antilock brake system (ABS) with brake assist and Electronic Brakeforce Distribution (EBD), six standard airbags including a Safety Canopy System that provides side-curtain airbags with roll-fold technology and a rollover sensor, rear-door child-safety locks, a LATCH system (Lower Anchors and Tether Anchors for Children), an Individual Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS), and a SOS Post-Crash Alert System https://www.ford.com/suvs/expedition/models/expedition-xlt/.\nThe Expedition has an available Driver Assistance Package that equips the vehicle with smart driver-assist technology, including pre-collision assist with pedestrian detection and forward collision warning, lane-keeping assist, adaptive cruise control, auto high-beam headlamps, and rain-sensing wipers.\nAn array of standard security features includes a SecuriLock Passive Anti-Theft System, a perimeter alarm, a personal safety system, SecuriCode Keyless Entry Keypad, MyKey, and available inclination and intrusion sensors.\n\n\n=== Trim levels and packages ===\n\n\n==== XLT ====\nStarting off the 2018 Expedition lineup is the XLT trim, which is available in either 4X2 or 4X4 configurations, as well as in the MAX style. Standard features include cloth upholstery, keyless access with push-button start, eighteen-inch aluminum-alloy wheels, a 60/40 second-row bench seat with CenterSlide seat, Hill Start Assist and Hill Descent Control (4X4 models only), MyFord w/ SYNC radio with 4.3-inch LCD display screen, SiriusXM Satellite Radio, and a nine-speaker audio system, 3.5L EcoBoost Twin-Turbocharged V6 gasoline engine with 375-400 horsepower and 470-480 lb. ft. of torque, remote start, a power-folding third-row bench seat, and more.\nA key difference from 2017 is that a surround-sound premium audio system and rear seat entertainment system are no longer available as an option for XLT models, and that push-button start, and a power-folding third-row seat are now standard equipment (this feature was optional on the 2017 XLT).\nA trailer towing package, leather-trimmed seating surfaces, heated front and rear seats, SYNC 3 infotainment system with optional GPS navigation, a power panoramic moonroof, heated and ventilated front bucket seats, the FX4 Off-Road Package (4X4 models only), twenty-inch aluminum-alloy wheels, and other comfort and convenience features are optional.\n\n\n==== SSV ====\nThe 2018 Expedition SSV is a fleet-only version of the Expedition XLT, and offers similar standard equipment.\nThe key difference is the transmission and engine are changed slightly for better durability in high idling and high speed environments as the SSV is designed for police use.\n\n\n==== Limited ====\nThe 2018 Expedition Limited is built with either a 4X2 or 4X4 build, each with a bigger MAX build. The Limited key features include in-vehicle wi-fi with available SYNC Connect, a hands-free foot-activated lift gate, and standard 20-inch ultra bright machined aluminum wheels with dark tarnish painted pockets. A 3.5 EcoBoost engine functions with a 10-speed SelectShift automatic transmission. The Limited also has a 23.3-gallon fuel tank. A heavy duty engine radiator and two-speed automatic four-wheel-drive with neutral towing capability are optional.\nThe Limited has the equivalent power and handling features of the XLT, though it comes with standard all-season tires. The standard power and handling features include a two-wheel rear-wheel drivetrain, multilink independent rear suspension, Electronic Power Assist (EPAS) rack and pinion steering, AdvanceTrac with stability control, which is designed to provide stability and traction by reducing the chance of spinning the drive wheel, trailer sway control, traction control, and a non-limited-slip 3.15 rear axle on the 4x2 model. A 4X4 Limited build and 4X2 MAX build has a standard 3.31 drive ratio, while a 4X4 MAX build has a 3.73 drive ratio.\nA Terrain Management System and hill start assist and hill descent control is available for 4x4 models.\nOptional features on the Limited include a Control Trac four-wheel-drive system, a non-limited-slip 3.31 rear axle or electronic limited-slip differential 3.72 rear axle, continuously controlled damping (CCD) suspension, and an integrated brake controller with the Heavy Duty Trailer Tow package.\nUnlike the XLT model, the Limited has standard Dual Zone Electronic Automatic Temperature Control (DEATC), and rear auxiliary climate controls.\nStandard entertainment features include a Harman 12-speaker B&O Play Audio System, a SYNC 3 Enhanced Voice Recognition Communications and Entertainment System, SYNC Connect and FordPass, SiriusXM Radio, and HD Radio.\nThe cabin has perforated, leather-trimmed, heated and ventilated bucket front seats, heated second-row outboard seats, second-row power folding tip and slide seats, power folding and reclining third-row seats, and third-row power-folding headrests. Second-row power folding tip and slide bucket seats are optional.\nThe Limited has six smart-charging multimedia USB ports, with two in each row, and a wireless charging hub on the center console. The cabin also features 15 cupholders, analog RPM and speed gauges with digital minor gauges, and an 8-inch center display.\nOther standard interior features include a cargo management system and protector, power-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals, an auto-dimming rearview mirror, four 12-volt power points and a 110-volt / 150-watt AC power outlet, a rotary gear shift dial, woodgrain appliqués, and a heated, leather-wrapped power tilt/telescoping steering wheel with audio controls. The cabin has an illuminated entry system and ambient lighting, with map lights mounted over the front overhead console, dome lights on the second and third rows, and a rear cargo area light. Push-button start systems with intelligent access, a remote start system, and a Blind Spot Information System (BLIS) with cross-traffic alert and trailer tow monitoring are also standard.\nOptional interior features include an advanced cargo manager, an enhanced active park assist system, a lane-keeping system, pre-collision assist with pedestrian detection, Pro Trailer Backup Assist, and adaptive cruise control.\nPower-deployable running boards are standard on Expedition Limited, and Limited MAX. Each has a unique color with magnetic-painted polished stainless steel accents. Among the other exterior standard features are intermittent front and rear wipers, a windshield wiper de-icer, a rear window defroster and washer, halogen fog lamps, quad-beam reflector headlamps, a halogen projector-beam, incandescent tail-lamps, a hands-free foot-activated liftgate and manual liftglass, a Center High-Mounted Stop Lamp (CHMSL), configurable daytime running lamps, roof-rack side rails, a chrome grille with Magnetic painted accents, and a Class IV trailer hitch receiver. A capless fuel filler is also standard.\nRain sensing front wipers, roof rail crossbars, LED daytime running lamps and headlamps, magnetic grille and mirror caps, and front tow hooks are optional.\nThe 2018 Expedition Limited has power adjustable heated mirrors with memory capability, security approach lamps, integrated blind spot mirrors, a solar-tinted windshield and front door windows, and second and third-row privacy glass, and lower bodyside cladding and wheel lip moldings. A panoramic vista roof is optional.\nThe 2018 Expedition Limited has the standard safety features of all Expedition Trims with an additional optional 360-degree split-view camera. The standard features include a four-wheel anti-lock brake system, a rearview camera with backup assist, dual-stage front airbags, three-point safety belts, side-impact airbags, a safety canopy system that includes the third row, rear-door child-safety locks, LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tether Anchors for Children), Individual Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS), and an SOS Post-Crash Alert System.\nSecurity systems include SecuriLock passive anti-theft system, a remote keyless entry system, a perimeter alarm, a personal safety system, SecuriCode keyless entry keypad, MyKey, and inclination and intrusion sensors.\n\n\n==== Platinum ====\nThe flagship Ford Expedition Platinum will be more upscale and move further upmarket, with high-end interior fit-and-finish and luxury interior and exterior appointments. Interiors will feature handcrafted real wood trim, real metal accents, soft-touch materials, 12-speaker Bang & Olufsen luxury sound system, dual panel panoramic glass roof with power shade, soft premium diamond-quilted perforated leather climate-controlled and massaging seats with French seam stitchwork, soft leather wrapped dash, steering wheel, and door panels with single and double stitched ornamental stitchwork. The Platinum's exterior will receive standard full LED headlamps vertically stacked in headlamp nacelles, LED turn signal lamps, LED daytime running lamps, LED fog lamps and diffused LED tail lamps with LED brake lamps. In addition, the exterior will feature \"platinum\" satin-finished lower front and rear bumper skid plates, roof rails, side mirror crowns, and liftgate accents, along with polished stainless steel power deployable-and-retractable running boards, polished alloy wheels, chrome brightwork, and platinum satin-finished mesh grillwork. Expedition Platinums will also feature a specific performance tuned version of the 3.5 liter EcoBoost V6 with 400 horsepower and 480 lb-ft of torque (using 93-Octane fuel) mated to the 10-speed 10R80 SelectShift automatic transmission.Both the Expedition and long-wheelbase Expedition MAX will be available with the Platinum treatment, and will be the most expensive level trim, with a MSRP of $73,900 (US) for standard and $76,000 (US) for the MAX version, with the 4WD option topping off on the latter at $79,000 (US).\n\n\n==== King Ranch ====\nThe King Ranch trim returned for the 2020 model year, slotted between the Limited and Platinum trim. As with the previous versions, the King Ranch logo will be prominent on all three rows of seats, the floor mats, and the scuff plates, Stone Gray trim on bumpers, power running boards, roof rails, standard Del Rio leather on all seats, door trim, armrests, steering wheel, and center console, and roll on machined aluminum wheels with darker painted pockets. \n\n\n==== FX4 ====\nAn off-road FX4 package became available starting with the 2018 model year, with an announced MSRP at around $63,000 (US). This option, available to 4WD XLT level trims only and targeted towards the 20% of Expedition owners who use the vehicle for off-road purposes, is expected to compete with the Chevrolet Suburban and Tahoe Z71 package in both standard and MAX versions. Among the detailed features are patented electronic locking limited-slip rear differential, Off-road-tuned shocks, All-terrain tires, Seven different skid plates that serve as underbody armor and protect critical areas, Unique 18-inch Magnetic Metallic-painted cast-aluminum wheels, Chrome running boards, FX4 badging on the liftgate and front fender, and New rubber floor liners. According to Mike Kipley, the engineering manager for the Expedition, \"The FX4 Off-Road package delivers off-road driving confidence,” adding that “The technology we’re using works to adapt to different driving conditions so customers can enjoy the adventure without worry.”\n\n\n==== XL STX ====\nFor the 2021 model year, Ford introduced the Expedition XL STX, which has a lower starting price than other Expedition trim levels. The Expedition XL STX lacks third row seats, and has a split-bench second-row seat. It is only available in standard length, not the Max. Styling elements for the XL STX include a gloss-black grille and 18-inch aluminum wheels. A Heavy-Duty Trailer Tow Package is available.\n\n\n=== Model year changes ===\n\n\n==== 2019 ====\nThere were no major changes, as it carried some of the 2018 features over to the 2019 model year. Two new colors, silver spruce and black agate, was added to the list of palettes.\n\n\n==== 2020 ====\nThe King Ranch level trim was bought back for the 2020 model year, placing it above the Platinum trim. The desert gold color feature was introduced with this 2020 model year, but is being discontinued due to lack of interest from customers.\n\n\n==== 2022 ====\nFor the 2022 model year, the Expedition was refreshed with a newly updated enhanced grille with new headlights that merged with it, a revised lower fascia, as well as alterations to the tailgate design and taillight innards. The interior was updated with a new steering wheel and redesigned dashboard that complements a standard 12.0-inch touchscreen infotainment screen or an available 15.5-inch unit. Two packaged trims, Timberline Edition and Stealth Edition Performance (both designed for off-road capabilities), are new to the refreshed SUV's lineup.\n\n\n=== Powertrain ===\nThe 2018 Expedition's die-cast aluminum 3.5L EcoBoost V6 engine operates with a twin-independent Variable Camshaft Timing (Ti-VCT) valvetrain, and a 10-speed automatic SelectShift transmission. The engine makes 375 horsepower and 470 lb.-ft. of torque at 5,000 rpm in XLT and Limited trims, and 400 horsepower and 480 lb.-ft. of torque at 5,000 rpm in the Platinum trim. It's backed up by a gasoline direct injection fuel delivery system with a single, stainless steel exhaust. The drive ratio is 3.15 on a standard 4x2; 3.31 on standard 4x4 and 4x2 MAX; and 3.73 on a 4x4 MAX. The engine's compression ratio is 10:5:1.\n\n\n== Expedition EL/Max ==\n\nAs part of the shift to the T1 platform for the 2007 model year, Ford developed an extended-length version of the Expedition, to more closely match the Chevrolet Suburban/GMC Yukon XL in size. Introduced as the Ford Expedition EL (EL=extended length) alongside the Lincoln Navigator L, the variant effectively replaced the Super Duty-based Ford Excursion. In Canada, to avoid confusion with the Acura EL sedan, Ford renamed the extended-length version as the Expedition Max.\nOriginally intended to carry the Ford Everest name, Ford product planners changed their minds, as the nameplate was already in use for a midsize Ford SUV in Asia. Outside North America, including the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Guam, the Expedition EL is also imported to and sold in the Middle East and Taiwan. In the Philippines, the Expedition EL is the only version imported and sold; coincidentally, it is also a market where the Ford Everest SUV is sold.\n\n\n=== Expedition EL/Max (2007–2017) ===\nFor the 2007 model year, Ford introduced the extended-length Expedition EL. With a wheelbase stretched 12 inches (to 131 inches) and a length increased 14.8 inches (to 221.3 inches) over the standard Expedition, the EL is sized comparably to the Suburban/Yukon XL, providing additional cargo space over the standard-wheelbase version. The extended-length body of the EL is distinguished by its longer cargo-area windows and its rear door design (the rear wheels no longer intrude into the lower half of the doors).\nAlongside the standard-length Ford Expedition, the EL was offered with a single powertrain; the 5.4L Triton V8 was standard from 2007 to 2014, replaced by the twin-turbocharged 3.5L EcoBoost V6 for 2015 to 2017. The EL is also sold with both rear-wheel and four-wheel drive configurations. The larger overall size restricted towing capacity by approximately 300 pounds, to 8,900 lb (4,000 kg) (for 2WD) and 8,700 lb (3,900 kg) (for 4WD) over a standard-wheelbase example.\nOver its first-generation, the EL shared its features with the standard-length Expedition; for 2012 model, a cargo organizer became an exclusive feature. The Expedition EL was introduced in 4 trim lines: XLT, Eddie Bauer, Limited, and the King Ranch series during the 2007–2010 model year. For 2011, the Eddie Bauer trim was replaced by XLT and XLT Premium, with XL becoming the new base trim level. After 2012, all versions of the XL trim were dropped.\nFor 2015, the EL received the same facelift and upgrades as the standard-length Expedition.\nAlongside the standard-length Expedition, the EL also received a 5-star rating from the NHTSA. The Expedition EL was also ranked 9th among the top 15 \"Best Family Haulers\", according to a June 2009 consumers favorite survey conducted by Edmunds.\n\n\n=== Expedition Max (2018–present) ===\n\nFor its second generation, the Expedition EL became known as the Expedition Max (now stylized with all capitals as MAX) along with the rest of the world. It debuted in November 2017 for the 2018 model year. Like the standard size Expedition, this was also unveiled ahead of the Chicago Auto Show and carried the same features and the three featured trims, XLT, Limited, and Platinum. It also expanded its length size by one inch to allow more space and legroom in the third seat row. Although the rear passenger doors were widened, the aft wheel well trim still doesn't cut into them.\n\nThis version became more competitive with the Suburban/Yukon XL in the long wheelbase SUV segment, an area where GM dominates; when photos for the fourth generation Expedition were released, a majority of the pictures and videos indicated where Ford wants to target the Max. Like the (standard length) Expedition, the (extended length) Expedition Max also retained its (standard) eight passenger seating on all trims like before. The Max also saw a starting MSRP range of $55,000 (US) for the XLT and $66,800 (US) for the Limited level trims, making this more expensive than the Suburban but on par with the Yukon XL in terms of pricing.\n\n\n== Future ==\n\n\n=== Ford Expedition electric ===\nBy May 2021, Ford had publicly released information that the company is developing an all-electric, battery-powered Ford Expedition. No date for bringing the SUV into production was given.\n\n\n== Availability ==\n\n\n=== Expedition ===\nThe standard size Expedition are sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the CNMI, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Guam, Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, the Middle East (excluding Israel), Central America, the Caribbean, South America (except Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela), Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Mongolia and South Korea), Africa (Algeria, Angola, Cape Verde, Egypt, Gabon, Ghana, Libya, Madagascar, Morocco, Nigeria and Senegal), and Central Asia (Armenia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan).After the 2015 refresh, the standard size Expedition became exclusive to the United States, Canada, Mexico, Republic of China (Taiwan), and the Middle East. The US and Canadian Expeditions are available in XLT, Limited, King Ranch and Platinum, while The Mexican Expedition offers the XLT, Limited, and King Ranch trims. The Middle East Expeditions are offered in XL, XLT, Limited, King Ranch, and in Platinum (RWD only) trims.\nWith the introduction of the fourth generation Expedition, Ford will make the SUV available to North America in the Fall of 2017 first, followed by a global launch in early 2018, where it will go on sale in selected countries.\n\n\n=== Expedition EL/Max ===\nFor the Expedition EL/Max, all six versions (XL, XLT/Eddie Bauer, XLT Platinum/Sport, Limited, King Ranch and Platinum) are available in the United States. From the 2007 to 2010 model years, The EL/Max level trims were limited to only 3 versions for Canada, Republic of China (Taiwan), and The Middle East, two for Mexico, and one for the Philippines. Canada's Expedition Max offered the Eddie Bauer, Limited and King Ranch trims, Mexico's Expedition Max in Limited and King Ranch trims, and the Middle East's EL level trims in XLT, Eddie Bauer and Limited. The Philippines' lone Expedition EL level trim was the Eddie Bauer model from 2007 to 2010.\nAfter the 2011 model year Ford made changes in the international exportation of the EL/Max trims. As a result of the changes, the Limited trim became the only version available in Canada and Mexico as Eddie Bauer (in Canada) and King Ranch trims (in both Canada and Mexico) were discontinued, while the Philippines and the Middle East replaced the Eddie Bauer with the XLT trim. The Middle East also started to get all of the 5 US level base trims, including the new XL trims that took the XLT's place and the King Ranch trim.\nWith the 2015 refresh, the Expedition EL US level trims are the same as the standard versions: XLT, Limited, King Ranch, and Platinum, all four available in rear wheel and four wheel drive. The Canadian Expedition Max are only featured in Limited and Platinum level trims, also available in RWD and 4WD. Mexico's Expedition Max are available in rear wheel drive XLT only, but available in RWD and 4WD Limited versions. The Philippines, Republic of China (Taiwan), and Middle East ELs are only available in 4WD Limited trims.\nWith the introduction of the Expedition Max for the 2018 model year as the successor to the first generation Expedition EL, Ford made the vehicle available globally, with North America in late 2017 and selected countries in early 2018.\n\n\n== Four-wheel drive system ==\nSelectable automatic full-time Control Trac four-wheel drive designed by BorgWarner is standard on all 4x4 Expeditions. There are four modes: Two High mode, Auto mode, Four High mode and Four Low mode. Each mode can be selected via a rotary control dial on the dash.\nThe Expedition's system uses a two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case with a software controlled variable intelligent locking center multi-disc differential. The four-wheel drive system does not use a planetary or bevel geared center differential, which are typically found in permanent four-wheel drive systems where torque is supplied to all four wheels.\n\n4WD Expeditions come with standard dual front frame-mounted closed-loop recovery hooks and available off-road underbody protection. Steel plates are placed over vital areas with a composite shield for the fuel tank. Expedition 4x4s are tested alongside the F-150 and Super Duty trucks at Ford's California and Arizona proving grounds. Expedition is put through the same durability tests and evaluations to meet the same durability standards as its pickup truck brethren.\n\n\n=== Traction control ===\nRear-wheel drive or all-wheel drive have conventional open-type differentials with a choice of axle ratios. Traction control systems, both mechanical and electronic, are optional.\nMechanical traction control (1997–2006)\nBoth first and second generation Ford Expeditions (UN93 and U222) had an optional Traction-Lok rear limited-slip differential (LSD). The clutch packs inside the LSD tend to be weak, will wear over time, gradually losing their ability to transfer torque, and LSD will function like an open-type differential. The front differential on four-wheel drive models are open-type differential. The AdvanceTrac electronic stability control for the 2003 model year. The Traction-Lok option was dropped after the 2006 model year, but a limited slip differential was reintroduced during the 2015 model year.\nElectronic traction control (2003–present)\nAdvanceTrac electronic stability control was introduced for the 2003 model year as an optional extra on the second generation Ford Expedition (U222). Bundled with the electronic stability control system is four-wheel electronic traction control (functions at all wheels) for Expeditions with four-wheel drive. Two-wheel drive Expeditions only receive two-wheel electronic traction control for rear wheels. AdvanceTrac was made standard equipment on all third generation Expeditions (U324).\nThe traction control system uses four-wheel, four-sensor, four-channel anti-lock braking system (ABS) to apply and release the disc brakes on the drive wheel that has lost traction. The ABS clamps down on the slipping drive wheel or wheels, \"brake locking\" the differential, which can transfer up to 100 percent of supplied torque to the opposing drive wheel with better traction. By ABS \"brake locking\" both the front and rear differentials, the traction control system can simulate front and rear differential locks. The system works even if two of its drive wheels (one front, one rear) are completely off the ground.Using the ABS brakes rather than mechanical limited-slip or locking devices inside the axle differentials gives quicker response, more seamless performance, and enhanced durability.\n\n\n=== Terrain Management System (2018–present) ===\nStarting with the 2018 model year, the Expedition and Expedition MAX will utilize Ford's Terrain Management System. Buttons to control the 4x4 system are arranged around the central Terrain Management dial. The system is similar to the one found in the 2011–present Explorer, however the Explorer's system is more simplified. The Expedition's Terrain Management System is adapted from the SVT Raptor to allow use of a 4L (low-lock) mode as well as an electronic locking rear differential. Moreover, the Explorer's Terrain Management System has 4 (four) drive modes, while the Expedition has 7 (seven) drive modes, not including the 3 (three) 4x4 system direct drive modes.\nDepending on the mode selected, Terrain Management will control, adjust, and fine tune the engine, transmission, center multi-disc differential lock, throttle response, four-wheel electronic traction control and electronic stability control (ESC) to adapt the SUV for optimal performance on the corresponding terrain.\n\n\n== Towing capability ==\nWhen first introduced in 1996, the Expedition competed with both the Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon in the full-size half-ton SUV towing segment. New competitors included the Dodge Durango (which was discontinued in 2009, but reintroduced as a crossover in 2011), Nissan Armada, and Toyota Sequoia. Product research conducted by Ford indicated that 92 percent of Expedition owners use the SUV for vacations. Some 60 percent use it to transport outdoor sports equipment, while 40 percent of Expedition owners use the vehicle for towing. The half-ton Expedition EL/Max competes with the half-ton Chevrolet Suburban 1500 and GMC Yukon XL 1500 in the towing segment.\nSince its introduction, the Expedition's braked trailer towing capacity has grown from 8,100 lbs (3,674 kg or 4.05 tons) to a current rating of 9,200 lbs (4,173 kg or 4.6 tons) when properly equipped. The list of towing features is also ever growing. Towing features common to all generations of the Expedition include: smallest possible turning radius for increased trailer maneuverability, large side view mirrors to improve rearward visibility, rearward-facing lane departure indicators which are helpful to other motorist when the Expedition is towing a long trailer providing added visual safety, heavy-duty flashers, heavy-duty large disc brakes to withstand prolonged braking while towing, and an available heavy-duty trailer towing package which includes necessary additions for heavy-duty towing.\nAs of the 2010 model year, the Expedition received trailer sway control (TSC) as standard equipment. TSC detects trailer oscillations and corrects it via asymmetrical ABS braking and reducing engine power until the Expedition and its trailer are both back under control.\n\n\n=== Heavy-duty trailer towing package ===\nExpeditions equipped with the heavy-duty trailer towing package are prepped and readied, at the factory, for towing. The package includes a VESC (Vehicle Equipment Safety Commission) V-5 (or SAE J684) Class IV (Class 4) rated trailer hitch with weight distribution capability, heavy-duty radiator, heavy-duty auxiliary transmission fluid cooler, and hitch mounted 4 and 7-pin trailer electrical connectors.\nFor model years prior to 2013, these Expeditions are prewired for later installation of an aftermarket electronic trailer brake controller. The brake controller wiring harness is located under the dash on the driver's side. For the 2013 model year onward, these Expeditions are factory equipped with the TowCommand electronic trailer brake controller system. This features +/– gain brake adjustment with support for heavy-duty trailers with up to four axles (quad axle trailers) and is compatible with electrically actuated trailer drum brakes and electric-over-hydraulic (EOH) actuated trailer drum or disc brake systems. The trailer brake controller is fully integrated into the Expedition's four-wheel, four-sensor, four-channel anti-lock braking system (ABS), and trailer sway control (TSC).Expeditions were offered with an adaptive pneumatic air-ride suspension system with self leveling, payload leveling and trailer load leveling capability from 1997 to 2013. For the 2014 model year, a Nivomat adaptive hydraulic suspension system with self leveling, payload leveling and trailer load leveling replaced the pneumatic system. Both systems can automatically detect when a heavy trailer is coupled, such as a travel trailer, and level the load. Additional ride-height sensors placed on the left and right sides of the SUV also monitor and compensate for any listing caused by improper cargo loading. This keeps the Expedition running straight and level while towing, and at night helps to keep the Expedition's headlamps from blinding oncoming traffic.\n\n\n== Special Service Vehicle ==\n\nTo compete with large police SUVs that are sold by other automobile companies, primarily the Chevrolet Suburban, Ford has made a special version of the Expedition available to law enforcement agencies, fire departments, and EMS agencies. Ford calls it the Expedition Special Service Vehicle (SSV). The only differences between the standard Expedition and the Special Service Vehicle Expedition are provisions for emergency services related equipment such as radios, lightbars, and sirens.\nWith the fourth generation Expedition (2018–present) debuting in 2017, Ford announced that the standard size version will be sold to government agencies and law enforcement, available in the lower based XL trim only.\n\n\n== Funkmaster Flex edition ==\n\n2008 was the only year for the Funkmaster Flex special edition Expedition. In 2005, Ford Motor Company teamed up with rapper and New York City radio personality Funkmaster Flex in a multi-year partnership to create a series of special edition Ford vehicles and advertise the Ford brand. One of those creations was a 2008 Ford Expedition bearing the rapper's name. This limited production Expedition featured a special Colorado Red and black two-tone paint job with orange pinstriping, 20 inch chrome wheels, 3D Carbon body kit, Funkmaster Flex badging and a custom black and Colorado Red leather interior on top of Expedition Limited standard equipment. The FMF Expedition went on sale in the fall of 2007 and production was limited to 650 units total.\n\n\n== Reception ==\nMotor Trend gave the 2018 Expedition a good review in its February 14, 2018 article, in which they cite the vehicle's “blend of performance (both on- and off-road), comfort, utility, and tech [that] easily make it the new benchmark for the full-size SUV class.” However the review notes that there were a few drawbacks in terms of hp acceleration (coming in second to the 2018 Nissan Armada but ahead of the 2018 Chevrolet Tahoe), off-road performance, and its MPG estimate.The 2018 Expedition also ranked first among large SUVs with a score of 9.3 from U.S. News and World Report.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nThe fourth-generation Ford Expedition was nominated at the 2018 North American International Auto Show in the Truck of the Year category, only to lose out to its co-branded cousin Lincoln Navigator. The Expedition was runner-up. Consumer Reports added the short-wheelbase Expedition to its recommended list for 2020, citing improved reliability and owner satisfaction scores.\n\n\n== Recalls ==\nThe 2020 Expeditions were recalled in April 2020 over a front passenger safety belt sensor defect, which may malfunction and can lead to a misclassification of the size and weight of the occupant for the restraint system. In some circumstances, this malfunction may not be detected, and the airbag light may not illuminate, leading to injuries if it failed to deploy. The recall affects the 1,368 produced Expeditions (1,355 in the United States, 12 in Canada, and 1 in Mexico) that were built at the Ford Kentucky Truck Plant from November 27th to December 7th, 2019.\n\n\n== Yearly American sales ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nFord Expedition official websites:\nU.S.A.\nCanada\nMexico (Expedition/Max/King Ranch)\nMiddle East\nPhilippines\nPuerto Rico", "The GMT900 was a General Motors full-size pickup and SUV platform used for the 2007 to 2014 model years. The platform was introduced at the 2006 North American International Auto Show, as the replacement for the GMT800 platform. The first GMT900 vehicle introduced was the next-generation Chevrolet Tahoe.\nGMT900 had been called a \"Hail Mary pass\" for the General Motors Corporation — the company needed the revenue from these large trucks to ensure their financial solvency. The company's resources were focused exclusively on GMT900 development through 2005, delaying other programs like the GM Zeta platform. With the 2005 spike in gasoline prices, some analysts have questioned the wisdom of \"betting the company\" on a line of large trucks. Sales were initially brisk, but later dropped off as the market moved to more fuel-efficient unibody vehicles.The GMT900 series features standard vehicle stability control. Original plans called for American Axle's \"I-Ride\" independent suspension module in the rear, but was never used.\nTahoe production began at GM's Arlington Assembly plant in Arlington, Texas on December 1, 2005, six weeks ahead of schedule. Production of the SWB versions began at Janesville Assembly in Janesville, Wisconsin in early January 2006. Production of long wheelbase trucks (Suburban/Yukon XL) begins in Janesville and at Silao Assembly in Silao, Guanajuato, in March. The Avalanche will be produced only in Silao. Escalade production began in March 2006, with the ESV being produced in Arlington and the EXT being produced in Silao.The SUVs began to show up at dealers in January 2006. Sales initially exceeded expectations, but by 2008, General Motors announced they were significantly cutting back production. GM has closed the SUV plant in Janesville, Wisconsin, consolidating SUV production in Arlington, Texas.\nThe related Silverado and Sierra pickups started production in late 2006. The HUMMER H2 was meant to move to the new platform in the next few years, but has since been cancelled.\nDue to a long-lasting downturn in sales of full-size trucks and SUVs in the United States (up to a 30% down through the first nine months of 2008), General Motors cancelled the next-generation CXX truck program in May 2008. Along with it, the replacements for the Chevrolet Tahoe and Suburban and their siblings at GMC and Cadillac.The automotive press has speculated that some GMT900 SUV models may move to the GM Lambda platform.On January 14, 2010, General Motors announced that they will resume development of full-size trucks and SUVs.\n\n\n== Applications ==\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\"Crucial GM Full-size Truck Program Launches Early\". Ward's AutoWorld. Retrieved December 9, 2005.\n\"New Trucks Won't Save GM\". Ward's AutoWorld. Archived from the original on February 8, 2006. Retrieved March 8, 2006.\n\n\n== See also ==\nGM GMT platform", "The Nissan Armada is a full-size SUV manufactured by Nissan for the North American market. From 2003 to 2015 the Armada was assembled in Canton, Mississippi based on the Nissan Titan. From mid-2016 onwards, the Armada has been built in Yukuhashi, Kyushu, Japan and shares the same platform as the Nissan Patrol, with American-specific modifications, and went on sale in late mid-2016 as a 2017 model. A luxury version of the Armada has been sold as the Infiniti QX80 (originally QX56). \n\n\n== First generation (TA60; 2004) ==\n\nDeveloped under Carlos Ghosn's NRP (Nissan Revival plan), using the platform code TA60, from September 1999 to 2003 under lead designers Shiro Nakamura and Diane Allen and chief engineers Yuzo Sakita and Larry Dominique, the 2004 model Pathfinder Armada was unveiled on April 17, 2003, at the New York Auto Show. In January 2001, a final exterior design by Giovanny Arroba had been approved by Sakita, Allen, Nakamura, and Nissan executive management, with the final design freeze being completed in July 2001.\nPrototypes based on the Y61 Patrol were hand-assembled as mules from 2001, with the first TA60-specific prototypes being completed and sent to testing in early 2002. Design patents were filed in 2003, with production starting on August 14, 2003, and going on sale on October 1, 2003.The Armada had a 5.6 L VK56DE V8 engine that made 317 hp (236 kW) and 385 lb⋅ft (522 N⋅m) of torque. This was mated to a 5-speed automatic transmission, and the Armada had a choice of either rear-wheel drive or four-wheel drive. There are some Armadas that are capable of using E85. It has a towing capacity of up to 9,000 lb (4,000 kg).\nThe rear door handles are installed on the \"C\" pillar as part of a Nissan design tradition that started with the 1986 Nissan Pathfinder. When the four-door Pathfinder was introduced, Nissan chose to conceal the door handles as a part of the \"C\" pillar trim to visually make it appear like a two-door truck with a camper shell, with conventional door handles on the front doors.\nThe switch to the Armada name occurred in September 2004, where it received new badges without \"Pathfinder.\"\n\n\n=== 2008 refresh ===\nA facelift was designed through 2005, being introduced in early 2007 for the 2008 model year.\nThe latest Nissan Armada Platinum edition features a 9.3 GB hard drive for storing music, and a CF (Compact Flash) memory card reader. The Platinum edition also features a power liftgate and third-row seats that fold electronically.\nThe 2011 model year Armada removed the SE and Off-Road trim levels and moved to a tiered system: SV (base trim), SL (middle trim), and Platinum (top trim). Nissan discontinued the use of the Armada platform for the Infiniti QX56 produced in Japan.\nThe 2013 model year added Bluetooth and satellite radio as standard on all models and a Platinum Reserve trim package. Navigation added NavWeather capability, Zagat Survey, Bluetooth audio streaming, one USB port, and a 40 GB disk drive. The Nissan DVD Entertainment System mounted screens in the back of the front head restraints.\nThe 2015 model year updated interior door panels.\nThe Nissan Armada (TA60) was sold in the United States (including all US territories), Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East in left-hand-drive only.\n\n\n== Second generation (Y62; 2017) ==\n\nNissan unveiled the second-generation Armada at the 2016 Chicago Auto Show, and it went on sale in August 2016 as a 2017 model. This version is based on the Nissan Patrol, the platform also used for the Infiniti QX80, as moving the Armada and Patrol to the same global platform instead of the Armada sharing the platform of the American-built Titan saves considerable development money. Apart from the Endurance V8 engine, which is assembled in Decherd, Tennessee, the truck is built in Japan. The Armada grew in length and width, but the wheelbase and height were moderately reduced.\nIn addition to the Endurance V8, a seven-speed transmission was introduced to improve fuel economy, acceleration, and torque, along with an increase in horsepower from 317 to 390 horsepower at 5200 rpm. The exterior moderately differs from the updated Patrol, which was introduced in early 2014. As with the previous generation, the Armada continued to offer 2WD and 4WD and available in SV, SL, and Platinum trims. It has been described as a large-sized, low-volume, but high-profit model for Nissan.\n\n\n=== 2021 refresh ===\n\nAn updated version of the Nissan Armada was revealed in December 2020. The front end was redesigned, with a larger grille and \"C\"-shaped LED headlights along with two new exterior colors. The taillights were redesigned as well, and are also LED. Inside, the center console was redesigned, with a wider infotainment screen with wireless Apple CarPlay and wired Android Auto along with a wireless smartphone charger standard. Nissan's \"Safety Shield 360\" became standard. Trim levels and powertrain remained the same with the SV getting leatherette seating with silky carbon trim, SL retains leather-appointed seating with wood-tone trim and new 20-inch wheels, and the top of the line Platinum getting new quilted leather-appointed seating with birdseye maple wood tone trim, along with new 22-inch wheels and the base S will be available at a later date, although the 5.6 L V8 gained 10 horsepower and 19 pound-feet of torque. A Midnight Edition, which treats the exterior to an under-the-radar, blacked-out color scheme, was also added. The updated Armada went on sale in North America in late January 2021.\n\n\n== Sales ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial Nissan Armada website", "The Lincoln Navigator is a full-size luxury SUV marketed and sold by the Lincoln brand of Ford Motor Company since the 1998 model year. Sold primarily in North America, the Navigator is the Lincoln counterpart of the Ford Expedition. While not the longest vehicle ever sold by the brand, it is the heaviest production Lincoln ever built. It is also the Lincoln with the greatest cargo capacity and the first non-limousine Lincoln to offer seating for more than six people.\nLincoln Navigator production was sourced from 1997 to 2009 at the Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan. Since 2009, production has also been sourced from the Kentucky Truck Plant in Louisville, Kentucky.\n\n\n== Background ==\nAt the end of the 1980s, in the United States, sport-utility vehicles gradually began to transition from dedicated off-road vehicles towards dedicated family vehicles, similar to station wagons. In 1991, the Jeep Grand Wagoneer (SJ) ended its almost unchanged 28-year production run. The vehicle had gained a famous reputation for its high content, featuring the same content as a luxury sedan. A smaller, unibody Grand Cherokee (ZJ) was induced during 1992 that offered new luxury equipment and class-exclusive features. General Motors introduced the Oldsmobile Bravada in 1990 and Ford later introduced the Mercury Mountaineer in 1996, convincing several other manufacturers to introduce mid-size luxury SUVs. As full-size SUVs such as the Chevrolet Suburban and Ford Expedition are highly profitable vehicles, the Lincoln Navigator was positioned by Ford as a full-sized, luxury SUV.\n\n\n== First generation (1998–2002) ==\n\nThe Lincoln Navigator was launched on July 1, 1997 for the 1998 model year, with the first vehicle rolling off the assembly line on May 14, 1997. Based directly on the Ford Expedition, introduced the year before, the Navigator gave the Lincoln-Mercury division its first full-size SUV (slotted above the Ford Explorer-based Mercury Mountaineer).\nIn its first calendar year of sales (1998), Navigator contributed to an unprecedented event of recent decades – with Lincoln overtaking perennial rival Cadillac in annual sales volume. Initially, published figures indicated that Cadillac had outsold Lincoln by a scant 222 vehicles sold, thanks to an enormous surge in Cadillac Escalade sales in December 1998, from hundreds in previous months to almost 5,000. A subsequent audit resulted in a retraction/apology in May 1999, attributing the \"error\" to \"overzealous\" \"low-level\" employees.\n\n\n=== Chassis ===\nThe Lincoln Navigator was also developed under the Ford program code name UN173, with the Expedition developed under the UN93 program code name. A full-size body-on-frame vehicle, the Navigator was mechanically related to the Ford Expedition; both vehicles were related to the 1997 Ford F-Series. The Navigator featured independent front suspension (short-long arm/SLA); the rear suspension was of a live rear axle design. Using an optional feature from its Ford counterpart, the Navigator was designed with load-leveling air suspension; tuned primarily for ride comfort, the air suspension lowered itself when the vehicle was parked.\nAlthough technically available with rear-wheel drive, the primary drivetrain on the Lincoln Navigator was ControlTrac, a computer-controlled automatic four-wheel drive system. As with the Expedition, the Navigator was fitted with four-wheel anti-lock disc brakes.\nUsing the same 230 hp 5.4L Triton V8 as the Expedition/F-150 paired with the 4-speed 4R100 automatic transmission, the 1998 Lincoln Navigator came with a towing capacity of 7,700 lb (3,493 kg). During 1999, Lincoln would fit two different engines in the Navigator in an effort to better match full-size SUVs from General Motors. At the beginning of the model year, the Triton V8 was upgraded to 260 hp; as a running change during the model year, Lincoln would replace the SOHC Triton with a 300 hp DOHC 5.4L V8, named InTech (borrowing a name from the Mark VIII). Due to the increase in power, towing capacity would increase to over 8,500 lb (3,900 kg).\n\n\n=== Body ===\nAlthough the Lincoln Navigator shares the same bodyshell as the Ford Expedition, giving it a similar exterior appearance, Lincoln stylists would make many design changes to differentiate the two vehicles. Forward of the windshield, the Lincoln Navigator shares no body panels with its Ford counterpart, with its own front fascia (a grille design shared with the 1998 Lincoln Town Car and the 2000 Lincoln LS), wheels, roof rack, lower body trim, and taillights. The interior of the two vehicles shared more commonality, with the dashboard common to both vehicles (with greater use of wood trim); the Navigator was given its own seat design. To make for a quieter interior over the Expedition and Ford F-Series, the Navigator made greater use of sound deadening materials and higher-quality carpeting.\nThe Lincoln Navigator included standard features available or optional on the Expedition, including power driver and passenger bucket seats, 2nd-row bucket seats (with a 2nd-row bench seat as a delete option), floor consoles, and keyless entry. The few options available included a power moonroof, a universal garage door opener, 7 seven to 8 eight passenger seating an electrochromic rearview mirror (filtering out headlight glare from vehicles seen in the mirror), and a premium audio system (a seven speaker, 290-Watt audio system with a 6-disc front console-mounted CD-changer, and rear seat audio controls), and 17-inch alloy wheels.Some of the unique features on the first-generation Navigator were power-adjustable pedals (a first-of-its-kind feature on a luxury SUV), a feature on the factory radio that only illuminated the controls necessary for the selected function, full controls for the audio system, climate controls, and cruise controls on the front of the steering wheel, and rear seat radio and climate controls.\nDuring its production run, Lincoln made few changes to the first-generation Navigator. In 1999, alongside the addition of the InTech V8, power-adjustable brake and accelerator pedals were added; the previously optional 17-inch wheels became standard.\nFor 2000, the fender-mounted radio antenna was integrated into the right-rear window, while the interior received Nudo leather seating surfaces. The options list expanded to include a satellite navigation system, heated and cooled front seats, a reverse-sensing system, and side-impact airbags.\nFor 2001, several minor cosmetic changes were made. On the grille and tailgate, the Lincoln emblem was given a black background (replacing the previous red); on the tailgate, the Lincoln and Navigator badging switched sides. A VHS-based video entertainment system became an option.\n\n\n== Second generation (2003–2006) ==\n\nLaunched in May 2002 for 2003, a number of changes and improvements were made to the Navigator thanks to a thorough redesign. The Navigator continued to share a platform with the Ford Expedition, which was also redesigned for 2003, but continued to differ from it in terms of styling and various upscale features. The redesign featured a thoroughly revised exterior, the first since the Navigator's launch, with only the front doors and roof panel unchanged from the previous generation. The new exterior came with things such as a larger chrome waterfall grille, brighter quad-beam headlights with larger housings, revised chrome door handles set in color-keyed bezels, and slightly wider running boards. Inside the Navigator was an all-new instrument panel and dashboard area which, significantly, was not shared with the Expedition. Inspired by the symmetrical, \"dual-cockpit\" layout of the 1961 Lincoln Continental, the instrument panel and dashboard area was adorned with real walnut burl wood inserts and panels and switches painted with a low-luster satin nickel color. Adding to the upscale interior design further were white LEDs, 120 in all, which provided backlighting for controls and switches. Additionally, to direct attention to the high-quality satin nickel-faced analog clock mounted in the dashboard, an articulating door is present to conceal the radio head unit and optional satellite navigation system when they are not in use.Highlighting the Navigator's design changes were other new features and options for 2003. Newly available features like Ford's Safety Canopy side curtain airbags and a tire pressure monitoring system improved occupant safety. Convenience was enhanced by the availability of power running boards (an industry first), power-folding third row seats, a power liftgate, and HID headlights (for top end models). The available rear-seat video entertainment system was updated to be DVD-based and all Navigators now came with standard 18x7.5-inch alloy wheels with 18x8-inch chrome wheels available as an option.\nLike the redesigned 2003 Expedition (U222), the Navigator benefited from a reworked chassis, new rack-and-pinion steering, and an all-new independent rear suspension (IRS), which brought better handling and ride comfort. The Navigator continued to benefit from a load-leveling air suspension but it now lowered the vehicle by an inch when stopped in the interest of easing entry and exit. The Navigator's powertrain was modified from the UN173, but the 5.4 L DOHC V8 used before was no longer advertised under the InTech name. But it now produced 300 hp (224 kW) at 5500 rpm and 355 lb⋅ft (481 N⋅m) of torque at 3750 rpm. Due to changes brought with the redesign, the Navigator's base curb weight increased to 5,760 lb (2,613 kg) in two-wheel drive models and nearly 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) in four-wheel drive models. In turn, towing capacity dropped slightly.Tire-pressure monitoring was made standard for 2004 while Ford's AdvanceTrac, a type of traction control system, with Roll Stability Control was an option. In 2004, for 2005 the Navigator received a minor facelift with new square-shaped foglights replacing the circular ones used previously. AdvanceTrac with RSC was now standard while HID headlights were available on all models. In the interest of cost effectiveness, the 5.4 L DOHC V8 introduced in the 1999 model year was replaced by the same 5.4 L 3-valve SOHC V8 that had been available in the F-150 since the 2004 model year. Though having a different head design, the new engine offered similar overall output, producing 300 hp (224 kW) at 5000 rpm and 365 lb⋅ft (495 N⋅m) of torque at 3750 rpm. The new engine was not marketed under the Triton name in the Navigator even though it is mechanically identical to the F-150's engine. The 4R75W 4-speed automatic transmission used from 2003 until 2004 was replaced with a new ZF-sourced 6-speed automatic transmission. The 2005 Navigator's base curb weight fell to 5,555 lb (2,520 kg) while four-wheel drive models dropped to 5,842 lb (2,650 kg). Towing capacity increased slightly over the previous model year to 8,600 lb (3,901 kg) in two-wheel drive models and 8,300 lb (3,765 kg) in four-wheel drive models. For 2006, an Elite package for the Ultimate trim level was made available, including a DVD-based satellite navigation system with a voice-activated touch screen, THX audio system, rear-seat DVD entertainment system, and HID headlights.\n\n\n== Third generation (2007–2017) ==\n\nThe Navigator was redesigned under the U326 program code name, with new styling and mechanical features for 2007. Unveiled at the Chicago Auto Show in February 2006, the Navigator featured its most distinctive styling update since its introduction, with new front and rear fascias and side cladding. In front was a split upper and lower chrome grille with integrated fog lights resembling those of classic Lincolns like the 1946-1948 Continental, along with a more complex headlight design and a more prominent \"power dome\" hood. Elsewhere, an updated rear fascia featured taillights inspired by the Lincoln MKZ and chrome trim was more prominently used along the sides, including chrome lower body molding on the doors. The interior featured an updated dashboard and instrument panel with an extensive use of rectangular shapes, such as in the gauges, as well as greater use of real wood and satin nickel accents.\nAccompanying the Navigator's redesign for 2007 was a new model, the Navigator L developed under the U418 program code name. Comparable to the Cadillac Escalade ESV, the Navigator L is 14.7 in (373 mm) longer than the standard Navigator on a 12 in (305 mm) longer wheelbase, increasing its cargo capacity. The Navigator L was introduced parallel to the Expedition EL, an extended version of the Ford Expedition. Both the Navigator and Expedition were redesigned for 2007 and based on Ford's T1 platform, which is related to the platform of the 2004+ F-150. Compared to the Navigator's previous platform, this platform provided greater rigidity for better driving dynamics. The independent rear suspension was replaced with a five-link IRS design to improve handling and ride quality. The Navigator continued to come with standard 18-inch alloy wheels, but both 20- and 22-inch wheels became available. The 5.4 L 3-valve SOHC V8 introduced in the 2005 Navigator remained unchanged for 2007. The ZF Friedrichshafen 6-speed automatic transmission was replaced by Ford's own 6-speed design, the 6R80 for the 2009 model year. Due to the Navigator's redesign, its base curb weight increased to 5,872 lb (2,663 kg) in two-wheel drive models and 6,070 lb (2,753 kg) in four-wheel drive models. Navigator L models were even heavier, at 5,963 lb (2,705 kg) in two-wheel drive models and 6,221 lb (2,822 kg) in four-wheel drive models. In spite of this, thanks to an improved frame, the Navigator's towing capacity increased for 2007, approaching 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) in two-wheel drive models.After the 2007 model redesign, the Navigator no longer used the same transfer case as the Expedition. Expedition four-wheel drives continued to use a two-speed dual range transfer case with off-road low range reduction gearing and default off-road program that remaps (reprograms) the electronic throttle control and traction control system response for off-road conditions. Navigator four-wheel drives were demoted to a light-duty one-speed single range transfer case which lacks low-range gearing.\nFor 2008, packaging for the Navigator's luxury and convenience features was simplified, resulting in the elimination of the Luxury and Ultimate trim levels and the standardization of a number of features that were previously optional. Some of these newly standard features included heated and cooled front seats, power-folding third row seats, a power liftgate, and a 600-watt 14-speaker THX II-Certified audio system. Also newly standard was a 3.31:1 rear axle ratio, though a 3.73:1 ratio was still available as option for the Navigator and remained standard in the Navigator L. Newly available was a rearview camera to aid in backing up.\nFor 2009, the Navigator's 5.4 L V8 gained 10 hp (7.5 kW) as well as flex-fuel capability. The rearview camera that was new for 2008 was now standard, as were heated second row seats, Front Park Assist, a capless fuel filler, rain-sensing windshield wipers, and Lincoln SYNC.The third generation Navigator and Navigator L continued to be offered for the 2010 model year, with only slight changes.For 2011, both the Navigator and the Navigator L featured HD Radio, Sirius TravelLink, and Lincoln SYNC as standard on all trims.For the 2013 model year, the only changes made to the Navigator were the addition of new color trims: Kodiak Brown Metallic Tri-Coat, Midnight Sapphire Metallic, and Ruby Red Metallic Tinted Clearcoat.The 2014 model year was a carryover from 2013 with the same features and no cosmetic changes. This would be the last model year that it would feature the front grille fascias.\n\n\n=== 2015 refresh ===\n\nIn March 2013, Ford had confirmed reports that the next generation Lincoln Navigator would not be a repackaged Ford Expedition as the previous generations were, despite trailing the MKX in terms of sales but ahead of the MKT, but hopes to make it more competitive in the luxury SUV segment as they prepared to take on the Cadillac Escalade, Infiniti QX80, and the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class, each of which had already or would launch new generations in 2013 or 2014, and would be designed by the new Lincoln design team that also designed the new 2013 MKZ. It would be completely new and would feature the 3.5 Ecoboost, interior and exterior and performance upgrades. But in May 2013 a prototype Navigator with a different front grille was tested featuring the EcoBoost in preparation for the updated Navigator, which was followed by more spy shots taken in September 2013 that was sporting Lincoln's updated signature front grille.On January 22, 2014, three photos of the 2015 Navigator were released on Twitter and Instagram, along with an announcement that the refreshed SUV would be revealed at the Washington Auto Show the following day (January 23, 2014). However, hours after the leaks were made public, Lincoln held a press event in Detroit for the vehicle and revealed the updated Navigator earlier than expected.The 2015 Navigator and Navigator L kept the same exterior styling design as the Expedition instead of the reported repackaging that was announced earlier by Ford. However, it now featured an updated front grille with the rear tailgate lights bearing a resemblance to the Dodge Durango. The EcoBoost V6 was the only engine offered for the 2015 model year, making 380 hp (283 kW; 385 PS) and 460 lb⋅ft (624 N⋅m) of torque. The exterior included HID headlamps with LED running lights and full LED taillights. Twenty-inch wheels came standard, replacing the 18-inch wheels, while a reserve package featured 22-inch wheels. The dashboard panels features MyLincoln Touch with Sync as standard, controlled through an eight-inch touchscreen display in the dash, and home to twin 4.2-inch displays that flank a central speedometer, falling in line with the rest of the Lincoln models. The push-button start became standard, likewise a passive entry and a rear-view camera. Blind-spot monitoring was added as an optional feature.\nBoth the updated Navigator and Navigator L went into production in the summer of 2014, and arrived to dealers that fall as a 2015 model.\n\n\n=== Safety ===\n\n\n== Fourth generation (2018–present) ==\n\nOn April 12, 2017, the fourth-generation 2018 Lincoln Navigator was introduced at the 2017 New York Auto Show. As with previous generations, the fourth-generation remains the Lincoln counterpart of the Ford Expedition, offered in both a standard and long-wheelbase configuration (Lincoln Navigator L). As before, both two and four-wheel drive versions are offered.The fourth-generation marked a significant shift in the exterior styling of the Navigator, as it adopted styling features of the 2017 Lincoln Continental. In another major shift, the model line adopted aluminum body construction.\n\n\n=== Chassis ===\nThe fourth-generation Lincoln Navigator uses the Ford T3 platform, developed under the U554 code name. Retaining body-on-frame construction, the Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) were engineered alongside the 2015 Ford F-150. The four-wheel independent suspension configuration was retained, with a redesigned rear suspension layout.\nShared with the Ford F-150 Raptor, the Lincoln Navigator is equipped with a 450 hp twin-turbocharged 3.5L EcoBoost V6 (although Lincoln has ended its use of the EcoBoost nomenclature). The highest-output engine ever sold by Lincoln, the 3.5L V6 is paired with a 10-speed automatic transmission (replacing the previous 6-speed automatic).\n\n\n=== Body ===\nEntering production with only minor differences from the Lincoln Navigator concept vehicle shown at the 2016 New York Auto Show (no inclusion of the gullwing doors and stair-style running boards, used largely for display purposes). The 2018 Lincoln Navigator adopted several design features from the 2017 Lincoln Continental, including the style of its headlights, taillights, side vents, and its front fascia, with a large rectangular grille and a centered Lincoln star emblem. While sharing its roofline and side doors with the Ford Expedition, in the style of Range Rovers, the B, C, and D-pillars are blacked out for a \"floating roof\" effect.\nAs with the 2015 Ford F-150, the body of fourth-generation Lincoln Navigator (and Ford Expedition) was designed as a part of a shift to aluminum body construction, with the use of steel largely reserved for the chassis frame rails. Nearly 200 pounds lighter than the previous generation, the fourth-generation Navigator is physically larger than its predecessor, with the standard-wheelbase configuration gaining three inches in wheelbase, while the long-wheelbase L gaining nearly an inch (becoming the longest-wheelbase Lincoln ever produced excluding the Mark LT pickup). In terms of body length, both versions were shortened approximately half an inch.\nShared with the Lincoln Continental, the dashboard of the 2018 Lincoln Navigator replaced a conventional console (or column)-mounted shifter with dashboard-mounted buttons and paddle shifters. For the first time in the model line, the fourth-generation Navigator offers a head-up display along with a 12-inch reconfigurable instrument cluster.\n\n\n=== Trim ===\nThe fourth-generation Lincoln Navigator continues the same trim line introduced in the 2015 model update, with Premiere (new to the Navigator for 2018) as the standard trim, Select as the mid-level trim, and Reserve as the highest trim level. Each is powered by a turbocharged 3.5-liter V6 (450 horsepower, 510 lb-ft of torque) and comes with a 10-speed automatic transmission.Alongside the revival of the Continental, the fourth-generation Navigator marked the debut of the Lincoln Black Label series. A series of vehicles with interiors and exteriors coordinated around a theme (similar to the Designer Series Lincolns and Continentals of the 1970s and 1980s), the Navigator is sold with three Black Label themes: Chalet, Destination, and Yacht Club.\nAt a base price of approximately $95,000, the Black Label edition of the Lincoln Navigator is the most expensive vehicle ever sold by Ford Motor Company (with the exception of the Ford GT)\n\n\n== Future ==\n\n\n=== Lincoln Navigator electric ===\nBy May 2021, Lincoln had publicly released information that the company is working on an all-electric, battery-powered Lincoln Navigator. No date for bringing the SUV into production was given.\n\n\n== Awards ==\nOn January 14, 2018, The Lincoln Navigator was awarded Truck of the Year at the 2018 North American International Auto Show, marking the first time that a Lincoln vehicle has been given a NAIAS award, as well as the first American-built Luxury Sport Utility Vehicle in this segment to win in this category.\n\n\n== Sales ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website\nLincoln Navigator at AutoGuideWiki", "Chevrolet ( SHEV-rə-LAY), colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors (GM). Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3, 1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a controlling stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2, 1918, and propelled himself back to the GM presidency. After Durant's second ousting in 1919, Alfred Sloan, with his maxim \"a car for every purse and purpose\", would pick the Chevrolet brand to become the volume leader in the General Motors family, selling mainstream vehicles to compete with Henry Ford's Model T in 1919 and overtaking Ford as the best-selling car in the United States by 1929 with the Chevrolet International.Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide. In Oceania, Chevrolet is represented by Holden Special Vehicles, having returned to the region in 2018 after a 50-year absence with the launching of the Camaro and Silverado pickup truck (HSV was partially and formerly owned by GM subsidiary Holden, which GM retired in 2021). In 2005, Chevrolet was relaunched in Europe, primarily selling vehicles built by GM Daewoo of South Korea with the tagline \"Daewoo has grown up enough to become Chevrolet\", a move rooted in General Motors' attempt to build a global brand around Chevrolet. With the reintroduction of Chevrolet to Europe, GM intended Chevrolet to be a mainstream value brand, while GM's traditional European standard-bearers, Opel of Germany and Vauxhall of the United Kingdom, would be moved upmarket. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe from 2016 onward, with the exception of the Camaro and Corvette. Chevrolet vehicles were to continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, the last usage of the Daewoo automotive brand was discontinued in its native South Korea and succeeded by Chevrolet.\nIn North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Due to the prominence and name recognition of Chevrolet as one of General Motors' global marques, 'Chevrolet', 'Chevy' or 'Chev' is used at times as a synonym for General Motors or its products, one example being the GM LS1 engine, commonly known by the name or a variant thereof of its progenitor, the Chevrolet small-block engine.\n\n\n== History ==\n\nOn November 3, 1911, Swiss race car driver and automotive engineer Louis Chevrolet co-founded the \"Chevrolet Motor Company\" in Detroit with his brother Arthur Chevrolet, William C. Durant and investment partners William Little (maker of the Little automobile), former Buick owner James H. Whiting, Dr. Edwin R. Campbell (son-in-law of Durant) and in 1912 R. S. McLaughlin CEO of General Motors in Canada.\nDurant was fired from his senior management position at General Motors in 1910, a company that he had founded in 1908. In 1904 he had taken over the Flint Wagon Works and Buick Motor Company of Flint, Michigan. He also incorporated the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races. Durant planned to use Chevrolet's reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. The first factory location was in Flint, Michigan at the corner of Wilcox and Kearsley Street, now known as \"Chevy Commons\" at coordinates 43.00863°N 83.70991°W / 43.00863; -83.70991 (Chevy Commons), along the Flint River, across the street from Kettering University.\nOne of the technical advancements Chevrolet benefited from was the implementation of an overhead valve engine from the very beginning, as the company was developed as a junior model to Buick, who had patented the overhead valve and cross-flow cylinder design as being more efficient than the conventional use of the flathead engine.\nActual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, following instructions from Louis. The first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However, the first actual production was not until the 1913 model. So in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only one pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show.\n\nChevrolet first used the \"bowtie emblem\" logo in 1914 on the H series models (Royal Mail and Baby Grand) and The L Series Model (Light Six). It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room. More recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the \"Coalettes\" coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12, 1911. Others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolet's parents. Over time, Chevrolet would use several different iterations of the bowtie logo at the same time, often using blue for passenger cars, gold for trucks, and an outline (often in red) for cars that had performance packages. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, for both brand cohesion as well as to differentiate itself from Ford (with its blue oval logo) and Dodge (who has often used red for its imaging), its two primary domestic rivals.\n\nLouis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1917, Durant became president of General Motors, and Chevrolet was merged into GM as a separate division. In 1919, Chevrolet's factories were located at Flint, Michigan; branch assembly locations were sited in Tarrytown, N.Y., Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, and Oshawa, Ontario General Motors of Canada Limited. McLaughlin's were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article September 23, 1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, a V8-powered model in four-passenger roadster and five-passenger tourer models. Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919.\nBeginning also in 1919, GMC commercial grade trucks were rebranded as Chevrolet, and using the same chassis of Chevrolet passenger cars and building light-duty trucks, sharing an almost identical appearance with GMC products.\nUntil 1921, Chevrolet Corporate headquarters were located at 57th and Broadway in New York City until April when the office was relocated to the General Motors Building at Cadillac Place in Detroit. In January of 1921 a General Motors management survey recommended that the Chevrolet Division be cancelled, but Alfred P. Sloan Jr. recommended that the division be saved and William S. Knudsen, a former Ford employee who oversaw production of the Model T, was made Vice President of Operations and performance improved In May of 1925 the Chevrolet Export Boxing plant at Bloomfield, New Jersey was repurposed from a previous owner where Knock-down kits for Chevrolet, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Buick and Cadillac passenger cars, and both Chevrolet and G. M. C. truck parts are crated and shipped by railroad to the docks at Weehawken, New Jersey for overseas GM assembly factories.Chevrolet continued into the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s competing with Ford, and after the Chrysler Corporation formed Plymouth in 1928, Plymouth, Ford, and Chevrolet were known as the \"Low-priced three\". In 1929 they introduced the famous \"Stovebolt\" overhead-valve inline six-cylinder engine, giving Chevrolet a marketing edge over Ford, which was still offering a lone flathead four (\"A Six at the price of a Four\"). In 1933 Chevrolet launched the Standard Six, which was advertised in the United States as the cheapest six-cylinder car on sale. During the Great Depression the Chevrolet Master introduced a streamlined appearance, showing Art Deco influences and before and after the World War II era, the Chevrolet Deluxe and Chevrolet Fleetline found many buyers.\nChevrolet had a great influence on the American automobile market during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1953 it produced the Corvette, a two-seater sports car with a fiberglass body. In 1957 Chevy introduced its first fuel injected engine, the Rochester Ramjet option on Corvette and Chevrolet Bel Air passenger cars, priced at $484 ($4,460 today). In 1960 it introduced the Corvair, with a rear-mounted air-cooled engine. In 1963 one out of every ten cars sold in the United States was a Chevrolet.During the 1960s and early 1970s, the standard Chevrolet, particularly the deluxe Chevrolet Impala series, became one of the United States' best selling lines of automobiles in history, the mid-sized Chevrolet Chevelle which was used to introduce the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, and the economically priced Chevrolet Nova, which was the basis for the Chevrolet Camaro. As the popularity of imported vehicles began to find buyers in the US during the 1970s and 1980s, the Chevrolet Vega was introduced while the Chevrolet Chevette was the result of international collaboration. The Chevrolet Citation was the divisions compact sized front-wheel-drive car along with the Chevrolet Cavalier, followed up by the Chevrolet Celebrity. Chevrolet during the 1990s formed a partnership with Toyota and introduced the Geo Prizm while also offering the Chevrolet Corsica. As mid-sized family sedans began to gain popularity, the Chevrolet Lumina found many buyers and as minivans began to find buyers, the Chevrolet Venture followed the popular selling Chevrolet Trailblazer and Chevrolet Traverse SUV's.\nThe basic Chevrolet small-block V8 design has remained in continuous production since its debut in 1955, longer than any other mass-produced engine in the world, although current versions share few if any parts interchangeable with the original. Descendants of the basic small-block OHV V8 design platform in production today have been much modified with advances such as aluminium block and heads, electronic engine management, and sequential port fuel injection. Depending on the vehicle type, Chevrolet V8s are built in displacements from 4.3 to 9.4 litres with outputs ranging from 111 horsepower (83 kW) to 994 horsepower (741 kW) as installed at the factory. The engine design has also been used over the years in GM products built and sold under the Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Buick, Hummer, Opel (Germany), and Holden (Australia) nameplates.\nIn 2005, General Motors re-launched the Chevrolet marque in Europe, using rebadged versions of the Daewoo cars produced by GM Korea.The Chevrolet division largely recovered from the economic downturn of 2007–2010 through launching new vehicles and improving existing lines. GM began developing more fuel efficient cars and trucks to compete with foreign automakers. In late 2010 General Motors began production of the plug-in hybrid Chevrolet Volt, sold as the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera in Europe, which received multiple awards including the 2012 North American Car of the Year, European Car of the Year, and World Green Car of the Year. The Volt/Ampera family was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 31,400 units sold. The Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was Europe's top selling plug-in electric car in 2012 with 5,268 units, representing a market share of 21.5% of the region's plug-in electric passenger car segment. Combined global Volt/Ampera sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015. As of June 2016, the Volt family of vehicles ranks as the world's all-time top selling plug-in hybrid, and it is also the third-best-selling plug-in electric car ever, after the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. Volt sales in the American market passed the 100,000 milestone in July 2016.In October 2016, GM began production of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the first ever affordable mass market all-electric car with a range over 200 mi (320 km). The Chevrolet Bolt won several awards including the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year award, the 2017 AutoGuide.com Reader's Choice Green Car of the Year, Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2017, Green Car Journal's 2017 Green Car of the Year, and was listed in Time magazine's Best 25 Inventions of the Year of 2016.On February 14, 2021, Chevrolet unveiled the 2022 Bolt EUV and redesigned Bolt EV. \n\n\n== International operations ==\nAs of 2010 Chevrolet had operations in over 140 countries, and global sales in 2011 set a record with 4.76 million vehicles sold worldwide.\n\n\n=== North America ===\n\n\n==== Canada ====\n\n\n==== Mexico ====\nMexico has a mix of Chevrolet models from different GM brands and platforms branded as Chevrolet. The models come from Chevrolet USA, GM Korea, Mexico and other origins.\nExamples of Opel-sourced vehicles are Vectra, Astra, Corsa, Meriva, Zafira and Captiva (Opel Antara). Mexico also has some cars of its own, such as the Chevy C2, which is a reworked older-generation Corsa B. Vehicles based on US platforms are the Avalanche, the Suburban, the Equinox, the Tahoe, the Cheyenne (which is similar to the Silverado), the Aveo, the HHR, the Traverse, the Malibu, the Camaro and the Corvette. The Chevrolet Optra, assembled in South Korea by GM Korea, was also sold in Mexico. The European Epica was sold as a business-only vehicle. GM also manufactures Chevrolet vehicles such as the Suburban and Avalanche in Mexico for export to other markets, chiefly the US and Canada; those vehicles are no longer assembled in Mexico.\n\n\n=== Asia ===\n\n\n==== China ====\nIn 2009 China became Chevrolet's third-largest market, with sales of 332,774 vehicles, behind only the United States and Brazil (1,344,629 and 595,500 vehicles respectively).\nBy 2010, Chevy sold just over half a million, with the Cruze being its best seller there.A total of 673,376 locally-manufactured Chevrolets were sold in China in 2018 (down from a record of 767,001 in 2014).\nIn 2018, Chevrolet held just 2.90% share of the Chinese market (down from a record market share of 5.33% in 2012).The best-selling Chevrolet models in China by 2019 were the Cavalier (~ 10 000 units per month). Malibu (~ 3500 units per month), Equinox (~ 2000 units per month), Cruze - at one time the best selling model (~ 1500 units per month), Sail (~ 1200 units per month), new Orlando (~ 1000 units per month), Malibu XL (~ 800 units per month), Trax (~ 100 units per month), Lova RV (~ 100 units per month), representing just 9 of the staggering total of 628 (sic) models of passenger cars being produced in China by February 2019.\n\n\n==== India ====\n\nLaunched by GM's India operations, Chevrolet is among the more recent auto brands. Until 2003, GM India—originally a joint venture with Hindustan Motors, sold the Opel Corsa, Opel Astra and the Opel Vectra. Chevrolet officially began business in India on June 6, 2003. The Corsa and Astra were built at a plant in Halol, Gujarat.\nChevrolet sold the Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Tavera, Chevrolet Captiva, Chevrolet SRV, Chevrolet Beat, Chevrolet Sail and Chevrolet Aveo U-VA. The Chevrolet Forester, a rebadged Subaru, was imported directly from Fuji Heavy Industries in Japan until 2005. The Cruze and Tavera were built at the Halol plant. Chevrolet also was the sole engine supplier for the Formula Rolon single-seater series in India. In 2017, GM ceased the production and sale of Chevrolet cars in India, but it continues to run service centers.\n\n\n==== Indonesia ====\nIn 1999, Opel was rebranded to Chevrolet as a coincidence of Chevy's entry to Indonesia.\nChevrolet stopped selling cars and ceased production in Indonesia by the end of March 2020.\n\n\n==== Japan ====\nFrom 1995 to 2000 Toyota in an agreement with GM sold the third-generation model Chevrolet Cavalier as the Toyota Cavalier in Japan in exchange for the Geo/Chevrolet Prism in an effort to avoid additional restrictions on their exports to the US. The OHV Chevrolet straight-6 engine was used and reverse-engineered by Toyota when they created the Toyota Type A engine when GM had a factory manufacturing GM cars in Japan at Osaka Assembly during the 1920s. In the mid-2000s, Suzuki imported and marketed the Chevrolet TrailBlazer and the Chevrolet Optra wagon in Japan. Suzuki, a GM partner, also assembled and marketed the Chevrolet MW microvan. The MW was originally a rebadged Suzuki Wagon R+ and later a rebadged Suzuki Solio. Suzuki had also marketed the Chevrolet Cruze subcompact in the past.\nEarlier efforts during the 1970s and 1980s saw a partnership with Isuzu and Suzuki, with the Chevrolet Chevette in the 1970s from Isuzu, and the Suzuki Cultus from Suzuki during the 1980s, which was rebadged as the Geo Metro.\nGeneral Motors Japan Limited currently distributes and markets the Sonic, Captiva, Camaro, and Corvette in limited numbers through an agreement with Yanase Co., Ltd. dealerships. In the 2000s, General Motors Asia Pacific (Japan) had distributed and marketed the TrailBlazer also. As of 2010, Mitsui Bussan Automotive distributes and markets the Chevrolet Tahoe, Chevrolet Express, Chevrolet HHR, Silverado, and Traverse.\nPreviously, it had also marketed the Starcraft versions of the G-Van and Chevrolet TrailBlazer. Mitsui Bussan Automotive had been importing and distributing certain GM models since 1992, but will cease their GM import business in November 2011, as GM Japan wants to consolidate the distribution channels. The Chevrolet models that have been imported by Mitsui will no longer be sold once existing inventories are depleted. Thus there were three distinct distribution channels for Chevrolet-branded vehicles at one time in Japan.\n\n\n==== Malaysia ====\nChevrolet entered the Malaysian market in 2003, replacing Opel. Between 2003 and 2009, a joint-venture between GM and DRB-HICOM called Hicomobil, marketed the Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Nabira and Chevrolet Lumina. The joint venture was ended and Naza was taking over Chevrolet's dealership as Naza Quest Sdn Bhd in 2010. The lineup of Chevrolet cars available were Chevrolet Sonic, Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Captiva, Chevrolet Orlando and Chevrolet Colorado.\nIn 2018, Naza Quest Sdn Bhd ceased to distribute new Chevrolet vehicles in Malaysia, but continues to provide warranty support and aftersales service for existing Chevrolet customers.\n\n\n==== Middle East ====\nIn the Middle East, Chevrolet-badged cars, trucks, SUVs, and crossovers are sourced from GM Korea (in South Korea), GM in North America, and GM Holden (in Australia). The Middle Eastern market has a separate division called Chevrolet Special Vehicles, which (as of December 2007) sources the high-performance 400 bhp (300 kW) CR8 sedan from Holden Special Vehicles. The Holden Commodore is badged as the Chevrolet Lumina in the Middle East, as well as South Africa. The longer wheelbase Holden Caprice was sold as the Chevrolet Caprice in the Middle East. The Middle East fleet (particularly Saudi Arabia) also includes the likes of Cruze, Malibu and Sonic in the Sedan category, Captiva in the SUV category, Tahoe and Traverse in the Wagon category and Avalanche and Silverado in the Truck category.\n\n\n==== Pakistan ====\nIn Pakistan, Chevrolet introduced its cars in collaboration with a local automobile manufacturer called Nexus Automotive. The lineup from Chevrolet Pakistan included the Chevrolet Optra, Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Joy, Chevrolet Aveo, Chevrolet Cruze, and Chevrolet Colorado.\n\n\n==== Philippines ====\nChevrolet has been in the Philippines for a long time, assembling the Chevrolet Bel-Air, Chevrolet Impala, Chevrolet Malibu and even the 1st generation Chevrolet Camaro by the Yutivo family-owned General Motors plant. Other than Chevrolets, the plant also assembled Opels, Pontiacs, Holdens, Buicks, and Vauxhalls for the Filipino market.\nGM withdrew from the Philippines in 1985 and returned in 2000. During Chevrolet's absence in the market, many cars like the Chevrolet Suburban and the Chevrolet Astro have been imported new in the country via grey-market and sold to retailers.\nChevrolet's current Philippine operations are under the control of The Covenant Car Company Inc. The company was officially incorporated on July 1, 2009 and assumed business operations on October 1, 2009.There are at least 24 dealerships around the country as of 2020. Its current lineup include the Chevrolet Spark, Chevrolet Sail, Chevrolet Cruze, Chevrolet Malibu, Chevrolet Colorado, Chevrolet Trax, Chevrolet Trailblazer, Chevrolet Suburban, and the Chevrolet Tahoe.\nIn 2018, the Corvette was added to the roster, making it the most expensive vehicle in the lineup. It is legally imported, as the government has seized and destroyed expensive vehicles that were bought into the country illegally.In 2019, the Camaro returned to the Philippines with a 2.0-liter turbo engine at 275 hp and 398Nm to compete with the Ford Mustang ever since it was introduced in 2010.\n\n\n==== South Korea ====\nMany global-market Chevrolet vehicles are designed and manufactured by GM Korea of South Korea, but they had been sold under the Daewoo Motors brand in South Korea until February 2011. The Daewoo brand was fully replaced by Chevrolet in March 2011. All Daewoo products relaunched under the Chevrolet brand, with the release of the Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Orlando and Chevrolet Aveo. In 2015, the Impala was added to the lineup as Chevrolet began importing the American-built sedan to South Korea for the first time. In 2018, Gunsan plant was shut down on May 31 and VIDAMCO plant in Hanoi, Vietnam was sold by Vinfast in June. Chevrolet Cruze and Chevrolet Orlando was discontinued on May 31. Also Chevrolet Captiva discontinued in July 2018. Their best-selling vehicle is Chevrolet Spark and Chevrolet Malibu.\n\n\n==== Thailand ====\nThe American-built Chevrolet Colorado pickup is also manufactured in Rayong, Thailand. Starting in 2003, the Holden Commodore was badged as the Chevrolet Lumina in Thailand for the VY and VZ model series. Exports lasted until 2005.General Motors is currently exploring cost-cutting options as part of its restructuring plan. One of these options involves expanding the Rayong, Thailand plant to add additional capacity to export Colorados to the U.S. This would allow the Shreveport, Louisiana plant to be closed (where the Colorado is also produced). This scenario is plausible only if a free-trade agreement is signed between the U.S. and Thailand, as the American tariff on imported pickup trucks from non-FTA countries is currently 25%. The United Auto Workers is the most vocal opponent to a change in the tariff structure.\nIn addition to the Colorado pickup trucks, General Motors began assembling Chevrolet Captiva sport utility vehicle in its Rayong plant during June 2007. The Thai-assembled Captiva is based on THETA platform under the program code C100. Also produced at the General Motors' Rayong plant are the Chevrolet Aveo (launched in September 2009 under the platform T100) and Chevrolet Cruze (launched in November 2010 under the platform GLOBAL DELTA).Chevrolet stopped selling its vehicles throughout Thailand in 2020, and sold the Rayong plant to Great Wall. Aftermarket sales, repairs and warranties will be honored for its Thai customers through authorized shops.Production, Retail Sales and Registration of Chevrolet brand in Thailand during 2011 (Units)\n\n\n==== Uzbekistan ====\nGeneral Motors Uzbekistan, or GM Uzbekistan, became the new name of Uz-Daewoo Auto in March 2008 as part of a new joint venture owned by Uzavtosanoat JSC (75%) and General Motors Corporation (25%) with a factory in Asaka producing a variety of Chevrolet models. Currently, in Uzbekistan producing models, such as, Damas (N150), Matiz (M150), Nexia (N150), Spark (M300), Epica, Malibu and Captiva (SUV).\n\n\n=== Australia ===\nEven though the Australian market of today mainly consists of Australia's own automotive companies alongside European and Asian automobile brands, Australia once had its fair share of American cars as well.\nBodies for the local assembly of Chevrolets were built in Australia as early as 1918: 11  and by 1926 the newly created General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd had established assembly plants in five Australian states to produce Chevrolet and other GM vehicles using bodies supplied by Holden Motor Body Builders.\nThe merger of General Motors (Australia) Pty Ltd with the troubled Holden Motor Body Builders in 1931 saw the creation of General Motors-Holden and the ongoing production of various GM products including Chevrolet. GMH departed from traditional US body styles with the release of the Chevrolet Coupe Utility in 1934: 4  and the Chevrolet \"Sloper\" Coupe in 1935.: 5  Post-war production recommenced in 1946. From 1949 Australian Chevrolets were to be locally assembled from components imported from Chevrolet in Canada although local production of the Coupe Utility body continued until 1952. 1968 was the last full year of Chevrolet assembly in Australia.Classic Chevrolet models such as Bel Air, Biscayne, Impala etc., are still found in many states around Australia. From the early 1970s to the early 1980s the Chevrolet name was also used on various light commercials in Australia. These ranged from the LUV (a rebadged Isuzu KB) to the third-generation C-series trucks. From 1998 to 2001 the Chevrolet Suburban was sold in Australia as the Holden Suburban, which is expected to return under the Chevrolet badge with the twelfth generation models.\nChevrolet and Holden share a number of models and model names including Malibu, Caprice, Colorado, Volt, Spark/Barina Spark, Sonic/Barina, Cruze, Equinox, and VF Commodore/Chevrolet SS. The Holden VF Commodore was exported from Australia to the United States as the Chevrolet SS until Holden ended production in May 2017 during its transition to a distribution platform of vehicles that are sourced from GM's American and international plants that is expected to badge as Holden vehicles.In 2018, the Chevrolet brand returned to Australia and New Zealand with the launch of the Camaro 2SS Coupe and the Silverado 2500HD/3500HD. These vehicles retained the Chevrolet badge and nameplate, and converted to RHD in Australia. In addition to the relaunch, Holden Special Vehicles added the Camaro and Silverado to their performance lineup.With the Holden brand retired in 2021, GM will continue to export RHD Chevrolet models to the region under the “General Motors Specialty Vehicle” network, which would expand more American models in that region. Chevrolet is also looking at making the Camaro part of the V8 Supercar Series in 2022, where it would succeed the Holden ZB Commodore after its contracts with both Holden and the teams involved with the series expire in 2021.In Australia and New Zealand Chevrolets are often called Chevs as well as Chevys.\n\n\n=== South Africa ===\n\nIn South Africa, Chevrolet was GM's main brand name until 1982, with a number of Vauxhall Motors and Holden derivatives being built under the Chevy name from 1965. In the 1970s, the advertising jingle \"braaivleis, rugby, sunny skies and Chevrolet\" (adapted from the US \"Baseball, Hot Dogs, Apple Pies and Chevrolet\") came to epitomise the ideal lifestyle of white male South Africans. Holden in Australia used the jingle \"Football, Meat Pies, Kangaroos and Holden cars\". Originally, Chevrolets were CKD kits of US models assembled in their plant in Port Elizabeth. However, since South Africa was right-hand drive and the US was left-hand drive, along with encouragement by the South African government to use local content, Chevrolets such as the Biscayne were eventually made entirely in South Africa, along with GM's \"own car for South Africa\": the Ranger.\nBy the 1970s, larger South African Chevrolets were based on Australian General Motors-Holden's models, the Kommando being based on the Holden Kingswood and the Constantia on the Statesman, while the smaller Firenza was based on the Vauxhall Viva. The Chevrolet Nomad sold in South Africa was entirely different from the Nomad sold in the US; whereas the American Nomad was originally conceived as a station wagon version of the Corvette and eventually became the station wagon version of the Bel Air, the South African Nomad was an SUV of truck proportions before SUVs were popular. Due to local content laws the cars usually received different engines than in their home markets.\nHowever, these were replaced by Opel models like the Rekord, Commodore, and Senator, and in 1982 the Chevrolet brand name was dropped in favour of Opel. Because of the political climate at the time, GM decided to divest from South Africa in 1986, and a local group eventually bought out GM's South African operations (including the Port Elizabeth plant) and renamed the company Delta Motor Corporation, which concentrated on Opels, Isuzus, and Suzukis, built under licence.\nHowever, thanks to an improved political climate in the 1990s, GM decided to reenter South Africa, eventually buying out the whole of Delta. In 2001, the Chevrolet name made a comeback, used on the Lumina, a rebadged Holden Commodore, and later on, on the Daewoo range of cars. Current Chevrolets (2013) include the Spark Lite (a rebadged Daewoo Matiz), Spark (a third-generation Matiz based on the 2007 Chevrolet Beat), Aveo Sedan and Hatch, the Sonic Sedan and Hatch (the second generation Aveo), Cruze Sedan and Hatch (underpinned by the front-wheel drive GM Delta II platform), the Lumina Sedan (including the Ute model), the Chevrolet Orlando (a five-door, seven-seat compact MPV manufactured by GM Korea under the Chevrolet division for worldwide markets), the Chevrolet Captiva a mid-size sport utility vehicle (SUV) developed by GM Daewoo (now GM Korea) the South Korean subsidiary of General Motors (GM) and sold under the Chevrolet brand, the Chevrolet TrailBlazer (a mid-size sport utility vehicle produced by the Chevrolet division of American automaker General Motors and based on a pickup truck chassis in this case the 2012 Chevrolet Colorado), and a pick-up version which was previously based on the Opel Corsa known as the Corsa Ute; but the current model which in collaboration with GM Brazil who developed it, is the Chevrolet Utility which is based on the Chevrolet Agila platform (a vehicle developed in Brazil and built in Argentina).\nIn 2017, GM withdrew from South Africa, with its truck division and its plant changing hands to Isuzu while at the same time ending all sales and the dealership network of the Chevrolet brand. GM worked with both Isuzu and PSA (the new owners of Opel, which GM spun off the division to) to ensure existing customers receive parts and technical support during and after the company exit the country.\n\n\n=== Europe ===\n\nUntil 2005, Chevrolet Europe sold a few models, mostly United States domestic market (USDM) models modified to suit European regulations. Among them were the Chevrolet Alero (which was a rebadged Oldsmobile Alero) and the Chevrolet Trans Sport (which was a Chevrolet Venture with the front end of the Pontiac Trans Sport). Among other models sold were the Camaro, the Corsica/Beretta, the Corvette, the Blazer, and the TrailBlazer. North American–built Chevrolet Impala V8 sedans have also been available in Europe in recent years, marketed as both large family sedans and more economically priced alternatives as high-performance executive cars.\nFrom 2005 all models from GM Daewoo were rebranded as Chevrolet in Europe. In the rest of the world, most Daewoo models have worn the Chevrolet badge since 2003. Exceptions include the use of the Suzuki badge in the United States and Canada, the Pontiac badge in Canada, the Holden badge in Australia and New Zealand, and the Buick badge in China.\nDuring the mid-2000s, the Corvette and Cadillac range were marketed in Europe through a separate distribution channel operated by Netherlands-based Kroymans Corporation Group but following its bankruptcy in 2010, General Motors established a new Swiss based subsidiary to relaunch Chevrolet in Europe and add the Corvette, Camaro and Malibu models to the European range.From the beginning of 2016, General Motors reduced its presence in Europe only to its iconic models, such as the Corvette, in order to strengthen its Opel and Vauxhall brands. Although announcing that they will maintain a broad presence in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States, General Motors later reduced their line-up to the iconic models in Russia, and more, the Opel division also exited the Russian market in 2015, while also abandoning production at their Saint Petersburg plant. As of March 2016, only the US-built Corvette Stingray and Tahoe, as well as the Russian-built Niva, were being offered on the Russian market.\nChevrolet sales in Western and Central Europe ranged around 200,000 units per year since 2005, peaking at 216,160 units in 2007, while the market share achieved its highest of 1.28 percent in 2012. In Russia, sales grew constantly over the same period, from 67,000 units in 2005 to 205,040 units in 2012, Chevrolet holding a market share of 6.84 percent and being the top import car brand. In 2012, the top markets for Chevrolet in Europe, by the number of registrations, were Italy (31,150), Germany (29,694), France (24,613), Turkey (18,492) and Spain (15,165). The best selling model during the same year was the Aveo (54,800), followed by the Spark (47,600) and the Cruze (40,500).\n\n\n==== Poland ====\n\nDuring World War II in Poland, the Home Army of the Polish resistance movement built an improvised armoured car – Kubuś which was based on the chassis of a civilian Chevrolet 157 truck, license-built in pre-war Poland by the Lilpop, Rau i Loewenstein company. The car was used against the German army in Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The damaged Kubuś survived the war and in 1945 was towed to the Polish Army Museum where it is currently on exhibition. A full-scale operational replica was created in 2004 by Juliusz Siudziński and is, as of 2009, on exhibition at the Warsaw Uprising Museum.\nBetween the autumn of 2007 and the beginning of 2011, the Chevrolet Aveo was produced at the FSO plant in Warsaw, in collaboration with the Ukrainian company UkrAVTO, in both hatchback and sedan body styles. Between 2005 and 2014 GM sold some 60,000 cars under Chevrolet brand that represented 0.5–1% market share compere to Opel's 7% market share each year.\n\n\n==== Russia ====\nGM-AvtoVAZ was a joint venture between GM and the Russian company AvtoVAZ established in 2001, which produced the Chevrolet Niva, an SUV especially designed for the Russian market and conditions. The venture ended in December 2019, after AvtoVAZ acquired all General Motors' stake in it.General Motors also operated the GM Avto factory, located in Saint Petersburg and opened in 2008. It was upgraded in 2012 and has produced the Opel Antara and Chevrolet Captiva SUVs, the Chevrolet Cruze from late 2009, and the TrailBlazer from semi-knocked down kits. It ceased production in July 2015, before Chevrolet's exit from the Russian market at the end of the year.\nIn collaboration with the Russian company GAZ, the second generation Chevrolet Aveo was produced at the plant in Nizhny Novgorod for the Russian market, starting from the beginning of 2013, until 2015.Chevrolet vehicles were also produced at the Avtotor plant, located in Kaliningrad. The models produced here were the Lacetti, Aveo, Epica, Captiva, Orlando and Tahoe.Currently (as of December 2017), the Chevrolet Tahoe, Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Corvette, and Chevrolet Niva are officially available for sale in Russia.\n\n\n=== South America ===\nHistorically, many Latin American-market vehicles from GM were modified derivatives of older models from GM's North American and European operations. The current S-10 and Blazer exemplify this strategy. However, more modern vehicles are now being marketed as market conditions change and competition increases. Besides those older models made in Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Mercosur countries, Korean-sourced cars from former Daewoo factories in some markets also get Korean- and U.S.-made Chevrolets on top of their local line-ups.\n\n\n==== Argentina ====\n\nIn 1924, General Motors de Argentina, the local GM subsidiary, started importing Chevrolet Double Phaeton models which were welcomed with great demand. In 1925, in order to reduce costs in the Argentine market, General Motors decided to manufacture in Argentina and started producing a sedan, a roadster, a truck chassis and the Chevrolet Double Phaeton, now called \"Especial Argentino\", a model exclusively designed for the Argentinean market. Sales increased and soon the Oldsmobile, Oakland and Pontiac units were incorporated to the assembly line.\nWhen the Second World War broke out the operations were complicated. In 1941 the Chevrolet number 250,000 was made, but the shortage of products made car production impossible. The last Chevrolet went out of the plant in August 1942. In order to avoid the total stoppage, the company made electrical and portable refrigerators and car accessories amongst other items. After the war, GM started producing the Oldsmobile and Pontiac lines and later Chevrolet was added.\nIn 1959, manufacturing plants are enlarged and set up to produce cars, pick-ups and trucks. On January 25, 1960, the first Argentinean Chevrolet pick-up was introduced. The following year the national government approves the investment plan for 45 million dollars which included a plant of 12,000 m2. On March 12, 1962, the first Chevrolet 400 was made based on the North American Chevy II. The original plan considered a national integration of 50% during the first year of production; this amount had to be 90% in 1964 with a production of 15,000 units. By 1969, the Chevy line, derived from the American Chevy Nova, was presented.\nIn the middle of the seventies, General Motors market share was reduced sharply from 9% in 1976 to 2% in 1978. Losses exceeded $30 million and the head company in the USA decided to halt production activities in Argentina.\nThe Chevrolet trademark reappeared in 1985 for the production of the pick-up in its versions C-20 and D-20. In 1995, a plan for the manufacturing destined for export specially to Brazil and other countries of Mercosur materialized with the building of a new facility near Rosario, Santa Fe, for the production of the Opel-based Chevrolet Corsa and the Suzuki-based Chevrolet Grand Vitara 4x4.By 2010, the range was based on a variety of GM Korea based cars, together with the Brazilian Chevrolet Prisma.\n\n\n==== Brazil ====\n\nIn Brazil, the Chevrolet Opala was based on the German Opel Rekord and American Chevrolet Nova from the late 1960s, continuing in production until the early 1990s, when it was replaced by a version of the Opel Omega. In the basic version had 151 four-cylinder engine with 82 hp and 143.2 lb-ft. The top of the line version was called Opala SS and used the GM engine 250-S inline six-cylinder and possessed solid lifters with 171 hp and 278.5 lb-ft, which led to the record-breaking South American speed road cars in 1976, with 118.36 mph (190.47 km/h), beating the Puma GTB (which also used the GM 250 engine inline six-cylinder, but without solid lifters) and the Brazilian version of the Dodge Charger R / T 318 and Ford Maverick V8 302 quadrijet.\nOther smaller Chevrolets in Brazil, such as the Kadett and Monza, were based on the Opel Kadett and Ascona respectively.\nChevrolet's product line-up in Brazil comprised some exclusive designs like the Corsa \"B\" based Celta, which was sold in Argentina under the Suzuki brand, the Astra, and a Brazilian-designed Vectra based on the Opel Astra H. The passenger car range currently includes the Cruze, the Captiva, the Agile hatchback, Chevrolet Onix. The latest home-grown product is the Chevrolet Prisma MKII, released in 2013.\nUtility and four-wheel drive vehicles line-up includes the S-10, the Blazer, and the Montana. The Montana is a compact pickup truck, based on the Agile, that is also sold in other Latin American markets. From the 1960s to the mid-1980s, there was also a large station wagon, derived from the C10 truck (somewhat similar to the Suburban), called the Veraneio.\n\n\n==== Chile ====\nChile has a mix of Chevrolet models from different GM brands and platforms branded as Chevrolet. The models come from Chevrolet USA, GM Korea, Mexico, India and other origins. Chevrolet production in Chile began in 1962, although at first through local partners (in this case, Avayu with the Nova II). The Chevrolet C/K truck was manufactured in Chile between 1975-88.\n\n\n==== Ecuador ====\nChevrolet has been operating in Ecuador for 80 years. GM Ecuador sells US Chevrolets alongside GM Korea sourced models. It also sells the 1983 Suzuki Supercarry under the Chevrolet name, and the Isuzu Rodeo was sold as the Chevrolet Rodeo throughout the 1990s.\n\n\n==== Venezuela ====\nIn Venezuela, Chevrolet has been operating since 1948, when truck production began in Caracas. In 1979 production moved to a plant in Valencia that was purchased from Chrysler. Chevrolet assembled more than 1,500,000 vehicles in its first 50 years in Venezuela.\n\n\n==== Colombia ====\nThe Colombian Automotive Factory SA (Colmotores) was founded in 1956 and initially produced vehicles in Austin; in the '60s, Simca and Dodge automobiles (its first car manufactured was a Coronet 440); and then, in 1980, began producing Chevrolet cars. Currently, Colmotores has more than 75% of the domestic market, with models from GM Korea and Suzuki. Particularly worthy of mention is the Aveo, Optra and the Spark.\n\n\n==== Trinidad and Tobago ====\nSince the early 1920s, Chevrolet cars and trucks were marketed in this country. The Master Deluxe Sedan of the late 1930s was considered to be a pinnacle of luxury. All cars sold through the local dealer, Neal and Massey (also franchisee for Vauxhall and Buick), were right-hand-drive, and imported from Canada and Australia. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, GM maintained a market presence with the Bel Air, Impala and Fleetline. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Australian Holden DeVilles badged as Chevrolet Caprices were sold, though a few \"Islander\" limited edition American Chevrolet Caprices were imported. Neal and Massey gave up the GM franchise in 1974 and the brand left the market.\nDuring the period 1998–2001, Southern Sales Ltd. imported the Chevy Monza and Joy. Based on the Opel Corsa platform and assembled in Mexico, these were the cheapest new cars available. Poor build quality, unprofessional dealer service, and a limited spare parts supply saw these cars exit the market with only a few units being sold.\nIn 2003, the local Renault dealer marketed the Aveo sedan and hatchback, as well as the Optra sedan (a rebadged Suzuki Forenza), with limited success.\nA more intensive marketing campaign by a subsequent Chevrolet dealer, Lifestyle Motors, met with moderately more success. \nThe models available were the Chevrolet Colorado (Isuzu D-Max twin), Spark (micro-car based on the Daewoo Matiz), Aveo sedan and hatchback, Optra sedan, hatchback and wagon, the Captiva SUV, and the Epica large saloon. \nIn March 2011, the Cruze was added to the lineup and features a 1.8 litre gasoline engine. It bridged the gap between Optra and Epica models. \nOnce the Optra was phased out, a 1.6 litre Cruze was made available.\n\n\n== Vehicle models ==\n\n\n== Sport ==\nChevrolet enters a variety of cars in sporting events around the world and is particularly well known in NASCAR, IndyCar, and the FIA World Touring Car Championship.\n\n\n=== NASCAR ===\nMajor teams include Hendrick Motorsports, Richard Childress Racing, and Chip Ganassi Racing, who all drive Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 1LE-themed cars. Hendrick has twelve championships, Childress has six championships, and now-Ford Stewart-Haas Racing has two. Chevrolet is the most successful manufacturer to be involved in NASCAR with thirty-nine manufacturer's titles and the most recorded wins by a manufacturer. Previously, the Chevy Monte Carlo, Impala and the SS were used in both the NASCAR Cup Series and NASCAR Xfinity Series.\nChevrolet teams in the NASCAR Cup Series currently use the Camaro ZL1 1LE, while Xfinity teams run the Camaro SS and NASCAR Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series organizations race with the Silverado.\n\n\n=== IndyCar ===\nChevrolet claimed six consecutive Indianapolis 500 wins from 1986 to 1993 and five consecutive CART World Series wins from 1986 to 1992, with notable drivers such as Rick Mears, Al Unser Jr., Michael Andretti, Danny Sullivan, Arie Luyendyk, Emerson Fittipaldi, and Bobby Rahal.\nChevrolet replaced Oldsmobile as the General Motor brand at the IndyCar Series from 2002 to 2005. Hélio Castroneves won the Indianapolis 500 and Sam Hornish Jr. the championship, but the American brand had little success the next years.\nChevrolet returned to IndyCar in 2012. After several years of Honda being the only engine provider, Chevrolet rejoined the series in 2012. Major teams include Team Penske, KV Racing, Chip Ganassi Racing and CFH Racing who all use Chevy engines. Chevrolet won several races including the 2013 and 2015 Indianapolis 500, as well as three drivers championships.\n\n\n=== Tudor United SportsCar Championship ===\nThe Corvette runs in the GT LeMans class for Tudor United SportsCar Championship, which was, until 2014, the American Le Mans Series in the GT class, when ALMS merged with Grand-Am to form Tudor United SportsCar Championship. Corvette Racing started in 1999 at the Daytona 24-hour race and has since won eight consecutive ALMS GT1 manufacturers and team championships and seven ALMS GT1 drivers' titles. The Corvette also takes part in the French\n24 Hours of Le Mans race.\n\n\n=== FIA World Touring Car Championship ===\nIn 2005, when the Chevrolet brand was re-launched in Europe, Chevrolet took part in the WTCC with a version of the Lacetti, developed by the UK-based Ray Mallock Ltd (RML). In 2009 the Cruze replaced the Lacetti and won the Drivers' and Manufacturers' championship from 2010 to 2012.\n\n\n=== British Touring Car Championship ===\nChevrolet participated in the British Touring Car Championship with the Cruze between 2010 and 2011.\n\n\n=== British football ===\nIn May 2012, Chevrolet replaced Audi as the official automotive sponsor of the English football team Manchester United. From the start of the 2014–15 season Chevrolet became the team's principal shirt sponsor. The deal is contracted to run for seven years, worth a world-record $560 million USD.In July 2012, Chevrolet and English Premier League football team Liverpool F.C. announced a four-year partnership that would see Chevrolet become the official automotive partner of the club. The deal ended two years prematurely, in 2014, following GM pulling the Chevrolet brand out of Europe. GM's subsidiary in the UK, Vauxhall Motors, took over from Chevrolet as the club's automotive sponsor.\n\n\n== Marketing ==\n\n\n=== Chevrolet bowtie logo ===\nThe Chevrolet bowtie logo was introduced by company co-founder William C. Durant in late 1913. According to an official company publication titled The Chevrolet Story of 1961, the logo originated in Durant's imagination when, as a world traveler in 1908, he saw the pattern marching off into infinity as a design on wallpaper in a French hotel. He tore off a piece of the wallpaper and kept it to show friends, with the thought that it would make a good nameplate for a car. However, in an interview with Durant's widow, Catherine, published in a 1986 issue of Chevrolet Pro Management Magazine, Catherine recalled how she and her husband were on holiday in Hot Springs, Virginia, in 1912. While reading a newspaper in their hotel room, Durant spotted a design and exclaimed, \"I think this would be a very good emblem for the Chevrolet.\" Unfortunately, at the time, Mrs. Durant didn't clarify what the motif was or how it was used. Ken Kaufmann, historian and editor of The Chevrolet Review, discovered in a November 12, 1911, edition of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper, an advertisement from the Southern Compressed Coal Company for \"Coalettes\", a refined fuel product for fires. The Coalettes logo, as published in the ad, had a slanted bowtie form, very similar to the shape that would soon become the Chevrolet icon. The date of the paper was just nine days after the incorporation of the Chevrolet Motor Co. One other explanation attributes the design to a stylized version of the cross of the Swiss flag. Louis Chevrolet was born in Switzerland at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Canton of Neuchâtel, to French parents, on Christmas Day 1878. An October 2, 1913, edition of The Washington Post seems, so far, to be the earliest known example of the symbol being used to advertise the brand.The first bowtie logo without embedded text first appeared in 1985, as part of the Heartbeat of America ad campaign. In 2004, Chevrolet began to phase-in the gold bowtie that serves as the brand identity for all of its cars and trucks marketed globally, where previously the logo was blue for passenger cars and gold for trucks.\n\n\n=== Typography ===\nThe Klavika Condensed font was designed by type design studio Process Type Foundry under the art direction of Aaron Carámbula for General Motors marketer FutureBrand as part of Chevrolet's 2006 redesign. After the expiry of the exclusivity period, the commercial version of the font (Klavika Condensed) was released to the public in the fall of 2008. In the Young Creative Chevrolet corporate identity guidelines, Klavika is listed for use in all communication materials. Klavika was phased out beginning in 2012 and replaced by Knockout (from Hoefler & Frere-Jones) while the campaign was still ongoing. Currently, Goodby, Silverstein & Partners is utilizing the typeface families Louis, a group of simplified, legible grotesque gothics named after co-founder Louis Chevrolet, and Durant, a roman group, just as simplified and legible, named after co-founder William Durant, on print, television and Chevrolet's website advertisements.\n\n\n=== 100th anniversary ===\nAs part of Chevrolet's 100th anniversary in 2011, a dedicated channel was created by the American internet based Pandora Radio station, playing the Top 100 songs mentioning the brand. Beginning on November 3, 2011, Chevrolet celebrated the countdown to its 100th birthday by encouraging its customers and fans to tell their Chevy stories, vote for their favorite Chevrolet cars and trucks, and take the birthday party to their communities with the help of Chevrolet and its dealers. A feature-length documentary titled 'Chevy100, An American Story', produced by Roger Sherman, was premiered on November 3 at Detroit Institute of Arts in downtown Detroit, features drivers, collectors, restorers, racers and journalists who live and breathe cars and trucks. In honor of the 100th birthday of Chevrolet, Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Chevrolet and Indianapolis businessman David Ring have arranged to properly mark the grave of Arthur Chevrolet, brother of Chevrolet co-founder Louis Chevrolet.\n\n\n=== Advertising ===\nEarlier marketing efforts touted efficiency combined with savings – (\"enormous buying power\", 1914; \"Quality at low cost\", 1923, \"A Six for the Price of a Four\", 1929), interspersed with what could be described as \"loftier\" messages (positioning the automobile –and Chevy by extension—as \"Man's conquest of time\", 1923). Of the marketing campaigns from more recent decades, \"See the U.S.A. in Your Chevrolet\" (used in the 50s and 60s) was one of the longest lasting. In 1949 Chevy sponsored \"Inside USA\" on CBS; while this was a short-lived show, the tune created for it got new life in 1951, when Chevy began sponsoring the Dinah Shore show and Shore sang it at the close of every show.\nA selection of Chevrolet's more recent marketing campaigns includes the following:\n\nSee the U.S.A. in Your Chevrolet (1950s–1960s)\nPutting you first keeps us first (1960s)\nIt's Exciting! (mid-1960s)\nBuilding a better way to see the U.S.A. (early 1970s)\nBaseball, Hotdogs, Apple Pie & Chevrolet (1975; 2006)\nNow that's more like it (late 1970s)\nChevy makes good things happen (1982)\nUSA-1 Taking Charge (1983)\nToday's Chevrolet—Live It (1985)\nThe Heartbeat of America (1987–1994)\nRock, Flag and Eagle (1985–1987)\nFrom the country that invented Rock and roll (1993-1997; Chevrolet Camaro)\nGenuine Chevrolet (1994–1999)\nTried, Tested, and True (1996–2004 in Canada)\nWe'll Be There (1999–2004 in United States)\nLike a Rock (1991–2004; Chevrolet Trucks) Featuring the Bob Seger song of the same name\nAn American Revolution (2004–2009)\nFor All Life's Roads (2004–2006; Canada)\nOur Country, My Truck (2006–2007; Chevrolet Trucks)\nAmerica's Best Trucks (2007–present; Chevrolet Trucks)\nLet's Go (2007–2009; Canada)\nMay the Best Car Win (2009–2010; United States and Canada)\nExcellence for Everyone (2010–present)\nChevy Runs Deep (2010–2013; United States): A series of TV commercials were produced with Goodby, Silverstein and Partners, and was unveiled during the week of 2010 MLB World Series. Early commercials include 'Chevrolet: Anthem', 'Chevrolet: Dogs and Pickups', 'First Car', 'Chevrolet: Coming Home', 'Chevrolet Volt: Anthem', which positioned Chevy as a brand that is part of the American fabric in song, culture and in most of our pasts in one way or another. Most television commercials run in this ongoing campaign feature voice-over by television and film star Tim Allen.\nChevrolet is the Car (2011–2012; South Korea, Japan)\nDriving Our World Forward/I'm proud (2011-; Canada): Chevrolet Sonic and Chevrolet Orlando ads were produced by Toronto-based production company Holiday Films. In Quebec, the brand introduced a new tag line: 'I'm proud'. The campaign included commercials in Mandarin, Cantonese, Tamil, Punjabi and Hindi languages. French version of the Antham ad also uses alternate slogan 'Chevrolet, et fier de l'être.' The fully integrated campaign includes TV, print and outdoor elements as well as extensive social media. The General Motors brand also held live events, including a concert in Toronto, presentations by parenting expert Nanny Robina and 'mompreneur' Erica Ehm, and a live yoga session. Mike Speranzini, director of advertising and communications for General Motors Canada, claimed that by leveraging the fact that Chevrolet is a global brand, consumers are seeing it in a more favourable light. Slogan in other languages include: 'Driving me (and) your world' (驅動你我的世界) (Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese Chinese)\nLove. Life. Chevrolet (2012–present; South Korea, Japan) As part of the Cruze campaign (in association with MacLaren McCann, Canada), outdoor vinyl materials, recycled seatbelts and bicycle inner tubes were made into messenger bags, laptop sleeves, and oversize totes.\nLive Better. (2012–present; United States)\nWhat do you #playfor (2012–present; Global Campaign): Chevrolet sponsors Manchester United replacing Aon as the shirt sponsor. The campaign slogan, \"What do you #playfor?\" attempts to engage users on social media. Chevrolet also launched multiple sites across the globe under the main Chevrolet Football Club website.\nFind New Roads (2013–; United States, Canada, Latin America): The slogan replaced the previous Chevy Runs Deep tag line, after Chevy Runs Deep campaign had been criticized as ineffectual. External applications of 'Find New Roads' was set to begin globally later in the first quarter of 2013. The first Find New Roads commercial, a 90-second commercial titled 'Dog & Doe' (produced by Commonwealth) featuring Chevrolet Volt, Spark, Sonic, Impala, Corvette Stingray, was premiered during 2013 Grammy Awards. The campaign was expected to cover 13 product launches for 2013 in the U.S. and 20 introductions throughout the world. In 2018, South Korea added a new slogan called \"Find New Roads\"+\"다시 힘차게 달리다\". Now they use \"Find New Roads\" again.\n\n\n==== Controversy over reliability claims ====\nChevrolet's advertisement promoting reliability has been pulled after recent backlash.\nIn the advertisement (which is part of their \"Real People. Not Actors\" campaign), Chevrolet spokesperson Potsch Boyd claims that \"based on a recent nationwide survey (by Ipsos), Chevy is more reliable than Toyota, Honda, and Ford.\" However, Chevrolet included a disclaimer stating that the survey was based on 2015 model year vehicles; several of these vehicles have been updated (facelifted and/or redesigned) since then. According to the Detroit Free Press and Detroit News, Ford, Honda and Toyota all challenged the accuracy of the claim. Furthermore, these claims were challenged by Consumer World, which noted that independent studies by J. D. Power and Consumer Reports contradicted them.\n\n\n=== Marketing agency ===\nFutureBrand, an Interpublic Group of Companies company, has been working with General Motors since 2000, who also involved the commissioning of a font that would later sold as Klavika Condensed, as part of re-design of Chevrolet in 2006.\nIn 2010, General Motors replaced the advertising agency Campbell Ewald, also of Interpublic Group of Companies, with Publicis Worldwide. Campbell-Ewald had served Chevrolet since 1919. In May 2010 Chevrolet's advertising account was awarded to Goodby, Silverstein and Partners.As part of the attempt to attract 18- to 24-year-old drivers, General Motors hired MTV Scratch. Some of the collaboration results include Chevy ads showing their cars skydiving, bungee jumping, doing other stunts. The commercial was produced with consultations from students from UCLA, Pepperdyne and high schools. Some of the footage was later used in Chevrolet Sonic ad titled 'Stunt Anthem' during Super Bowl XLVI.In March 2012, two competing agencies, San Francisco-based Goodby, Silverstein and Partners (part of Omnicom Group), and New York-based McCann Erickson Worldwide (part of Interpublic Group), joined to form an equal joint venture company called Commonwealth to handle most of Chevrolet's ads. Prior to the joint venture, Goodby, Silverstein and Partners performed marketing in the U.S., including the \"Chevy Runs Deep\" campaign; McCann handled Chevrolet ads in China, Latin America, Mexico, Canada and other markets. Commonwealth would handle and supervise creative work worldwide out of Detroit for all markets except China, India and Uzbekistan, where GM has joint auto-making ventures. McCann would continue to handle ads in China and India, and Uzbekistan will be contracted as needed. MacLaren McCann continued on as AOR for the entire GM brand in Canada, but the Chevrolet brand will act as a “spoke” to Detroit's creative hub, with content and messaging flowing through Commonwealth, but adapted for the Canadian market.Performance Marketing Group Incorporated manages Chevrolet Racing's experiential marketing properties for its at-track activation platforms in conjunction with the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, the IZOD IndyCar Series, and the American Le Mans Series with Team Corvette.\n\n\n=== Chevrolet-only naming attempt ===\nIn 2010, a memo signed by Chevrolet sales and service vice president Alan Batey and General Motors marketing division vice president Jim Campbell was sent to Chevrolet employees at its Detroit headquarters, instructing employees to only use Chevrolet when addressing the brand, in order to present a consistent brand message. A postscript to the memo says a sort of cuss jar - a plastic \"Chevy\" can - has been placed in the hallway. \"Every time someone uses 'Chevy' rather than Chevrolet\", the note said, the employee is expected to put a quarter in the can. The proceeds were to be spent on \"a team building activity\". Paul Worthington, head of strategy for Wolff Olins, noted that the branding effort ran counter to a trend in which corporate names had become more casual. Ian Beavis of Nielsen Automotive Group noted that marketers cannot control what consumers call their products, but nicknames do not work in new markets where Chevrolet is trying to get a start. Following the release of the memo, General Motors published a statement claiming the note was in no way discouraging customers or fans from using the Chevy name. Following the 2010 memo incident, Chevy Runs Deep campaign remains to use the 'Chevy' name, while Driving Our World Forward and Find New Roads campaigns uses the 'Chevrolet' name.\n\n\n== Watches ==\nIn 2007, General Motors allowed AJS-Production SA to register the Louis Chevrolet trademark for a line of premium quality Swiss watches watch marketed under the Louis Chevrolet brand name. Although the watches bear the name of Louis Chevrolet, they are not marketed or produced in association with General Motors.The watch brand pays tribute to Louis Chevrolet, co-founder of the Chevrolet automobile company, whose father was a watchmaker and in his childhood helped his father at the workbench. The collection was called Frontenac, the name inherited from the race car company founded by Louis Chevrolet. The Chevrolet watch collection comprises automatic, manually wound and quartz models, equipped with ETA and Ronda movements.\nThe Louis Chevrolet Frontenac watches, manufactured in Porrentruy, the Swiss Jura region, feature the styling cues suggested by the Chevrolet cars. The collection was developed while applying the same materials as used in the car industry. Pearled appliques on the Chevrolet watches' dials remind the metal forms of the old dashboards. The number \"8\", Chevrolet's racing number, is sported on the case back.\n\n\n== Branding by other manufacturers ==\nIn December 2019, after AvtoVAZ acquired General Motors' stake in their former GM-AvtoVAZ joint venture and as part of the deal, AvtoVAZ kept using the Chevrolet branding for the Niva models. The Chevrolet branding by AvtoVAZ continued until August 2020, when it was replaced with Lada.\n\n\n== See also ==\n\nChevrolet big-block engine\nChevrolet Hall\nGeneral Motors Canada\nGeo – A brand of small cars and SUVs sold through Chevrolet dealerships throughout North America from 1989 to 1997\nMason Truck\nSuper Sport\nU.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year – Sponsored by Chevrolet\n\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== References ==\n\n\n== External links ==\nOfficial website (US)\nList of Worldwide country and regional sites" ] }