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391 | india (hindi: ), officially the republic of india [...] about 500–100 bce, although these were orally transmitted for centuries before this period. other south asian stone age sites apart from pakistan are in modern india, such as the bhimbetka rock shelters in central madhya pradesh and the kupgal petroglyphs of eastern karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.
several modern religions are linked to india, namely modern hinduism, jainism, buddhism and sikhism. all of these religions have different schools (ways of thinking) and traditions that are related. as a group they are called the eastern religions. the indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: the basic beliefs, the way worship is done and several religious practices are very similar. these similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. they also influenced each other.
the religion of hinduism is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the republic of india; islam – 14.23%; christianity – 2.30%; sikhism – 1.72%; buddhism – 0.70% and jainism – 0.37%.
technology
india sent a spacecraft to mars for the first time in 2014. that made it the fourth country and first asian country to do so, successfully. it was called the mars orbiter mission.
isro launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. india became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. that was more than the 2014 russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch.
pop culture
india has the largest movie industry in the world. it is based in bombay which is now known as mumbai, the industry is also known as bollywood. it makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as hollywood.
sports
indians have excelled in hockey. they have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the olympic games. however, cricket is the most popular sport in india. the indian cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 cricket world cup and the 2007 icc world twenty20. they shared the 2002 icc champions trophy with sri lanka and won the 2013 icc champions trophy. cricket in india is controlled by the board of control for cricket in india or bcci. domestic tournaments are the ranji trophy, the duleep trophy, the deodhar trophy, the irani trophy, and the challenger series. there is also the indian cricket league and indian premier league twenty20 competitions.
tennis has become popular due to the victories of the india davis cup team. association football is also a popular sport in northeast india, west bengal, goa and kerala. the indian national football team has won the south asian football federation cup many times. chess, which comes from india, is also becoming popular. this is with the increase in the number of indian grandmasters. traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout india.
notes | 893 | 27 |
393 | An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called derogatory language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.
Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures.
Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word newbie is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.
One should be very careful when using new words to describe others.
Reason
Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.
Effects
When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older.
Figures of speech | 304 | 0 |
394 | immunology is the study of the immune system. the immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.
an immune system is present in all plants and animals. we know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. these toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. the type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. this is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.
vertebrates, and only vertebrates, have a second type of immunity. this is called adaptive immunity, because it'remembers' previous infections. then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. this immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment".
types of immunity in vertebrates
innate immune response
the innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work.
innate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection.
adaptive immune response
the adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. it explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. this immunological memory is due to the biology of t-cells and b-cells.
other aspects of immunity
vaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. the system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. if the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.
the distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general. the intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health.
errors and weaknesses
errors of the immune system may cause damage. in autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. some kinds of arthritis are caused this way.
sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. that is how viruses work. once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. infections like hiv get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an hiv-challenged body, and prevent the onset of aids. this is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. this research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body.
history of immunology
immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. it originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. the earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of athens in 430 bc. thucydides (460–395 bc) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.
in the 18th century, pierre-louis moreau de maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this ven | 1,024 | 0 |
395 | infinity is a number which is about things that never end. it is written in a single digit. infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. the word is from latin origin, meaning "without end". infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.
infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. infinity often says how many there is of something, instead of how big something is. for example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. but different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. so its meaning often changes.
there are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. potential infinity is a process that never stops. for example, adding 10 to a number. no matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers).
infinity in mathematics
mathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.
counting infinity
the number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3,..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. there are many different cardinal numbers. infinity can be defined in one of two ways: infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. there is a smallest infinite number, countable infinity. it is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. it is also the counting number of the rational numbers. the mathematical notation is the hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero;. it is spoken "aleph naught".
it was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. the number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. this shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. the smallest infinite number greater than is (aleph one). the number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number,.
and these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.
ordering infinity
a different type of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third,...". the order "first, second, third,..." and so on to infinity is different from the order ending "..., third, second, first". the difference is important for mathematical induction. the simple first, second, third,... has the mathematical name: the greek letter omega with subscript zero:. (or simply omega.) the infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is.
the real line and complex plane
the third type of infinity has the symbol. this is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. it is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. the series 1, 2, 3,... increases without upper bound. this is written: the limit is. in calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written:
the arithmetic of infinity
each kind of infinity has different rules.
addition, multiplication, exponentiation
addition with "alephs" is commutative.
multiplication with "alephs" is commutative.
.
. addition with "omegas" is not commutative.
. multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.
subtraction, division
when x is a real number. otherwise, division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is | 1,024 | 0 |
400 | january (jan.) is the first month of the year in the julian and gregorian calendars, coming between december (of the previous year) and february (of the current year). it has 31 days.
january begins on the same day of the week as october in common years, and april and july in leap years. january ends on the same day of the week as february and october in common years, and july in leap years.
the month
january is named for janus, the roman god of doors and gates.
january and february were put on the calendar after all the other months. this is because in the original roman calendar, winter did not have months. although march was originally the first month, january became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (roman leaders). the month has 31 days.
january is a winter month in the northern hemisphere and a summer month in the southern hemisphere. in each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of july in the other. perihelion, the point in its orbit where the earth is closest to the sun, also occurs in this month, between january 2 and january 5. january is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. in a common year, this is october, and in a leap year, july.
january begins on the same day of the week as october in common years and on the same day of the week as april and july in leap years. january ends on the same day of the week as february and october in common years and on the same day of the week as july in leap years.
every year, january both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as may of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
in common years immediately before other common years, january starts on the same day of the week as april and july of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, september and december of the following year. in common years immediately before other common years, january finishes on the same day of the week as july of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, april and december of the following year.
january's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet.
the first day of january is called new year's day. it is said that it became this date when roman consuls took office on this day in 153 bc. different calendars across europe made this the start of the new year at different times, as some observed it on march 25.
reaching over from december, the christmas season in christianity also extends into this month. eastern churches celebrate christmas on january 6 or january 7, and epiphany on january 18 or january 19 - in western christianity this occurs on january 6, with christmas occurring on december 25.
january 1 is celebrated the solemnity of mary, the mother of god, that is a feast day of precept of the blessed virgin mary.
events
fixed events
january 1 - new year's day
january 1 - solemnity of mary, the mother of god
january 1 - world day of peace
january 1 - founding day (republic of china)
january 1 - independence day in brunei, haiti and sudan
january 1 - triumph of the revolution (cuba)
january 1 - constitution day (italy)
january 2 - new year's day bank holiday (scotland)
january 2 - ancestry day (haiti)
january 2 - berchtold's day (switzerland, liechtenstein, alsace
january 3 - statehood day (alaska)
january | 1,024 | 0 |
400 | january (jan.) is the first month of the year in the julian [...] 4 - independence day (burma)
january 4 - day of the fallen against colonial repression (angola)
january 4 - day of the martyrs (democratic republic of the congo)
january 5 - twelfth night in western christianity - night to january 6
january 6 - epiphany in western christianity.
january 6 - christmas in the armenian apostolic church
january 7 - christmas in eastern orthodox christianity.
january 7 - tricolour day (italy)
january 7 - victory from genocide day (cambodia)
january 8 - commonwealth day (northern mariana islands)
january 8 - celebration of elvis presley's birthday at graceland
january 8 - kim jong-un's birthday (north korea)
january 9 - martyrs' day (panama)
january 11 - kagami biraki (japan)
january 11 - republic day (albania)
january 11 - day of national unity (nepal)
january 12 - memorial day (turkmenistan)
january 12 - national youth day (india)
january 12 - zanzibar revolution day (tanzania)
january 13 - korean american day
january 13 - old new year (parts of eastern europe)
january 13 - st. knut's day (norway, finland, sweden)
january 14 - new year's day (eastern orothodox church)
january 14 - national flag day in georgia
january 14 - national forest conservation day (thailand)
january 15 - armed forces day (nigeria)
january 15 - army day (india)
january 15 - tree planting day (egypt)
january 16 - teacher's day (thailand)
january 16 - flag day (israel)
january 17 - roman catholic feast day of st. anthony
january 18 - royal thai armed forces day
january 18 - revolution day (tunisia)
january 18 - world religion day
january 19 - epiphany in eastern orthodox christianity
january 20 - armed forces day (mali)
january 20 - martyrs' day (azerbaijan)
january 20 - inauguration day (united states) - newly elected us president takes office in a year after a leap year (last in 2021, next in 2025)
january 21 - flag day (quebec)
january 21 - christian feast day of st. agnes.
january 22 - wellington anniversary (new zealand)
january 22 - reunion day (ukraine)
january 23 - national pie day (united states)
january 23 - bounty day (pitcairn island)
january 24 - feast day of our lady of peace (roman catholicism)
january 24 - unification day (romania)
january 25 - burns night (scotland and scottish communities), celebrating the birthday of scottish poet robert burns
january 25 - dydd santes dwynwen (welsh equivalent of valentine's day)
january 25 - national voters day (india)
january 25 - tatiana day (russia)
january 26 - australia day
january 26 - republic day (india)
january 26 - duarte day (dominican republic)
january 26 - liberation day (uganda | 1,024 | 27 |
400 | january (jan.) is the first month of the year in the julian [...] )
january 27 - holocaust memorial day
january 28 - army day (armenia)
january 28 - eu data privacy day
january 28 - unofficial day commemorating charlemagne by some christians
january 30 - martyrs' day (india)
january 30 - school day of non-violence and peace (spain)
january 31 - independence day (nauru)
month-long or moveable events
coming of age day (japan), second monday in january
martin luther king, jr. day (united states), third monday in january, commemorating civil rights activist martin luther king, jr., who was born on january 15.
chinese new year (between january 21 and february 21)
australian open - one of the major grand slam tennis tournaments. starts between january 13 and january 19, ends between january 26 and february 1.
auckland anniversary (new zealand) on a monday between january 26 and february 1.
weight loss awareness month (united states)
national mentoring month (united states)
selection of historical events
january 1, 153 bc - roman consuls are said to have taken office on this day for the first time.
january 1, 1801 - the united kingdom is created, with the inclusion of ireland.
january 1, 1804 - haiti becomes the second independent country in the americas, after the us.
january 1, 1901 - australia is given self-government.
january 1, 1956 - sudan becomes independent.
january 1, 1959 - fidel castro takes over in cuba.
january 1, 1962 - samoa becomes independent.
january 1, 1984 - brunei becomes independent.
january 1, 2002 - the euro currency comes into use in 12 eu countries.
january 2, 1492 - spanish reconquista: granada, the last moorish stronghold, surrenders.
january 3, 1868 - meiji restoration in japan.
january 3, 1959 - alaska becomes the 49th us state.
january 4, 1948 - burma becomes independent.
january 4, 2010 - the world's tallest building, the burj khalifa in dubai, opens.
january 5, 1066 - edward the confessor, king of england, dies.
january 6, 1066 - harold godwinson is crowned king of england.
january 7, 1610 - galileo galilei discovers jupiter's four galilean moons - io, callisto, ganymede and europa.
january 7, 1979 - the khmer rouge in cambodia is overthrown by vietnamese troops.
january 7, 1989 - japanese emperor hirohito dies, aged 87.
january 7, 2015 - charlie hebdo shooting in paris.
january 8, 1642 - galileo galilei dies.
january 8, 1912 - the african national congress is founded.
january 8, 1935 - elvis presley is born.
january 10, 1863 - the first section of the london underground opens.
january 12, 2010 - the 2010 haiti earthquake causes many deaths and destruction across haiti.
january 13, 1915 - the avezzano earthquake in italy kills 29,800 people | 1,024 | 27 |
400 | january (jan.) is the first month of the year in the julian [...].
january 13, 1935 - most voters in saarland choose to be part of germany.
january 14, 1954 - marilyn monroe marries joe dimaggio.
january 14, 1972 - margrethe ii of denmark becomes the first danish queen since 1412.
january 15, 1929 - civil rights leader martin luther king, jr. is born in atlanta, georgia, us.
january 15, 2001 - wikipedia goes online.
january 15, 2009 - us airways flight 1549 is safely landed on the hudson river in new york city by chesley sullenberger, after experiencing difficulties shortly after take-off.
january 16, 2006 - ellen johnson-sirleaf of liberia becomes the first female president in africa.
january 17, 1893 - american and european sugar planters overthrow the government of queen liliuokalani of hawaii.
january 17, 1912 - robert falcon scott's expedition reaches the south pole over a month after that of roald amundsen.
january 17, 1991 - operation desert storm in the gulf war.
january 17, 1995 - the great hanshin earthquake strikes japan, mainly the city of kobe, killing over 6,000 people.
january 18, 1778 - james cook reaches the hawaiian islands.
january 20, 1936 - king george v of the united kingdom dies, leaving the throne to edward viii of the united kingdom, who lasts less than 11 months in the post.
january 20, 2009 - barack obama becomes the first african american president of the united states.
january 21, 1793 - king louis xvi of france is executed by guillotine.
january 22, 1901 - queen victoria dies aged 81, ending britain's victorian era.
january 22, 1968 - apollo 5 lifts off, carrying the first lunar module.
january 23, 1960 - in the bathyscaphe trieste, jacques piccard and don walsh, dive to the deepest point of the pacific ocean, the challenger deep in the mariana trench.
january 24, 41 - roman emperor caligula is assassinated by the praetorian guard.
january 24, 1965 - british statesman winston churchill dies.
january 24, 1986 - voyager 2 flies by the planet uranus.
january 25, 1919 - the league of nations is founded.
january 25, 2011 - the 2011 egyptian protests begin.
january 26, 1788 - the first british fleet arrives in what is now sydney harbour, australia.
january 26, 1950 - india becomes a republic.
january 26, 2020 - nba legend kobe bryant, his 13-year-old daughter gianna and seven others are killed in a helicopter crash in calabasas, california.
january 27, 1945 - the red army liberates auschwitz.
january 27, 1967 - us astronauts gus grissom, edward white and roger chaffee are killed in a fire while testing the apollo 1 spacecraft.
january 28, 1935 - iceland becomes the first country to legalize abortion.
january 28, 1986 - the space shuttle challenger explodes shortly after take-off from | 1,024 | 27 |
400 | january (jan.) is the first month of the year in the julian [...] cape canaveral, florida, killing all seven astronauts on board.
january 29, 1996 - venice's la fenice opera house is destroyed by fire.
january 30, 1649 - king charles i of england is executed.
january 30, 1933 - adolf hitler comes to power in germany.
january 30, 1948 - indian independence and non-violence campaigner mahatma gandhi is shot dead by a hindu extremist in delhi.
january 31, 1968 - nauru becomes independent from australia.
january 31, 1990 - moscow's first mcdonald's restaurant opens.
trivia
january is named after the roman god janus, who was the roman god of doors and gates.
january and july are the only pair of 31-day month's that are exactly six months apart. in the english language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (j and y respectively).
the star signs for january are capricorn (december 22 to january 20) and aquarius (january 21 to february 19).
it is the coldest month in the northern hemisphere, and the warmest in the southern hemisphere.
it is one of three months in the english language to begin with "j", along with june and july, but unlike the latter two, does not have a "u" as a second letter. | 427 | 27 |
401 | june (jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the julian and gregorian calendars, coming between may and july. it has 30 days. in sweden in 1732 the month had 31 days. june is named for the roman goddess juno, the wife of jupiter. she is goddess of marriage. because of this, getting married in june was thought to be lucky.
june never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as march.
the month
june comes between may and july and is the sixth month of the year in the gregorian calendar. it is one of the four months to have 30 days.
no other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as june; this month and may are the only two months with this property. june ends on the same day of the week as march every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.in common years, june starts on the same day of the week as september and december of the previous year, and in leap years, april and july of the previous year. in common years, june finishes on the same day of the week as september of the previous year, and in leap years, april and december of the previous year.
every year, june starts on the same day of the week as february of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. in years immediately before common years, june starts on the same day of the week as march and november of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, august of the following year. in years immediately before common years, june finishes on the same day of the week as august and november of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, may of the following year.
june is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is december, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere is turned towards the sun, meaning that june 20 or june 21 is the northern summer solstice and the southern winter solstice. this means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the northern hemisphere, and the least in the southern hemisphere. there are 24 hours of daylight at the north pole and 24 hours of darkness at the south pole.
events in june
the solstice occurs around june 21, but it may occur on either the 20th or the 22nd. it is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere.
midsummer is celebrated in sweden on the third friday in june.
father's day is celebrated in the united states on the third sunday in june.
gay pride celebrations happen in many countries, in honour of the stonewall riots.
world environment day is celebrated on june 5.
world ocean day is celebrated on june 8.
june holiday (lá saoire i mí mheitheamh) in the republic of ireland is celebrated on june 1
queen's official birthday in new zealand, cook islands and western australia is celebrated on june 1
western australia day is celebrated on june 1
global running day is celebrated on june 3
world bicycle day is celebrated on june 3
labour day in the bahamas is celebrated on june 5
national doughnut day is celebrated on june 5
national trails day in the united states is celebrated on june 5
armed forces day in canada is celebrated on june 7
children's day in the united states is celebrated on june 7
father's day in lithuania and switzerland is celebrated on june 7
national cancer survivors day in the united states is celebrated on june 7
teacher's day in hungary is celebrated on june 7
the seamen's day in iceland is celebrated on june | 1,024 | 0 |
401 | june (jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the julian [...] 7
queen's official birthday in papua new guinea, solomon islands and australia, except western australia is celebrated on june 8
seersucker thursday in the united states is celebrated on june 11
china's cultural heritage day in china is celebrated on june 13
national day in montserrat, pitcairn islands, saint helena, south georgia and south sandwich islands, tristan da cunha in the united kingdom is celebrated on june 13
queen's official birthday in the united kingdom and tuvalu is celebrated on june 13
canadian rivers day is celebrated on june 14
father's day in austria and belgium is celebrated on june 14
mother's day in luxembourg is celebrated on june 14
queen's official birthday in the norfolk island is celebrated on june 15
world bisexuality awareness day in the united states is celebrated on june 15
national flip flop day in the united states is celebrated on june 19
international surfing day is celebrated on june 20
international yoga day is celebrated on june 20
world music day is celebrated on june 20
father's day in afghanistan, albania, antigua, barbuda, argentina, aruba, bahamas, bahrain, bangladesh, barbados, belize, bermuda, brunei, cambodia, canada, chile, colombia, costa rica, cuba, curaçao, cyprus, czech republic, dominica, ecuador, ethiopia, france, ghana, greece, guatemala, guyana, hong kong, hungary, india, ireland, jamaica, japan, kenya, kosovo, kuwait, laos, macau, madagascar, malaysia, maldives, malta, mauritius, mexico, mozambique, namibia, netherlands, nigeria, oman, pakistan, panama, paraguay, people's republic of china, peru, philippines, qatar, saint lucia, saint vincent and the grenadines, saudi arabia, singapore, slovakia, south africa, sri lanka, suriname, trinidad and tobago, tunisia, turkey, united kingdom, united states, venezuela, vietnam, zambia and zimbabwe is celebrated on june 21
national bomb pop day in the united states is celebrated on june 25
take your dog to work day in the united kingdom and united states is celebrated on june 26
armed forces day in the united kingdom is celebrated on june 27
inventors' and rationalizers' day in russia is celebrated on june 27
veterans day in the netherlands is celebrated on june 27
father's day in haiti is celebrated on june 28
log cabin day in michigan, united states is celebrated on june 28
mother's day in kenya is celebrated on june 28
selection of historical events
june 1, 1794: french revolutionary wars: the battle of the glorious first of june is fought, the first naval engagement between britain and france.
june 2, 1953: coronation of queen elizabeth ii of the united kingdom.
june 3, 1965: the launch of gemini 4, the first multi-day space mission by a nasa crew. june 4, 1783: the montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their montgolfière (hot air balloon).
june 5, 1837: houston is incorporated by the republic of texas.
june 6, 1844: the young men's christian association is founded in london.
june 7, 1942: world war ii: | 1,024 | 27 |
401 | june (jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the julian [...] the battle of midway ends in american victory.
june 8, 1949: george orwell's nineteen eighty-four is published.
june 9, 1944: world war ii: tulle massacre
june 10, 2003: the spirit rover is launched for nasa's mars exploration mission
june 11, 2010: 2010 fifa world cup (first african fifa)
june 12, 2018: 2018 north korea-united states summit
june 13, 1983: pioneer 10 becomes the first man-made object to leave the central solar system
june 25, 1950: korean war starts.
june 30, 1908: tunguska event.
trivia
june is one of the two months that never begins on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year. (may is the other)
the months of june and july both start with the "ju" letter combination in the english language, and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
june's flower is the rose.
its birthstone is the pearl.
the zodiac signs for june are gemini (may 21 – june 20) and cancer (june 21 – july 21).
at the north pole, the sun does not set in june; at the south pole, it does not rise.
06 | 436 | 27 |
402 | july (jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the gregorian calendar, coming between june and august. it has 31 days. july was named after julius caesar. the halfway point of the year is either on july 2 or in the night of july 1-2.
july always begins on the same day of the week as april, and additionally, january in leap years. july does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as january in leap years.
the month
in each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of january in the other hemisphere. in the north, it is summer and in the south it is winter.
in the northern hemisphere, july is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. in the southern hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in antarctica in this month.
july begins on the same day of the week as april every year and on the same day of the week as january in leap years. no other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as july, but july ends on the same day of the week as january in leap years.
in common years, july starts on the same day of the week as october of the previous year, and in leap years, may of the previous year. in common years, july finishes on the same day of the week as february and october of the previous year, and in leap years, may of the previous year. in common years immediately after other common years, july both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as january of the previous year.
in years immediately before common years, july starts on the same day of the week as september and december of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, june of the following year. in years immediately before common years, july finishes on the same day of the week as april and december of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, september of the following year.
july's flower is a variety of the water lily. its birthstone is the ruby. the meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. astrological signs for july are cancer (june 21 - july 21) and leo (july 22 - august 21).
in the old roman calendar, july was called quintilis, meaning fifth month, because, in the old calendar, the year began in march. augustus later renamed it july in honor of julius caesar, whose birthday was in this month. augustus later also named the following month, august, after himself.
holidays
fixed events
july 1 canada day, national day of canada
july 1 independence day in somalia
july 1 independence day in burundi
july 1 independence day in rwanda
july 1 keti koti (suriname)
july 1 republic day (ghana)
july 1 doctor's day (india)
july 2 canada day, observed on this date if july 1 is a sunday
july 2 bahia independence day (brazil)
july 3 independence day in belarus
july 3 emancipation day (us virgin islands)
july 4 independence day in the united states, commemorating the declaration of independence.
july 4 filipino-american friendship day
july 4 liberation day (rwanda)
july 5 independence day in venezuela
july 5 independence day in algeria
july 5 independence day in cape verde
july 6 independence day in malawi
july 6 independence day in the comoros
july 6-14 | 1,024 | 0 |
402 | july (jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the greg [...] san fermin festival and bull run in pamplona, spain.
july 7 independence day in the solomon islands
july 7 tanabata in japan, traditional'make a wish' celebration
july 9 independence day (argentina)
july 9 independence day (south sudan)
july 10 independence day in the bahamas
july 10 silence day
july 10 statehood day (wyoming)
july 11 day of the flemish community (belgium)
july 11 world population day
july 11 national day of commemoration (ireland)
july 11 to 13 naadam (mongolia)
july 12 battle of the boyne/orangeman's day (northern ireland)
july 12 independence day (são tomé and príncipe)
july 12 independence day in kiribati
july 13 statehood day (montenegro)
july 14 bastille day, national holiday of france
july 14 republic day (iraq)
july 15 st. swithun's day in uk weather lore
july 18 mandela day
july 18 constitution day (uruguay)
july 19 sandinista day (nicaragua)
july 20 independence day (colombia)
july 21 national day of belgium
july 21 liberation day (guam)
july 22 saint mary magdalene day (roman catholicism)
july 23 birthday of haile selassie i of ethiopia
july 23 revolution day in egypt
july 24 pioneer day (utah)
july 24 simon bolivar day (bolivia, ecuador, venezuela)
july 25 constitution day (occupation day) in puerto rico
july 25 christian feast day of saint james, includes regional holiday in galicia
july 26 independence day in liberia
july 26 independence day in the maldives
july 27 victory day (north korea)
july 28 independence day in peru
july 28 liberation day (san marino)
july 29 feast day of st. olav, celebrated in the faroe islands
july 29 international tiger day
july 29 world hepatitis day
july 30 independence day (vanuatu)
july 30 throne day (morocco)
july 31 ka hae hawaii day
moveable events
wimbledon tennis tournament, held in late june and early july
fifa world cup, often held in june and/or july
summer olympics, often held in july and/or august
tour de france cycling race
in northern hemisphere countries, many sports events and music festivals take place in july
national ice cream month in the united states
presidents' day (botswana) on the 3rd monday or tuesday
so-called "dog days" in some northern hemisphere countries, referring to the hot summer weather
marathon races:
gold coast, australia
recife, brazil
rio de janeiro, brazil
san francisco, california, united states
selection of historical events
july 1 1863: american civil war: the battle of gettysburg is fought until july 3.
july 1 1867: the canadian confederation is founded.
july 1 1937: the 999 emergency dialing service begins in the uk.
july 1 1997: the united kingdom hands control of hong kong back to china.
july 1 1999: the new scottish parliament is opened in edinburgh.
july 1 2013: croatia joins the european union. | 1,024 | 27 |
402 | july (jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the greg [...]
july 2 1937: amelia earhart goes missing.
july 3 1844: the great auk becomes extinct, after the last group were killed in iceland.
july 4 1776: 13 colonies on the east coast of north america issue the declaration of independence, now celebrated on this date in the united states.
july 4 1826: us presidents john adams and thomas jefferson die on the same day as each other.
july 4 2012: scientists at cern announce the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the higgs boson, after experiments at the large hadron collider.
july 5 1811: venezuela declares independence.
july 5 1962: algeria becomes independent.
july 5 1975: cape verde becomes independent.
july 6 1964: malawi becomes independent.
july 6 1975: the comoros become independent.
july 7 1937: the second sino-japanese war begins.
july 7 1978: the solomon islands become independent.
july 7 2005: islamic extremists detonate explosives at tube stations around london and on a bus, killing 52 people.
july 9 1816: the united provinces of rio de la plata declare independence, as the predecessor state of present-day argentina.
july 9 2011: south sudan becomes independent from sudan, after a referendum six months earlier.
july 10 1913: at nearly 57 degrees celsius, the hottest-recorded temperature on earth, is measured in death valley, california.
july 10 1973: the bahamas become independent from the uk.
july 10 1985: french agents torpedo the rainbow warrior vessel docked in auckland harbour, new zealand, where activists on board were protesting against french nuclear tests.
july 11 1960: the novel to kill a mockingbird by harper lee is first published.
july 11 1987: world population reaches 5 billion.
july 11 1995: the worst massacre in post-world war ii europe occurs at srebrenica, at the height of the balkan war.
july 11 2010: spain wins the 2010 fifa world cup against the netherlands after a bad-tempered match.
july 12 or 13 100 bc: julius caesar is born.
july 12 1561: st. basil's cathedral in moscow is consecrated.
july 13 1930: the 1930 fifa world cup in uruguay begins.
july 14 1789: the bastille prison is stormed in paris, starting the french revolution.
july 14 2015: new horizons flies by the dwarf planet pluto.
july 16 1950: uruguay wins its second fifa world cup, defeating host nation brazil in the final.
july 17 1918: the family of tsar nicholas ii is executed by the bolsheviks in russia.
july 17 1936: the spanish civil war begins.
july 19 1903: maurice garin wins the first tour de france.
july 20 1810: bogota, new granada (now colombia) declares independence from spain.
july 20 1969: neil armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the moon, followed shortly after by buzz aldr | 1,024 | 27 |
402 | july (jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the greg [...] in.
july 21 1983: at -89.2 degrees celsius, the coldest-ever recorded temperature is measured in antarctica.
july 21 2011: end of the space shuttle programme.
july 22 2009: solar eclipse over asia and the pacific ocean.
july 22 2011: the 2011 norway attacks occur, as anders behring breivik kills a total of 77 people in two separate attacks.
july 23 1952: the egyptian monarchy is removed from power in a coup.
july 24 1911: explorer hiram bingham re-discovers the remains of machu picchu in peru.
july 25 1978: louise brown, the first 'test-tube baby', is born in the uk.
july 26 1847: liberia declares independence.
july 26 1965: the maldives declare independence.
july 27 1940: cartoon character bugs bunny makes his first appearance.
july 27 1953: the korean war ends, though an official state of war still exists between north korea and south korea.
july 28 1821: peru declares independence.
july 28 1914: world war i - austria-hungary declares war on serbia.
july 28 1976: tangshan, china, is struck by a huge earthquake, killing many thousands of people.
july 29 1900: king umberto i of italy is assassinated by gaetano bresci.
july 30 1930: uruguay wins the first fifa world cup, defeating argentina in the final in montevideo.
july 30 1980: the new hebrides, changing their name to vanuatu, become independent.
july 30 2012: a massive power blackout affects around 620 million people in northern india.
july 31 1790: the first us patent is given to samuel hopkins for a potash process.
trivia
july has the 200th day of the year. july 19 in a common year, july 18 in a leap year.
july is often the hottest month in the northern hemisphere
the hottest and coldest-ever recorded temperatures on earth were both recorded in july.
the months of june and july both start with the "ju" letter combination in the english language and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
july and august are the only months named after people who really lived (julius caesar and augustus respectively).
january and july are the only 31-day months that are exactly six months apart. in the english language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (j and y respectively)
july 1 is the only day in july that is entirely within the first half of the calendar year.
canada, the united states and france are among the countries that celebrate their national holidays in july.
the astrological signs for july are cancer (june 21 to july 21) and leo (july 22 to august 21).
07 | 911 | 27 |
403 | japan (; romanised as nihon or nippon) is a country in east asia. it is a group of many islands close to the east coast of korea, china and russia. the pacific ocean is to the east of japan and the sea of japan is to the west. most people in japan live on one of the four islands. the biggest of these islands, honshu, has the most people. honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. tokyo is the capital of japan and its biggest city.
the japanese people call their country "nihon" or "nippon", which means "the origin of the sun" in japanese. japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the emperor. japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years.
history
the first people in japan were the ainu people and other jōmon people. they were closer related to europeans or mongols. they were later conquered and replaced by the yayoi people (early japanese and ryukyuans). the yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern china during the yayoi period (300 bce–300 ce). modern japanese people have primarily yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. the indigenous ryukyuan and ainu peoples have more jōmon ancestry on the other hand.
the earliest records on japan are from chinese documents. one of those records said there were many small countries (in japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.
the japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th centuries, when people from korea and china taught japan about the chinese writing system. japan's neighbours also taught them buddhism. the japanese changed buddhism in many ways. for example, japanese buddhists used ideas such as zen more than other buddhists.
japan had some contact with the europeans in the 16th century. the portuguese were the first europeans to visit japan. later, the spanish and dutch came to japan to trade. also, they brought christianity. japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because europeans had conquered many places in the world, the japanese were scared they would conquer japan too. so the japanese did not let the europeans come into japan anymore, except in a small area in nagasaki city. many christians were killed. only the chinese, korean, and dutch people were allowed to visit japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the japanese government. japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by commodore matthew perry, when the americans wanted to use japanese ports for american whale boats. perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the japanese into making an agreement with him.
this new contact with europeans and americans changed the japanese culture. the meiji restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. the empire of japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it.
it invaded and annexed ryukyu kingdom, taiwan, and korea. it had wars with china and russia: the first sino-japanese war, the boxer rebellion, the russo-japanese war, world war i and siberian intervention.
in 1918, world war i allowed japan, which joined the side of the victorious allies, to capture german possessions in the pacific and in china.
which grew to become a part of world war ii when japan became allies with nazi germany and fascist italy.
in 1941, japan attacked pearl harbor in hawaii, a water base of the united states, and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes. this started the united states' involvement in world war ii. american and japanese forces fought each other in the | 1,024 | 0 |
403 | japan (; romanised as nihon or nippon) is a country in [...] pacific. once airbases were established within range of the japanese mainland, america began to win, and started dropping bombs on japanese cities. america was able to bomb most of the important cities and quickly brought japan close to defeat.
to make japan surrender, the united states dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of hiroshima and nagasaki, killing 150,000 japanese citizens. soon after this the soviet union began to fight against japan, and the japanese army in manchuria lost. japan surrendered and gave up all the places it took from other countries, accepting the potsdam proclamation. the united states occupied japan from september 1945 to april 1952 and forced it to write a new constitution, in which it promised to never go to war again.
japan was granted membership in the united nations in 1956. a period of record growth propelled japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. on 11 march 2011, japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the fukushima daiichi nuclear disaster. on 1 may 1 2019, after the historic abdication of emperor akihito, his son naruhito became emperor, beginning the reiwa era. on 8 july 2022, former prime minister shinzo abe was assassinated while giving a campaign speech in nara.
geography
japan is a group of islands in the western pacific, off the coast of china. the four biggest islands are honshu, hokkaido, shikoku, and kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. japan is separated from the asian continent by the sea of japan and the east china sea. honshu, which means'mainland' in the japanese language, is the biggest island. hokkaido is the island north of honshu. kyushu is the island west of honshu. shikoku is the island to the south-west of honshu.
in the middle of japan there are mountains. they cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. the highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped mt fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. the biggest earthquake recorded in japan was in 2011 - called '2011 tohoku earthquake'. it caused great damage to several power plants forcing japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. there was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.
90% of the people living in japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. the other 10% of the people in japan live away from the coast.
over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. the biggest city in japan is tokyo, which is the capital.
science and technology
japan has made many contributions to science and technology.
the qr code, the camera phone, the cd player, and the vhs were invented in japan.
japan is a leader in the robotics industry: it is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. it has the 2nd most industrial robots behind china.
economy
japan has one of the strongest economies of any country. its nominal gross domestic product (gdp) is the 3rd highest in the world. it has a very low unemployment rate and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021.
japan is known for its automotive industry: it is | 1,024 | 27 |
403 | japan (; romanised as nihon or nippon) is a country in [...] home to toyota, the world's largest car company. honda, nissan, suzuki and mazda are other popular car makers from japan.
tokyo is the most populous city in the world. it also has one of the largest economies of any city. it is an important financial center: it has the tokyo stock exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in asia.
society and culture
many things in japanese culture originated in china, like go and bonsai.
cherry blossom also known as japanese cherry and sakura is thought to be the national flower of japan.
japan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. noodles and tofu are also common. sushi, a japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world.
the religion in japan is mostly shinto and buddhist. due to the tolerant nature of the two main japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many japanese identify as both shinto and buddhist at the same time. there are small numbers of christians and hindus, and a few jews.
when it comes to popular culture, japan is famous for making video games. many of the biggest companies that make games, like nintendo, namco, and sega, are japanese. other well-known parts of japanese arts are its comics, called manga, and its digital animation, known as anime. many people get to know japanese or how life in japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television.
the ryukyuans and the ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.
armed forces
education
cities, regions and territories
the biggest cities in japan are:
tokyo (capital city）
yokohama
nagoya
osaka
kyoto
kobe
hiroshima
fukuoka
kitakyushu
sendai
sapporo
nagasaki
in japan there are seven traditional regions:
hokkaido
tohoku
kanto
chubu
kansai
chugoku
shikoku
kyushu
territorial problem
since japan is an island nation, japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. these days, japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. it cannot agree with some neighbouring countries on whether the land belongs to japan or the other country.
senkaku islands problem (with china and taiwan)
liancourt rocks island problem (with south korea)
southern chishima islands problem (with russia)
sea of japan problem (with south korea and north korea)
public transportation
there are several important international airports in japan. narita is the major international airport in the tokyo area. kansai international airport serves as the main airport for osaka, kobe, and kyoto. chūbu centrair international airport near nagoya is the newest of the three. haneda airport is close to central tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.
the shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in honshu and kyushu. networks of public and private railways are almost all over the country. people mostly travel between cities in buses.
subdivisions
modern japan is divided into 47 prefectures. before the meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.
sports
japan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. also, | 1,024 | 27 |
404 | Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.
For example, the ordinary words boot, net, and web also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.
An acronym means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.
Usually, more jargon is created over time.
Jargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU.
Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter.
Terminology | 254 | 0 |
408 | jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. it is the fifth planet from the sun. jupiter is a gas giant because it is so large, and made mostly of gas. the other gas giants in the solar system are saturn, uranus, and neptune.
jupiter's mass is about 318 times the mass of earth. this is more than twice the mass of all the other planets in the solar system put together.
jupiter can be seen from earth without using a telescope, in fact, it is the third-brightest object in the night sky. only the earth's moon and venus are brighter. the ancient romans named the planet after their king of the gods, jupiter (latin: iuppiter).
jupiter has 95 known moons. about 75 of them are very small—less than five kilometres wide. the four largest moons of jupiter are io, europa, ganymede, and callisto. they are called the galilean moons because galileo galilei discovered them. ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system. its diameter is larger than that of the planet mercury.
name and symbol
jupiter was named for the king of the gods. the greeks called him zeus. the romans called him jupiter. the symbol for jupiter, ♃, is from the greek zeta. it has a horizontal stroke. this stands as an abbreviation for zeus.
structure
jupiter is the biggest planet in the solar system. its diameter is 142,984 km. this is eleven times larger than the diameter of earth. jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the solar system put together. jupiter is 318 times as massive as earth. the volume of jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of earth. in other words, 1,317 earth-sized objects could fit inside it. it gives off more heat than it gets from the sun.
atmosphere
the atmosphere near the surface of jupiter is about 90% hydrogen, 10% helium, and less than 1% other gases.
the lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid. it rains down onto the planet. based on spectroscopy, jupiter seems to be made of the same gases as saturn. it is different from neptune or uranus. those two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas.
core
it is not possible to say exactly what metals are in the core of jupiter.. however, by measuring the gravity around jupiter, one can estimate its size. the inner core is dense. it has a lot of heavy elements, probably in the form of rock and ice. the heavy elements in the core have a total mass of 7–25 times that of earth.
round the unknown inner core is an outer core. the outer core of jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen.
jupiter is mainly made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as the sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the sun and most other stars. if jupiter had 75 times its mass, it could fuse hydrogen to helium.
cloud layers
jupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. the light parts are zones and the darker ones are belts. the zones and belts often interact with each other. this causes huge storms. wind speeds of 360 kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on jupiter. to show the difference the strongest tropical storms on earth are about 100 km/h.
most of the clouds on jupiter are made of ammonia. there may also be clouds of water | 1,024 | 0 |
408 | jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. it is the fifth planet from the [...] vapor like clouds on earth. multiple spacecraft such as voyager 1 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. scientists think it was water vapor because lightning needs water vapor. these lightning bolts have been measured as up to 1,000 times as powerful as those on earth.
great red spot
one of the biggest features in jupiter's atmosphere is the great red spot. it is a huge storm that is bigger than the entire earth. it is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. images by the hubble space telescope have shown as many as two smaller "red spots" next to the great red spot. storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years in the case of the great red spot.
magnetic field
jupiter has a magnetic field like earth's but 10 times stronger. it also has a magnetosphere much bigger and stronger than earth's. the field traps radiation belts much stronger than earth's van allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling near. the magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of jupiter. the four largest moons of jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. this protects them from the solar wind. jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of saturn 7.7 million miles (12 million km) away. the earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000 km) away. jupiter also experiences large aurorae, which happen when charged particles from the volcanic moon io land in its atmosphere.
ring system
jupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. these rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by nasa's voyager 1 probe. there are four parts to jupiter's rings. the closest ring to jupiter is called the halo ring. the next ring is called the main ring. it is about wide and only thick. the main and halo rings of jupiter are made of small, dark particles. the third and fourth rings, called the gossamer rings, are transparent and are made from microscopic debris and dust. this dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of jupiter's moons. the third ring is called the amalthea gossamer ring, named after the moon amalthea. the outer ring, the thebe gossamer ring, is named after the moon thebe. the outer edge of this ring is about from jupiter.
formation
jupiter and other gas giants probably started as rocky planets, similar to earth. this theory is called the core accretion model. the rocky core would have formed in the early solar system, within a disk of gases around the sun. when the planet reached a critical mass, its gravity started to quickly capture lots of gas. in this way, jupiter became a giant planet. in order for jupiter to reach this critical mass before the gas disk disappeared, there must have been lots of ice in the area. jupiter must have formed outside the snow line, the area that is cold enough for water to freeze.
the disk instability model is another theory. it says that jupiter was formed by gas clumping together in the disk around the sun. in this case, a rocky core would not need to form. however, this process would probably create planets that are bigger than jupiter, so most scientists think jupiter was formed by core accretion.
orbit
the orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the sun. | 1,024 | 27 |
408 | jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. it is the fifth planet from the [...] in the time it takes for jupiter to orbit the sun once, the earth orbits the sun 11.86 times. one year on jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on earth.
the average distance between jupiter and the sun is 778 million kilometres. this is five times the distance between earth and the sun. jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as earth or mars. this causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. this causes the planet to bulge in the middle. jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the solar system. it completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. because of the bulge, the length of the equator of jupiter is longer than the length from pole to pole.
jupiter in the solar system
grand tack hypothesis
the orbit of jupiter is unusual compared to planets in other star systems. it is usual for giant planets to be much nearer to their stars. because jupiter is not, this suggests an unusual explanation is needed for the arrangement of the planets in the solar system. astronomers have an idea on why this happened. it is called the grand tack hypothesis.
it is suggested that jupiter formed about 3.5 astronomical units from the sun. it started migrating inward and scattered the rocky planet-forming materials out beyond its orbit. saturn formed later than jupiter and started its own inward migration. when jupiter reached 1.5 astronomical units, it became locked into an orbital resonance with saturn. both planets turned around and moved outward until jupiter arrived at its current position, 5.2 astronomical units from the sun. saturn arrived at about 7 astronomical units.
the grand tack hypothesis explains another mystery of the solar system. mars should have been larger than earth but is instead only of this size. on jupiter's grand tack, it cleared the area where mars orbits today. after it left, the material remaining was only enough to form a small planet and a low-mass asteroid belt. although the hypothesis has not been absolutely proven, there is no other competing explanation why the solar system's giant should be so far from its star, and mars so small.
asteroids and comets
jupiter's large gravity has had an effect on the solar system. jupiter protects the inner planets from comets by pulling them towards itself. because of this, jupiter has the most comet impacts in the solar system.
two groups of asteroids, called trojan asteroids, have settled into jupiter's orbit around the sun. one group is called the trojans and the other group is called the greeks. they go around the sun at the same time as jupiter.
research and exploration
from earth
jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the moon and venus. the first person known to really study the planet was galileo galilei in 1610. he was the first person to see jupiter's moons io, europa, ganymede and callisto. this was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him.
no new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. in 1892, astronomer e.e. barnard found a new moon using his observatory in california. he called the moon amalthea. it was the last of jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope.
in 1994, bits of the comet shoemaker levy-9 hit jupiter. it was the first time a collision between two solar system objects was seen.
from spacecraft
seven spacecraft have flown past jupiter since 1973. | 1,024 | 27 |
408 | jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. it is the fifth planet from the [...] these were pioneer 10 (1973), pioneer 11 (1974), voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), ulysses (1992 and 2004), cassini (2000) and new horizons (2007). two spacecraft have been brought into orbit around jupiter. these were galileo (1995) and juno (2011).
the pioneer missions were the first spacecraft to take close-up pictures of jupiter and its moons. five years later, the two voyager spacecraft discovered three new moons. they captured photo evidence of lightning on the night side of jupiter.
the ulysses probe was sent to study the sun. it only went to jupiter after it had finished its main mission. ulysses had no cameras so it took no photographs.
in 2006, the cassini spacecraft, on its way to saturn, took some very good, very clear pictures of the planet. cassini also found a moon and took a picture of it but it was too far away to show the details.
the galileo mission in 1995 was the first spacecraft to go into orbit around jupiter. it flew around the planet for seven years and studied the four biggest moons. it launched a probe into the planet to get information about jupiter's atmosphere. the probe travelled to a depth of about 150 km before it was crushed by the pressure of all the gas above it. the galileo spacecraft was also crushed in 2003 when nasa steered the craft into the planet. they did this so that the craft could not crash into europa, a moon that scientists think might have life.
nasa has sent another spacecraft to jupiter called juno. it was launched on august 5, 2011 and arrived at jupiter on july 4, 2016. nasa published some results from the juno mission in march 2018.
several other missions have been planned to send spacecraft to jupiter's moons, europa, callisto, and ganymede. one called jimo (jupiter icy moons orbiter) was cancelled in 2006 because it cost too much money. the european space agency launched juice (jupiter icy moons explorer) on april 14, 2023. it will enter orbit around jupiter in july 2031.
moons
jupiter has 95 known moons, as of february 23, 2023. the four largest were seen by galileo with his primitive telescope and nine more can be seen with modern telescopes. three moons were identified by the voyager spacecraft. all other moons were first seen on earth, using modern telescopes and advanced photography methods. the smallest moon (s/2003 j 12) is only one kilometre across. the largest, ganymede, has a diameter of 5,262 kilometres. it is bigger than the planet mercury. the other three galilean moons are io, europa and callisto. due to the way they orbit jupiter, gravity affects three of these moons greatly. the friction caused by the gravity of europa and ganymede pulling on io makes it the most volcanic object in the solar system. it has over 400 volcanoes, more than three times as many as earth. | 950 | 27 |
410 | A king is a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate).
If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom.
For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from.
The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen.
In the Muslim world a King would be known as Malik, Sultan or shah.
Shah (Persian: شاه) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979.
Some modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain. | 361 | 0 |
411 | Knowledge means the things which are true, as opposed to opinion. Information which is correct is knowledge. Knowledge can always be supported by evidence. If a statement is not supported by evidence, then it is not knowledge. The evidence makes it justified.
Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. This was the point of Ryle's distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how". It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic. In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology. The philosopher Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief". This definition is the subject of the Gettier problems.
All knowledge is a claim to be true, but the claim can be incorrect. The only claims (propositions) which are certainly true are circular, based on how we use words or terms. We can correctly claim that there are 360 degrees in a circle, since that is part of how circles are defined. The point of Aristotle's syllogism was to show that this kind of reasoning had a machine-like form:
If all swans are white, and this is a swan, then it must be white.
But actually, in the real world, not all swans are white.
The most widely accepted way to find reliable knowledge is the scientific method. Yet one thing all philosophers of science agree is that scientific knowledge is just the best we can do at any one time. All scientific knowledge is provisional, not a claim of absolute truth.
Religion and knowledge
Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God and various hadith encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title alim, meaning 'knowledgeable'. | 720 | 0 |
412 | Kauai (Kaua'i in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu. It is of volcanic origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.
The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County. It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by Englishexplorer Captain James Cook in 1778. It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.
The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated feature film Lilo & Stitch.
Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport.
Islands of Hawaii | 463 | 0 |
413 | Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii. It is west of Maui and south of Lanai. It is roughly 11 miles long by across. The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain (orographic precipitation) to fall from the northeastern trade winds.
Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II. It was a defense training area by the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded ordnance (bombs and explosive shells) from the island. Ordnance is still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places.
The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance (UXO) cleanup and environmental restoration" . The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.
After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants.
Other websites
http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm
Islands of Hawaii
Volcanoes of Hawaii | 583 | 0 |
414 | Killing a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die. It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter.
Pesticides and herbicides are poisons for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively.
When a soldier kills another in war, it is called "combat". When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution. When someone kills a powerful person it is called assassination. When a person who wants to die kills himself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism. | 199 | 0 |
417 | The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.
It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h.
It is also spelled kilometer. This spelling is used in American English.
One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.
One kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute
A kilometer is sometimes called a klick | 266 | 0 |
419 | language is the normal way humans communicate. only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. the study of language is called linguistics.
human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. other animals may inherit a set of calls which have pre-set functions.
language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. it follows that language is not just any way of communicating. even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. humans also use language for thinking.
when people use the word language, they can also mean:
the language of a community or country
the ability of speech
formal language in mathematics, logic and computing
sign language for deaf people (people who cannot hear)
a type of school subject
unesco says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming extinct.
universals of language
all languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication.
a language has rules which are shared by a community.
all human languages are based on sound and hearing, or in the case of sign language, vision. all the basic sound units, or phonemes, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human voice, and heard by the human ear.
the sounds come out in a sequence, not all at once. this is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence.
the stream of sounds have little gaps between them, and come in bigger packages. we call the bigger packets sentences or questions or replies or comments.
in most languages, english being one, the syntax or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat".
words (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content. content words have meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.. non-content words are there to make the language work: and, not, in, out, what, etc. grammar consists of studying how words fit together to mean something.
all languages have:
sentences with two types of expression: nouns and verbs: jill is here.
adjectives to modify nouns: good food.
ways of linking: sink or swim.
dummy elements: jill likes to swim, so do i.
devices to order or ask questions: get up! are you ill?
most of the languages have a written form. before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information.
all languages constantly evolve. new words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents.
there are many more things in common between languages.
inheritance
the capacity to learn and use language is inherited. normally, all humans are born with this capability. which language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. the capacity is inherited, but the particular language is learned.
children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. if this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.
types of language
mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.
chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but chinese is not really a language. it is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as romance languages are from one another.
greek is one of the world's oldest surviving languages. in its modern form, greek is the official language of greece | 1,024 | 0 |
419 | language is the normal way humans communicate. only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other [...] and cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the european union. about 13.5 million people speak the greek language.
english is often called "the international language", or lingua franca. it is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. french had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.
english as a first language: 380 million.p108
english as an official second language: up to 300 million.
english taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion.
chinese (mandarin): 390 million native speakers.p96
hoffish(swedish dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language)
some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. these are called constructed languages also known as oral sects. one of the most popular of these languages is esperanto, which is sometimes called "la internacia lingvo," or "the international language." another of these languages is called volapük, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. it has mostly been replaced by languages like esperanto, interlingua, and ido. dialects are basically other versions of a language. for example, hoffish is a dialect of swedish.
part of the reason that volapük became unpopular is that some sounds are hard to say for people who speak spanish or english, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
some languages are only spoken by closed ethnic groups such as the romani language, which is an indo-aryan language spoken by only gypsies. | 506 | 27 |
423 | Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.
Common forms of recreation or leisure are:
Playing sports such as football or hockey
Playing games such as chess or cards
Exercising such as running or lifting weights
Watching television and movies
Listening to music
Hobbies such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing
Travelling
Reading
Drawing
Painting
A vacation or holiday is the setting aside of time specifically for leisure. During their vacation, some people travel to a different region or country, and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.
In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada, as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday), and use it as leisure time. People in poorer developing countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year. | 321 | 0 |
424 | Live can be a verb. It rhymes with "give". "To live" means "to be alive" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have life.
It can be used in a general way:
"I live in London".
"I live in a house".
"A person can always live in fear".
Live can be an adjective. It rhymes with "five".
In television, a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening. Sports program are usually "live".
In music, If a CD is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a concert with an audience present. If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a studio.
Live album
"Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now". Something that is being talked about in the newspapers at the moment can be a "live issue".
VOA Special English words | 274 | 0 |
425 | life is a concept in biology. it is about the characteristics, state, or mode that separates a living thing from dead matter.
the word itself may refer to a living being or to the processes of which living things are a part. it may refer to the period when a living thing is functional (as between birth and death).
the study of life is called biology: people who study life are called biologists. a lifespan is the average length of life in a species. most life on earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemosynthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. all life on earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, specifically involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. with water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells. this may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the universe: it is true of all life on earth today.
summary
living things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems. they are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. they undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.
through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. more complex living organisms can communicate through various means. many life forms can be found on earth. the properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.
the systems that make up life have many levels of organization. from smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the earth that have life).
at present, the earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. the question of whether life exists elsewhere in the universe is open. there have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the universe. none of these have been confirmed so far. the best evidence of life outside of earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.
definitions
one explanation of life is called the cell theory. the cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. the cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. all cells must come from pre-existing cells.
something is often said to be alive if it:
grows,
takes in food, uses the food for energy, and passes waste products (see metabolism),
moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself,
reproduces, either sexually (with another living thing) or asexually, by creating copies of itself,
reacts to its surroundings,
functions
however, not all living things fit every point on this list.
mules cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants.
viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right.
they do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.
the thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations).
a modern approach
a modern definition was given by humberto maturana and francisco varela in 1980, to which they gave the name autopoiesis:
the production of their own components
the correct assembly of these components
continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.
roth commented that "in short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-main | 1,024 | 0 |
425 | life is a concept in biology. it is about the characteristics, state, or mod [...] taining, or 'autopoietic', systems". this approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.
what life needs
chemistry
life on earth is made from organic compounds—molecules that contain carbon. four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for energy, or as a building block. complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time. they are also used to make a strong structure, like a plant stem.
lipids can be insulation to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a penguin, or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof feathers. two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all cell membranes. some kinds of lipids are hormones, which send messages from one cell to another.
proteins, long chains of amino acids, have many purposes. they fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact. proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster.
nucleic acids, including dna and rna, are long chains of nucleotides. there are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language. each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid. one part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule.
almost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules. living things also need small amounts of other elements, called trace elements. water is a very important part of all living things. for example, humans are about two-thirds water. water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.
energy sources
all living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs. plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. when producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis. some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents. other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs. animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. consumers can eat other living things or dead material.
both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. the best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (o2). they can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
cells
all living things have cells. every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm. the membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. living cells have genes, made of dna. genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. one dna molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome. cells can copy themselves to make two new cells.
there are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. their dna is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes | 1,024 | 27 |
425 | life is a concept in biology. it is about the characteristics, state, or mod [...] inside the cell. eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus. the dna is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles. some of these other organelles also have membranes.
types of life
taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. the smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. the levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. there are many ideas for the meaning of species. one idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows. a species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.
taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor. this can now be done by comparing their dna. originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy.
the three domains of life are bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell. bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (mycoplasma) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (thiomargarita namibiensis). bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral. some bacteria cause diseases. bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora. they break down some of our food. both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not. archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.
eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells. most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves. in sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing.
plants are eukaryotes that use the sun's light for energy. they include algae, which live in water, and land plants. all land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations. one form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. in land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes. vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. these tissues carry water and food. most plants have roots and leaves.
animals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. all animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material. almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system. they usually have muscles, which make the body move. many animals have a head and legs. most animals are either male or female. they need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring. sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body.
fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms. they are saprophytes. fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers. only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood. some fungi are mycorrhiza. they live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists. most protists live in water.
evolution
over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through | 1,024 | 27 |
425 | life is a concept in biology. it is about the characteristics, state, or mod [...] the process of evolution. one kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation. evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. this is called speciation if it makes a new species. an example is mockingbirds on the galapagos islands—one species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestor—for example, reptiles and mammals. a group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.
living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. as a result, parts of the body can also change. the same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous.
extinction is when all members of a species die. about 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. the most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct.
origin of life
by comparing fossils and dna, we know that all life on earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (luca). other living things may have been alive at the same time as the luca, but they died out. a study from 2018 suggests that the luca is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the earth. the oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.
how did non-living material become alive? this is a difficult question. the first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. in 1953, the miller–urey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.
life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. on the early earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. oxidation using the krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible. the krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. to make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. dna and rna make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalyst—a compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. one guess is that rna itself served as a catalyst. at some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells.
gallery of images of life | 737 | 27 |
426 | law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society.
courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. in ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. but many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict. to prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. members of society generally have enough freedom within all the legal things they can choose to do. an activity is illegal if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.
a legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. this may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. a lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. in the united states, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court. in the united kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.
the rule of law is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. it limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. the rule of law prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. when leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "the rule of law", wrote the ancient greek philosopher aristotle in 350 bc, "is better than the rule of any individual."
culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. in many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the vedas, bible or the koran have been a major source of law.
types of law
medical law is the body of laws concerning the rights and responsibilities of medical professionals and their patients. the main areas of focus for medical law include confidentiality, negligence and other torts related to medical treatment (especially medical malpractice), and criminal law and ethics.
physician-patient privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.
property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property).
intellectual property (ip) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature. this is called copyright. it also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent. it also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. this is called trademark.
trust law (business law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement. it involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.
tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.
criminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.
constitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people | 1,024 | 0 |
426 | law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose [...]. it mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the separation of powers of the different branches of government.
a court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.
administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. it also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies.
international law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action. the geneva conventions on the conduct of war and the roerich pact are examples of international law.
custom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. in some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition, though this is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.
civil law and common law
civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. the secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. in civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by members of parliament.
common law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. it comes from england and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the british empire, except malta, scotland, the u.s. state of louisiana, and the canadian province of quebec. it is also the predominant form of law in the united states, where many laws called statutes are written by congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. common law had its beginnings in the middle ages, when king john was forced by his barons to sign a document called the magna carta.
religious law
religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. examples include the jewish halakha, islamic sharia, and christian canon law.
until the 1700s, sharia law was the main legal system throughout the muslim world. in some muslim countries such as saudi arabia and iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on sharia law. islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes. a serious criticism is the judgement of the european court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".
the turkish refah party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the european convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. the court decided refah's plan would "do away with the state's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".
history of law
the history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. ancient egyptian law developed in 3000 bc. in 1760 bc king hammurabi, took ancient babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. these laws became known as the code of hammurabi.
the torah from the old testament is an old body of law. it was written around 1280 bc. it has moral rules such as the ten commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. sometimes people try to change the law. for example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.
legislature | 1,024 | 27 |
426 | law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose [...]
in democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. examples of legislatures include the houses of parliament in london, the congress in washington, d.c., the bundestag in berlin, the duma in moscow and the assemblée nationale in paris. most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. to pass legislation, a majority of members of parliament must vote for a bill in each house. the legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.
judiciary
the judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. in some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person. most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the supreme court or the high court. the highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).
executive (government) and head of state
the executive is the governing center of political authority. in most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. this group of elected people is called the cabinet. in france, the us and russia, the executive branch has a president which exists separately from the legislature.
the executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. as well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. the executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.
in many jurisdictions the head of state does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role. this is the case in many commonwealth nations where the head of state, usually a governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the executive (e.g. the prime minister, first minister or premier). the primary legal role of the head of state in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the executive, as the head of state has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.
other parts of the legal system
the police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.
lawyers are people who have learned about laws. lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. to become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.
civil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.
"corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. corporations also makes use of a set of rules and | 1,024 | 27 |
428 | Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (; , ; – ), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr. Esperanto, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto.
Biography
Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of Białystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.
His first language was said to be Polish. His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home. His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English. He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than Volapük, an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto.
His grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof, was an engineer.
He was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between 1907 and 1917. | 410 | 0 |
431 | Canada is a country and sovereign state in the north of North America. It is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories.
The different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: the governments of each province and territory share power with the federal government. The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government.
The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States. They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean.
Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities. Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa. | 230 | 0 |
432 | Las Vegas is a city in the American state of Nevada. There were 641,903 people living in the city in 2020, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the metropolitan area. It is the largest city in Nevada. Las Vegas is also the county seat of Clark County.
Las Vegas is famous for its casinos and resort hotels. It is one of the world's most popular places for tourism.
Hispanics (especially Mexicans and Cubans) and white people are the largest racial and ethnic groups in Las Vegas. Las Vegas has many Italians, Germans, English people and Irish people.
Politics
Las Vegas leans to the left. Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas.
History
Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe. It was first called Las Vegas (which means The Meadows in the Spanish language) by the Spanish. The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern Nevada. It is surrounded by desert.
The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864. Las Vegas has natural springs, where people used to stop for water when they were going to Los Angeles or other places in California.
In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern California were auctioned and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad town. Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911.
The Hispanic population in Las Vegas is growing and has rapidly increased. Most Latino Las Vegas residents are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran descent. Las Vegas also has a small Puerto Rican, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Peruvian, Colombian, Honduran, Nicaraguan and Argentine population. The most common European ancestries in Las Vegas are German, Irish, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Welsh. Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indian and Chinese are the most common Asian ancestries.
People
There is a Mexican, Chinese, Greek, German, Korean, Japanese, French, Arab, Italian, Jewish, African-American, Turkish, Croatian, Polish, Filipino, Indian, Ethiopian and Chilean community in Las Vegas.
Las Vegas has a growing Hispanic population. Many Hispanics in Las Vegas are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran ancestry.
Most of the foreign-born population were born in Mexico, the Philippines and El Salvador. | 748 | 0 |
433 | Lanai (or Lānaʻi) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It is also known as the "Pineapple Island". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km2). It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north.
History
Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with HMS Resolution on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific.
In 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation.
Tourism
Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax.
There are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses.
Islands of Hawaii | 398 | 0 |
434 | A leap year is a calendar year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world. A common year has 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February. In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1. Additionally, a leap year does not begin and end on the same day of the week, as a common year does.
Leap years are evenly divisible by 4. The most recent leap year was 2020 and the next leap year will be 2024. However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 would not be a leap year unless it is evenly divided by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4.
We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365-1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun. Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.
In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July, February and August, March and November, and September and December. No month corresponds to May, June, or October.
In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years. In the outdated Julian calendar, 100 years out of every 400 are leap years. All other years are common years. | 700 | 0 |
443 | Leather is the skin of an animal made into a durable material by tanning. The skins of cows, pigs, and goats are often used to make leather. Skins of snakes, alligators or crocodiles, and ostriches are sometimes used to make fancier leather. Shoes, bags, clothes, and balls are often made of leather. Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants. All of these ways of making leather are very simple but some are rare.
How leather is made
The way leather is made is divided into three processes. They are preparing the leather, tanning it, and crusting.
In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning. They include soaking it, removing the hair, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.
Tanning is a process that makes the proteins, especially collagen, in the raw hide stable. It increases the thermal and chemical stability of the animal skins. The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff. When water is added to it, it becomes bad. But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible. It does not become bad when water is added to it.
Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and lubricates it. Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place. Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft. It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.
From other animals
Today, most leather is made from the skin of cattle, which makes up about 67% of all the leather made. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 12%), pigs (about 11%), and goats (about 10%).
Horse skin is used to make strong leather. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather. It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes.
Kangaroo leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible. It is used in bullwhips.
In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. | 606 | 0 |
444 | A license (in American English) or licence (in British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a licensee.
In many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a fine or go to prison.
Examples of licenses
There are many different types of licenses.
Driver's license
The laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license. If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police. In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.
Hunting license
Other licenses give permission to shoot animals (often called a hunting license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting.
Television licence
In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, if someone has a television set, they must buy a "television licence" every year.
Copyright licenses
Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a company can give a license to a copyright that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software.
Difference between license and licence
"License" is a verb and "licence" is a noun. "Licensing sessions" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell alcohol.
In American English there is no difference in spelling between the verb "to license" meaning to give permission, and the noun "a license" meaning the permission to do something.
Distinction between a licence and a qualification
A degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations. | 732 | 0 |
445 | A link, also hyperlink in computing, is a part of a chain. A chain is made of many pieces of metal; each piece is a link.
Today, people also use the word link in a new way. The World Wide Web on the Internet is made of many different Web pages. The computer software that people use to make these pages (HTML) lets us go to other pages in a very fast and easy way.
The person who makes the web page can tell the computer to show a word or a picture on the Web page as a link. This means that when we click on the link with our computer mouse, the computer will show us the new page we want to see. Most links are blue, but they can be any color.
The color of the link will change to dark blue when clicked as the web browser recognises it in the browser's cache. Unless the cache is cleared, the link will always stay dark blue.
Ways of making links
There are many ways in making a link on a web page. The process is different for different internet software.
Plain HTML
In .htm and .html files, a link can be created using this code:
<a href="http://www.example.com">Text of link</a>
WikiSyntax
WikiSyntax like MediaWiki uses a simpler way of making links. To create a link to another page of the same website:
[[Page name|Link text]] or just [[Page name]].
To link to an external website:
[http://www.example.com Link text], [http://www.example.com], or just http://www.example.com.
BB code
BB code is used in forum software. To create a link:
[url]http://www.example.com[/url], or [url=http://www.example.com]Link text[/url]
Internet | 533 | 0 |
446 | a library is a place where many books are kept. most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. some belong to institutions, for example, companies, churches, schools, and universities. the people who work in libraries are librarians. librarians are people who take care of the library.
other libraries keep famous or rare books. there are a few "copyright libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as magazines, music on cds, or computers where people can use the internet. in school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.with the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. people come to libraries for reading, study or reference. libraries contain a variety of materials. they contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media.
a library is not a bookstore (a store that sells books).
importance of a library
the prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. to fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. then they pass down this to the coming generations. therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future.
people use libraries to work. they also use library resources to learn about personal interests. sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. students use libraries to study.
libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. public officials use libraries for research and public issues. the libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress.
public libraries
many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. with a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several weeks. it does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries.
books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. many public libraries have books and cds about learning english. stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the writer. books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. they are then put on the shelf in number order. one number system used by many libraries is the dewey decimal system.
mobile libraries
in rural areas books may be taken in a bookmobile, or mobile library to remote places.
academic libraries
many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. these libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the solar system or how earthquakes happen. these libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. they usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million.
special libraries
special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. they are usually small. many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. some special libraries keep just old books or books by shakespeare. a special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. for example, disney world in orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company.
librarians
a librarian is a person who works in a library. librarians help people find books and information. they can teach people how to find books and use the library. a professional librarian is a person who went to school to study library science. they can earn a degree called a masters in library science.
history
the earliest known library was discovered in iraq | 1,024 | 0 |
450 | Like can mean some different things:
1. We can use to like to say that we find a thing is good:
I like my house. = I think my house is good.
I like Jenny = I think Jenny is an OK person.
2. We can use like for "the same as" or "nearly the same as":
This cheese sandwich feels like rubber = the sandwich is difficult to eat, nearly the same as rubber.
Jenny is like her mother = Jenny has brown hair, and her mother also has brown hair (for example).
Your pen is like my pen = Your pen and my pen are the same sort.
3. We can also use like for "the same way as":
She runs like the wind - she and the wind are both fast.
She talks like a child - she and children speak slowly or with a high voice.
4. In a question, we can use like to ask people to talk about a thing, or to say if they find it good or not:
What's your house like? (Answer: "It has two bedrooms and a big kitchen...")
What was the film like? (Answer: "It was very good!")
5. We can also use like as "for example":
I often go to other countries, like France or Germany = I go to other countries, for example France and Germany.
6. In British and American English young people, when talking, have recently started using like as an extra word in the middle of sentences. Sometimes they use it to report what someone said, especially when mimicking the way they said it. This should never be used in writing:
The teacher was like: "Don't do that!"
As works in the same way as example 2 - comparing two things using either the word "like" or the word "as" is called making a simile (As big as an elephant). It may be better to use the word "as" for this to stop confusion with example 1.
Basic English 850 words | 542 | 0 |
453 | There are twenty-three provinces, four municipalities, five autonomous regions and two special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. Provinces are pronounced Shěng in Chinese Pinyin. The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan).
Provinces and autonomous regions are broken into prefectures and sub-provincial cities.
Provinces
There are 23 provinces in the People's Republic of China.
Anhui
Fujian
Gansu
Guangdong
Guizhou
Hainan
Hebei
Heilongjiang
Henan
Hubei
Hunan
Jiangsu
Jiangxi
Jilin
Liaoning
Qinghai
Shaanxi
Shandong
Shanxi
Sichuan
Taiwan*
Yunnan
Zhejiang
* The island of Taiwan is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as Republic of China (Taiwan).
Municipalities
There are 4 municipalities in the People's Republic of China. "Municipality" is the common English name for the Chinese zhíxiáshì, meaning a city directly controlled by the national government.
Beijing, formerly part of Hebei
Tianjin, formerly part of Hebei
Shanghai, formerly part of Jiangsu
Chongqing, formerly part of Sichuan
Autonomous Regions
There are 5 autonomous regions in the People's Republic of China. "Autonomous region" is the common English name for the Chinese zìzhìqū, meaning an area with greater levels of self-government to accommodate minority groups.
Xinjiang, for the Uygurs and other Turkic peoples
Tibet, for Tibetans
Inner Mongolia, for Mongolians
Guangxi, for the Zhuang
Ningxia, for the Hui
Special Administrative Regions
There are 2 special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. "Special administrative region" is the common English name for the Chinese tèbié xíngzhèng qū, meaning an area under special administration as a result of treaties that returned former European colonies to Chinese control.
Hong Kong, formerly a British colony
Macau, formerly a Portuguese colony | 683 | 0 |
457 | Legislature is a word that comes from the Latin language, meaning "those who write the laws." A legislature is therefore a group of people who vote for new laws, for example in a state or country.
Each person in the legislature is usually either elected or appointed. The constitution of that state or country usually tells how a legislature is supposed to work.
In many countries, the legislature is called a Parliament, Congress, or National Assembly. Sometimes there are two groups of members in the legislature. This is called a "bicameral" legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one group of members.
A country, district, city, or other small area may also have something like a legislature. These are often called councils, and they make smaller laws for their areas.
List of titles of legislatures
National
Parliament
Congress
Diet
National Assembly
Althing — Iceland
Assembleia da República — Portugal
Bundestag — Germany
Riksdag — Sweden
Cortes Generales — Spain
Eduskunta — Finland
Federal Assembly — Russia, Switzerland
Folketing — Denmark
Stortinget — Norway
Knesset — Israel
Assembly of Albania — Albania
Legislative Yuan — Republic of China/Taiwan
moganane — Iran
United States Capitol - United States
Sub-National
List of state legislatures of the United States — United States
General Assembly / Assembly
Great and General Court / General Court
House of Delegates
Landtag — Germany, Austria
Canada
Legislative Assembly — All provinces and territories except:
National Assembly — Quebec
House of Assembly — Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador
Australia
Legislative Assembly - All States and Territories except:
House of Assembly - South Australia and Tasmania
Legislative Council - All States except Queensland
United Kingdom
Scottish Parliament — Scotland
Northern Ireland Assembly — Northern Ireland
National Assembly for Wales — Wales
Houses of Parliament — United Kingdom overall. | 526 | 0 |
459 | Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.
Linear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations.
For example, consider the following equations:
These two equations form a system of linear equations.
It is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power.
The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line.
The solution to this system is:
This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.
Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix. | 311 | 0 |
460 | london is the capital of the united kingdom (uk), and its largest city. it is also the city with the highest population in the uk. the population is just under 9 million. the city is the largest in western europe by population and area.
on the thames, london has been a central city since it was founded by the romans two millennia ago as londinium. the romans bridged the river thames and built a road network to connect londinium with the rest of the country.
london's original city centre, the city of london is england's smallest city. in 2011 it had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of 1.12 square miles. the term "london" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. this area forms the region of london, the greater london administrative unit led by the mayor of london and the london assembly.
london is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. london was the capital of the british empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world.
the city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). if one counts the entire metropolitan area of london (london metropolitan area), it has about 15 million people. the climate is moderate.
history
the romans built the city of londinium along the river thames in ad 43. the name londinium (and later 'london') came from the celtic language of the ancient britons. in ad 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. then the romans rebuilt the city, and london became an important trading hub.
5th century: end of roman rule to 12th century
after the decline of the roman empire, few people remained in london. the anglo-saxon people of sub-roman britain were mainly agricultural. once the romans had gone, trade with continental europe dwindled. in the 9th century, more people started living in london again. it became the largest city in england. however, it did not become the capital city of england again until the 12th century. for a long time after the romans, england was not unified, and so had no capital.
15th/16th century
trade grew and the east india company was founded as a monopoly trader. trade expanded to the new world. london became the main north sea port, and migrants went from england and abroad. the population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.
17th century
the 17th century saw londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of london. the century starts with the famous gunpowder plot.
in the 17th century the stuart kings ruled: james i and charles i. charles stuart was defeated by cromwell, so the century was remarkable in that respect. cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby parliament is more important than the monarch. the war between cromwell and charles was bitterly fought. london was the key city, and oxford was also important.
the century also had two great disasters: the great plague and the great fire of london. the control of london by cromwell and parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under charles ii.
the plague virus, carried by fleas on rats, came to britain from europe.
the great fire of london broke out at the beginning of september 1666. unfortunately there were warehouses full of timber, pitch, tallow, wine and tar. these caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. the fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the city of london, rather than the large city we have today). old | 1,024 | 0 |
460 | london is the capital of the united kingdom (uk), and its largest city [...] st paul's cathedral was destroyed. some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day southwark and even highgate (which are not in the city, but are in london).
modern era
another famous old part of greater london is westminster, which was a different city from the city of london. in westminster is westminster abbey (a cathedral), the palace of westminster (the houses of parliament, and 10 downing street (where the prime minister lives).
after the railways were built, london grew much larger. greater london has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. the old city of london is only a square mile in size but has its own lord mayor.
expansion of london
in stages, london has several times increased in size by statute in parliament. the main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding london, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into london. this happened in several stages.
outside london, local taxes are paid to the county councils; inside london they are paid to the greater london council. one county has been lost entirely (middlesex) and all the others have lost land and revenue. the london boroughs and the gla (greater london authority) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. there is a london plan which sets out the priorities. the number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 london boroughs and the city of london.
geology
one aspect of its geology had big consequences. north of the thames london is on chalk, which is easy (with modern equipment) to tunnel through. south of the thames london is on clay, which was, and still is, much more difficult to dig out. so most of the subterranean engineering is north of the thames. the road system south of the thames is also inadequate by modern standards. this difference is reflected in the prices for property, the road transport, the underground railway and the definition of "london" as a taxable area. the growth of london has been more vigorous north of the thames, and has included the complete absorption of middlesex, once a separate county.
events
ad 43 londinium is founded by the romans.
61 – londinium is sacked by queen boudica and the iceni.
100 – londinium becomes the capital of roman britain.
200 – the population is about 6,000.
410 – the end of roman rule in britain
8th century – london is captured by vikings.
885 – king alfred the great recaptures the city and makes peace with the viking leader guthrum.
1045/50 – westminster abbey is rebuilt by edward the confessor who is buried there in january 1066.
1066 – william the conqueror is crowned in westminster abbey.
1100 – the population is about 16,000.
1300 – the population of london has risen to 100,000.
1381 – the peasants' revolt – the first poll tax riots
1605 – the gunpowder plot is stopped.
1642 – the english civil war starts.
1647 – london supports cromwell's army.
1665 – the great plague of london
1666 – the great fire of london
1700s – the georgian era (the time of george iii)
1780 – the gordon riots
1 | 1,024 | 27 |
460 | london is the capital of the united kingdom (uk), and its largest city [...] 900s – canals, railways, bridges. british empire.
1851 – the great exhibition is held at the crystal palace.
1908 – the olympic games take place in london.
1940/1941 – london was bombed by german planes during world war ii: explosive and incendiary bombs. this was known as the blitz.
1944/45 – london bombed by v-1 flying bomb and later the v2 rockets.
1948 – the summer olympic games take place in london for the second time.
1966 – the football world cup final took place in london. it was won by england.
1990 – the second poll tax riots
2005 – the 7 july bombings on the london underground and a bus. 52 people die and over 700 people are injured.
2012 – the summer olympic games take place in london for a third time.
2017 – there were two terrorist attacks. the first happened in march on westminster bridge and parliament square. five people were killed outside the palace of westminster, including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. another attack happened on london bridge in june. seven people were killed before the metropolitan police shot down the three attackers near borough market. the islamic state has said they were responsible for both attacks.
2020 – covid-19 did not affect london much until the spring of 2020. from then until mid 2022, every aspect of life was affected. government regulation of private life was almost unknown except in wartime (wwii). many aspects of consumer activity have taken time to recover. education of young people was interrupted, shops closed and all forms of live mass entertainment were banned.
landmarks
big ben (elizabeth tower)
buckingham palace
millennium dome
london eye
nelson's column in trafalgar square
tower bridge
london underground
natural history museum
st. paul's cathedral
palace of westminster
the shard
alexandra palace
tower of london
business and economy
london has five major business districts: the city, westminster, canary wharf, camden & islington and lambeth & southwark.
the london stock exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in europe.
financial services
london's largest industry is finance. this includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies the bank of england is in the city of london and is the second oldest bank in the world.
professional services
london has many professional services such as law and accounting firms.
media
the british broadcasting company (bbc), which has many radio and tv stations, is in london.
tourism
tourism is one of london's biggest industries. london is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. within the uk, london is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in london in 2003. tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
technology
a growing number of technology companies are based in london.
retail
london is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. the uk's fashion industry, centred on london, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
manufacturing and construction
for the 19th and much of the 20th centuries london was a major manufacturing centre (see manufacturing in london), with over 1.5 | 1,024 | 27 |
460 | london is the capital of the united kingdom (uk), and its largest city [...] million industrial workers in 1960. many products were made in london including ships, electronics and cars. nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in london.
transportation (trains, airports and underground)
the city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports.
the victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). their main stations are in london, and the lines go to every part of great britain. there were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. their terminals at king's cross, st. pancras, paddington, waterloo and charing cross are still used as terminals.
there are five airports, though only one is actually in london (london city airport). the most used airport is heathrow airport, although it is actually outside the city. there is the london end of the londonbirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. really heavy goods can be transported on water by canal or sea.
the london underground is a system of electric trains which are in london. it is the oldest underground railway in the world. it started running in 1863 as the metropolitan railway. later, the system was copied in other cities, for example paris, new york, moscow and madrid. even though it is called the london underground, about half of it is above the ground. the "tube" is the name used for the london underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are semi-round tubes running through the ground. the underground has 274 stations and over 250 miles (402 km) of track. over one billion passengers used the underground each year.
with the need for more rail capacity in london, the elizabeth line (also known as crossrail) opened in may 2022. it is a new railway line running east to west through london, with a branch to heathrow airport. it is europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.
there is a black taxi system regulated by the metropolitan police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists.
sewage tunnel
london's biggest tunnel has just been completed to take sewage from the capital to the east where it will be processed.
climate
london has a temperate oceanic climate (köppen climate classification: cfb). it is not usually very hot or cold. it is often cloudy.
summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. winters are generally cool. spring and autumn are mild.
london has regular, light rain throughout the year. july is the warmest month, with an average temperature at greenwich of 13.6 °c to 22.8 °c. the coldest month is january, with an average of 2.4 °c to 7.9 °c. the average annual precipitation is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and february is normally the driest month. drought is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. snow is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. while snow is uncommon in central london itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "urban heat island" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °c warmer than surrounding areas in winter.
temperature extremes in london range from at heathrow airport on 19 july 2022 down to at northolt on 1 january 1962.
twinnings
london has twin | 1,024 | 27 |
461 | a litre (international spelling) or liter (american spelling) is one of the metric units of volume. it is not a basic si unit, but it is a supplementary unit.
one litre is the volume of 1000 cubic centimetres, that is a cube of 10 × 10 × 10 centimetres (1000 cm3). one litre of water at has the mass of exactly one kilogram. this results from the definition given in 1795, where the gram was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice.
liters are usually utilized to measure the volume of liquids, this is because the density of liquids can vary a lot. however it can be applied to solids as well, for example 1 liter of iron is around 7.7 kg. the symbol for litre is l or l. the script letter ℓ is also sometimes used.
for smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 dl = one litre.
for smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 cl = one litre.
for smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 ml = one litre.
the capital letter "l" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1".
1 litre = 0.2200 imperial gallons
1 litre = 0.2642 us gallons
1 imperial gallon = 4.5461 litres
1 us gallon = 3.7854 litres
1 litre = 1 dm3
history
the metric system was first introduced in france in 1791. that system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres. in 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in france was started by the temporary commission of republican weights and measures. due to public demand, the commission said that the cubic metre was too big for everyday use. they said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. one cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. this was equivalent to a cube with sides 10 cm. the cadil was also known as the pinte or the litron. the pinte had been an old french unit of measure of capacity. in 1795 the definition was revised. the cadil was given the name litre.
in 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °c. in 1799 the kilogram was redefined. the new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the kilogram des archives. in 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °c very carefully. they found that it occupied about dm3. the bipm redefined the litre as being exactly the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °c.
in 1960 the si was introduced. the bipm changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm3". the litre is not part of si. the bipm defined the litre as a "non-si unit accepted for use with the si". this was because it is used in many countries. the bipm said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work.
according to si rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". this is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "litre". however the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. in 1979 the bipm made an exception for the symbol for the litre. they said that people could use either "l" or "l" as its symbol.
in europe, milk i | 1,024 | 0 |
465 | Lime is a green fruit, and the tree fruit itself. They are citrus fruits similar to lemons. Citrus fruits like limes are rich in vitamin C. Sailors from Britain were given lemon or lime juice to stop them falling ill with scurvy. This is how they got the nickname Limey. There are several citrus trees whose fruits are called limes. They include the key lime Citrus aurantiifolia, the Persian lime, the kaffir lime, and the desert lime Citrus glauca.
Limes are small, round and bright green. If they stay on the tree for a long time they turn yellow. Then they look like small round lemons.
Lime juice is used in cooking and in drinks. Lime oils are often used in perfumes, used for cleaning, and used for aromatherapy.
Lime tastes acidic and bitter. Lime juice is also made from limes.
Different kinds of limes
Persian lime – This lime is most often sold in supermarkets as lime.
Key lime – Smaller than the Persian lime, used to mix Cocktails and make pies.
Kaffir lime – Very small fruits, vegetable oil from the leaves is used for perfumes, leaves are used for cooking.
Other websites
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/limes.htm
Citrus | 377 | 0 |
467 | mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, and patterns. the word comes from the greek μάθημα (máthema), meaning "science, knowledge, or learning", and is sometimes shortened to math.
it is the study of:
numbers: including how things can be counted.
structure: including how things are organized, but also how they can be or could have been. this subfield is usually called algebra.
place: where things are, and spatial arrangement, including arrangements of spaces themselves. this subfield is usually called geometry.
change: how things become different. this subfield is usually called analysis.
applied math is useful for solving problems in the real world. people working in business, science, engineering, and construction use mathematics.
problem-solving in mathematics
mathematics solves problems by using logic. one of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is deduction. deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. to a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. using deduction is what makes mathematical thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on experiments or on interviews.
logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general rules, which are an important part of mathematics. these rules leave out information that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. by finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. these rules can be called theorems (if they have been proven) or conjectures (if it is not known if they are true yet). most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof.
sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don't understand yet. often in mathematics, ideas and rules are chosen because they are considered simple or neat. on the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. in general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us understand the world better. some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. algebra problems are solved by evaluating certain variables. a calculator answers every math problem in the four basic arithmetic operations.
areas of study in mathematics
number
mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities. it is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including set theory and mathematical logic. the study of number theory usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection.
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| natural numbers || integers || rational numbers || real numbers || complex numbers
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|| ordinal numbers || cardinal numbers || arithmetic operations || arithmetic relations || functions, see also special functions
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structure
structural mathematics studies objects' and constructions' shape and integrity. these are areas of algebra and calculus.
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| number theory || abstract | 1,024 | 0 |
467 | mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, and patterns. the word [...] algebra || linear algebra || order theory || graph theory
|}
shape
some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. most of these areas are part of the study of geometry.
{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
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| topology || geometry || trigonometry || differential geometry || fractal geometry
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change
some areas of mathematics study the way things change. most of these areas are part of the study of analysis.
{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40"
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| calculus || vector calculus || analysis
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|| differential equations || dynamical systems || chaos theory
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applied mathematics
applied math uses symbolic logic to solve problems in areas like engineering and physics.
numerical analysis – optimization – probability theory – statistics – mathematical finance – game theory – mathematical physics – fluid dynamics - computational algorithms
famous theorems
these theorems and conjectures have interested mathematicians and amateurs alike:
pythagorean theorem – flt – goldbach's conjecture – twin prime conjecture – gödel's incompleteness theorems – poincaré conjecture – cantor's diagonal argument – four color theorem – zorn's lemma – euler's identity – church-turing thesis
these theorems and hypotheses have greatly changed mathematics:
central limit theorem classification theorems of surfaces – continuum hypothesis – fourier theorem – fundamental theorem of calculus – fundamental theorem of algebra – fundamental theorem of arithmetic – fundamental theorem of projective geometry – gauss-bonnet theorem - kantorovich theorem – p versus np – pythagorean theorem – riemann hypothesis
these are a few conjectures that have been called "revolutionary":
beal conjecture (a generalization of flt) – birch and swinnerton-dyer conjecture – collatz conjecture – goldbach's conjecture –hodge conjecture – poincaré conjecture
foundations and methods
set theory – symbolic logic – model theory – category theory – logic – table of mathematical symbols
history and the world of mathematicians
history of mathematics – timeline of mathematics – mathematicians – fields medal – abel prize – millennium prize problems (clay math prize) – international mathematical union – mathematics competitions – lateral thinking – mathematics and gender
awards in mathematics
there is no nobel prize in mathematics. mathematicians can receive the abel prize and the fields medal for important works.
the clay mathematics institute has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the millennium prize problems.
mathematical tools
there are many tools used to do math or find answers to math problems.
older tools
abacus
napier's bones, slide rule
ruler and compass
mental calculation
writing
newer tools
graphing calculators, scientific calculators and more complex computer visual tools
programming languages
computer algebra systems (listing) and automated matrix analysis
statistics software (for example spss)
sas (programming language)
r (programming language) | 989 | 27 |
468 | march (mar.) is the third month of the year in the gregorian calendar, coming between february and april. it has 31 days. march is named after mars, the roman god of war.
march always begins on the same day of the week as november, and additionally, february in common years. march always ends on the same day of the week as june.
the month
in ancient rome, march was called martius. it was named after the war god (mars) and the romans thought that it was a lucky time to begin a war. before julius caesar's calendar reform, march was the first month of the year in the roman calendar, as the winter was considered to be a monthless period. it is one of seven months to have 31 days.
march begins on the same day of the week as february in common years and november every year, as each other's first days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. march ends on the same day of the week as june every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
in common years, march starts on the same day of the week as june of the previous year, and in leap years, september and december of the previous year. in common years, march finishes on the same day of the week as september of the previous year, and in leap years, april and december of the previous year.
in years immediately before common years, march starts on the same day of the week as august of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, may of the following year. in years immediately before common years, march finishes on the same day of the week as august and november of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, may of the following year.
in leap years, the day before march 1 is february 29. this determines the position of each day of the year from there on. as an example, march 1 is usually the 60th day of the year, but in a leap year is the 61st day.
in terms of seasons, march is one of two months to have an equinox (the other is september, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), with daylight and darkness of roughly the same number of hours, halfway between the december and june solstices. in the northern hemisphere, spring starts in this month, while it is autumn in the southern hemisphere.
start of the season
the official start of either season is march 1, though the equinox can fall on march 20 or 21, occasionally on march 19. the northern spring equinox marks the start of the iranian new year and baha'i new year. it is from the march 21 date that easter's date is calculated, on the sunday after the first full moon in spring, meaning it can fall between march 22 and april 25 in western christianity.
events in march
fixed events
march 1 - saint david's day (wales)
march 1 - march 1st movement memorial day (south korea)
march 1 - beer day (iceland)
march 1 - independence day (bosnia and herzegovina)
march 2 - independence day (morocco)
march 2 - texas independence day
march 2 - jana day (algeria)
march 2 - peasants day (burma)
march 3 - hinamatsuri, girls' day (japan)
march 3 - liberation day (bulgaria)
march 3 - mother's day (georgia)
march 3 - sportsmen's day (egypt)
march 3 - martyrs' day (malawi)
march 4 - saint casimir's day (poland and lithuania)
march | 1,024 | 0 |
468 | march (mar.) is the third month of the year in the gregorian [...] 5 - custom chief's day (vanuatu)
march 5 - lei feng day (china)
march 5 - national tree planting day (iran)
march 5 - saint piran's day (cornwall)
march 6 - independence day (ghana)
march 6 - alamo day (texas)
march 6 - foundation day (norfolk island)
march 7 - felicity and perpetua (roman catholicism)
march 7 - teachers' day (albania)
march 8 - international women's day
march 9 - teachers' day (lebanon)
march 10 - tibetan uprising day (supporters of tibetan independence)
march 11 - re-establishment of independence (lithuania)
march 11 - moshoeshoe day (lesotho)
march 11 - johnny appleseed day (united states)
march 12 - national day of mauritius
march 12 - youth day (zambia)
march 14 - pi day
march 14 - mother tongue day (estonia)
march 14 - white day (japan and korea)
march 15 - the ides of march, and the assassination of julius caesar.
march 15 - national day of hungary
march 15 - holiday in liberia, celebrating its first president, joseph jenkins roberts
march 15 - honen matsuri (japan)
march 16 - saint urho's day (finnish communities in canada and the us)
march 16 - latvian legion day
march 16 - day of the book smugglers (lithuania)
march 17 - saint patrick's day, celebrating saint patrick, the patron saint of ireland
march 19 - saint joseph's day (roman catholicism)
march 19 - unity day (kashubia, northern poland)
march 20/21 - equinox, northern spring, southern autumn
march 20/21 - iranian new year
march 20 - independence day (tunisia)
march 20 - francophone day
march 21 - baha'i new year
march 21 - independence day (namibia)
march 21 - benito juarez' birthday (mexico)
march 21 - world poetry day
march 21 - youth day (tunisia)
march 21 - harmony day (australia)
march 21 - human rights day (south africa)
march 21 - world down syndrome day
march 22 - world water day
march 22 - emancipation day (puerto rico)
march 22 - day of the people's party (laos)
march 23 - republic day (pakistan)
march 23 - polish-hungarian friendship day
march 23 - family day (south africa)
march 24 - world tuberculosis day
march 24 - day of remembrance for truth and justice (argentina)
march 25 - independence day (greece)
march 25 - maryland day
march 25 - mother's day (slovenia)
march 25 - annunciation of the blessed virgin mary (roman catholicism), also known as lady day, old new year in some european countries
march 26 - independence day (bangladesh)
march 26 - prince ku | 1,024 | 27 |
468 | march (mar.) is the third month of the year in the gregorian [...] hio day (hawaii)
march 26 - prophet zoroaster's birthday (zoroastrianism)
march 26 - day of democracy (mali)
march 28 - serfs emancipation day (tibet)
march 28 - teachers' day (czech republic and slovakia)
march 29 - boganda day (central african republic)
march 29 - youth day (republic of china)
march 31 - cesar chavez day (united states)
march 31 - freedom day (malta)
moveable events
on a sunday between march 1 and april 4, mother's day is celebrated in the uk.
lent and easter-related observances in western christianity.
shrove monday - between february 2 and march 8
shrove tuesday (pancake day) - between february 3 and march 9
ash wednesday, start of lent - between february 4 and march 10
palm sunday, start of holy week - between march 15 and april 18
maundy thursday - between march 19 and april 22
good friday - between march 20 and april 23
easter occurs on a sunday between march 22 and april 25 (note: in eastern christianity, easter falls between april 4 and may 8).
easter monday - between march 23 and april 26
jewish passover coincides with christian holy week, earliest run is march 15 to march 22, latest run is april 18 to april 25.
commonwealth day (second monday in march)
canberra day (second monday in march)
daylight saving time
canada and the united states start daylight saving time on the second sunday in march. clocks go forward one hour.
european summer time begins on the last sunday in march. clocks go forward one hour.
the winter paralympics are often held in this month.
six nations - rugby union tournament running from early february to mid-march, competing countries are england, france, ireland, italy, scotland and wales
start of the formula one motor racing season
selection of historical events
march 1, 1872 - yellowstone national park becomes the world's first national park.
march 1, 1910 - an avalanche buries a train in northeastern king county, washington.
march 1, 1919 - the march 1st movement begins in korea.
march 1, 1936 - the hoover dam is completed.
march 2, 1956 - morocco declares its independence from france.
march 3, 1845 - florida becomes the 27th state of the us.
march 3, 1925 - the mount rushmore monument is founded, starting work on carving four presidents' faces into the mountain.
march 5, 1953 - russian composer sergei prokofiev and soviet leader joseph stalin die on the same day as each other.
march 6, 1788 - the first fleet of convicts arrives at norfolk island.
march 6, 1957 - ghana becomes independent from the united kingdom.
march 7, 1867 - alexander graham bell is granted a patent for the telephone.
march 7, 1912 - roald amundsen announces that his norwegian expedition successfully reached the south pole on december 14 of the previous year.
march 8, 1911 - first celebration of international women's day.
march 8, 1918 - | 1,024 | 27 |
468 | march (mar.) is the third month of the year in the gregorian [...] the first cases of the deadly spanish flu virus are reported.
march 8, 2014 - malaysia airlines flight 370 disappears.
march 9, 1908 - a five-man team climbs to the top of mount erebus in antarctica.
march 9, 1959 - the first barbie dolls are sold.
march 10, 1906 - a deadly mining disaster in courrieres, france, kills 1,099 miners.
march 10, 1957 - osama bin laden is born.
march 10, 1977 - astronomers discover rings around the planet uranus.
march 11, 1985 - mikhail gorbachev becomes leader of the soviet union.
march 11, 1990 - lithuania declares its independence from the soviet union.
march 11, 2004 - terrorists bomb rush-hour trains in madrid, killing 191 people.
march 11, 2011 - the 2011 sendai earthquake and tsunami disaster kills many thousands of people in northeastern japan, after a magnitude 9.1 earthquake, tsunamis, and a nuclear disaster at fukushima.
march 12, 1913 - canberra is officially named.
march 12, 1930 - mahatma gandhi begins his salt march, as part of the movement for indian independence.
march 12, 1968 - mauritius becomes independent.
march 13, 1781 - william herschel discovers the planet uranus.
march 13, 1881 - tsar alexander ii of russia is murdered when a bomb is thrown at his carriage.
march 13, 2013 - pope francis is chosen as pope. coming from argentina, he is the first latin american pope.
march 14, 1879 - albert einstein is born.
march 14, 1883 - karl marx dies at the age of 64 years.
march 14, 2018 - stephen hawking dies.
march 15, 44 bc - julius caesar is murdered on the ides of march.
march 15, 1820 - at the easternmost tip of the us, maine becomes the 23rd state.
march 15, 1848 - revolution in pest, hungary.
march 15, 2019 - a terrorist shooting occurs in christchurch, killing 49 muslims.
march 17, 1861 - italy becomes a kingdom, making italy a unified state.
march 17, 1959 - tenzin gyatso, 14th dalai lama flees to india.
march 17, 1992 - a referendum in south africa supports the end of apartheid.
march 18, 1965 - aleksei leonov performs the first spacewalk.
march 19, 1932 - sydney harbour bridge is opened.
march 20, 526 - the 526 antioch earthquake kills around 300,000 people in syria and southeastern turkey.
march 20, 1861 - mendoza, argentina is destroyed by an earthquake that kills 6,000 people.
march 20, 1956 - tunisia becomes independent.
march 20, 1995 - the aum shinrikyo cult carries out a deadly sarin | 1,024 | 27 |
468 | march (mar.) is the third month of the year in the gregorian [...] gas attack on the tokyo subway.
march 20, 2003 - iraq war starts.
march 21, 1844 - start of the baha'i calendar.
march 21, 1960 - sharpeville massacre: police open fire on demonstrators in south africa, killing 69 people.
march 21, 1990 - namibia becomes independent.
march 21, 2006 - twitter is founded.
march 22, 1818 - most recent occurrence of easter on its earliest possible date.
march 22, 1957 - the arab league is founded.
march 22, 1997 - comet hale-bopp makes its closest approach to earth.
march 23, 1956 - pakistan becomes an islamic republic.
march 24, 1603 - queen elizabeth i of england dies aged 69, without children. james vi of scotland becomes james i of england.
march 24, 1989 - the exxon valdez oil tanker runs aground at prince william sound in alaska, causing a devastating oil spill.
march 25, 1655 - christiaan huygens discovers saturn's moon titan.
march 25, 1821 - greece declares its independence from the ottoman empire.
march 25, 1957 - the european economic community is founded.
march 26, 1830 - the book of mormon is published in palmyra, new york.
march 26, 1971 - bangladesh's war of independence starts.
march 26, 1997 - members of the heaven's gate cult commit mass suicide.
march 27, 1964 - the good friday earthquake strikes south-central alaska.
march 28, 1939 - spanish civil war: francisco franco conquers madrid.
march 29, 1792 - king gustav iii of sweden dies as a result of being shot at a masquerade ball.
march 30, 1867 - united states secretary of state agrees to purchase alaska from russia for $7.2 million.
march 30, 1981 - john hinckley shoots at ronald reagan in an attempt to kill him.
march 31, 1889 - the eiffel tower is opened to the public.
march 31, 1968 - us president lyndon b. johnson announces that he intends not to run for re-election.
march 31, 1995 - american singer selena is shot and killed by her former manager and friend of her boutiques, yolanda saldivar.
trivia
march's flower is the daffodil.
march's birthstones are the bloodstone and aquamarine. the meaning of the bloodstone is courage.
the star signs for march are pisces (february 20 to march 20) and aries (march 21 to april 20).
march is one of two months of the year that begin with an'm' in the english language (may is the other). both have an 'a' as their second letter, and they come on either side of april.
march 1 is the only day in march to start within the first sixth of the calendar year.
it is less common for easter to occur in march than in april. recent occurrences in march were in 2002 (march 31), 2005 (march 27), 2008 (march 23), 2013 | 1,024 | 27 |
469 | may is the fifth month of the year in the julian and gregorian calendars, coming between april and june. it has 31 days. the month of may might have been named for the roman goddess maia, or more likely the roman goddess of fertility bona dea, whose festival was held in may.
may never begins or ends on the same day of the week as any other month.
may's flower is the lily of the valley. its birthstone is the emerald. the meaning of the emerald is success in love.
the month
may comes between april and june and is the fifth month of the year in the gregorian calendar. it is one of the seven months to have 31 days. in the older roman calendar, may was the third month of the year. it is a spring month in the northern hemisphere and an autumn month in the southern hemisphere. in each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of november in the other. may is likely to have been named after the roman goddess maia, though there is a theory that may might have its name from the latin "maiores", meaning "seniors". the same theory suggests that june would then be named from "iuniores", meaning "juniors".
no other month of any year either begins or ends on the same day of the week as may; this month is the only one that has both of these properties.
in common years, may starts on the same day of the week as august of the previous year, and in leap years, march and november of the previous year. in common years, may finishes on the same day of the week as august and november of the previous year, and in leap years, march and june of the previous year. in leap years and years immediately after that, may starts on the same day of the week as february of the previous year.
every year, may both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as january of the following year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. in years immediately before common years, may starts on the same day of the week as october of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, april and july of the following year. in years immediately before common years, may finishes on the same day of the week as february and october of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, july of the following year.
in the northern hemisphere, may is in late spring, and may day on may 1 and walpurgis night, during the night of april 30 to may 1, are symbolic of the transition from winter to summer. in the southern hemisphere, it is in autumn, and comes just before the antarctic winter, when emperor penguins breed there.
events in may
special devotions to the virgin mary take place in may.
fixed events
may 1 - may day in many countries.
may 1 - international workers' day
may 1 - beltane (neo-pagan culture)
may 1 - lei day (hawaii)
may 1 - constitution day in latvia and the marshall islands
may 2 - flag day (poland)
may 2 - national education day (indonesia)
may 2 - teachers' day in iran and bhutan
may 3 - constitution day (poland, lithuania)
may 3 - constitution memorial day (japan)
may 3 - world press freedom day
may 4 - unofficial star wars day
may 4 - international firefighters' day
may 4 - youth day in china and fiji
may 4 - greenery day (japan)
may 4 - remembrance of the dead (netherlands)
may 5 - children's day in japan and south korea
| 1,024 | 0 |
469 | may is the fifth month of the year in the julian and gregorian calend [...] may 5 - cinco de mayo (mexico and united states)
may 5 - liberation day in the netherlands and denmark
may 5 - coronation day (thailand)
may 5 - europe day
may 6 - international no diet day
may 6 - teacher's day (jamaica)
may 6 - saint george's day (eastern orthodox countries)
may 7 - radio day in russia and bulgaria
may 8 - victory in europe day, marking end of world war ii in europe
may 8 - international red cross and red crescent day
may 8 - parents' day (south korea)
may 8 - harry s. truman day (missouri)
may 8 - miguel hidalgo's birthday (mexico)
may 9 - victory and peace day (armenia)
may 9 - victory day (former soviet union countries), marking end of world war ii in europe
may 9 - independence day (romania)
may 10 - confederate memorial day (north carolina and south carolina)
may 10 - constitution day (federated states of micronesia)
may 10 - mother's day (mexico, guatemala, el salvador)
may 11 - national technology day (india)
may 11 - statehood day (minnesota)
may 12 - international nurses day, birthday of florence nightingale
may 12 - johan vilhelm snellman day (finland)
may 16 - national day (south sudan)
may 16 - teachers' day (malaysia)
may 17 - constitution day, national day of norway
may 17 - constitution day (nauru)
may 17 - liberation day (democratic republic of the congo)
may 17 - international day against homophobia and transphobia
may 17 - navy day (argentina)
may 17 - national famine memorial day (ireland)
may 17 - galician literature day
may 18 - international museum day
may 18 - independence day (somaliland)
may 18 - battle of las piedras day (uruguay)
may 19 - youth and sports day (turkey)
may 19 - genocide memorial day (greece)
may 19 - ho chi minh's birthday (vietnam)
may 19 - malcolm x day (united states)
may 20 - independence day (cuba)
may 20 - independence day (east timor)
may 21 - navy day (chile)
may 21 - independence day (montenegro)
may 21 - saint helena day
may 21 - day of patriots and the military (hungary)
may 22 - republic day (sri lanka)
may 22 - unity day (yemen)
may 22 - national sovereignty day (haiti)
may 22 - international day of biological diversity
may 22 - harvey milk day (california)
may 23 - birthday of guru amar das (sikhism)
may 23 - declaration of the bab (baha'i faith)
may 23 - labour day (jamaica)
may 23 - students' day (mexico)
may 23 - world turtle day
may 24 - battle of pichincha day (ecuador)
may | 1,024 | 27 |
469 | may is the fifth month of the year in the julian and gregorian calend [...] 24 - bermuda day
may 24 - commonwealth day (belize)
may 24 - independence day (eritrea)
may 24 - aldersgate day (methodism)
may 24 - national patriots day (quebec)
may 25 - africa day
may 25 - geek pride day
may 25 - independence day (jordan)
may 25 - liberation day (lebanon)
may 25 - national day (argentina)
may 26 - independence day (georgia)
may 26 - independence day (guyana)
may 26 - crown prince's birthday (denmark)
may 26 - mother's day (poland)
may 26 - national sorry day (australia)
may 28 - independence day (armenia)
may 28 - independence day (azerbaijan)
may 28 - republic day (nepal)
may 28 - flag day (philippines)
may 28 - armed forces day (croatia)
may 30 - anguilla day
may 30 - canary islands day
may 31 - anti-tobacco day
moveable and monthlong events
in the united kingdom, may day is may 1, but a public holiday is held on the first monday in may.
in the united states, canada and australia, mother's day is the second sunday in may.
in the united states, memorial day, a public holiday, is on may 30, but is observed on the last monday in may.
spring bank holiday in the united kingdom, last monday in may
eastern orthodox easter, between april 4 and may 8
ascension day (western christianity), between april 30 and june 3
pentecost, between may 10 and june 13 in western christianity and between may 23 and june 26 in eastern orthodox christianity
corpus christi (western christianity) between may 21 and june 24
victoria day (canada), monday on or before may 24
giro d'italia (cycling)
world snooker championship, late april, early may
monaco grand prix, traditionally the most important race of the formula one season
french open (tennis), late may, early june
the eurovision song contest is generally held in may
marathon races:
belfast, northern ireland, uk
cleveland, ohio, us
copenhagen, denmark
edinburgh, scotland, uk
ottawa, canada
pittsburgh, pennsylvania, us
prague, czech republic
vancouver, british columbia, canada | 764 | 27 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is also a form of entertainment that puts sounds together in a way that people like, find interesting or dance to. most music includes people singing with their voices or playing musical instruments, such as the piano, guitar, drums or bass.
the word music comes from the greek word (mousike), which means "(art) of the muses". in ancient greece the muses included the goddesses of music, poetry, art, and dance. someone who makes music is known as a musician.
definition of music
music is sound that has been organized by using rhythm, melody or harmony. if someone bangs saucepans while cooking, it makes noise. if a person bangs saucepans or pots in a rhythmic way, they are making a simple type of music.
there are four things which music has most of the time:
music often has pitch. this means high and low notes. tunes are made of notes that go up or down or stay on the same pitch.
music often has rhythm. rhythm is the way the musical sounds and silences are put together in a sequence. every tune has a rhythm that can be tapped. music usually has a regular beat.
music often has dynamics. this means whether it is quiet or loud or somewhere in between.
music often has timbre. this is a french word (pronounced: "tam-br"). the "timbre" of a sound is the way that a sound is interesting. the sort of sound might be harsh, gentle, dry, warm, or something else. timbre is what makes a clarinet sound different from an oboe, and what makes one person's voice sound different from another person.
definitions
there is no simple definition of music which covers all cases. it is an art form, and opinions come into play. music is whatever people think is music. a different approach is to list the qualities music must have, such as, sound which has rhythm, melody, pitch, timbre, etc.
these and other attempts, do not capture all aspects of music, or leave out examples which definitely are music. music is a special shared relationship between a person, the persons behavior, and a sounding object.p10 musical experience and the music, together, are called phenomena, and the activity of describing phenomena is called phenomenology.
history
even in the stone age people made music. the first music was probably made trying to imitate sounds and rhythms that occurred naturally. human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality. this kind of music is still here today. shamans sometimes imitate sounds that are heard in nature. it may also serve as entertainment (games), or have practical uses, like attracting animals when hunting.
some animals also can use music. songbirds use song to protect their territory, or to attract a mate. monkeys have been seen beating hollow logs. this may, of course, also serve to defend the territory.
the first musical instrument used by humans was probably the voice. the human voice can make many different kinds of sounds. the larynx (voice box) is like a wind instrument.
the oldest known neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form was found in 1983, indicating that the neanderthals had language, because the hyoid supports the voice box in the human throat.
most likely the first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to keep a beat. there are finds of this type that date back to the paleolithic. some of these are ambiguous, as they can be used either as a tool or a musical instrument.
the first flutes
the oldest flute ever discovered may be the divje babe flute, found in the slovenian cave divje babe i in 1995. it is not certain that it is really a flute. the item in question is a piece of the femur of a young cave | 1,024 | 0 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is [...] bear, and is about 43,000 years old. however, whether it is a musical instrument or just a bone that got chewed on is an ongoing debate.
in 2008, archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the hohle fels cave near ulm, germany. the five-holed flute has a v-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. the discovery is the oldest confirmed find of any musical instrument in history. other flutes were also found in the cave. this flute was found next to the venus of hohle fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. when they announced their discovery in 2009, the scientists suggested that the find showed that there was a well-established musical tradition when humans colonized europe.
the oldest known wooden pipes were discovered near greystones, ireland, in 2004. a wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. they may once have been strapped together.
in 1986 several bone flutes were found in jiahu in henan province, china. they date to about 6,000 bc. they have between 5 and 8 holes each and were made from the hollow bones of a bird, the red-crowned crane. at the time of the discovery, one was still playable. the bone flute plays both the five- or seven-note scale of xia zhi and six-note scale of qing shang of the ancient chinese musical system.
ancient times
it is not known what the earliest human music was like. some architecture and paintings are thousands of years old, but old music could not survive until people learned to write it down. the only way we can guess about early music is by looking at very old paintings that show people playing musical instruments, or by finding instruments in archaeological digs (digging underground to find old things). the earliest piece of music that was ever written down and that has not been lost was discovered on a tablet written in hurrian, a language spoken in and around northern mesopotamia (where iraq is today), from about 1500 bc.
middle ages
another surviving piece of early written music was a round called sumer is icumen in. it was written down by a monk around the year 1250. much of the music in the middle ages (roughly 450-1420) was folk music played by working people who wanted to sing or dance. when people played instruments, they were usually playing for dancers. however, most of the music that was written down was for the catholic church. this music was written for monks to sing in church. it is called chant (or gregorian chant).
renaissance
in the renaissance (roughly 1400–1550) there was a lot of music, and many composers wrote music that has survived so that it can be performed, played or sung today. many new types of art and music was made during this time.
some music was written for use in church services (sacred music) by the italian composer giovanni da palestrina (1525–1594). in palestrina's music, many singers sing together (this is called a choir). there was also plenty of music not written for the church, such as happy dance music and romantic love songs. popular instruments during the renaissance included the viols (a string instrument played with a bow), lutes (a plucked stringed instrument that is a little like a guitar), and the virginal, a small, quiet keyboard instrument.
baroque
| 1,024 | 27 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is [...] the baroque (roughly 1600–1740) was a western cultural era. it emphasised drama and splendor in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music. in music, the term 'baroque' applies to the final period of dominance of imitative counterpoint, where different voices and instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material.
the popularity and success of the baroque style was encouraged by the roman catholic church which had decided at the time of the council of trent that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. the upper class also saw the dramatic style of baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumphant power and control. baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. in similar profusions of detail, art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the baroque cultural movement as artists explored what they could create from repeated and varied patterns. some traits and aspects of baroque paintings that differentiate this style from others are the abundant amount of details, often bright polychromy, less realistic faces of subjects, and an overall sense of awe, which was one of the goals in baroque art.
the word baroque probably derives from the ancient portuguese noun "barroco" which is a pearl that is not round but of unpredictable and elaborate shape. hence, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details, without reference to the baroque styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
classical period
in western music, the classical period means music from about 1750 to 1825. it was the time of composers like joseph haydn, wolfgang amadeus mozart and ludwig van beethoven. orchestras became bigger, and composers often wrote longer pieces of music called symphonies that had several sections (called movements). some movements of a symphony were loud and fast; other movements were quiet and sad. the form of a piece of music was very important at this time. music had to have a nice'shape'. they often used a structure which was called sonata form.
another important type of music was the string quartet, which is a piece of music written for two violins, a viola, and a violoncello. like symphonies, string quartet music had several sections. haydn, mozart and beethoven each wrote many famous string quartets.
the piano was invented during this time. composers liked the piano, because it could be used to play dynamics (getting louder or getting softer). other popular instruments included the violin, the violoncello, the flute, the clarinet, and the oboe.
romantic period
the 19th century is called the romantic period. composers were particularly interested in conveying their emotions through music. an important instrument from the romantic period was the piano. some composers, such as frederic chopin wrote subdued, expressive, quietly emotional piano pieces. often music described a feeling or told a story using sounds. other composers, such as franz schubert wrote songs for a singer and a piano player called lied (the german word for "song"). these lieder (plural of lied) told stories by using the lyrics (words) of the song and by the imaginative piano accompaniments. other composers, like richard strauss, and franz liszt created narratives and told stories using only music, which is called a tone poem. composers, such as franz liszt | 1,024 | 27 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is [...] and johannes brahms used the piano to play loud, dramatic, strongly emotional music.
many composers began writing music for bigger orchestras, with as many as 100 instruments. it was the period of "nationalism" (the feeling of being proud of one's country) when many composers made music using folksong or melodies from their country. lots of famous composers lived at this time such as franz schubert, felix mendelssohn, frederic chopin, johannes brahms, pyotr tchaikovsky and richard wagner.
modern times
from about 1900 onwards is called the "modern period". many 20th century composers wanted to compose music that sounded different from the classical and romantic music. modern composers searched for new ideas, such as using new instruments, different forms, different sounds, or different harmonies.
the composer arnold schoenberg (1874–1951) wrote pieces which were atonal (meaning that they did not sound as if they were in any clear musical key). later, schoenberg invented a new system for writing music called twelve-tone system. music written with the twelve-tone system sounds strange to some, but is mathematical in nature, often making sense only after careful study. pure twelve-tone music was popular among academics in the fifties and sixties, but some composers such as benjamin britten use it today, when it is necessary to get a certain feel.
one of the most important 20th-century composers, igor stravinsky (1882–1971), wrote music with very complicated (difficult) chords (groups of notes that are played together) and rhythms. some composers thought music was getting too complicated and so they wrote minimalist pieces which use very simple ideas. in the 1950s and 1960s, composers such as karlheinz stockhausen experimented with electronic music, using electronic circuits, amplifiers and loudspeakers. in the 1970s, composers began using electronic synthesizers and musical instruments from rock and roll music, such as the electric guitar. they used these new instruments to make new sounds.
composers writing in the 1990s and the 2000s, such as john adams (born 1947) and james macmillan (born 1959) often use a mixture of all these ideas, but they like to write tonal music with easy tunes as well.
electronic music
music can be produced electronically. this is most commonly done by computers, keyboards, electric guitars and disk tables. they can mimic traditional instruments, and also produce very different sounds. 21st-century electronic music is commonly made with computer programs and hardware mixers.
jazz
jazz is a type of music that was invented around 1900 in new orleans in the south of the usa. there were many black musicians living there who played a style of music called blues music. blues music was influenced by african music (because the black people in the united states had come to the united states as slaves. they were taken from africa by force). blues music was a music that was played by singing, using the harmonica, or the acoustic guitar. many blues songs had sad lyrics about sad emotions (feelings) or sad experiences, such as losing a job, a family member dying, or having to go to jail (prison).
jazz music mixed together blues music with european music. some black composers such as scott joplin were writing music called ragtime, which had a very different rhythm from standard european music, but used notes that were similar to some european music. ragtime was a big influence on early jazz, called dixieland jazz. jazz musicians used instruments such as the tr | 1,024 | 27 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is [...] umpet, saxophone, and clarinet were used for the tunes (melodies), drums for percussion and plucked double bass, piano, banjo and guitar for the background rhythm (rhythmic section). jazz is usually improvised: the players make up (invent) the music as they play. even though jazz musicians are making up the music, jazz music still has rules; the musicians play a series of chords (groups of notes) in order.
jazz music has a swinging rhythm. the word "swing" is hard to explain. for a rhythm to be a "swinging rhythm" it has to feel natural and relaxed. swing rhythm is not even like a march. there is a long-short feel instead of a same-same feel. a "swinging rhythm" also gets the people who are listening excited, because they like the sound of it. some people say that a "swinging rhythm" happens when all the jazz musicians start to feel the same pulse and energy from the song. if a jazz band plays very well together, people will say "that is a swinging jazz band" or "that band really swings well."
jazz influenced other types of music like the western art music from the 1920s and 1930s. art music composers such as george gershwin wrote music that was influenced by jazz. jazz music influenced pop music songs. in the 1930s and 1940s, many pop music songs began using chords or melodies from jazz songs. one of the best known jazz musicians was louis armstrong (1900–1971).
pop music
"pop" music is a type of popular music that many people like to listen to. the term "pop music" can be used for all kinds of music that was written to be popular. the word "pop music" was used from about 1880 onwards, when a type of music called music was popular.
modern pop music grew out of 1950's rock and roll, (for example chuck berry, bo diddley and little richard) and rockabilly (for example elvis presley and buddy holly). in the 1960s, the beatles became a famous pop music group. in the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
musical notation
"musical notation" is the way music is written down. music needs to be written down in order to be saved and remembered for future performances. in this way composers (people who write music) can tell others how to play the musical piece as it was meant to be played.
solfège
solfège (sometimes called solfa) is the way tones are named. it was made in order to give a name to the several tones and pitches. for example, the eight basic notes "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do" are just the names of the eight notes that confirm the major scale.
written music
music can be written in several ways. when it is written on a staff (like in the example shown), the pitches (tones) and their duration are represented by symbols called notes. notes are put on the lines and in the spaces between the lines. each position says which tone must be played. the higher the note is on the staff, the higher the pitch of the tone. the lower the notes are, the lower the pitch. the duration of the notes (how long they are played for) is shown by making the note "heads" black or white, and by giving them stems and flags | 1,024 | 27 |
472 | music is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. music is [...].
music can also be written with letters, naming them as in the solfa "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do" or representing them by letters. the next table shows how each note of the solfa is represented in the standard notation:
the standard notation was made to simplify the lecture of music notes, although it is mostly used to represent chords and the names of the music scales.
these ways to represent music ease the way a person reads music. there are more ways to write and represent music, but they are less known and may be more complicated.
how to enjoy music
by listening
people can enjoy music by listening to it. they can go to concerts to hear musicians perform. classical music is usually performed in concert halls, but sometimes huge festivals are organized in which it is performed outside, in a field or stadium, like pop festivals. people can listen to music on cd's, computers, ipods, television, the radio, cassette/record-players and even mobile phones.
there is so much music today, in elevators, shopping malls, and stores, that it often becomes a background sound that we do not really hear.
by playing or singing
people can learn to play an instrument. probably the most common for complete beginners is the piano or keyboard, the guitar, or the recorder (which is certainly the cheapest to buy). after they have learnt to play scales, play simple tunes and read the simplest musical notation, then they can think about which instrument for further development. they should choose an instrument that is practical for their size. for example, a very short child cannot play a full size double bass, because the double bass is over five feet high. people should choose an instrument that they enjoy playing, because playing regularly is the only way to get better. finally, it helps to have a good teacher.
by composing
anyone can make up their own pieces of music. it is not difficult to compose simple songs or melodies (tunes). it's easier for people who can play an instrument themselves. all it takes is experimenting with the sounds that an instrument makes. someone can make up a piece that tells a story, or just find a nice tune and think about ways it can be changed each time it is repeated. the instrument might be someone's own voice.
the fact is, there are tons of instruments in the world. | 632 | 27 |
473 | madrid (pronounced: "mah-drid or /məˈdrɪd/) is the capital and largest city of spain. madrid is in the middle of spain, in the community of madrid. the community is a large area that includes the city as well as small towns and villages outside the city. 7 million people live in the community. more than 3 million live in the city itself. it is the largest city of spain and, at 655 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, the second highest capital in europe (after the andorran capital andorra la vella). it is the second largest city in the european union. as it is the capital city, madrid is where the monarch lives and also where the government meets. madrid is the financial centre of spain. many large businesses have their main offices there. it has four important footballs teams, real madrid, atlético madrid, getafe, and rayo vallecano. people who live in madrid are called madrileños.
madrid was ruled by the romans from the 2nd century. after ad 711 it was occupied by the moors. in 1083 spain was ruled again by spaniards. catholic kings ruled the country. by the mid-16th century it had become the capital of a very large empire. spain was ruled by monarchs from the house of habsburg, then the house of bourbon. after the spanish civil war it was ruled by a dictator until the mid-1970s when it became a democracy.
although it is a modern city, a lot of its history can be seen and felt as one walks along the streets and in the large squares of the city. there are beautiful parks, famous buildings, art galleries and concert halls.
history
during the history of spain many different people have lived there. the phoenicians came in 1100 bc, followed by carthaginians, romans, vandals, visigoths and moors. it was not until 1492, when the catholic monarchs got power, that spain became a united country. jews and moors, who had lived happily there for many years, were driven away. spain became very rich because it conquered many overseas countries, especially in central and south america. however, spain fought many wars and lost much of its treasure. it was very poor in 1936 when the civil war was fought. general franco became a harsh dictator until 1975 when juan carlos i was brought back to spain and made king. there is now a democratic government.
in prehistoric times people lived in the area which is now madrid. the romans lived there for several centuries. the origin of today's city really starts in the 9th century when muhammad i had a small palace built where the palacio real stands today. the moors built strong forts in madrid in 865 and put a wall round the city. these walls stood until 1476 when they were knocked down. in 1561 felipe i moved the royal court from toledo to madrid. madrid had now become the capital of a very large empire. over the next years and decades the plaza mayor was built and many great buildings and monuments, many of which still stand.
when ferdinand ii of aragon and queen isabella of castile came to madrid, spain had become a very rich country. the 16th and 17th centuries are now known as the "golden century". their grandson was the famous charles i of spain (also known as charles v, holy roman emperor). he liked his court to be in seville. his son, philip ii (1527–1598) moved the court to madrid in 1561.
in the late 1800s there was a revolt, known as the first spanish republic. later the monarchy was restored, but then there was a second spanish republic followed by the spanish civil war | 1,024 | 0 |
473 | madrid (pronounced: "mah-drid or /m� [...]. the second spanish republic started on 14 april 1931 and was celebrated in la puerta del sol which is the center of the city. madrid suffered a lot in this war. it was bombed by airplanes.
during the dictatorship of francisco franco, especially during the 1960s, south madrid became very industrialized, and many people from the rural areas moved to madrid especially to the south east of the city.
when general franco died and democracy was restored, madrid became more prosperous. during the 1980s and 1990s many new buildings were put up.
madrid has been attacked many times by terrorists. this includes the bombing of a restaurant in 1985, killing 18 people and the of trains in 2004, killing over 190 people.
geography
madrid has a borderline cold semi-arid climate (bsk in the köppen climate classification) and a hot-summer mediterranean climate (csa in the köppen climate classification). most rain falls in autumn and spring. the winters are cool because it is high up, and occasionally it snows. the summers are hot and dry. often the temperature is above 30 °c (86 °f) in july and august and can often reach 40 °c (104 °f). at night it is much cooler. this is why many offices and businesses are closed and people have a sleep (siesta) in the afternoon when it is hot. then they come out again in late afternoon and often eat dinner late at night.
buildings in madrid
spain's royal palace is in madrid. it is one of the largest palaces in all of western europe. but the king and his family do not live there anymore; they live in a smaller palace, and only use the royal palace for important events, like meeting other kings and other official ceremonies. one can go inside the royal palace and learn about the history of spanish monarchy.
other famous buildings are: the prado museum, the temple of debod, the santiago bernabeú stadium and the cuatro torres business area.
art galleries
there are a lot of very big and important art museums in madrid. the most famous ones are the prado museum, the queen sofia museum, and the thyssen-bornemisza museum. these show off paintings, sculptures, and other works of art from some of the most famous artists in the world.
many famous, important, and valuable works of art are in these museums. for example, the queen sofia museum has a famous painting by pablo picasso, called guernica. picasso painted this painting to show how sad and angry it made him when the german nazis destroyed a town in spain called guernica in 1937. picasso had said that the painting should never return to spain until it was a democracy again. once that happened, they built the queen sofia museum just to have a good place to put it.
other sights
there are many other sights to see in madrid. many people go to see the plaza mayor which was a market place. the plaza de la villa was another famous market place. there are a lot of shops along the gran via. real madrid football fans celebrate at the plaza de cibeles. two famous gates to see are the puerta del sol and the puerta de alcalá. a more recent landmark is the almudena cathedral.
madrid has some lovely parks. the retiro park is the most famous. the cristal palace can be found in this park.
the plaza de toros is visited by many tourists. bullfights take place there. | 1,020 | 27 |
474 | Montreal (, spelled Montréal in French) is a city in the country of Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec and the second-largest city in Canada. It is the second-largest French-speaking city in the world after Paris.
Montreal is built on an island sitting in the Saint Lawrence River. More than three million people live in the Montreal region. At the centre of Montreal is a mountain called Mount Royal. The suburb of Westmount is a very rich suburb on the island of Montreal.
Most of the people who live in Montreal speak French, but English is also commonly spoken as a second language.
History
The name 'Montréal' comes from Mont Royal, which means 'Royal Mountain' in French. It was originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary.
Montreal has always played a very important part in the history and development of Canada. It continues to be a large Canadian industrial and commercial centre, as well as a major seaport (via the Saint Lawrence River). It once was the largest city in Canada, before Toronto grew to be larger.
Tourists visit Montreal for its historical and cultural interest. One can visit the Old City in horse-drawn carriages, where many buildings from the earliest years stand and remind of the way of life that started in the New World, when Montreal was just a fur trading outpost belonging to France over 350 years ago.
Geography
Montreal is in the southwest of Quebec, 530 kilometres north of New York City. The city itself is located on an island, the Island of Montreal. Near the downtown area, there is a hill called Mount Royal (Mont Royal in French).
Economy
Montreal's economy is the second largest in Canada. The city's port is the biggest inland port (a port that is not on the sea) in the world. Many large corporations have their main offices in Montreal. It also hosts many international organizations like ICAO, the World Anti-Doping Agency, and IATA. The city is home to four major Universities, welcoming students from all parts of Canada and from all over the world.
Montreal is also known for its cultural production sector. Because the city has many different buildings, movies are easy to film there. The circus troupe (group) Cirque du Soleil is from Montreal. The city is also known for its festivals, like the Montreal Jazz Festival and Just For Laughs.
Some video game companies like Ubisoft also have studios in Montreal.
Culture
Montreal is the cultural capital of Quebec and French-speaking Canada.
Montreal has many beautiful churches (Montreal is referred to locally as 'the city of a hundred churches'), including the largest church in Canada, and also many important art, history, and science museums. You can also visit the location of the 1967 World's Fair, where today, as well as many other attractions, one will find the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve Formula One automobile race course. Also of interest is the site where the 1976 Summer Olympic Games were held, and the modern architecture of the Olympic stadium (the 'Big O') and its tall inclined observation tower (the highest inclined tower in the world); now a landmark of Montreal.
Ice hockey was invented in Montreal. A lot of Montrealers are interested in the sport, and the city is home to its own ice hockey team called the Montreal Canadiens who play in the National Hockey League (NHL).
Media
Montreal Stations
CBMT CBC
CFCF CTV | 980 | 0 |
476 | The macadamia nut is the fruit of a tree that first came from the east coast of Australia. There is
more than one kind of Macadamia tree. Only two kinds are grown for food.
The tree is an evergreen (stays green all year long). It grows up to high. It has groups of small white flowers. It grows best in subtropical (wet and always warm) climates. It needs well-drained soil (water can flow away easily) and of rain a year.
The nutmeat (the soft part inside the shell that can be eaten) is mostly a creamy white color. Sometimes it looks a bit yellow. It has a flavor that many people like. Macadamias are eaten roasted (cooked) by themselves. They are used in cookies, cakes, pastries, and candies. People use them like almonds and cashews as part of cooked meals. This is an Oriental style of cooking.
The first commercial orchard was started in Australia in the late 1880s. Commercial production started in Hawaii during the 1920s. Production later spread to California, Mexico, and other places with warm climate.
Macadamias are poisonous to dogs. A dog usually needs 24 to 48 hours to recover fully after eating macadamias.The plant is in the Proteaceae family of flowering plants. | 355 | 0 |
477 | Maui is the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.
It has a population of just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles (1883 km²) in size. Maui is part of Maui County, Hawaii. The larger (or better known) towns include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, Hana, and Wailea. Main industries are agriculture and tourism.
Maui was named for the demi-god Maui. In Hawaiian legend, he raised all the islands from the sea. Maui is also known as the "Valley Isle" for the large fertile isthmus (narrow land connection) between two volcanoes.
Geography
Maui is a volcanic doublet: an island formed from two volcanic mountains that are joined. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been very worn down. In common talk it is called the West Maui Mountain. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,000 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala happened over 200 years ago, and this lava flow can be seen between Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southeast shore.
Places
Other places on Maui popular with visitors include:
Ī'ao Valley.
Haleakala crater
Road to Hāna
Wai'ānapanapa
Golf courses on Maui include:
Grand Waikapu Country Club
Ka'anapali Golf Course
Kapalua Golf Club
Makena Golf Club
Maui Country Club
Pukalani Country Club
Sandalwood Country Club
Silversword Golf Course
Wai'ehu Municipal Golf Course
Wailea Golf Club
Islands of Hawaii | 505 | 0 |
478 | Molokai (sometimes mistakenly called Molokaʻi) is the fifth largest island in the U.S. Hawaiian Islands. The island is 38 miles long and 10 miles across. Its land area is 261 square miles. The highest mountain is named Kamakou, and it is 4,970 feet (1,514 meters) high.
Molokai has many local indigenous names including Molokai 'Aina Momona (land of abundance), Molokai Pule O'o (land of powerful prayer), and Molokai Nui A Hina (of the goddess Hina). It is one of the least developed of the Hawaiian islands.
The only big town is named Kaunakakai, which is also the main or chief port on the island. The airport is in Central Molokai. Also on the island is Kalaupapa, which is a place for people who have a diease called leprosy.
Molokai has many Hawaiian fish ponds along its south shore. Many of these have been cleaned and fixed.
Islands of Hawaii | 299 | 0 |
479 | money, also sometimes called currency, can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.
there are lots of different kinds of money in the world. most countries have their own kind of money, such as the united states dollar or the british pound.
history
the idea of bartering things is very old. a long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed. one person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. each would trade a little of what he had with the other. this would support the people on his farm. other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. this gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.
when people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. they must still have a known value, and could be carried around. the first country in the world to make metal coins was called lydia. these first appeared during the 7th century bc, in the western part of what is now turkey. the lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. this idea soon spread to greece, the rest of the mediterranean, and the rest of the world. coins were all made to the same size and shape. in some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.
besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. money is easier to divide than many trade goods. if someone own cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. but if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.
cows die, and wheat rots. but money lasts longer than most trade goods. if someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. he can always leave it to his children when he dies. it can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.
not every cow is as good as another cow. some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. so if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. however, money is standard. that means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. it is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.
later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "i.o.u." note. the first true paper money was used in china in the 10th century ad. paper money was also printed in sweden between 1660 and 1664. both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. massachusetts bay colony printed paper money in the 1690s. this time, the use became more common.
today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. it is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.
kinds
many types of money have been used at different times in history. these are:
cowry shells
commodity money
convertible paper money
inconvertible money
bank deposits
electronic money
commodity money can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. we say it possesses int | 1,024 | 0 |
482 | Multiplication is the inverse of division, and has many uses, one of them being checking your division work.
Multiplication is an arithmetic operation for finding the product of two numbers in mathematics. It is often represented by symbols such as and . Multiplication is the third operation in math, after addition which is the first, and subtraction which is the second. It can also be defined on number mathematical objects as well.
With natural numbers, multiplication gives the number of tiles in a rectangle, where one of the two numbers equals the number of tiles on one side, and the other number equals the number of tiles on the other side.
With real numbers, multiplication gives the area of a rectangle where the first number is the same as the size of one side, and the second number is the same as the size of the other side.
For example, three multiplied by five is the total of five threes added together, or the total of three fives. This can be written as 3 × 5 = 15, or spoken as "three times five equals fifteen." Mathematicians refer to the two numbers to be multiplied as "coefficients", or "multiplicand" and "multiplicator" separately (where Multiplicand × multiplicator = product).
Multiplication between numbers is said to be commutative—when the order of the numbers does not influence the value of the product. This is true for the integers (whole numbers), e.g. 4 × 6 is the same as 6 × 4, and also for the rational numbers (fractions), and for all the other real numbers (representable as a field in the continuous line), and also for complex numbers (numbers representable as a field in the plane). However, it is not true for quaternions (numbers representable as a ring in the four-dimensional space), vectors or matrices.
The definition of multiplication as repeated addition provides a way to arrive at a set-theoretic interpretation of multiplication of cardinal numbers. A more accurate representation is to think of it as scaling quantities. This animation illustrates 3 being multiplied by 2, giving 6 as a result. Notice that the blue dot in the blue segment of length 3 is placed at position 1, and the blue segment is scaled so that this dot is placed at the end of the red segment (of length 2). For multiplication by any X, the blue dot will always start at 1 and end at X. This works even if X is smaller than 1, or negative.
The opposite of multiplication is division.
Multiplication table
Teachers usually require their pupils to memorize the table of the first 9 numbers when teaching multiplication, so that more complex multiplication tasks can be performed. | 751 | 0 |
483 | microsoft corporation is a company that makes computer software and video games. bill gates and paul allen started the company in 1975. microsoft makes microsoft windows, microsoft office (including microsoft word), edge, msn and xbox, among others. most microsoft programs cannot be downloaded for free–people have to buy them in a shop or online. some products (like the windows operating system) are often already installed when people buy a new computer.
software
microsoft windows is an operating system, which means that it is the basic software that makes people's computers work and lets other programs work. the majority of desktop and laptop computers run windows, and so do some tablet computers and a few smartphones. the latest version of windows is windows 11. the latest server version is windows server 2022.
microsoft office is an office suite. it lets people write documents on their computer with microsoft word, make charts and graphs with microsoft excel, make presentations with microsoft powerpoint, and send email with microsoft outlook. microsoft sharepoint is a server tool included in microsoft office (2007, 2013). microsoft expression series was a web development tool.
internet explorer is a piece of software that lets people look at things online (known as browsing) and download things from the internet. in 2015, it was replaced by microsoft edge.
microsoft also makes other programs for the internet. many of them are called windows live services, with the name windows live put in front of the old name of the service, like windows live hotmail. after 2012, the windows live name was less used.
microsoft bing is an internet search engine for finding things online. bing maps shows maps.
microsoft basic is the very first product made by microsoft. it was created in 1975.
xenix is the first operating system licensed and then developed by microsoft in the late 1970s.
ms-dos is the second operating system acquired and then developed by microsoft in 1981, used for primitive computers and terminals.
minecraft and many other programs have been bought by microsoft and developed further.
services
although microsoft is best known for its software products, the company also runs a number of web services. they include:
outlook.com is a webmail service. when microsoft created this service in 1996, it was called hotmail. it is used to send and receive email, manage a calendar of events and tasks, and a list of contacts (such as phone numbers and email addresses).
onedrive is a file hosting service. it was started in 2007 and was called "skydrive" at the time. users can upload files to a web server and get them on a variety of devices, including pcs and mobile devices.
skype is a voip and social media service. it was not created by microsoft, but by a company called skype sarl, which was later bought out by microsoft. the skype program or mobile app lets people make phone calls through the internet to other skype users for free and, for a fee, landline phones.
linkedin is a social networking service for people with professional jobs. like skype, it was not created by microsoft but by another company which microsoft later bought. the site lets people post information about their jobs and skills to help employers look for new people to hire.
msn is a web portal where people can read news and get information about different topics. it was created in 1995 and at one point its services were made under the brand name of "windows live". msn used to have an instant messaging service, msn messenger, but that has since become part of skype.
bing is a search engine similar to google. it used to be under the msn brand and was later known as live search, but became its own service in 2 | 1,024 | 0 |
483 | microsoft corporation is a company that makes computer software and video games. bill gates [...] 009. bing is known for the different images that appear on the background of its home page.
hardware
microsoft has also made a wide variety of hardware over the years. among them are computer accessories like mice, keyboards, and webcams.
the company also makes and promotes a video game console, xbox. it lets people play video games on their televisions. the games were first stored on cds, but many recent games are downloaded from the internet. there have been three generations of xbox. the first generation came out in 2001 and was just called xbox, while the second, the xbox 360, was released in 2005. the third model is the xbox one in may 2013. in 2020, microsoft introduced xbox series x and xbox series s. beginning with the xbox 360, microsoft introduced xbox live, which lets people play games online against other people anywhere in the world. the xbox has become very popular and more than 150 million units have been sold worldwide. because of this, microsoft is considered one of the three big companies that make video game consoles, along with nintendo and sony.
most recently, microsoft has also started to make its own pcs, called the surface. the first model was announced in 2012 and the surface line now includes tablets that use either arm or intel processors, two models of laptops called the surface book and surface laptop, an all-in-one pc called the surface studio, and an interactive whiteboard, the surface hub.
in 2014, microsoft bought the mobile phone division of nokia, a finnish company, which then became microsoft mobile. the sale included the lumia family of smartphones, which use microsoft's own windows phone platform. from 2014 to 2016, microsoft mobile also made feature phones with the nokia brand. then the feature phone business was sold to hmd global, which continues to produce both feature phones and android smartphones under license from nokia. | 566 | 27 |
485 | the islamic world or muslim world consists of all people who believe in islam. it is not an exact location, but rather a community. when they do things together as muslims, they are the "umma", which means "community" referring to all of the believers. the faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. recent conflicts in the muslim world have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). it is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. some might even have never started.
demographics
muslims are in many countries. in 52 nations, muslims are the majority. almost all are sunni. they speak about 60 languages and come from all ethnic backgrounds.
10.4 million muslims in canada and the united states
2.2 million muslims in latin and central america
10.0 million muslims in the european union plus bosnia-herzegovina and albania
few or none in eastern europe, norway
62.4 million muslims in turkey
284.4 million muslims in the arab league including iraq (with about 15 million shia, 60% of the population)
254.0 muslims in sub-saharan africa
65.4 million muslims (90% shia) in iran
48.5 million muslims in central asia - in azerbaijan, uzebekistan, tajikistan, kazakhstan, kyrgyzstan, turkmenistan - formerly republics of the soviet union.
26.7 million muslims in russia
22.7 million muslims in afghanistan
230.0 million muslims in pakistan and bangladesh (formerly east bengal provincial region).
133.3 million muslims in india (included jammu and kashmir) - the world's largest minority population
133.1 million muslims in china - a close second
34.6 million muslims in somalia
196.3 million muslims in indonesia
30.0 million muslims in the rest of south-east asia, especially malaysia
few or none in japan, australia, new zealand, mongolia, or the south pacific
1.5 billion people total
media
the al-jazeera satellite tv network in the arabic language is a news source many muslims watch.
in most muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. this sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.
there are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the muslim world.
islam in law and ethics
islamic law exists in many variations - in arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. these are the classical fiqh: the hanafi school from india, pakistan and bangaladesh, west africa, egypt, the maliki in north africa and west africa, the shafi in malaysia and indonesia, the hanbali in arabia, and jaferi in iran and iraq - where the majority is shia. all five are very old and many muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.
so, in most of the muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about alcohol, adultery, abortion and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.
muslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. but in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. this is one of the things that causes tension between the western world | 1,024 | 0 |
485 | the islamic world or muslim world consists of all people who believe in islam. it is not an [...] and that of muslims.
islamic economics bans debt but in most muslim countries western banking is allowed. this is another issue that many muslims have with the western world.
islam in politics
one quarter of the world population share islam as an ethical tradition.
many people in these countries also see islam as a political movement. in democratic countries there is usually at least one islamic party.
political islam is powerful in all muslim-majority countries. islamic parties in pakistan and algeria have taken power.
many in these movements call themselves islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant islamic groups. the relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.
some of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-muslim nations, to make a political point.
conflicts with israel and the us
israel is very unpopular in the muslim world, because of the israeli-palestinian conflict and the way that the state of israel came into being in 1948 which many arabs thought was unfair.
some muslims see this as a fight against judaism or jews, but not all. in morocco for instance, the islamists recently invited jews to join the party. jewish groups also cooperate with arabs in the west bank, where neturei karta (anti-zionist orthodox jewish) leader rabbi mosche hirsch served as the minister for jewish affairs in the fatah before there was a palestinian authority. like the arabs, this small group of jews thought the way israel was created was not right. however, very few jews believe this, and most support israel as a state.
in 1979 there was a big shift in the way the muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. in that year, egypt made peace with israel, iran became an islamic state after a revolution, and there was an invasion of afghanistan by the soviet union. a lot of things changed in that year. by 2001 the soviet union was gone, jordan had also made peace with israel, and on september 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the u.s. - which most people believe were made to drive the united states out of the muslim world, especially saudi arabia. in many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.
the 2001 invasion of afghanistan and 2003 invasion of iraq are called part of a war on terrorism by the united states. many or most muslims see it as a war on islam. after the invasion, the islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of muslims polled in many nations expressed support for osama bin laden and said he would "do the right thing". olivier roy is a french scholar who thinks that this does not express support for al-qaeda or militant islam but opposing colonialism and what many muslims call racism - favourable treatment for jews especially those living in west bank settlements, many of whom have american or british passport, and which the united nations says have no right to live there.
the situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.
organization
the organization of islamic conference formed in 1969 lets the muslim nations work as a group. russia joined in 2003.
the arab league is a smaller group of only the arab countries.
opec is another forum where issues between the muslim and non-muslim world come up. in 1973 to protest u.s. support for israel there was an oil embargo which caused the 1973 energy crisis. | 951 | 27 |
487 | A multiverse is the theory of a conjectured set of multiple possible universes, including ours, which make up reality. These universes are sometimes called parallel universes. A number of different versions have been considered.
The term "multiverse" was coined in 1895 by psychologist William James as a philosophical concept.
The cosmological multiverse
The cosmological multiverse tries to explain why the universe we observe i.e. ''our universe'' seems so welcoming to the emergence of life. Even small changes to the way physics works would make life impossible. In a multiverse a vast number of universes are randomly created and some happen to favour life emerging there. Many inhospitable universes would also have been created, but there would be no life there to observe their existence.
The quantum multiverse
The quantum multiverse is another version in which our universe splits into alternative futures with every quantum event. This is called many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. | 247 | 0 |
490 | the mechanistic paradigm, also known as the newtonian paradigm, assumes that things in the environment around humans are more like machines than like life. it was more common in the 19th century. this is a set of loosely related beliefs that affects all sciences:
in physics it presents atoms as made of particles in preference to say the wave theory of light. in fact, both the particle and wave view are required to explain everything light does, but are rarely presented as equals. many physics students graduate fully understanding the hydrogen bomb but having no clear idea of how musical instruments work.
in astrophysics it assumes that the universe is like clockwork and works on its own without our choice making any difference - this fits relativity but is not easy to combine with quantum mechanics.
in cosmology it accepts models of our universe more easily if reject the continuous creation of matter, energy or any new "other universes".
in chemistry it assumes that molecules are like building blocks, and have no unpredictable or strange and unique effects when combined. this is the basic assumption of mechanosynthesis which some scientists think will create a molecular assembler.
in biology it assumes that everything about life - all of biochemistry - is predictable from chemistry and physics.
believers tend to regard ecology and psychology as "less scientific" than physics, chemistry and biology.
believers may reject ideas like psychoneuroimmunology, gaia philosophy or fecund universes for no scientific reason, simply because these theories assume "higher level phenomena" sometimes drive lower levels.
greedy reductionism may be more likely among believers in mechanistic ideas. for instance, they may want to always see things as made of smaller, even invisible, parts that no one can see or prove is real - like in string theory.
for this reason, when they work in psychology, they may prefer theories like behaviorism that deny free will and try to explain human behaviour as a function of biology.
the philosophy of mathematics of most believers is a form of platonism. this assumes there is a perfect or ideal form that theories only approximate. this lets them explain inaccuracies in mechanistic theories as being due to an imperfection in human ability to reason, instead of imperfections in math itself.
believers in this paradigm sometimes say that those who do not believe in it are following a cognitive paradigm - but almost no one uses this term, since it is redundant - cognitive science is already accepted as the most basic idea in the philosophy of science. but mechanists reject some of the ideas of cognitive scientists, like cognitive science of mathematics.
mechanistic thinking also assumes that philosophy of perception is much less important than cognitive scientists say it is - that humans and their beliefs and equipment do not generally add a lot of bias to a scientific theory. thomas kuhn said otherwise, that these things matter, and that the major assumptions of science, can shift drastically. this he called a paradigm shift. the shift from mechanistic to cognitive paradigm is an example of this.
later he used other words to describe the assumptions and beliefs, like mind-set, but the word "paradigm" is still used. some say it is much over-used.
economics is often said to "suffer from" assumptions of the mechanistic paradigm. sometimes those who believe in neoclassical economics and also in the mechanistic paradigm say they "seek to unify physics and economics," as if people and particles behaved as two examples of the same kind of thing.
technology is often easier to make if people accept a mechanistic paradigm - but it may be harder to say why it does not work, if one believes in these ideas. for instance, creating diagnostic trees might be easier if one works from experience, not from an idea of how a technology should or must work.
a controversial idea is that mechanistic ideas are just an older idea called scholasticism, with more mathematics. both tried to work from what should or must be, instead of what experiment seemed to show. | 1,024 | 0 |
495 | mediawiki is the name of the software that runs all of the wikimedia projects and many more. mediawiki was released in 2003. it is a free server-based software which is licensed under the gnu general public license (gpl). this means it is free content, or open source.
mediawiki is designed to be run on a large web server farm for a website that gets millions of hits per day. mediawiki is a very powerful, scalable software and a feature-rich wiki implementation. it uses php to process and display data stored in its mysql database. pages use mediawiki's wikitext format, so that users without knowledge of xhtml or css can edit them easily.
when a user submits an edit to a page, mediawiki writes it to the database, but without deleting the previous versions of the page, thus allowing easy reverts in case of vandalism or spamming. mediawiki can manage image and multimedia files, too, which are stored in the filesystem. for large wikis with lots of users, mediawiki supports caching and can be easily coupled with squid proxy server software.
all wikimedia projects run on mediawiki version.
usage
because mediawiki is flexible, many websites that want people to contribute information use mediawiki rather than other types of wiki software. those operated by fandom are among them.
there are also some websites that use mediawiki as a content management system.
extensions
in mediawiki, a system administrator can choose to install extensions which are provided on the main mediawiki website. some are from the mediawiki developers, while others are from programmers from all around the world.
most extensions can be download from wikimedia's subversion repository. however, there are some other extensions that other people host themselves.
some extensions had been added to the main software along the development of mediawiki. for example, the makesysop extension is an extension to promote a user into an administrator or a bureaucrat.
there were a total of 2124 extensions as of october 4, 2013.
namespaces
in the default installation of mediawiki, the software has 17 namespaces(18 actually, but one does not have a namespace), namely:
article (no namespace, like this page)
talk – for main namespace talk page
user – the user page, also from special:mypage
user talk – the user talk page, also from special:mytalk
project – the project namespace (like on this wiki, is wikipedia)
project talk – the project page talk page
file – page for images and sounds
file talk – talk about the media
mediawiki – software pages, can only be changed from an administrator
mediawiki talk – talk about the software page, anyone can write in this namespace
template – for templates
template talk – talk about the template
help – help pages (like help:contents)
help talk – talk about the help page
category - categorising pages
category talk – talk about the category
special – special pages of the mediawiki software
media – namespace to directly link to the file
additional namespaces can be added using the settings file from the installation of mediawiki.
bugs
as mediawiki is a complex software, there would always be bugs in the software, especially for new extensions. therefore, wikimedia has created a bugzilla website for people who see a bug to tell the developers of mediawiki.
some extensions of mediawiki use the wikimedia bugzilla, while some just use the talk pages of the extension page.
skins
users can change mediawiki's appearance. they ma | 1,024 | 0 |
497 | A first language (also mother language, mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) often means the language that a person learns first. It helps one understand words and concepts in the style of that language.
Sometimes, but not often, first language means the language that a person speaks best (the second language is then spoken less well than the first language, etc.). In that sense, a person could have more than one first or second language.
The first languages of national majority usually are to be recognized as national language of the nation. | 132 | 0 |
500 | The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is called a mustache. The hair that grows on the sides of the face and the chin of some men is called a beard. Some men have a lot of hair and a big mustache, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their mustaches, or cut their mustache so it does not get very long. A chin beard with no mustache is called a goatee, whilst a chin beard with a mustache is known as a Van Dyke.
The earliest facial hair above the lip, as a style, is credited to the Iron Age Celts. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian,wrote this about the Celtic people:
Mustache in United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations is spelled moustache.
Some animals such as walruses also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a mustache.
Facial hair | 256 | 0 |
501 | A mile is a unit of length. There are many different kinds of mile but mile on its own usually means the statute mile.
Statute mile
In the US and the UK the word mile usually means the statute mile.
Nautical mile
The nautical mile is used for sea or air travel.
The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a line of longitude of the Earth. There are 60 minutes of arc in one degree or arc (60' = 1°). So there were 10,800 nautical miles from the North Pole to the South Pole.
Now the nautical mile is defined as 1,852 metres.
{|
|-
|1 nautical mile||= 1,852 metres (by definition)
|-
|||≈ feet
|-
|||≈ statute miles
|}
The speed of a ship that travels one nautical mile in one hour is called one knot
Roman mile
The mile was first used by the Romans. It comes from the Latin phrase mille passus (plural: milia passuum). This means "one thousand paces". A pace is the distance each foot moves when taking one step.
{|
|-
|1 Roman mile||= 1,000 Roman paces (by definition)
|-
|||≈ 1,479 metres
|-
|||≈ 4,852 feet
|}
Other miles
Different miles have been used throughout history in various parts of the world. In Norway and Sweden, for example, a mil is a unit of length which is equal to 10 kilometres.
Idioms
Even in English-speaking countries that use the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), the mile is still used in many idioms. These include:
A country mile is used colloquially to mean a very long distance.
"A miss is as good as a mile" (failure by a narrow margin is no better than any other failure)
"Give him an inch and he'll take a mile" – a corruption of "Give him an inch and he'll take an ell" (the person in question will become greedy if shown generosity)
"Missed by a mile" (missed by a wide margin)
"Go a mile a minute" (move very fast)
"Talk a mile a minute" (speak very fast)
"To go the extra mile" (to put in extra effort)
"Miles away" (lost in thought, or daydreaming)
"Milestone" (an event showing a lot of progress) | 756 | 0 |
504 | Margarine is an artificial butter. It can be made from vegetable oil, or animal fat. It may also contain skimmed milk, salt and emulsifiers. Margarine is used in many baked products. It contains less fat than butter, so is often chosen instead of it. There are also "low fat" margarines, which contain even less fat. However, many types of margarine are made with hydrogenated oils. Products with hydrogenated oil have trans fats, which are unhealthy and can cause heart disease. Other fats, like olive oil, and butter, are a better choice for cooking.
Spreads | 161 | 0 |
505 | the milky way is our home galaxy. it contains around 400 billion stars, including our sun.
the milky way has a diameter of about 170,000 or 200,000 light years, and is a barred spiral galaxy. the idea that the milky way is made of stars goes back to the ancient greek philosopher democritus.
the milky way has three main parts: a disk, where the solar system is, a bulge at the core, and an outer halo all around it. although the word "disk" suggests it is flat, the milky way is actually not quite flat. it is slightly warped and twisted.
this galaxy belongs to the local group of three large galaxies and over 50 smaller galaxies. the milky way is one of the largest galaxies in the group, second to the andromeda galaxy. its closest neighbour is the canis major dwarf galaxy, which is about 25,000 light years away from the earth. the andromeda galaxy is moving towards the milky way galaxy and will collide with it in about 3.75 billion years. the andromeda galaxy moves with a speed of about 1,800 kilometres per minute.
size
the stellar disk of the milky way galaxy is about 200,000 light-years (9×1017 km) in diameter, and is considered to be, on average, about 1000 light years thick.
it is estimated to contain at least 100 billion stars, and possibly up to 400 billion stars. the figure depends on the number of very low-mass, or dwarf stars, which are hard to detect, especially more than 300 light years from our sun. therefore, present estimates of the total number are uncertain. this can be compared to the one trillion (1012) stars of the neighbouring andromeda galaxy.
the stellar disc of the milky way does not have a sharp edge, a radius beyond which there are no stars. rather, the number of stars drops smoothly with distance from the centre of the galaxy. beyond a radius of about 40,000 light years, the number of stars drops much faster, for reasons that are not understood.
extending beyond the stellar disk is a much thicker disk of gas. recent observations indicate that the gaseous disk of the milky way has a thickness of around 12000 light years–twice the previously accepted value.
at 220 kilometers per second it takes the solar system about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the galaxy (a galactic year).
the galactic halo extends outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two milky way satellites, the large and the small magellanic clouds, whose closest approach is at about 180,000 light years. at this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the magellanic clouds, and the objects would likely be ejected from the vicinity of the milky way.
as a guide to the relative physical scale of the milky way, if the solar system out to the orbit of pluto were reduced to the size of a us quarter (about an inch or 25 mm in diameter), the milky way would have a diameter of 2,000 kilometers.
galactic center
the galactic disc, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has a diameter of 170–200,000 light years.
the exact distance from the sun to the galactic center is debated. the latest estimates give distances to the galactic center of 25–28,000 light years.
the movement of material around the galactic center shows that it has a compact object of very | 1,024 | 0 |
508 | Movement, or motion, is the state of changing something's position or changing where something is. A bird that is flying is moving. So is a person who is walking. This is, because they change where they are. They "move" from one place to another. There are many forms of science and mathematics that are related to movement.
Because of the work of scientists including Galilei and Newton, we know that position is relative. This means that an object's position depends on where it exists in relation to other objects. For example, a ball can be away from a box, from a chair and away from a table. Here, the box, chair and the table helped to define the position of the ball. They acted as the reference points for the observation of the ball. By telling someone how far the ball was from other objects, they were told its relative position.
The motion of an object is also relative. It depends on how its position changes in relation to other objects. For example:
A person is sitting inside a train (Train A). The train has not started moving yet. When that person looks out the window, they see another train (Train B) . Both trains are facing the same direction. If Train B moves backwards, it appears to the person on Train A that they are moving toward Train B. If a reference point it added this can be changed. If the person can also see a pole next to the trains they will see that train A did not move and train B moved backwards.
From this, it is shown that what the movement is can not bo known without a frame of reference. In this example the pole is the frame of reference.
The study of motion without considering its cause is called kinematics. Kinematics deals with terms like speed, velocity, and acceleration. Dynamics is the branch of physics that focuses on the causes and effects of motion. It deals with force, inertia, work, energy and momentum.
Animal movement
The movement of animals is controlled by the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord.
The muscles that control the eye are driven by the optic tectum in the midbrain. All the voluntary muscles in the body are controlled by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled by neural circuits of the spinal cord, and by inputs from the brain. The spinal circuits do many reflex responses, and also do rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain give more sophisticated control.
The brain has several areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the highest level is the primary motor cortex. This is a strip of tissue at the back of the frontal lobe. This tissue sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. There are other brain areas which affect movement. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.
In addition, the brain and spinal cord controls the autonomic nervous system. this system works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, sexual arousal and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. Several of them, such as respiration, can be controlled directly as well. | 892 | 0 |
510 | metaphor is a term for a figure of speech. it does not use a word in its basic literal sense. instead, it uses a word in a kind of comparison. we run, and we also say rivers run. we may run into trouble, especially if we run up a bill at the bar.
so a metaphor uses words to make a picture in our mind. it takes a word from its original context, and uses it in another.
"i beat him with a stick" = literal meaning of 'beat'.
"i beat him in an argument" = metaphorical meaning of 'beat'.
metaphors are an essential part of language: it is not possible to speak or write without them. a simple example is the word "run". this has a basic meaning of "moving quickly" or "go with quick steps on alternate feet, never having both feet on the ground at the same time". the concise oxford dictionary then gives
34 other uses as a verb; 21 uses as a noun; about 50 uses in short phrases. all of these are metaphors, although we do not usually notice this.
we use metaphors to make indirect comparisons, but without using 'like' or 'as' – because that would be a simile. a simile is a direct comparison: "jane is like a child".
a metaphor very often uses the verb 'to be': "love is war", for example, not "love is like war" (that is a simile).
poetry includes much metaphor, usually more than prose.
spam is an example that any email user knows about – this word was originally a metaphor, from'spam', a type of canned meat. servers putting unwanted email into somebody's inbox was similar to waiters putting unwanted spam into food. this was originally suggested by a monty python scene. when we use a metaphor very often and we forget the old meaning, or forget that the two meanings are connected, this is a 'dead metaphor'.
originally metaphor was a greek word for 'transfer'. it came from meta ('beyond') and pherein ('carry'). so the word metaphor in english was a metaphor, too. today in greek, metaphor is a trolley (a thing that is pushed for carrying shopping or bags).
most metaphors are concepts: see conceptual metaphor.
idioms use metaphors, or are metaphors: for example, the english phrase to kick the bucket means to die.
simple metaphors
description
a simple metaphor has a single link between the subject and the metaphoric vehicle. the vehicle thus has a single meaning which is transferred directly to the subject.
examples
cool down! [cool = temperature]
he was mad. [mad = anger]
i'll chew on it. [chew = think]
it was raining cats and dogs. [cats and dogs = rain]
max was an angel. [angel = lovely person]
in the simple metaphor, the effort to understand what the author or speaker intends is relatively low, and hence it may easily be used with a wider and less sophisticated audience.
complex metaphors
description
a complex metaphor happens where a simple metaphor is based on a secondary metaphoric element. for example, using a metaphor of 'light' for 'understanding' may be complexified by saying 'throwing light' rather than'shining light'. 'throwing' is an extra metaphor for how light arrives.
examples
that lends weight to the argument.
they stood alone, frozen statues on the plain.
the ball happily danced into the net | 1,024 | 0 |
510 | metaphor is a term for a figure of speech. it does not use a w [...].
"but at my back i always hear / time's wingèd chariot hurrying near / and yonder all before us lie / deserts of vast eternity".from 17th century english poet andrew marvell's poem to his coy mistress.
compound metaphors
description
a compound metaphor is one where there are multiple parts in the metaphor that are used to snag the listener. these parts may be enhancement words such as adverbs, adjectives, etc.
each part in the compound metaphor may be used to signify an additional item of meaning.
examples
awake! for morning in the bowl of nighthas flung the stone that puts the stars to flight. an aged man is but a paltry thing,
a tattered coat upon a stick..."
thick, primal, blind fog descended before his eyes.
the car screeched in hated anguish, its flesh laid bare in the raucous collision.
compound metaphors are like a multiple punch, hitting the listener repeatedly with metaphoric elements. where the complex metaphor uses stacked layers to enhance the metaphor, the compound metaphor uses sequential words. the compound metaphor is also known as a loose metaphor.
live and dead metaphors
a live metaphor is one which a reader notices. a dead metaphor is one no-one notices because it has become so common in the language.
examples
two people walk off a tennis court. someone asks the loser: "what happened?"."he won". literal truth."he beat me". obviously a dead metaphor."he thrashed me". this one is slightly alive.the river runs. dead, and many variations on this theme.electricity is a fluid. nearly dead.all our efforts are running into the sand''. live. | 528 | 27 |
511 | Metabolism is the chemical reactions which keep us alive. It happens in the cells of living organisms.
The chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. Metabolism allows organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word ‘metabolism’ can also refer to digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories:
Catabolism breaks down organic matter and harvests energy by way of cellular respiration.
Anabolism uses energy to build molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, or cycles, like the Krebs cycle. One chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical by a series of enzymes.
The metabolic system of an organism decides which substances it finds nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, called the metabolic rate, influences how much food an organism will need, and how it is able to get that food.
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in the evolution of life, and kept because of their efficiency. | 433 | 0 |