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Heaven, or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying. Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places" and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply divine will. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come. Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svarga loka, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld. At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of Afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (hell being the place where bad behavior is punished).

Heaven, or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying. Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to hell or the Underworld or the "low places" and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply divine will. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come. Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svarga loka, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld. At least in the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of Afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (hell being the place where bad behavior is punished).Islam Similar to Jewish traditions such as the Talmud, the Qur'an and Hadith frequently mention the existence of seven samāwāt (سماوات), the plural of samāʾ (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew shamāyim (שמים). Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the samaawat are 41:12, 65:12 and 71:15. Sidrat al-Muntaha, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge.One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the Milky Way) are all part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists.According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below: Rafi' (رفیع) the least heaven (سماء الدنیا) Qaydum (قیدوم) Marum (ماروم) Arfalun (أرفلون) Hay'oun (هيعون) Arous (عروس) Ajma' (عجماء)Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as Jannah (Arabic: جنة "Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). Regarding Eden or paradise the Quran says, "The parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised: Beneath it flow rivers; perpetual is the fruits thereof and the shade therein. Such is the end of the righteous; and the end of the unbelievers is the Hellfire." Islam rejects the concept of original sin, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents. Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without negative emotions. Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise. Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to.

Characteristics Approximately half of Earth is illuminated at any time by the Sun. The area subjected to direct illumination is almost exactly half the planet; but because of atmospheric and other effects that extend the reach of indirect illumination, the area of the planet covered by either direct or indirect illumination amounts to slightly more than half the surface. The hemisphere of Earth experiencing daytime at any given instant changes continuously as the planet rotates on its own axis. The axis of the Earth's rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the Sun (which is parallel with the direction of sunlight), and so the length of the daytime period varies from one point on the planet to another. Additionally, since the axis of rotation is relatively fixed in comparison to the stars, it moves with respect to the Sun as the planet orbits the star. This creates seasonal variations in the length of the daytime period at most points on the planet's surface. The period of daytime from the standpoint of a surface observer is roughly defined as the period between sunrise, when the Earth's rotation towards the east first causes the Sun's disc to appear above the horizon, to sunset, when the continuing rotation of the Earth causes the Sun's disc to disappear below the horizon to the west. Because the Sun is a luminous disc as seen from the Earth, rather than a point source of light, sunrise and sunset are not instantaneous and the exact definition of both can vary with context. Additionally, the Earth's atmosphere further bends and diffuses light from the Sun and lengthens the period of sunrise and sunset. For a certain period after sunset and before sunrise, indirect light from the Sun lightens the sky on Earth; this period is often referred to as twilight. Certain groups, such as Earthly astronomers, do not consider daytime to be truly ended until the Sun's disc is actually well below the Earth's horizon, because of this indirect illumination.

Daytime as observed on Earth is the period of the day during which a given location experiences natural illumination from direct sunlight. Daytime occurs when the Sun appears above the local horizon, that is, anywhere on the globe's hemisphere facing the Sun. In direct sunlight the movement of the sun can be recorded and observed using a sundial that casts a shadow that slowly moves during the day. Other planets and natural satellites that rotate relative to a luminous primary body, such as a local star, also experience daytime, but this article primarily discusses daytime on Earth.Characteristics Approximately half of Earth is illuminated at any time by the Sun. The area subjected to direct illumination is almost exactly half the planet; but because of atmospheric and other effects that extend the reach of indirect illumination, the area of the planet covered by either direct or indirect illumination amounts to slightly more than half the surface. The hemisphere of Earth experiencing daytime at any given instant changes continuously as the planet rotates on its own axis. The axis of the Earth's rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the Sun (which is parallel with the direction of sunlight), and so the length of the daytime period varies from one point on the planet to another. Additionally, since the axis of rotation is relatively fixed in comparison to the stars, it moves with respect to the Sun as the planet orbits the star. This creates seasonal variations in the length of the daytime period at most points on the planet's surface. The period of daytime from the standpoint of a surface observer is roughly defined as the period between sunrise, when the Earth's rotation towards the east first causes the Sun's disc to appear above the horizon, to sunset, when the continuing rotation of the Earth causes the Sun's disc to disappear below the horizon to the west. Because the Sun is a luminous disc as seen from the Earth, rather than a point source of light, sunrise and sunset are not instantaneous and the exact definition of both can vary with context. Additionally, the Earth's atmosphere further bends and diffuses light from the Sun and lengthens the period of sunrise and sunset. For a certain period after sunset and before sunrise, indirect light from the Sun lightens the sky on Earth; this period is often referred to as twilight. Certain groups, such as Earthly astronomers, do not consider daytime to be truly ended until the Sun's disc is actually well below the Earth's horizon, because of this indirect illumination.

Characteristics Approximately half of Earth is illuminated at any time by the Sun. The area subjected to direct illumination is almost exactly half the planet; but because of atmospheric and other effects that extend the reach of indirect illumination, the area of the planet covered by either direct or indirect illumination amounts to slightly more than half the surface. The hemisphere of Earth experiencing daytime at any given instant changes continuously as the planet rotates on its own axis. The axis of the Earth's rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the Sun (which is parallel with the direction of sunlight), and so the length of the daytime period varies from one point on the planet to another. Additionally, since the axis of rotation is relatively fixed in comparison to the stars, it moves with respect to the Sun as the planet orbits the star. This creates seasonal variations in the length of the daytime period at most points on the planet's surface. The period of daytime from the standpoint of a surface observer is roughly defined as the period between sunrise, when the Earth's rotation towards the east first causes the Sun's disc to appear above the horizon, to sunset, when the continuing rotation of the Earth causes the Sun's disc to disappear below the horizon to the west. Because the Sun is a luminous disc as seen from the Earth, rather than a point source of light, sunrise and sunset are not instantaneous and the exact definition of both can vary with context. Additionally, the Earth's atmosphere further bends and diffuses light from the Sun and lengthens the period of sunrise and sunset. For a certain period after sunset and before sunrise, indirect light from the Sun lightens the sky on Earth; this period is often referred to as twilight. Certain groups, such as Earthly astronomers, do not consider daytime to be truly ended until the Sun's disc is actually well below the Earth's horizon, because of this indirect illumination.

In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.Origin The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Russian cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964. White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": for any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in the spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles that pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward, which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time. Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein-Rosen bridge" or Schwarzschild wormhole. Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity. Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region. But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of "realistic" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and that emits matter until it finally "explodes" and disappears. Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang. Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly "unstable" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.

In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.

In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.Origin The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Russian cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964. White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": for any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in the spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles that pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward, which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time. Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein-Rosen bridge" or Schwarzschild wormhole. Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity. Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region. But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of "realistic" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and that emits matter until it finally "explodes" and disappears. Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang. Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly "unstable" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.

In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.

The phlogiston theory is a superseded scientific theory that postulated the existence of a fire-like element called phlogiston () contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The name comes from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν phlogistón (burning up), from φλόξ phlóx (flame). The idea was first proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher and later put together more formally by Georg Ernst Stahl. Phlogiston theory attempted to explain chemical processes such as combustion and rusting, now collectively known as oxidation. It was challenged by the concomitant weight increase and was abandoned before the end of the 18th century following experiments by Antoine Lavoisier and others. Phlogiston theory led to experiments that ultimately concluded with the discovery of oxygen.Theory Phlogiston theory states that phlogisticated substances contain phlogiston and that they dephlogisticate when burned, releasing stored phlogiston which is absorbed by the air. Growing plants then absorb this phlogiston, which is why air does not spontaneously combust and also why plant matter burns as well as it does. Thus phlogiston accounted for combustion via a process that was the inverse of that of the oxygen theory.

Georg Ernst Stahl In 1703 Georg Ernst Stahl, a professor of medicine and chemistry at Halle, proposed a variant of the theory in which he renamed Becher's terra pinguis to phlogiston, and it was in this form that the theory probably had its greatest influence. The term 'phlogiston' itself was not something that Stahl invented. There is evidence that the word was used as early as 1606, and in a way that was very similar to what Stahl was using it for. The term was derived from a Greek word meaning inflame. The following paragraph describes Stahl's view of phlogiston:

Johann Joachim Becher In 1667, Johann Joachim Becher published his book Physica subterranea, which contained the first instance of what would become the phlogiston theory. In his book, Becher eliminated fire and air from the classical element model and replaced them with three forms of the earth: terra lapidea, terra fluida, and terra pinguis. Terra pinguis was the element that imparted oily, sulphurous, or combustible properties. Becher believed that terra pinguis was a key feature of combustion and was released when combustible substances were burned. Becher did not have much to do with phlogiston theory as we know it now, but he had a large influence on his student Stahl. Becher's main contribution was the start of the theory itself, however much of it was changed after him. Becher's idea was that combustible substances contain an ignitable matter, the terra pinguis.

The phlogiston theory is a superseded scientific theory that postulated the existence of a fire-like element called phlogiston () contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The name comes from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν phlogistón (burning up), from φλόξ phlóx (flame). The idea was first proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher and later put together more formally by Georg Ernst Stahl. Phlogiston theory attempted to explain chemical processes such as combustion and rusting, now collectively known as oxidation. It was challenged by the concomitant weight increase and was abandoned before the end of the 18th century following experiments by Antoine Lavoisier and others. Phlogiston theory led to experiments that ultimately concluded with the discovery of oxygen.Theory Phlogiston theory states that phlogisticated substances contain phlogiston and that they dephlogisticate when burned, releasing stored phlogiston which is absorbed by the air. Growing plants then absorb this phlogiston, which is why air does not spontaneously combust and also why plant matter burns as well as it does. Thus phlogiston accounted for combustion via a process that was the inverse of that of the oxygen theory.

Geography The Global South refers to the socially and economically less-developed southern half of the globe. 95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system. In the South, on the other hand, only 5% of the population has enough food and shelter. It "lacks appropriate technology, it has no political stability, the economies are disarticulated, and their foreign exchange earnings depend on primary product exports".Use of the term "South" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide. For example, the Southern United States, separated from the Northeastern United States by the Mason–Dixon line, or the South of England, which is politically and economically unmatched with all of the North of England. Southern Cone is the name that is often referred to as the southernmost area of South America that, in the form of an inverted "cone", almost like a large peninsula, encompasses Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and the entire South of Brazil (Brazilian states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo). Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. The country of South Africa is so named because of its location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, reflecting its origin from the unification of four formerly separate British colonies. Australia derives its name from the Latin Terra Australis ("Southern Land"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.

Navigation By convention, the bottom or down-facing side of a map is south, although reversed maps exist that defy this convention. To go south using a compass for navigation, set a bearing or azimuth of 180°. Alternatively, in the Northern Hemisphere outside the tropics, the Sun will be roughly in the south at midday.

Navigation To go west using a compass for navigation (in a place where magnetic north is the same direction as true north) one needs to set a bearing or azimuth of 270°. West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth (retrograde rotation). To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface.In a map with north at the top, west is on the left. Moving continuously west is following a circle of latitude.

West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance languages (ouest in French, oest in Catalan, ovest in Italian, oeste in Spanish and Portuguese). As in other languages, the word formation stems from the fact that west is the direction of the setting sun in the evening: 'west' derives from the Indo-European root *wes reduced from *wes-pero 'evening, night', cognate with Ancient Greek ἕσπερος hesperos 'evening; evening star; western' and Latin vesper 'evening; west'. Examples of the same formation in other languages include Latin occidens 'west' from occidō 'to go down, to set' and Hebrew מַעֲרָב maarav 'west' from עֶרֶב round 'evening'.Navigation To go west using a compass for navigation (in a place where magnetic north is the same direction as true north) one needs to set a bearing or azimuth of 270°. West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth (retrograde rotation). To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface.In a map with north at the top, west is on the left. Moving continuously west is following a circle of latitude.

West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance languages (ouest in French, oest in Catalan, ovest in Italian, oeste in Spanish and Portuguese). As in other languages, the word formation stems from the fact that west is the direction of the setting sun in the evening: 'west' derives from the Indo-European root *wes reduced from *wes-pero 'evening, night', cognate with Ancient Greek ἕσπερος hesperos 'evening; evening star; western' and Latin vesper 'evening; west'. Examples of the same formation in other languages include Latin occidens 'west' from occidō 'to go down, to set' and Hebrew מַעֲרָב maarav 'west' from עֶרֶב round 'evening'.Navigation To go west using a compass for navigation (in a place where magnetic north is the same direction as true north) one needs to set a bearing or azimuth of 270°. West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth (retrograde rotation). To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface.In a map with north at the top, west is on the left. Moving continuously west is following a circle of latitude.

West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance languages (ouest in French, oest in Catalan, ovest in Italian, oeste in Spanish and Portuguese). As in other languages, the word formation stems from the fact that west is the direction of the setting sun in the evening: 'west' derives from the Indo-European root *wes reduced from *wes-pero 'evening, night', cognate with Ancient Greek ἕσπερος hesperos 'evening; evening star; western' and Latin vesper 'evening; west'. Examples of the same formation in other languages include Latin occidens 'west' from occidō 'to go down, to set' and Hebrew מַעֲרָב maarav 'west' from עֶרֶב round 'evening'.Navigation To go west using a compass for navigation (in a place where magnetic north is the same direction as true north) one needs to set a bearing or azimuth of 270°. West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set. This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth (retrograde rotation). To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface.In a map with north at the top, west is on the left. Moving continuously west is following a circle of latitude.

West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.

Mapping and navigation By convention, the top or upward-facing side of a map is north. To go north using a compass for navigation, set a bearing or azimuth of 0° or 360°. Traveling directly north traces a meridian line upwards. North is specifically the direction that, in Western culture, is considered the fundamental direction:North is used (explicitly or implicitly) to define all other directions. The (visual) top edges of maps usually correspond to the northern edge of the area represented, unless explicitly stated otherwise or landmarks are considered more useful for that territory than specific directions. On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counterclockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation. However, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the geographic north pole of a planet or any of its satellites in the Solar System as the planetary pole that is in the same celestial hemisphere, relative to the invariable plane of the Solar System, as Earth's north pole. This means some objects, such as Uranus, rotate in the retrograde direction: when seen from the IAU north, the spin is clockwise.

Mapping and navigation By convention, the top or upward-facing side of a map is north. To go north using a compass for navigation, set a bearing or azimuth of 0° or 360°. Traveling directly north traces a meridian line upwards. North is specifically the direction that, in Western culture, is considered the fundamental direction:North is used (explicitly or implicitly) to define all other directions. The (visual) top edges of maps usually correspond to the northern edge of the area represented, unless explicitly stated otherwise or landmarks are considered more useful for that territory than specific directions. On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counterclockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation. However, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the geographic north pole of a planet or any of its satellites in the Solar System as the planetary pole that is in the same celestial hemisphere, relative to the invariable plane of the Solar System, as Earth's north pole. This means some objects, such as Uranus, rotate in the retrograde direction: when seen from the IAU north, the spin is clockwise.

Climate, sea ice at North Pole The North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass. Despite being an ice cap, the northernmost weather station in Greenland has a tundra climate (Köppen ET) due to the July and August mean temperatures peaking just above freezing.Winter temperatures at the northernmost weather station in Greenland can range from about −50 to −13 °C (−58 to 9 °F), averaging around −31 °C (−24 °F), with the North Pole being slightly colder. However, a freak storm caused the temperature to reach 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for a time at a World Meteorological Organization buoy, located at 87.45°N, on 30 December 2015. It was estimated that the temperature at the North Pole was between −1 and 2 °C (30 and 35 °F) during the storm. Summer temperatures (June, July, and August) average around the freezing point (0 °C (32 °F)). The highest temperature yet recorded is 13 °C (55 °F), much warmer than the South Pole's record high of only −12.3 °C (9.9 °F). A similar spike in temperatures occurred on 15 November 2016 when temperatures hit freezing. Yet again, February 2018 featured a storm so powerful that temperatures at Cape Morris Jesup, the world's northernmost weather station in Greenland, reached 6.1 °C (43.0 °F) and spent 24 straight hours above freezing. Meanwhile, the pole itself was estimated to reach a high temperature of 1.6 °C (34.9 °F). This same temperature of 1.6 °C (34.9 °F) was also recorded at the Hollywood Burbank Airport in Los Angeles at the very same time.The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial claims", below. The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation.

a civil twilight period of about two weeks; a nautical twilight period of about five weeks; and an astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks.These effects are caused by a combination of the Earth's axial tilt and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the sun, remains very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole, with a six-month time difference.Climate, sea ice at North Pole The North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass. Despite being an ice cap, the northernmost weather station in Greenland has a tundra climate (Köppen ET) due to the July and August mean temperatures peaking just above freezing.Winter temperatures at the northernmost weather station in Greenland can range from about −50 to −13 °C (−58 to 9 °F), averaging around −31 °C (−24 °F), with the North Pole being slightly colder. However, a freak storm caused the temperature to reach 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for a time at a World Meteorological Organization buoy, located at 87.45°N, on 30 December 2015. It was estimated that the temperature at the North Pole was between −1 and 2 °C (30 and 35 °F) during the storm. Summer temperatures (June, July, and August) average around the freezing point (0 °C (32 °F)). The highest temperature yet recorded is 13 °C (55 °F), much warmer than the South Pole's record high of only −12.3 °C (9.9 °F). A similar spike in temperatures occurred on 15 November 2016 when temperatures hit freezing. Yet again, February 2018 featured a storm so powerful that temperatures at Cape Morris Jesup, the world's northernmost weather station in Greenland, reached 6.1 °C (43.0 °F) and spent 24 straight hours above freezing. Meanwhile, the pole itself was estimated to reach a high temperature of 1.6 °C (34.9 °F). This same temperature of 1.6 °C (34.9 °F) was also recorded at the Hollywood Burbank Airport in Los Angeles at the very same time.The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial claims", below. The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation.

The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole, Terrestrial North Pole or 90th Parallel North, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Magnetic North Pole. The North Pole is by definition the northernmost point on the Earth, lying antipodally to the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. No time zone has been assigned to the North Pole, so any time can be used as the local time. Along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (430 mi) away, though some perhaps semi-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, which is located 817 km (508 mi) from the Pole. While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m (13,980 ft) by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,409 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, a group of Russians have also annually established a private base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. Attempts to reach the North Pole began in the late 19th century, with the record for "Farthest North" being surpassed on numerous occasions. The first undisputed expedition to reach the North Pole was that of the airship Norge, which overflew the area in 1926 with 16 men on board, including expedition leader Roald Amundsen. Three prior expeditions – led by Frederick Cook (1908, land), Robert Peary (1909, land) and Richard E. Byrd (1926, aerial) – were once also accepted as having reached the Pole. However, in each case later analysis of expedition data has cast doubt upon the accuracy of their claims. The first confirmed overland expedition to reach the North Pole was in 1968 by Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean-Luc Bombardier, using snowmobiles and with air support.

The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole, Terrestrial North Pole or 90th Parallel North, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distinguish from the Magnetic North Pole. The North Pole is by definition the northernmost point on the Earth, lying antipodally to the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. No time zone has been assigned to the North Pole, so any time can be used as the local time. Along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (430 mi) away, though some perhaps semi-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, which is located 817 km (508 mi) from the Pole. While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m (13,980 ft) by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,409 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, a group of Russians have also annually established a private base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. Attempts to reach the North Pole began in the late 19th century, with the record for "Farthest North" being surpassed on numerous occasions. The first undisputed expedition to reach the North Pole was that of the airship Norge, which overflew the area in 1926 with 16 men on board, including expedition leader Roald Amundsen. Three prior expeditions – led by Frederick Cook (1908, land), Robert Peary (1909, land) and Richard E. Byrd (1926, aerial) – were once also accepted as having reached the Pole. However, in each case later analysis of expedition data has cast doubt upon the accuracy of their claims. The first confirmed overland expedition to reach the North Pole was in 1968 by Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean-Luc Bombardier, using snowmobiles and with air support.

Neo-creationism Neo-creationism is a pseudoscientific movement which aims to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, by policy makers, by educators and by the scientific community. It aims to re-frame the debate over the origins of life in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture. This comes in response to the 1987 ruling by the United States Supreme Court in Edwards v. Aguillard that creationism is an inherently religious concept and that advocating it as correct or accurate in public-school curricula violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.One of the principal claims of neo-creationism propounds that ostensibly objective orthodox science, with a foundation in naturalism, is actually a dogmatically atheistic religion. Its proponents argue that the scientific method excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards supernatural elements, thus effectively excluding religious insight from contributing to understanding the universe. This leads to an open and often hostile opposition to what neo-creationists term "Darwinism", which they generally mean to refer to evolution, but which they may extend to include such concepts as abiogenesis, stellar evolution and the Big Bang theory. Unlike their philosophical forebears, neo-creationists largely do not believe in many of the traditional cornerstones of creationism such as a young Earth, or in a dogmatically literal interpretation of the Bible.Brazil A 2011 Ipsos survey found that 47% of responders in Brazil identified themselves as "creationists and believe that human beings were in fact created by a spiritual force such as the God they believe in and do not believe that the origin of man came from evolving from other species such as apes".In 2004, IBOPE conducted a poll in Brazil that asked questions about creationism and the teaching of creationism in schools. When asked if creationism should be taught in schools, 89% of people said that creationism should be taught in schools. When asked if the teaching of creationism should replace the teaching of evolution in schools, 75% of people said that the teaching of creationism should replace the teaching of evolution in schools.

Neo-creationism Neo-creationism is a pseudoscientific movement which aims to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, by policy makers, by educators and by the scientific community. It aims to re-frame the debate over the origins of life in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture. This comes in response to the 1987 ruling by the United States Supreme Court in Edwards v. Aguillard that creationism is an inherently religious concept and that advocating it as correct or accurate in public-school curricula violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.One of the principal claims of neo-creationism propounds that ostensibly objective orthodox science, with a foundation in naturalism, is actually a dogmatically atheistic religion. Its proponents argue that the scientific method excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards supernatural elements, thus effectively excluding religious insight from contributing to understanding the universe. This leads to an open and often hostile opposition to what neo-creationists term "Darwinism", which they generally mean to refer to evolution, but which they may extend to include such concepts as abiogenesis, stellar evolution and the Big Bang theory. Unlike their philosophical forebears, neo-creationists largely do not believe in many of the traditional cornerstones of creationism such as a young Earth, or in a dogmatically literal interpretation of the Bible.Scientific criticism Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, empirical evidence, and the development of theories that yield testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena. By contrast, creationism is often based on literal interpretations of the narratives of particular religious texts. Creationist beliefs involve purported forces that lie outside of nature, such as supernatural intervention, and often do not allow predictions at all. Therefore, these can neither be confirmed nor disproved by scientists. However, many creationist beliefs can be framed as testable predictions about phenomena such as the age of the Earth, its geological history and the origins, distributions and relationships of living organisms found on it. Early science incorporated elements of these beliefs, but as science developed these beliefs were gradually falsified and were replaced with understandings based on accumulated and reproducible evidence that often allows the accurate prediction of future results.Some scientists, such as Stephen Jay Gould, consider science and religion to be two compatible and complementary fields, with authorities in distinct areas of human experience, so-called non-overlapping magisteria. This view is also held by many theologians, who believe that ultimate origins and meaning are addressed by religion, but favor verifiable scientific explanations of natural phenomena over those of creationist beliefs. Other scientists, such as Richard Dawkins, reject the non-overlapping magisteria and argue that, in disproving literal interpretations of creationists, the scientific method also undermines religious texts as a source of truth. Irrespective of this diversity in viewpoints, since creationist beliefs are not supported by empirical evidence, the scientific consensus is that any attempt to teach creationism as science should be rejected.

Islam Islamic creationism is the belief that the universe (including humanity) was directly created by God as explained in the Quran. It usually views the Book of Genesis as a corrupted version of God's message. The creation myths in the Quran are vaguer and allow for a wider range of interpretations similar to those in other Abrahamic religions.Islam also has its own school of theistic evolutionism, which holds that mainstream scientific analysis of the origin of the universe is supported by the Quran. Some Muslims believe in evolutionary creation, especially among liberal movements within Islam.Writing for The Boston Globe, Drake Bennett noted: "Without a Book of Genesis to account for ... Muslim creationists have little interest in proving that the age of the Earth is measured in the thousands rather than the billions of years, nor do they show much interest in the problem of the dinosaurs. And the idea that animals might evolve into other animals also tends to be less controversial, in part because there are passages of the Koran that seem to support it. But the issue of whether human beings are the product of evolution is just as fraught among Muslims." Khalid Anees, president of the Islamic Society of Britain, states that Muslims do not agree that one species can develop from another.Since the 1980s, Turkey has been a site of strong advocacy for creationism, supported by American adherents.There are several verses in the Qur'an which some modern writers have interpreted as being compatible with the expansion of the universe, Big Bang and Big Crunch theories: Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? Moreover He comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as) smoke: He said to it and to the earth: 'Come ye together, willingly or unwillingly.' They said: 'We do come (together), in willing obedience.' With power and skill did We construct the Firmament: for it is We Who create the vastness of space. The Day that We roll up the heavens like a scroll rolled up for books (completed),- even as We produced the first creation, so shall We produce a new one: a promise We have undertaken: truly shall We fulfil it.

The component of the Sun's motion seen by an earthbound observer caused by the revolution of the tilted axis – which, keeping the same angle in space, is oriented toward or away from the Sun – is an observed daily increment (and lateral offset) of the elevation of the Sun at noon for approximately six months and observed daily decrement for the remaining six months. At maximum or minimum elevation, the relative yearly motion of the Sun perpendicular to the horizon stops and reverses direction. Outside of the tropics, the maximum elevation occurs at the summer solstice and the minimum at the winter solstice. The path of the Sun, or ecliptic, sweeps north and south between the northern and southern hemispheres. The days are longer around the summer solstice and shorter around the winter solstice. When the Sun's path crosses the equator, the length of the nights at latitudes +L° and −L° are of equal length. This is known as an equinox. There are two solstices and two equinoxes in a tropical year.Relationship to seasons The seasons occur because the Earth's axis of rotation is not perpendicular to its orbital plane (the plane of the ecliptic) but currently makes an angle of about 23.44° (called the obliquity of the ecliptic), and because the axis keeps its orientation with respect to an inertial frame of reference. As a consequence, for half the year the Northern Hemisphere is inclined toward the Sun while for the other half year the Southern Hemisphere has this distinction. The two moments when the inclination of Earth's rotational axis has maximum effect are the solstices. At the June solstice the subsolar point is further north than any other time: at latitude 23.44° north, known as the Tropic of Cancer. Similarly at the December solstice the subsolar point is further south than any other time: at latitude 23.44° south, known as the Tropic of Capricorn. The subsolar point will cross every latitude between these two extremes exactly twice per year.

Te Arai is a small community on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, near the northern end of the Auckland Region (specifically within the former Rodney District). Mangawhai lies to the north, and Tomarata to the south. The name of the suburb comes from Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi, captain of the Moekākara waka, who landed here and set up a temporary shelter (arai). Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi was later buried at Te Arai.Te Arai Beach is a sandy bottom beach and is a very popular surfing destination, rated one of the best surf locations in the Auckland region. 3 new golf courses have been built in the region named Te Arai Links and Tara Iti. Tourism and farming are the predominant activities in the area. Among the bird species found here is the critically endangered New Zealand fairy tern, of which only 11 breeding pairs are left in the world. Auckland Council owns Te Arai Regional Park. Te Arai Beach is the exact antipode of Gibraltar.

Te Arai is a small community on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, near the northern end of the Auckland Region (specifically within the former Rodney District). Mangawhai lies to the north, and Tomarata to the south. The name of the suburb comes from Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi, captain of the Moekākara waka, who landed here and set up a temporary shelter (arai). Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi was later buried at Te Arai.Te Arai Beach is a sandy bottom beach and is a very popular surfing destination, rated one of the best surf locations in the Auckland region. 3 new golf courses have been built in the region named Te Arai Links and Tara Iti. Tourism and farming are the predominant activities in the area. Among the bird species found here is the critically endangered New Zealand fairy tern, of which only 11 breeding pairs are left in the world. Auckland Council owns Te Arai Regional Park. Te Arai Beach is the exact antipode of Gibraltar.

Te Arai is a small community on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, near the northern end of the Auckland Region (specifically within the former Rodney District). Mangawhai lies to the north, and Tomarata to the south. The name of the suburb comes from Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi, captain of the Moekākara waka, who landed here and set up a temporary shelter (arai). Tāhuhunui-o-te-rangi was later buried at Te Arai.Te Arai Beach is a sandy bottom beach and is a very popular surfing destination, rated one of the best surf locations in the Auckland region. 3 new golf courses have been built in the region named Te Arai Links and Tara Iti. Tourism and farming are the predominant activities in the area. Among the bird species found here is the critically endangered New Zealand fairy tern, of which only 11 breeding pairs are left in the world. Auckland Council owns Te Arai Regional Park. Te Arai Beach is the exact antipode of Gibraltar.

In physics, chemistry, and electronic engineering, an electron hole (often simply called a hole) is a quasiparticle denoting the lack of an electron at a position where one could exist in an atom or atomic lattice. Since in a normal atom or crystal lattice the negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of the atomic nuclei, the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge at the hole's location. Holes in a metal or semiconductor crystal lattice can move through the lattice as electrons can, and act similarly to positively-charged particles. They play an important role in the operation of semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. If an electron is excited into a higher state it leaves a hole in its old state. This meaning is used in Auger electron spectroscopy (and other x-ray techniques), in computational chemistry, and to explain the low electron-electron scattering-rate in crystals (metals and semiconductors). Although they act like elementary particles, holes are rather quasiparticles; they are different from the positron, which is the antiparticle of the electron. (See also Dirac sea.) In crystals, electronic band structure calculations lead to an effective mass for the electrons that is typically negative at the top of a band. The negative mass is an unintuitive concept, and in these situations, a more familiar picture is found by considering a positive charge with a positive mass.

In physics, chemistry, and electronic engineering, an electron hole (often simply called a hole) is a quasiparticle denoting the lack of an electron at a position where one could exist in an atom or atomic lattice. Since in a normal atom or crystal lattice the negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of the atomic nuclei, the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge at the hole's location. Holes in a metal or semiconductor crystal lattice can move through the lattice as electrons can, and act similarly to positively-charged particles. They play an important role in the operation of semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. If an electron is excited into a higher state it leaves a hole in its old state. This meaning is used in Auger electron spectroscopy (and other x-ray techniques), in computational chemistry, and to explain the low electron-electron scattering-rate in crystals (metals and semiconductors). Although they act like elementary particles, holes are rather quasiparticles; they are different from the positron, which is the antiparticle of the electron. (See also Dirac sea.) In crystals, electronic band structure calculations lead to an effective mass for the electrons that is typically negative at the top of a band. The negative mass is an unintuitive concept, and in these situations, a more familiar picture is found by considering a positive charge with a positive mass.

An unbarred spiral galaxy is a type of spiral galaxy without a central bar, or one that is not a barred spiral galaxy. It is designated with an SA in the galaxy morphological classification scheme. Barless spiral galaxies are one of three general types of spiral galaxies under the de Vaucouleurs system classification system, the other two being intermediate spiral galaxy and barred spiral galaxy. Under the Hubble tuning fork, it is one of two general types of spiral galaxy, the other being barred spirals.

An unbarred spiral galaxy is a type of spiral galaxy without a central bar, or one that is not a barred spiral galaxy. It is designated with an SA in the galaxy morphological classification scheme. Barless spiral galaxies are one of three general types of spiral galaxies under the de Vaucouleurs system classification system, the other two being intermediate spiral galaxy and barred spiral galaxy. Under the Hubble tuning fork, it is one of two general types of spiral galaxy, the other being barred spirals.

Overview Structural Marxism arose in opposition to the instrumental Marxism that dominated many western universities during the 1970s. In contrast to other forms of Marxism, Althusser stressed that Marxism was a science that examined objective structures, and he believed that historicist and phenomenological Marxism, which was based on Marx's early works, was caught in a "pre-scientific ideology".Toward the middle of the 1970s and throughout the 1980s, Marxist theorists began to develop structuralist Marxist accounts of the state, law, and crime. Structuralist Marxism disputes the instrumentalist view that the state can be viewed as the direct servant of the capitalist or ruling class. Whereas the instrumentalist position is that the institutions of the state are under the direct control of those members of the capitalist class in positions of state power, the structuralist position is that state institutions must function so as to ensure the viability of capitalism more generally. In other words, state institutions must reproduce capitalist society as a whole. The debate between structural and instrumental Marxists was characterized by the Miliband–Poulantzas debate between instrumentalist Ralph Miliband and structuralist Nicos Poulantzas.Structuralists view the state in a capitalist mode of production as taking a specifically capitalist form, not because particular individuals are in powerful positions, but because the state reproduces the logic of capitalist structure in its economic, legal, and political institutions. Hence, from a structuralist perspective one would argue that state institutions (including legal ones) function in the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, rather than in the short-term interests of members of the capitalist class. Thus the state and its institutions have a certain degree of independence from specific elites in the ruling or capitalist class.

Structural Marxism is an approach to Marxist philosophy based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French philosopher Louis Althusser and his students. It was influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence philosophers, political theorists and sociologists outside France during the 1970s. Other proponents of structural Marxism were the sociologist Nicos Poulantzas and the anthropologist Maurice Godelier. Many of Althusser's students broke with structural Marxism in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Structural Marxism is an approach to Marxist philosophy based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French philosopher Louis Althusser and his students. It was influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence philosophers, political theorists and sociologists outside France during the 1970s. Other proponents of structural Marxism were the sociologist Nicos Poulantzas and the anthropologist Maurice Godelier. Many of Althusser's students broke with structural Marxism in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Overview Structural Marxism arose in opposition to the instrumental Marxism that dominated many western universities during the 1970s. In contrast to other forms of Marxism, Althusser stressed that Marxism was a science that examined objective structures, and he believed that historicist and phenomenological Marxism, which was based on Marx's early works, was caught in a "pre-scientific ideology".Toward the middle of the 1970s and throughout the 1980s, Marxist theorists began to develop structuralist Marxist accounts of the state, law, and crime. Structuralist Marxism disputes the instrumentalist view that the state can be viewed as the direct servant of the capitalist or ruling class. Whereas the instrumentalist position is that the institutions of the state are under the direct control of those members of the capitalist class in positions of state power, the structuralist position is that state institutions must function so as to ensure the viability of capitalism more generally. In other words, state institutions must reproduce capitalist society as a whole. The debate between structural and instrumental Marxists was characterized by the Miliband–Poulantzas debate between instrumentalist Ralph Miliband and structuralist Nicos Poulantzas.Structuralists view the state in a capitalist mode of production as taking a specifically capitalist form, not because particular individuals are in powerful positions, but because the state reproduces the logic of capitalist structure in its economic, legal, and political institutions. Hence, from a structuralist perspective one would argue that state institutions (including legal ones) function in the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, rather than in the short-term interests of members of the capitalist class. Thus the state and its institutions have a certain degree of independence from specific elites in the ruling or capitalist class.

Structural Marxism is an approach to Marxist philosophy based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French philosopher Louis Althusser and his students. It was influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence philosophers, political theorists and sociologists outside France during the 1970s. Other proponents of structural Marxism were the sociologist Nicos Poulantzas and the anthropologist Maurice Godelier. Many of Althusser's students broke with structural Marxism in the late 1960s and 1970s.

Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work. At the lowest programming level, executable code consists of machine language instructions supported by an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU) or a graphics processing unit (GPU). Machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also invoke one of many input or output operations, for example, displaying some text on a computer screen, causing state changes that should be visible to the user. The processor executes the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction or is interrupted by the operating system. As of 2023, most personal computers, smartphone devices, and servers have processors with multiple execution units, or multiple processors performing computation together, so computing has become a much more concurrent activity than in the past. The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages. They are easier and more efficient for programmers because they are closer to natural languages than machine languages. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler, an interpreter, or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language that has a strong correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is translated into machine language using an assembler.

Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work. At the lowest programming level, executable code consists of machine language instructions supported by an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU) or a graphics processing unit (GPU). Machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also invoke one of many input or output operations, for example, displaying some text on a computer screen, causing state changes that should be visible to the user. The processor executes the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction or is interrupted by the operating system. As of 2023, most personal computers, smartphone devices, and servers have processors with multiple execution units, or multiple processors performing computation together, so computing has become a much more concurrent activity than in the past. The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages. They are easier and more efficient for programmers because they are closer to natural languages than machine languages. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler, an interpreter, or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language that has a strong correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is translated into machine language using an assembler.

Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work. At the lowest programming level, executable code consists of machine language instructions supported by an individual processor—typically a central processing unit (CPU) or a graphics processing unit (GPU). Machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also invoke one of many input or output operations, for example, displaying some text on a computer screen, causing state changes that should be visible to the user. The processor executes the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction or is interrupted by the operating system. As of 2023, most personal computers, smartphone devices, and servers have processors with multiple execution units, or multiple processors performing computation together, so computing has become a much more concurrent activity than in the past. The majority of software is written in high-level programming languages. They are easier and more efficient for programmers because they are closer to natural languages than machine languages. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler, an interpreter, or a combination of the two. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language that has a strong correspondence to the computer's machine language instructions and is translated into machine language using an assembler.

An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms object and body are often used interchangeably. However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures. Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems, star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons, planets, and stars are astronomical bodies. A comet may be identified as both body and object: It is a body when referring to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, and an object when describing the entire comet with its diffuse coma and tail.

In electronics, a nullator is a theoretical linear, time-invariant one-port defined as having zero current and voltage across its terminals. Nullators are strange in the sense that they simultaneously have properties of both a short (zero voltage) and an open circuit (zero current). They are neither current nor voltage sources, yet both at the same time.Inserting a nullator in a circuit schematic imposes a mathematical constraint on how that circuit must behave, forcing the circuit itself to adopt whatever arrangements needed to meet the condition. For example, the inputs of an ideal operational amplifier (with negative feedback) behave like a nullator, as they draw no current and have no voltage across them, and these conditions are used to analyze the circuitry surrounding the operational amplifier. A nullator is normally paired with a norator to form a nullor. Two trivial cases are worth noting: A nullator in parallel with a norator is equivalent to a short (zero voltage any current) and a nullator in series with a norator is an open circuit (zero current, any voltage).

Plant fibers Animal fibers Animal fibers generally comprise proteins such as collagen, keratin and fibroin; examples include silk, sinew, wool, catgut, angora, mohair and alpaca.Animal hair (wool or hairs): Fiber or wool taken from animals or hairy mammals. e.g. sheep's wool, goat hair (cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair, horse hair, etc. Silk fiber: Fiber secreted by glands (often located near the mouth) of insects during the preparation of cocoons.Applications Industrial use Of industrial value are four animal fibers: wool, silk, camel hair, and angora as well as four plant fibers: cotton, flax, hemp, and jute. Dominant in terms of scale of production and use is cotton for textiles.

Applications Industrial use Of industrial value are four animal fibers: wool, silk, camel hair, and angora as well as four plant fibers: cotton, flax, hemp, and jute. Dominant in terms of scale of production and use is cotton for textiles.Natural fiber composites Natural fibers are also used in composite materials, much like synthetic or glass fibers. These composites, called biocomposites, are a natural fiber in a matrix of synthetic polymers. One of the first biofiber-reinforced plastics in use was a cellulose fiber in phenolics in 1908. Usage includes applications where energy absorption is important, such as insulation, noise absorbing panels, or collapsable areas in automobiles.Natural fibers can have different advantages over synthetic reinforcing fibers. Most notably they are biodegradable and renewable. Additionally, they often have low densities and lower processing costs than synthetic materials. Design issues with natural fiber-reinforced composites include poor strength (natural fibers are not as strong as glass fibers) and difficulty with actually bonding the fibers and the matrix. Hydrophobic polymer matrices offer insufficient adhesion for hydrophilic fibers.

Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism, anarchism, communism, syndicalism, or some combination of the latter four.

Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism, anarchism, communism, syndicalism, or some combination of the latter four.

Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism, anarchism, communism, syndicalism, or some combination of the latter four.Socialism Socialism advocates public or direct worker ownership and administration of the means of production and allocation of resources, and a society characterized by equal access to resources for all individuals, with an egalitarian method of compensation. A theory or policy of social organisation which aims at or advocates the ownership and democratic control of the means of production, by workers or the community as a whole, and their administration or distribution in the interests of all. Socialists argue for a worker cooperative/community economy, or the commanding heights of the economy, with democratic control by the people over the state, although there have been some undemocratic philosophies. "State" or "worker cooperative" ownership is in fundamental opposition to "private" ownership of means of production, which is a defining feature of capitalism. Most socialists argue that capitalism unfairly concentrates power, wealth and profit, among a small segment of society that controls capital and derives its wealth through exploitation.Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high-pressure advertisement); thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need; they argue that making money, or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand.Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to inaccessible economic decisions that result in immoral production, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of overproduction. According to socialists, private property in the means of production becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralized, socialized institutions based on private appropriation of revenue (but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs) until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant. With no need for capital accumulation and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organization that should be replaced by a free association of individuals based on public or common ownership of these socialized assets. Socialists view private property relations as limiting the potential of productive forces in the economy.Early socialists (Utopian socialists and Ricardian socialists) criticized capitalism for concentrating power and wealth within a small segment of society, and for not utilising available technology and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.

Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism, anarchism, communism, syndicalism, or some combination of the latter four.Socialism Socialism advocates public or direct worker ownership and administration of the means of production and allocation of resources, and a society characterized by equal access to resources for all individuals, with an egalitarian method of compensation. A theory or policy of social organisation which aims at or advocates the ownership and democratic control of the means of production, by workers or the community as a whole, and their administration or distribution in the interests of all. Socialists argue for a worker cooperative/community economy, or the commanding heights of the economy, with democratic control by the people over the state, although there have been some undemocratic philosophies. "State" or "worker cooperative" ownership is in fundamental opposition to "private" ownership of means of production, which is a defining feature of capitalism. Most socialists argue that capitalism unfairly concentrates power, wealth and profit, among a small segment of society that controls capital and derives its wealth through exploitation.Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high-pressure advertisement); thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need; they argue that making money, or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand.Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to inaccessible economic decisions that result in immoral production, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of overproduction. According to socialists, private property in the means of production becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralized, socialized institutions based on private appropriation of revenue (but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs) until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant. With no need for capital accumulation and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organization that should be replaced by a free association of individuals based on public or common ownership of these socialized assets. Socialists view private property relations as limiting the potential of productive forces in the economy.Early socialists (Utopian socialists and Ricardian socialists) criticized capitalism for concentrating power and wealth within a small segment of society, and for not utilising available technology and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.

Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism, anarchism, communism, syndicalism, or some combination of the latter four.Socialism Socialism advocates public or direct worker ownership and administration of the means of production and allocation of resources, and a society characterized by equal access to resources for all individuals, with an egalitarian method of compensation. A theory or policy of social organisation which aims at or advocates the ownership and democratic control of the means of production, by workers or the community as a whole, and their administration or distribution in the interests of all. Socialists argue for a worker cooperative/community economy, or the commanding heights of the economy, with democratic control by the people over the state, although there have been some undemocratic philosophies. "State" or "worker cooperative" ownership is in fundamental opposition to "private" ownership of means of production, which is a defining feature of capitalism. Most socialists argue that capitalism unfairly concentrates power, wealth and profit, among a small segment of society that controls capital and derives its wealth through exploitation.Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high-pressure advertisement); thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need; they argue that making money, or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand.Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to inaccessible economic decisions that result in immoral production, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of overproduction. According to socialists, private property in the means of production becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralized, socialized institutions based on private appropriation of revenue (but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs) until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant. With no need for capital accumulation and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organization that should be replaced by a free association of individuals based on public or common ownership of these socialized assets. Socialists view private property relations as limiting the potential of productive forces in the economy.Early socialists (Utopian socialists and Ricardian socialists) criticized capitalism for concentrating power and wealth within a small segment of society, and for not utilising available technology and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.

Historical precedents In 1779, Ned Ludd, a weaver from Anstey, near Leicester, England, is supposed to have broken two stocking frames in a fit of rage. When the "Luddites" emerged in the 1810s, his identity was appropriated to become the folkloric character of Captain Ludd, also known as King Ludd or General Ludd, the Luddites' alleged leader and founder. The invention that sparked that revolt was the Jacquard loom which was created by Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1801. He developed a system of punched cards that controlled the pattern on the loom; naturally called "Jacquard cards".The lower classes of the 18th century were not openly disloyal to the king or government, generally speaking, and violent action was rare because punishments were harsh. Most individuals were primarily concerned with meeting their daily needs. Working conditions were harsh in the English textile mills at the time, but efficient enough to threaten the livelihoods of skilled artisans. The new inventions produced textiles faster and cheaper because they were operated by less-skilled, low-wage labourers, and the Luddite goal was to gain a better bargaining position with their employers.Kevin Binfield asserts that organized action by stockingers had occurred at various times since 1675, and he suggests that the movements of the early 19th century should be viewed in the context of the hardships suffered by the working class during the Napoleonic Wars, rather than as an absolute aversion to machinery. Irregular rises in food prices provoked the Keelmen to riot in the port of Tyne in 1710 and tin miners to steal from granaries at Falmouth in 1727. There was a rebellion in Northumberland and Durham in 1740, and an assault on Quaker corn dealers in 1756. Skilled artisans in the cloth, building, shipbuilding, printing, and cutlery trades organized friendly societies to peacefully insure themselves against unemployment, sickness, and intrusion of foreign labour into their trades, as was common among guilds.Malcolm L. Thomas argued in his 1970 history The Luddites that machine-breaking was one of the very few tactics that workers could use to increase pressure on employers, undermine lower-paid competing workers, and create solidarity among workers. "These attacks on machines did not imply any necessary hostility to machinery as such; machinery was just a conveniently exposed target against which an attack could be made." An agricultural variant of Luddism occurred during the widespread Swing Riots of 1830 in southern and eastern England, centring on breaking threshing machines.

The Luddites were a secret oath-based organisation of English textile workers in the 19th century who formed a radical faction which destroyed textile machinery. The group is believed to have taken its name from Ned Ludd, a legendary weaver supposedly from Anstey, near Leicester. They protested against manufacturers who used machines in what they called "a fraudulent and deceitful manner" to get around standard labour practices. Luddites feared that the time spent learning their craft skills would go to waste, as machines would replace their role in the industry.Many Luddites were owners of workshops that had closed because factories could sell similar products for less. But when workshop owners set out to find a job at a factory, it was very hard to find one because producing things in factories required fewer workers than producing those same things in a workshop. This left many people unemployed and angry.The Luddite movement began in Nottingham in England and culminated in a region-wide rebellion that lasted from 1811 to 1816. Mill and factory owners took to shooting protesters and eventually the movement was suppressed with legal and military force, which included execution and penal transportation of accused and convicted Luddites.Over time, the term has come to mean one opposed to industrialisation, automation, computerisation, or new technologies in general.

Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in which it appears. In Western culture, depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote a range of social institutions such as the nuclear family, organized religion, the military, property rights, and monarchy. Conservatives tend to favor institutions and practices that guarantee stability and evolved gradually. Adherents of conservatism often oppose certain aspects of modernity (for example mass culture and secularism) and seek a return to traditional values, though different groups of conservatives may choose different traditional values to preserve.The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution. Historically associated with right-wing politics, the term has since been used to describe a wide range of views. There is no single set of policies regarded as conservative because the meaning of conservatism depends on what is considered traditional in a given place and time. Conservative thought has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures. For example, some conservatives advocate for greater economic intervention, while others advocate for a more laissez faire free-market economic system. Thus, conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a wide range of issues. Edmund Burke, an 18th-century politician who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution, is credited as one of the main theorists of conservatism in the 1790s.

Themes Some political scientists such as Samuel P. Huntington, have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending the established institutions of their time. According to Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself". Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe a "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between liberalism and fascism".

Fascism Fascists accuse liberalism of materialism and a lack of spiritual values. In particular, fascism opposes liberalism for its materialism, rationalism, individualism and utilitarianism. Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness, but many fascists agree with liberals in their support of private property rights and a market economy.

Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were opposed by many countries forming the Allies of World War II and dozens of resistance movements worldwide. Anti-fascism has been an element of movements across the political spectrum and holding many different political positions such as anarchism, communism, pacifism, republicanism, social democracy, socialism and syndicalism as well as centrist, conservative, liberal and nationalist viewpoints. Fascism, a far-right ultra-nationalistic ideology best known for its use by the Italian Fascists and the Nazis, became prominent beginning in the 1910s. Organization against fascism began around 1920. Fascism became the state ideology of Italy in 1922 and of Germany in 1933, spurring a large increase in anti-fascist action, including German resistance to Nazism and the Italian resistance movement. Anti-fascism was a major aspect of the Spanish Civil War, which foreshadowed World War II. Prior to World War II, the West had not taken seriously the threat of fascism, and anti-fascism was sometimes associated with communism. However, the outbreak of World War II greatly changed Western perceptions, and fascism was seen as an existential threat by not only the communist Soviet Union but also by the liberal-democratic United States and United Kingdom. The Axis Powers of World War II were generally fascist, and the fight against them was characterized in anti-fascist terms. Resistance during World War II to fascism occurred in every occupied country, and came from across the ideological spectrum. The defeat of the Axis powers generally ended fascism as a state ideology. After World War II, the anti-fascist movement continued to be active in places where organized fascism continued or re-emerged. There was a resurgence of antifa in Germany in the 1980s, as a response to the invasion of the punk scene by neo-Nazis. This influenced the antifa movement in the United States in the late 1980s and 1990s, which was similarly carried by punks. In the 21st century, this greatly increased in prominence as a response to the resurgence of the radical right, especially after the election of Donald Trump.Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled La Libertà.Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia (ANPI; "National Association of Italian Partisans") is an association founded by participants of the Italian resistance against the Italian Fascist regime and the subsequent Nazi occupation during World War II. ANPI was founded in Rome in 1944 while the war continued in northern Italy. It was constituted as a charitable foundation on 5 April 1945. It persists due to the activity of its antifascist members. ANPI's objectives are the maintenance of the historical role of the partisan war by means of research and the collection of personal stories. Its goals are a continued defense against historical revisionism and the ideal and ethical support of the high values of freedom and democracy expressed in the 1948 constitution, in which the ideals of the Italian resistance were collected. Since 2008, every two years ANPI organizes its national festival. During the event, meetings, debates, and musical concerts that focus on antifascism, peace, and democracy are organized.

Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism, which is defined as "a form of social organisation characterised by submission to authority", "favoring complete obedience or subjection to authority as opposed to individual freedom" and to authoritarian government. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing authority or hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations, including the state system.

Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism, which is defined as "a form of social organisation characterised by submission to authority", "favoring complete obedience or subjection to authority as opposed to individual freedom" and to authoritarian government. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing authority or hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations, including the state system.

Criticism "Cosmopolitanism" became a rhetorical weapon used by nationalists against "alien" ideas that went counter to orthodoxy. European Jews were frequently accused of being "rootless cosmopolitans." Joseph Stalin in a 1946 Moscow speech attacked writings in which "the positive Soviet hero is derided and inferior before all things foreign and cosmopolitanism that we all fought against from the time of Lenin, characteristic of the political leftovers, is many times applauded."In the German Democratic Republic, cosmopolitanism was characterized as a bourgeois-imperialist ideology that rejects the nations' right to independence and national sovereignty. Cosmopolitanism was said to promote the dismantling of national and patriotic traditions and national culture. It was said to be advocated by the Anglo-American imperialism with an aim to establish world hegemony (World Government) operating in the interests of monopoly capitalism. Its opposite was not chauvinist bourgeois nationalism, but patriotism; love of one's native place, one's country. Love of the homeland was said to be one of the deepest feelings of the working people, expressed in the struggle against conquerors and oppressors. In the 21st century, the epithet became a weapon used by Vladimir Putin in Russia, and by nationalists in Hungary and Poland. In modern times, Stephen Miller, a Trump administration senior policy advisor, publicly criticized CNN reporter Jim Acosta as exhibiting "cosmopolitan bias" during a discussion on the government's new immigration plan.

Criticism "Cosmopolitanism" became a rhetorical weapon used by nationalists against "alien" ideas that went counter to orthodoxy. European Jews were frequently accused of being "rootless cosmopolitans." Joseph Stalin in a 1946 Moscow speech attacked writings in which "the positive Soviet hero is derided and inferior before all things foreign and cosmopolitanism that we all fought against from the time of Lenin, characteristic of the political leftovers, is many times applauded."In the German Democratic Republic, cosmopolitanism was characterized as a bourgeois-imperialist ideology that rejects the nations' right to independence and national sovereignty. Cosmopolitanism was said to promote the dismantling of national and patriotic traditions and national culture. It was said to be advocated by the Anglo-American imperialism with an aim to establish world hegemony (World Government) operating in the interests of monopoly capitalism. Its opposite was not chauvinist bourgeois nationalism, but patriotism; love of one's native place, one's country. Love of the homeland was said to be one of the deepest feelings of the working people, expressed in the struggle against conquerors and oppressors. In the 21st century, the epithet became a weapon used by Vladimir Putin in Russia, and by nationalists in Hungary and Poland. In modern times, Stephen Miller, a Trump administration senior policy advisor, publicly criticized CNN reporter Jim Acosta as exhibiting "cosmopolitan bias" during a discussion on the government's new immigration plan.

Silvia (Italian: [ˈsilvja]) is a female given name of Latin origin, with a male equivalent Silvio and English-language cognate Sylvia. The name originates from the Latin word for forest, Silva, and its meaning is "spirit of the wood"; the mythological god of the forest was associated with the figure of Silvanus. Silvia is also a surname. In Roman mythology, Silvia is the goddess of the forest while Rhea Silvia was the mother of Romulus and Remus. Silvia is also the name of one of the female innamorati of the commedia dell'arte and is a character of the Aminta written by Torquato Tasso.People with the given name Queen Silvia of Sweden (born 1943), spouse of King Carl XVI Gustaf Saint Silvia, Italian saint of the 6th century Silvia Airik-Priuhka, Estonian writer and poetry translator Silvia Bächli (born 1956), Swiss visual artist Silvia Barbescu, Romanian painter Silvia Bellot, Spanish motor racing official Silvia Braslavsky, Argentinian chemist Silvia Cambir, Romanian painter Silvia Cartwright, New Zealand Viceroy, jurist Silvia Ciornei, Romanian politician Silvia Fuselli, Italian footballer Silvia Heubach, German-American mathematician Silvia Intxaurrondo, Spanish journalist Silvia Laidla, Estonian actress Silvia Lara Povedano, Costa Rican politician and sociologist Sílvia Pérez Cruz, Spanish singer Silvia Puppo Gastélum, Mexican politician Silvia Madetzky, German female discus thrower Silvia Marcovici, Romanian violinist Silvia Sorina Munteanu, Romanian singer Silvia Navarro, Mexican actress Silvia Njirić, Croatian tennis player Silva Oja (born 1961), Estonian heptathlete Silvia Pinal, Mexican actress Silvia Radu, Romanian sculptor Silvia Rodgers (1928–2006), German-Jewish-British writer and political activist Silvia Saint, Czech pornographic actress Silvia Seidel, German actress Silvia Sommer, Austrian composer, pianist and music producer Silvia Stroescu, Romanian gymnast Silvia Tcherassi, Colombian fashion designer Silvia Adriana Țicău, Romanian politician Silvia Vasquez-Lavado, Peruvian-American explorer and mountaineer

Eistir (Irish) Eseza (Luganda) Esita (Luganda) Essi (Finnish) Essie (English) Essy (Australian) Esta (English) Estée (French) Ester (Catalan), (Czech), (Finnish), (Italian), (Portuguese), (North Germanic languages), (Spanish), (Persian) Estera (Polish), (Slovak), (Romanian), (Lithuanian) Estere (Latvian) Esteri (Finnish) Εσθήρ (Greek) Eszter (Hungarian) Eszti (Hungarian) Ettie (English) Etty (English) Hester (English) Hettie (English) Inana (Sumerian) أَسْتِير (ʾAstīr) Arabic אֶסְתֵּר‎ (Esther), the Hebrew and Israeli version of the name. Also Esti and Eti. ستاره (Setare) (Persian) Јестира (Jestira) (Serbian) Эсфирь (Esfir') (Russian) Esitere (Chichewa)

History of usage Esther first occurs as a given name in Europe and the British Isles at the time of the Reformation prior to which the occurrence of Biblical names – unless borne by saints – was unusual. The modified form, Hester, has seemingly co-existed with the original Esther throughout the name's usage in the English-speaking world, where despite a theoretic slight difference in pronunciation, Esther and Hester were long largely – perhaps totally – interchangeable, with it being routine for a woman cited as Esther in one document to be elsewhere documented as Hester. One example of this is Esther Johnson, the "Stella" of Jonathan Swift, whose baptismal record identifies her as Hester but who always signed herself Esther. Similarly, Swift wrote letters to his "Vanessa": Esther Vanhomrigh, in which Swift sometimes wrote her first name in the respective address as Esther and sometimes as Hester. The interchangeable usage of Esther and Hester had essentially been phased out by 1900, with Esther retaining a high usage (especially in North America), whereas the usage of Hester has shown a progressive decline. The 9 September 1893 birth of Esther Cleveland, daughter of US president Grover Cleveland, was heavily publicized as the first birth of a presidential child in the White House; the press announcements of her name stated it meant "star". The 1891 birth of Cleveland's first daughter, also Biblically named Ruth, had caused a media sensation and boosted Ruth into the top ten of American girl's names, and while the public endorsement of Esther as the choice of name for Cleveland's second daughter was more muted, Esther did reach its all-time zenith of US popularity soon after Esther Cleveland's birth, being ranked as the #27 most popular name for American girls for the year 1896.Esther has been a well-used name for Caucasian baby girls born in New York City, and has remained a favored name in some Jewish communities such as those in New York. It has also increased in usage along with other Biblical names for babies born during the COVID-19 pandemic by parents seeking comfort in their religious faith.

Paula is a common female given name (from Latin Pauline, petite). It is used in German, English, Estonian, Finnish, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romanian, Hungarian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Latvian, Lithuanian and Croatian languages.In Greek it means: Polina. Notable people with this name include:

Paula is a common female given name (from Latin Pauline, petite). It is used in German, English, Estonian, Finnish, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romanian, Hungarian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Latvian, Lithuanian and Croatian languages.In Greek it means: Polina. Notable people with this name include:

Paula is a common female given name (from Latin Pauline, petite). It is used in German, English, Estonian, Finnish, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romanian, Hungarian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Latvian, Lithuanian and Croatian languages.In Greek it means: Polina. Notable people with this name include:Saint Paula (347–404), saint and follower of St Jerome Paula Abdul (born 1962), American pop singer and television personality Paula Acker (1913–1989), German correspondent, journalist, communist activist Paula Angel (c. 1842–1861), Mexican-American woman executed for the murder of her lover Paula Badosa, Spanish tennis player Paula Barker, British Labour politician Paula Berry (born 1969), American javelin thrower Paula Byrne (born 1967), English author Paula Cole (born 1968), American singer-songwriter Paula Creamer (born 1986), American golfer Paula Nicho Cumez (born 1955), Mayan-Guatemalan artist Paula Davis (born 1973), American state legislator Paula DeAnda (born 1989), American R&B singer Paula Deen (born 1947), American cook, restaurateur, writer, and TV personality Paula E. Downing (1951–2017), American writer Paula Dei Mansi (d. 1288), Italian scribe Paula Echevarría (born 1977), Spanish model and actress Paula Fernandes (born 1984), Brazilian singer Paula Forteza (born 1986), French politician Paula Fudge (born 1952), English long-distance runner Paula Green (poet) (born 1955), New Zealand poet and children's author Paula Gunn Allen (1939–2008), Native American author and activist Paula Hawkins (politician) (1927–2009), American politician Paula Hertwig (1889–1983), German biologist, politician Paula Hitler (1896–1960), Adolf Hitler's sister Paula Jensen (born 1980), Faroese footballer Paula Kelley (born 1970), American indie singer-songwriter Paula Kelly (actress) (1943–2020), American actress and dancer Paula Kelly (singer) (1919–1992), American big band singer Paula Lane (born 1986), English actress Paula Liniņa (born 2001), Latvian footballer Paula Murray (born 1958), Canadian ceramic artist Paula Nenette Pepin (1908–1990), French composer, pianist and lyricist Paula Nickolds (born 1973), British businesswoman Paula Patton (born 1975), American actress Paula Posavec (born 1996), Croatian handball player Paula Poundstone (born 1959), American comedian Paula Radcliffe (born 1973), English long distance runner and Olympian Paula Rego (1935–2022), Portuguese-British painter and visual artist Paula Bataona Renyaan (1942–2007), Indonesian police general and politician Paula Roberson, American biostatistician Paula Scher (born 1948), American artist Paula Seling (born 1978), Romanian singer Paula Jean Swearengin (born 1974), American politician Paula Taylor (born 1983), Thai actress and model Paula Thebert (born 1968), known as Lacey Wildd, American model Paula Tilbrook (1930–2019), English actress Paula Todoran (born 1985), Romanian long-distance runner Paula Tooths (born 1978), British-Brazilian journalist and executive producer Paula Tsui (born 1956), Hong Kong singer Paula Weishoff (born 1962), American volleyball player Paula White (born 1966), American pastor and televangelist Paula Wilcox (born 1949), English actress Paula Vicente (1519–1576), Portuguese artist, musician and writer Paula Yates (1959–2000), English television presenter Paula Zahn (born 1956), American newscaster

Cornelis is a Dutch form of the male given name Cornelius. Some common shortened versions of Cornelis in Dutch are Cees, Cor, Corné, Corneel, Crelis, Kees, Neel and Nelis.Cornelis (Kees) and Johannes (Jan) used to be the most common given names in the Low Countries, and the origin of the term Yankees is commonly thought to derive from the term Jan-Kees for the Dutch settlers in New Netherland.Among the notable persons named Cornelis are:

Cornelis is a Dutch form of the male given name Cornelius. Some common shortened versions of Cornelis in Dutch are Cees, Cor, Corné, Corneel, Crelis, Kees, Neel and Nelis.Cornelis (Kees) and Johannes (Jan) used to be the most common given names in the Low Countries, and the origin of the term Yankees is commonly thought to derive from the term Jan-Kees for the Dutch settlers in New Netherland.Among the notable persons named Cornelis are:

Cornelis is a Dutch form of the male given name Cornelius. Some common shortened versions of Cornelis in Dutch are Cees, Cor, Corné, Corneel, Crelis, Kees, Neel and Nelis.Cornelis (Kees) and Johannes (Jan) used to be the most common given names in the Low Countries, and the origin of the term Yankees is commonly thought to derive from the term Jan-Kees for the Dutch settlers in New Netherland.Among the notable persons named Cornelis are:Cornelis Engebrechtsz (c. 1462–1527), painter from Leiden Cornelis Massijs (c. 1508–1556), painter from Flanders, Belgium Cornelis Floris de Vriendt (1513/14-1575), architect and sculptor Cornelis Cort (c. 1533–1578), engraver and draughtsman Cornelis Corneliszoon (c. 1550–1607), inventor of the wind powered sawmill Cor Dillen (c. 1920–2009), director of Philips and their CEO in South America Cornelis van Haarlem (1562–1638), leading Northern Mannerist painter Cornelis de Houtman (1565–1599), explorer who started the Dutch spice trade Cornelis Drebbel (1572–1633), builder of the first navigable submarine Cornelis de Vos (1584–1651), Flemish Baroque painter Cornelis de Graeff (1599–1664), Golden Age politician Cornelis Evertsen (disambiguation) (1610–1666, 1628–1679, 1642–1706), three admirals in the Anglo-Dutch Wars Cornelis de Witt (1623–1672), politician of the Dutch Republic Cornelis Tromp (1629–1691), admiral in the Anglo-Dutch Wars and in the Scanian War Cornelis Pietersz Bega (1631/32-1664), painter and engraver Cornelis de Bruijn (1652–1726/27), artist and traveler Cornelis Cruys (1655–1727), first commander of the Russian Baltic Fleet Cornelis Dusart (1660–1704), genre painter, draftsman, and printmaker Cornelis (born 1953), former governor of West Kalimantan, Indonesia Cornelis de Pauw (1739–1849), philosopher, geographer and diplomat Cornelis Tiele (1830–1902), theologian and scholar Cornelis Lely (1854–1929), civil engineer and statesman Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven (1873–1932), South African writer and poet Cornelis Bernardus van Niel (1897–1985), microbiologist Cornelis Berkhouwer (1919–1992), President of the European Parliament 1973–75 Cornelis van Beverloo (1922–2010), artist better known under his pseudonym "Corneille" Cornelis Vreeswijk (1937–1987), Dutch-Swedish singer, poet and actor Cornelis Bodenstein (born 1992), South African-born cricketer Cornelis Schuuring (born 1942), Dutch racing cyclist

Cecilia is a personal name originating in the name of Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music.History The name has been popularly used in Europe (particularly the United Kingdom and Italy, where in 2018 it was the 43rd most popular name for girls born that year), and the United States, where it has ranked among the top 500 names for girls for more than 100 years. It also ranked among the top 100 names for girls born in Sweden in the early years of the 21st century, and was formerly popular in France.The name "Cecilia" applied generally to Roman women who belonged to the plebeian clan of the Caecilii. Legends and hagiographies, mistaking it for a personal name, suggest fanciful etymologies. Among those cited by Chaucer in "The Second Nun's Tale" are: lily of heaven, the way for the blind, contemplation of heaven and the active life, as if lacking in blindness, and a heaven for people to gaze upon.

Ingrid is a feminine given name. It continues the Old Norse name Ingiríðr, which was a short form of Ingfríðr, composed of the theonym Ing and the element fríðr "beloved; beautiful" common in Germanic feminine given names. The name Ingrid (more rarely in the variant Ingerid, Ingris or Ingfrid; short forms Inga, Inger, Ingri) remains widely given in all of Scandinavia, with the highest frequency in Norway. Norwegian usage peaked in the interbellum period, with more than 2% of newly born girls so named in 1920; popularity declined gradually over the 1930s to 1960s, but picked up again in the late 1970s, peaking above 1.5% in the 1990s.

Lydia is a feminine first name. It derives from the Greek Λυδία, Ludía, from λυδία (ludía; "beautiful one", "noble one", "from Lydia/Persia"), a feminine form of the ancient given name Λυδός (Lydus). The region of Lydia is said to be named for a king named Λυδός; the given name Lydia originally indicated ancestry or residence in the region of Lydia.

Lydia is a feminine first name. It derives from the Greek Λυδία, Ludía, from λυδία (ludía; "beautiful one", "noble one", "from Lydia/Persia"), a feminine form of the ancient given name Λυδός (Lydus). The region of Lydia is said to be named for a king named Λυδός; the given name Lydia originally indicated ancestry or residence in the region of Lydia.Bible Lydia is a Biblical given name: Lydia of Thyatira, businesswoman in the city of Thyatira in the New Testament's Acts of the Apostles. She was the apostle Paul's first convert in Philippi and thus the first convert to Christianity in Europe. Lydia hosted Paul and Silas after their release from prison. It is possible that Lydia was the host for a house church during that time. According to Coleman Baker, "Lydia is described as a “worshipper of God” (probably synonymous with “God-fearer,” used elsewhere in Acts) “from the city of Thyatira” (located in Western Asia Minor) and “a dealer in purple cloth” (a luxury item in the ancient Mediterranean). She and her household are soon baptized and offer hospitality to the traveling preachers. Lydia's house becomes the site for the church in Philippi, with her as its host and perhaps leader.... According to the book of Acts, Paul and his associates founded the church in Phillipi when Lydia and her household were baptized. One might conjecture that several of the women from the “place of prayer” were among those who joined with Lydia in this new movement."

Etymology It has been traditionally claimed that the name Attila is formed from Gothic atta meaning "father", through the diminutive suffix -ila, the "little father". Related names are not uncommon among Germanic peoples of the period, i. e. Ætla, Bishop of Dorchester. The Gothic etymology was proposed by Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century. Tom Shippey argued that the Gothic etymology is a product of 19th century Germanic romantic philological revisionism.Otto Maenchen-Helfen, who considered Gothic etymology, noted that Hunnic names were "not the true names of the Hun princes and lords. What we have are Hunnic names in Germanic dress, modified to fit the Gothic tongue, or popular Gothic etymologies, or both".Hyun Jin Kim noted Attila has more natural and probable Turkic etymology. Omeljan Pritsak considered ̕Άττίλα (Attila) a composite title-name which derived from Turkic *es (great, old), and *t il (sea, ocean), and the suffix /a/. The stressed back syllabic til assimilated the front member es, so it became *as. It is a nominative, in form of attíl- (< *etsíl < *es tíl) with the meaning "the oceanic, universal ruler". Peter Golden, citing Pritsak, like László Rásonyi connected Attila's name with a note by Menander in which the term Attilan was used as the name of the Volga River (Turkic Atil/Itil; "great river"). J.J. Mikkola connected it with Turkic āt (name, fame). Gerd Althoff considered it was related to Turkish atli (horseman, cavalier), or Turkish at (horse) and dil (tongue).

Attila is a popular masculine name in Central-Eastern Europe (primarily Hungary, Bulgaria and Chuvashia) and in Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe (primarily Turkey and Bulgaria). Another version of Attila in Hungary is Etele, the female equivalent of which is Etelka. Another version of Attila used in Turkish is Atilla.

Attila is a popular masculine name in Central-Eastern Europe (primarily Hungary, Bulgaria and Chuvashia) and in Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe (primarily Turkey and Bulgaria). Another version of Attila in Hungary is Etele, the female equivalent of which is Etelka. Another version of Attila used in Turkish is Atilla.

György Alexits, as a Hungarian mathematician György Almásy, Hungarian asiologist, traveler, zoologist and ethnographer, father of László Almásy György Apponyi, Hungarian politician György Gordon Bajnai, Prime Minister of Hungary (2009-10) György Bálint (originally surname Braun; 1919–2020), Hungarian horticulturist, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, journalist, author, and politician who served as an MP. György Bárdy, Hungarian film and television actor György Békésy, Hungarian biophysicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine György Bessenyei, Hungarian playwright and poet György Bródy, Hungarian water polo goalkeeper, 2x Olympic champion György Bulányi, Hungarian a Piarist priest, teacher, and leader György Carabelli, Hungarian dentist György Csányi, Hungarian athlete György Cserhalmi, Hungarian actor György Csesznek, Hungarian aristocrat György Csordás, Hungarian freestyle swimmer György Czakó, Hungarian figure skater György Cziffra, Hungarian virtuoso pianist György Dózsa, Székely man-at-arms from Transylvania György Enyedi (geographer), Hungarian economist and geographer György Faludy, Hungarian-born poet, writer and translator György Fehér, Hungarian film director György Festetics, a Hungarian politician György Fráter, Croatian nobleman, Pauline monk and Hungarian statesman György Garics, Austrian football defender of Hungarian and Slovakian Croat roots György Gedó, Hungarian Olympic champion light flyweight boxer György Gerendás, Hungarian former water polo player György Gurics, Hungarian wrestler György Hajós, Hungarian mathematician György Hevesy, Hungarian radiochemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Horkai, Hungarian former water polo player György Káldy, Hungarian Jesuit and Bible translator György Károly, Hungarian poet and writer György Kárpáti, Hungarian former water polo player György Keleti, Hungarian politician, who served as Minister of Defence György Kenéz, Hungarian former water polo player György Klapka, Hungarian general György Klein, Hungarian–Swedish microbiologist and public intellectual György Kolonics, Hungarian sprint canoeist György Konrád, Hungarian novelist and essayist György Kulin, Hungarian astronomer György Kurtág, Hungarian composer György Kutasi, Hungarian water polo player György Lahner, Hungarian general György Ligeti, Hungarian composer György Lukács, Hungarian Marxist philosopher György Marx, Hungarian physicist, astrophysicist, science historian and professor György Matolcsy, Hungarian politician and economist, current governor of the Hungarian National Bank György Mitró, Hungarian swimmer and Olympic medalist György Moldova, Hungarian author György Oláh, Hungarian and American chemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Orbán, Romanian-born Hungarian composer György Orth, Hungarian footballer and manager György Pazdera, Hungarian bassist György Petri, Hungarian poet György Piller, Hungarian Olympic and world champion fencer György Pólya, Hungarian mathematician I György Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 until 1648 II György Rákóczi, Hungarian nobleman, Prince of Transylvania from 1648 until 1660 György Sándor, Hungarian pianist György Sándor (footballer), Hungarian footballer György Sárosi, Hungarian footballer György Sebők, Hungarian-born American pianist György Spiró, Hungarian dramatist, novelist and essayist György Szabados, Hungarian jazz pianist György Szepesi, Hungarian radio personality and sports executive György Szondy, 16th century Hungarian hero György Zala (sculptor), Hungarian sculptor George Worth, born György Woittitz (1915–2006), Hungarian-born American Olympic medalist fencer George Soros, born György Schwartz (1930-), Hungarian-born American investor

György (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈɟørɟ]) is a Hungarian version of the name George. Some notable people with this given name:György Alexits, as a Hungarian mathematician György Almásy, Hungarian asiologist, traveler, zoologist and ethnographer, father of László Almásy György Apponyi, Hungarian politician György Gordon Bajnai, Prime Minister of Hungary (2009-10) György Bálint (originally surname Braun; 1919–2020), Hungarian horticulturist, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, journalist, author, and politician who served as an MP. György Bárdy, Hungarian film and television actor György Békésy, Hungarian biophysicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine György Bessenyei, Hungarian playwright and poet György Bródy, Hungarian water polo goalkeeper, 2x Olympic champion György Bulányi, Hungarian a Piarist priest, teacher, and leader György Carabelli, Hungarian dentist György Csányi, Hungarian athlete György Cserhalmi, Hungarian actor György Csesznek, Hungarian aristocrat György Csordás, Hungarian freestyle swimmer György Czakó, Hungarian figure skater György Cziffra, Hungarian virtuoso pianist György Dózsa, Székely man-at-arms from Transylvania György Enyedi (geographer), Hungarian economist and geographer György Faludy, Hungarian-born poet, writer and translator György Fehér, Hungarian film director György Festetics, a Hungarian politician György Fráter, Croatian nobleman, Pauline monk and Hungarian statesman György Garics, Austrian football defender of Hungarian and Slovakian Croat roots György Gedó, Hungarian Olympic champion light flyweight boxer György Gerendás, Hungarian former water polo player György Gurics, Hungarian wrestler György Hajós, Hungarian mathematician György Hevesy, Hungarian radiochemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Horkai, Hungarian former water polo player György Káldy, Hungarian Jesuit and Bible translator György Károly, Hungarian poet and writer György Kárpáti, Hungarian former water polo player György Keleti, Hungarian politician, who served as Minister of Defence György Kenéz, Hungarian former water polo player György Klapka, Hungarian general György Klein, Hungarian–Swedish microbiologist and public intellectual György Kolonics, Hungarian sprint canoeist György Konrád, Hungarian novelist and essayist György Kulin, Hungarian astronomer György Kurtág, Hungarian composer György Kutasi, Hungarian water polo player György Lahner, Hungarian general György Ligeti, Hungarian composer György Lukács, Hungarian Marxist philosopher György Marx, Hungarian physicist, astrophysicist, science historian and professor György Matolcsy, Hungarian politician and economist, current governor of the Hungarian National Bank György Mitró, Hungarian swimmer and Olympic medalist György Moldova, Hungarian author György Oláh, Hungarian and American chemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Orbán, Romanian-born Hungarian composer György Orth, Hungarian footballer and manager György Pazdera, Hungarian bassist György Petri, Hungarian poet György Piller, Hungarian Olympic and world champion fencer György Pólya, Hungarian mathematician I György Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 until 1648 II György Rákóczi, Hungarian nobleman, Prince of Transylvania from 1648 until 1660 György Sándor, Hungarian pianist György Sándor (footballer), Hungarian footballer György Sárosi, Hungarian footballer György Sebők, Hungarian-born American pianist György Spiró, Hungarian dramatist, novelist and essayist György Szabados, Hungarian jazz pianist György Szepesi, Hungarian radio personality and sports executive György Szondy, 16th century Hungarian hero György Zala (sculptor), Hungarian sculptor George Worth, born György Woittitz (1915–2006), Hungarian-born American Olympic medalist fencer George Soros, born György Schwartz (1930-), Hungarian-born American investor

György (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈɟørɟ]) is a Hungarian version of the name George. Some notable people with this given name:György Alexits, as a Hungarian mathematician György Almásy, Hungarian asiologist, traveler, zoologist and ethnographer, father of László Almásy György Apponyi, Hungarian politician György Gordon Bajnai, Prime Minister of Hungary (2009-10) György Bálint (originally surname Braun; 1919–2020), Hungarian horticulturist, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, journalist, author, and politician who served as an MP. György Bárdy, Hungarian film and television actor György Békésy, Hungarian biophysicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine György Bessenyei, Hungarian playwright and poet György Bródy, Hungarian water polo goalkeeper, 2x Olympic champion György Bulányi, Hungarian a Piarist priest, teacher, and leader György Carabelli, Hungarian dentist György Csányi, Hungarian athlete György Cserhalmi, Hungarian actor György Csesznek, Hungarian aristocrat György Csordás, Hungarian freestyle swimmer György Czakó, Hungarian figure skater György Cziffra, Hungarian virtuoso pianist György Dózsa, Székely man-at-arms from Transylvania György Enyedi (geographer), Hungarian economist and geographer György Faludy, Hungarian-born poet, writer and translator György Fehér, Hungarian film director György Festetics, a Hungarian politician György Fráter, Croatian nobleman, Pauline monk and Hungarian statesman György Garics, Austrian football defender of Hungarian and Slovakian Croat roots György Gedó, Hungarian Olympic champion light flyweight boxer György Gerendás, Hungarian former water polo player György Gurics, Hungarian wrestler György Hajós, Hungarian mathematician György Hevesy, Hungarian radiochemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Horkai, Hungarian former water polo player György Káldy, Hungarian Jesuit and Bible translator György Károly, Hungarian poet and writer György Kárpáti, Hungarian former water polo player György Keleti, Hungarian politician, who served as Minister of Defence György Kenéz, Hungarian former water polo player György Klapka, Hungarian general György Klein, Hungarian–Swedish microbiologist and public intellectual György Kolonics, Hungarian sprint canoeist György Konrád, Hungarian novelist and essayist György Kulin, Hungarian astronomer György Kurtág, Hungarian composer György Kutasi, Hungarian water polo player György Lahner, Hungarian general György Ligeti, Hungarian composer György Lukács, Hungarian Marxist philosopher György Marx, Hungarian physicist, astrophysicist, science historian and professor György Matolcsy, Hungarian politician and economist, current governor of the Hungarian National Bank György Mitró, Hungarian swimmer and Olympic medalist György Moldova, Hungarian author György Oláh, Hungarian and American chemist and awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry György Orbán, Romanian-born Hungarian composer György Orth, Hungarian footballer and manager György Pazdera, Hungarian bassist György Petri, Hungarian poet György Piller, Hungarian Olympic and world champion fencer György Pólya, Hungarian mathematician I György Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 until 1648 II György Rákóczi, Hungarian nobleman, Prince of Transylvania from 1648 until 1660 György Sándor, Hungarian pianist György Sándor (footballer), Hungarian footballer György Sárosi, Hungarian footballer György Sebők, Hungarian-born American pianist György Spiró, Hungarian dramatist, novelist and essayist György Szabados, Hungarian jazz pianist György Szepesi, Hungarian radio personality and sports executive György Szondy, 16th century Hungarian hero György Zala (sculptor), Hungarian sculptor George Worth, born György Woittitz (1915–2006), Hungarian-born American Olympic medalist fencer George Soros, born György Schwartz (1930-), Hungarian-born American investor

Chiara is both a feminine Italian given name and a surname. Notable people with the name include:Given name Saint Clare of Assisi, in Italian Chiara d'Assisi Saint Clare of Montefalco, in Italian Chiara da Montefalco Chiara Appendino (born 1984), Italian politician Blessed Chiara Badano Chiara Berti, contestant on US TV show Big Brother 3. Chiara Aurelia, American actress Chiara Boggiatto, Italian Olympic swimmer (born 1986) Chiara Brancati, (born 1981), Italian water polo player Chiara Caselli, Italian actress Chiara Civello, Italian singer-songwriter Chiara Ferragni, Italian blogger and fashion designer Chiara Galiazzo, Italian singer Chiara Gensini (born 1982), Italian actress Chiara Iezzi, Italian singer (born 1973) Chiara Lauvergnac (born 1961), Italian activist Chiara Lubich, founder of the Focolare movement Chiara Mastalli, Italian actress, appears in the HBO series Rome Chiara Mastroianni, Italian-French actress (born 1972) Chiara Nappi, Italian physicist Chiara Neto, Italian chemist Chiara Porro, Australian diplomat Chiara Siracusa, Maltese pop singer, best known by the mononym Chiara Chiara Simionato, Italian speed skater Chiara Zanni, Canadian voice actress Chiara Zorzi, regent for her son the Duke of Athens (d. 1454) Paola e Chiara, Italian sisters and pop singers Edelfa Chiara Masciotta, Miss Italia for 2005 Chiara Martellaccio, The first known Martellaccio ever to exist on Wikipedia. Saw Andrea Bocelli with her 80yr old aunt.

Knut (Norwegian and Swedish), Knud (Danish), or Knútur (Icelandic) is a Scandinavian and German first name, of which the anglicised form is Canute. In Germany both "Knut" and "Knud" are used. In Spanish and Portuguese Canuto is used which comes from the Latin version Canutus, and in Finland, the name Nuutti is based on the name Knut. The name is derived from the Old Norse Knútr meaning "knot". It is the name of several medieval kings of Denmark, two of whom also reigned over England during the first half of the 11th century.

People Harthaknut I of Denmark (Knut I, Danish: Hardeknud) (b. c. 890), king of Denmark Knut the Great (Knut II, Danish: Knud den Store or Knud II) (d. 1035), Viking king of England, Denmark and Norway Subject of the apocryphal King Canute and the waves Harthaknut (Knut III, Danish: Hardeknud or Knud III) (d. 1042), king of Denmark and England Saint Knud IV of Denmark (Danish: Knud IV), king of Denmark (r. 1080–1086) and martyr Knud Lavard (d. 1131), Danish prince and saint Knud V of Denmark (Danish: Knud V), king of Denmark (r. 1146–1157) Canute I of Sweden (Swedish: Knut Eriksson) (king 1173–1195) Canute II of Sweden (Swedish: Knut Långe) (king 1229–1234) Knud VI of Denmark (Danish: Knud VI), king of Denmark (r. 1182–1202) Knut Wallenberg (1853-1938), Swedish Minister of Foreign Affairs and banker Knut Hamsun (1859–1952), Norwegian author Knud Rasmussen (1879–1933), Greenlandic polar explorer and anthropologist Knute Rockne (1888–1931), American football player and coach Knute Cauldwell (1896-1952), American football player Knud, Hereditary Prince of Denmark (1900–1976), younger son of King Christian X Knud Reimers (1906–1987), Danish yacht designer Knut Schmidt-Nielsen (1915–2007), Norwegian-born American biologist Knut Haugland (1917–2009), Norwegian resistance fighter and explorer Knud Heinesen (born 1932), Danish politician Knut Hergel (1899–1982), a Norwegian actor Knut Frydenlund (1927–1987), Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Knut Vollebæk (born 1946), Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs Knut Knudsen (born 1950), Norwegian cyclist, Olympic and World Champion Knut Fleckenstein (born 1953), German politician Knut Storberget (born 1964), Norwegian politician and former Minister of Justice Knut Reinhardt (born 1968), German footballer Knut Risan (1930–2011), Norwegian actor Knut Arild Hareide (born 1972), leader of Norway's Christian Democratic Party, and a former Minister of the Environment Knut Schreiner (born 1974), Norwegian guitarist for Turbonegro, Euroboys, Mirror Lakes, and music producer Knut Wicksell (1851–1926), Swedish economist Knut Abraham (born 1966), German politician

Cynthia is a feminine given name of Greek origin: Κυνθία, Kynthía, "from Mount Cynthus" on Delos island. The name has been in use in the Anglosphere since the 1600s. There are various spellings for this name, and it can be abbreviated to Cindy, Cyndi, Cyndy, or occasionally to Thea or Thia. Cynthia was originally an epithet of the Greek goddess Artemis, who according to legend was born on Mount Cynthus. Selene, the Greek personification of the moon, and the Roman Diana were also sometimes called "Cynthia".Usage It has ranked among the 1,000 most used names for girls in the United States since 1880 and among the top 100 names between 1945 and 1993. It peaked in usage between 1956 and 1963, when it was among the 10 most popular names for American girls. It has since declined in use in the United States and ranked in 806th position on the popularity chart there in 2021. It was also among the top 100 names in use for girls in Canada between 1949 and 1978, among the top 100 names in use for girls in the United Kingdom between 1934 and 1944 among the top 500 names in France for girls between 1970 and 2008, and among the top 500 names in Spain between 1980 and 2010.

In other languages Armenian: Լեոնարդ (Leonard) Croatian: Leonard Czech: Leonard French: Léonard Georgian: ლეონარდ (Leonard) German: Leonard, Leonhard, Leonhardt, Lennart Greek: Λεονάρδος (Leonárdos) Hebrew: לֵב־אֲרִי (Lév-Ari) Hungarian: Lénárd, Leonárd Italian: Leonardo Latvian: Linards Lithuanian: Leonardas Māori: Renātā Maltese: Nardu Polish: Leonard Portuguese: Leonardo Romanian: Leonard Russian: Леонард (Leonard) Serbian: Леонард (Leonard) Spanish: Leonardo Swedish: Lennart Yiddish: לעאָנאַרד (Leonard) Ukrainian: Лев

Leonard or Leo is a common English masculine given name and a surname. The given name and surname originate from the Old High German Leonhard containing the prefix levon ("lion") from the Greek Λέων ("lion") through the Latin Leo, and the suffix hardu ("brave" or "hardy"). The name has come to mean "lion strength", "lion-strong", or "lion-hearted". Leonard was the name of a Saint in the Middle Ages period, known as the patron saint of prisoners.Leonard is also an Irish origin surname, from the Gaelic O'Leannain also found as O'Leonard, but often was anglicised to just Leonard, consisting of the prefix O ("descendant of") and the suffix Leannan ("lover"). The oldest public records of the surname appear in 1272 in Huntingdonshire, England, and in 1479 in Ulm, Germany.Variations The name has variants in other languages: Anard (Maltese) Leen, Leendert, Lenard (Dutch) Lehnertz, Lehnert (Luxembourgish) Len (English) hu:Lénárd (Hungarian) Lenart (disambiguation) (Slovene) Linhart (Czech) Lennard, diminutive forms Lenny Lennart (Swedish, Estonian, Dutch) Lennert (German, Dutch) Lev (Ukrainian) Lenni (Finnish) Lenno (Groningen) Lenny (English) Leo (many languages) Leon (English, German, Dutch, Russian) Léon (French), León (Spanish) Léonard ([leɔnaʁ]; French) Leonard = "Renata" in Māori, Waitaha Leonardo (Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese) Leonhard, Leonhardt (German) Leontxo (Basque) O'Leannáin O'Lionaird Leòmhannard (Scottish Gaelic) Lionard (Scottish Gaelic)

In other languages Armenian: Լեոնարդ (Leonard) Croatian: Leonard Czech: Leonard French: Léonard Georgian: ლეონარდ (Leonard) German: Leonard, Leonhard, Leonhardt, Lennart Greek: Λεονάρδος (Leonárdos) Hebrew: לֵב־אֲרִי (Lév-Ari) Hungarian: Lénárd, Leonárd Italian: Leonardo Latvian: Linards Lithuanian: Leonardas Māori: Renātā Maltese: Nardu Polish: Leonard Portuguese: Leonardo Romanian: Leonard Russian: Леонард (Leonard) Serbian: Леонард (Leonard) Spanish: Leonardo Swedish: Lennart Yiddish: לעאָנאַרד (Leonard) Ukrainian: Лев

In other languages Armenian: Լեոնարդ (Leonard) Croatian: Leonard Czech: Leonard French: Léonard Georgian: ლეონარდ (Leonard) German: Leonard, Leonhard, Leonhardt, Lennart Greek: Λεονάρδος (Leonárdos) Hebrew: לֵב־אֲרִי (Lév-Ari) Hungarian: Lénárd, Leonárd Italian: Leonardo Latvian: Linards Lithuanian: Leonardas Māori: Renātā Maltese: Nardu Polish: Leonard Portuguese: Leonardo Romanian: Leonard Russian: Леонард (Leonard) Serbian: Леонард (Leonard) Spanish: Leonardo Swedish: Lennart Yiddish: לעאָנאַרד (Leonard) Ukrainian: Лев

Leonard or Leo is a common English masculine given name and a surname. The given name and surname originate from the Old High German Leonhard containing the prefix levon ("lion") from the Greek Λέων ("lion") through the Latin Leo, and the suffix hardu ("brave" or "hardy"). The name has come to mean "lion strength", "lion-strong", or "lion-hearted". Leonard was the name of a Saint in the Middle Ages period, known as the patron saint of prisoners.Leonard is also an Irish origin surname, from the Gaelic O'Leannain also found as O'Leonard, but often was anglicised to just Leonard, consisting of the prefix O ("descendant of") and the suffix Leannan ("lover"). The oldest public records of the surname appear in 1272 in Huntingdonshire, England, and in 1479 in Ulm, Germany.In other languages Armenian: Լեոնարդ (Leonard) Croatian: Leonard Czech: Leonard French: Léonard Georgian: ლეონარდ (Leonard) German: Leonard, Leonhard, Leonhardt, Lennart Greek: Λεονάρδος (Leonárdos) Hebrew: לֵב־אֲרִי (Lév-Ari) Hungarian: Lénárd, Leonárd Italian: Leonardo Latvian: Linards Lithuanian: Leonardas Māori: Renātā Maltese: Nardu Polish: Leonard Portuguese: Leonardo Romanian: Leonard Russian: Леонард (Leonard) Serbian: Леонард (Leonard) Spanish: Leonardo Swedish: Lennart Yiddish: לעאָנאַרד (Leonard) Ukrainian: ЛевGiven name Leonard Adleman (born 1945), American computer scientist Léonard Autié (1751–1820), French hairdresser Leonard Baskin (1922–2000), American artist Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990), American conductor and composer Leonard Burton (born 1964), American football player Leonard of Chios (died 1458), Catholic archbishop Leonard Cohen (1934–2016), Canadian singer-songwriter Leonard Cheshire (1917–1992), British philanthropist Leonard Doroftei (born 1970), Romanian boxer Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Swiss mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170 – after 1240), Italian mathematician Leonard Fairley (born 1951), American football player Leonard Fournette (born 1995), American football player Leonhard Fuchs (1501–1566), German physician and natural historian Leonard Hackney (1855–1938), Justice of the Indiana Supreme Court Leonard Hoffmann, Baron Hoffmann (born 1934), British judge Leonard Humphries (born 1970), American football player Leonard Labatt (1838–1897), Swedish tenor Leonard Lance (born 1952), American politician Leonard Lansink (born 1956), German actor Leonard "Lenny" Kravitz (born 1964), American singer and songwriter Leonard M. Kravitz (1931–1951), American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient Leonard Francis Lindoy (born 1937), Australian chemist Leonard Livingston (1920–1998), Australian cricketer Leonard Maltin (born 1950), American film critic and film historian Leonard Mlodinow (born 1954), American physicist and writer Leonard Nimoy (1931–2015), American actor and film director Leonard of Noblac (died 559), Frankish nobleman Leonard Peikoff (born 1933), Canadian philosopher Leonard Peltier(born 1944), American Activist Leonard Pitts (born 1957), American journalist Leonard of Port Maurice (1676–1751), Italian saint Abeyratne Cudah Leonard Ratwatte (1909-1971), Sri Lankan Sinhala politician and diplomat Leonard Roberts (born 1972), American actor Leonard "Lennie" Rosenbluth (1933–2022), American basketball player Leonard Rosenman (1924–2008), American composer Leonard Rossiter (1926–1984), English actor Leonard Alfred Schneider (1925–1966), AKA Lenny Bruce, American stand-up comedian, social critic, & satirist Leonard Silverman (1930–2015), New York politician and judge Leonard Slatkin (born 1944), American conductor Leonard Steinberg, Baron Steinberg (1936–2009), British businessman Leonard Stone (1923–2011), American actor Leonard Sumner, indigenous Canadian singer-songwriter Leonard Susskind (born 1940), American theoretical physicist Leonard Thompson (footballer) (1901–1968), British football player Leonard Merlyn Wickramasuriya (1916-2002), Sri Lankan Sinhala army brigadier Leonard Woolley (1880–1960), British archaeologist Leonard Wong, American military writer Leonard Wu, American actor, writer and producer

Florence is an androgynous French and English given name. It is derived from the French version of (Saint) Florentia, a Roman martyr under Diocletian. The Latin florens, florentius means "blossoming", verb floreo, meaning "I blossom / I flower / I flourish". Florence was in olden times also used as a translation of the Latin version Florentius, and may be used in this context as a male given name. A notable increase use of the name came in the aftermath of Florence Nightingale, a nurse in British hospitals during the Crimean War and is usually considered the founder of modern nursing. She was given the name because she was born in Florence, Italy. Contrary to popular belief, Nightingale was not the first person to be given this given name in the English speaking world. The wife of Richard de Wylughby, of London, was Florence, in 1349 A later example was Florence Wrey (d.1718), wife of John Cole of the Irish County of Fermanagh (married in 1707), who was herself named after her mother, Florence Rolle, the wife of Sir Bourchier Wrey, 4th Baronet (c. 1653–1696) of Tawstock, Devon, and the daughter of Sir John Rolle (d.1706) of Stevenstone, by his wife and distant cousin Florence Rolle (1630–1705), an even earlier Florence, the daughter and heiress of Denys Rolle (1614–1638), of Stevenstone and Bicton in Devon. This name is also of note because John Cole built a large mansion in Northern Ireland which he named Florence Court after his wife. One of John Cole's descendants, who had become "Lord Enniskillen", planted a peculiarly upright yew tree in the grounds of Florence Court, which was to become the mother tree of all Irish Yews or "Florence Court Yews".Florencia, a Spanish version, is among the most popular names for baby girls in Argentina and Uruguay. Florence was most popular in the United States between 1900 and 1940, when it was in the top 100 names given to baby girls. The name last ranked in the top 1,000 names given to baby girls in the 1970s. Florence was the fourth most popular name given to baby girls in Quebec, Canada in 2007 and the name has also risen in popularity in England and Wales, where it was the 109th most popular name given to baby girls in 2007.

Vanessa is a feminine given name. It was invented by the Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift for Esther Vanhomrigh, whom Swift had met in 1708 and whom he tutored. The name was created by taking "Van" from Vanhomrigh's last name and adding "Essa", a pet form of Esther. In 1726, the name Vanessa appeared in print for the first time in Cadenus and Vanessa, an autobiographical poem about Swift's relationship with Vanhomrigh. Swift had written the poem in 1713, but it was not published until three years after Vanhomrigh died. Vanessa was adopted as the name of a genus of butterfly by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1807. Vanessa was the 71st most popular name for girls born in the United States in 2007. It has been among the top 200 names for girls in the United States since 1953 and among the top 100 names for girls since 1977. It first appeared among the top 1,000 names for girls in the United States in 1950, when it appeared on the list in 939th place.In Germany, Vanessa has been among the top 100 names for girls since 1976. The name became more and more popular and was the 7th most popular name for girls in the 1990s. In the following years its popularity dropped and the name is ranked in 42nd place for the decade 2000–2009.Notable people with the given name Vanessa Ament (born 1955), American foley artist and author Vanessa Amorosi (born 1981), Australian singer Vanessa Anderson, Australian teen whose death led to the Garling Report Vanessa Angel (English actress) (born 1966), English actress and model Vanessa Angel (Indonesian actress) (1992–2021), Indonesian actress, model and singer Vanessa Baden (born 1985), American actress, writer, director, and producer Vanessa Barrs, Australian veterinary scientist Vanessa Bayer (born 1981), American actress, comedian and cast member from Saturday Night Live Vanessa Beecroft, Italian artist Vanessa Bell (1879–1961), English artist and the sister of author Virginia Woolf Vanessa Bell Armstrong (born 1953), American gospel singer Vanessa Bell Calloway (born 1957), American actress Vanessa Benelli Mosell, Italian pianist Vanessa Branch (born 1973), English-American model and actress Vanessa L. Brown (born 1966), Democratic member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives who was convicted of bribery Vanessa Bryant (born 1982), American philanthropist, nonprofit executive, and former model Vanessa Carlton (born 1980), American singer, best known for her hit single "A Thousand Miles" Vanessa Coleman (born 1988), American criminal convicted of facilitating the kidnap, rape, and murder of Channon Christian Vanessa da Mata (born 1976), Brazilian singer Vanessa Djomo (born 1998), Cameroonian footballer Vanessa Downing (born 1958), Australian actress Vanessa Duriès (1972–1993), French writer Vanessa Erogbogbo, Ugandan economist Vanessa Feltz, English journalist and broadcaster Vanessa Ferlito, American actress Vanessa Ferrari (born 1990), Italian gymnast Vanessa García (born 1984), Puerto Rican freestyle swimmer Vanessa George, English paedophile convicted in the 2009 Plymouth child abuse case Vanessa Giacomo, Brazilian actress Vanessa Grigoriadis, American journalist Vanessa Heleta, women's rights activist and Special Olympics organiser from Tonga Vanessa Herrmann (born 1991), Thai actress and model Vanessa Hessler, American-Italian model and actress Vanessa Hudgens (born 1988), American actress and singer Vanessa Huppenkothen, Mexican model, actress, and presenter Vanessa King, Canadian actress Vanessa Kirby, British actress Vanessa Krasniqi (born 1994), Albanian-German singer Vanessa Koutouan (born 1988), Ivorian women's rights activist Vanessa Lachey (born 1980), American television personality, television host, and actress Vanessa Lengies (born 1985), Canadian actress Vanessa de Lisle, British fashion journalist Vanessa Lloyd-Davies (1960–2005), British doctor, equestrian and soldier Vanessa Mae (born 1978), Singapore-born British violinist and Olympic alpine skier Vanessa Mai (born 1992), German singer Vanessa Marano (born 1992), American actress Vanessa Marcil (born 1958), American actress Vanessa Marcotte (1989–2016), American murder victim Vanessa Marques (born 1996), Portuguese football player Vanessa Marquez (1968–2018), American actress Vanessa Marshall (born 1969), American actress and voice actress Vanessa Mdee (born 1988), Tanzanian singer and TV personality Vanessa Merrell (born 1996), American actress (temporary role in Jane the Virgin) and YouTuber Vanessa Morgan (born 1992), Canadian actress Vanessa Paradis (born 1972), French actress and singer Vanessa Porto (born 1984), Brazilian mixed martial artist Vanessa Ray (born 1981), American actress Vanessa Redgrave (born 1937), English actress and political activist Vanessa Rivas (1984-1999), a 4-time POGs championship finalist. Rivas was killed in a gang-related drive-by shooting. Vanessa Rousso (born 1983), American poker player Vanessa C. Tyson, American political scientist Vanessa Uri, birth name of Filipina actress Halina Perez (1983–2004) Vanessa Ward (née Browne) (born 1963), Australian high jumper Vanessa Watts (born 1987), West Indian cricketer Vanessa White (born 1989), English singer with The Saturdays Vanessa Estelle Williams (sometimes professionally Vanessa A. Williams) (born 1963), American actress Vanessa Williams (sometimes professionally Vanessa L. Williams) (born 1963), American model, singer, songwriter, and actress Vanessa R. Williams (born 1960), American gospel singer Vanessa Zahorian, American ballet dancer

Nicola or Nichola is a Latinised version of the Greek personal name Nikolaos (Νικόλαος), derived from the nikē meaning "victory", and laos meaning "people", therefore implying the meaning "victory of the people". Nicola is both a male and female name, depending on cultural norms. Nicola was a frequently given male personal name among the traditional Italian nobility, and was used often in the Middle Ages. The spelling Nikola is widely used in Slavic language speaking areas, reflecting the transliteration of the Cyrillic spelling Никола. The English form of the same name is Nicholas, with Nicolas common in French and Spanish-speaking countries, and Nicolau in Portuguese-speaking countries. Nicola has been used as a female name since at least 1150 (the birth date of Lady Nicola de la Haie) and continues as a contemporary female name in Germany, the British Isles and Scandinavia. Less commonly, the name is spelled "Nichola" or "Nickola". There are suggestions the feminization of the name came from incorrectly presuming the name's vowel ending "a" was the female form. The female form of Nicola in Italian is Nicoletta. Other forms of the female name in other languages include Nicole or Nicolette in French, Nikolett or Nikoletta in Hungarian, Νικολέττα or Νίκη in Greek.

M–Z Nicola Mendelsohn (born 1971), British advertising executive Nicola McEwen, FRSE professor of territorial politics at the University of Edinburgh, Centre on Constitutional Change. Nicola Pagett (1945–2021), English actress Nicola Peltz (born 1995), American actress Nicola Philippaerts (born 1993), Belgian show jumping rider Nicola Pierce (born 1969), Irish writer and ghost writer Nicola Piovani (born 1946), classical musician Nicola Pisano (1220s–1284), Italian sculptor Nicola Pozzi (born 1986), Italian football player Nicola Ann Raphael (1985–2001), Scottish schoolgirl who committed suicide Nicola Rauti (born 2000), Italian football player Nicola Rescigno (1916–2008), Italian-American opera conductor Nicola Richards (born 1994), British politician Nicola Rizzoli (born 1971), Italian football referee Nicola Roberts (born 1985), British popstar, member of Girls Aloud Nicola Rossi-Lemeni (1920-1991), Russian-Italian operatic bass Nicola Rubinstein, fictional character on the ITV soap opera Coronation Street Nicola Sacco (1891–1927), Italian-American anarchist ("Sacco and Vanzetti") Nicola Shulman (born 1960), British biographer Nicola Smith (born 1949), English bridge player Nicola Smith (footballer) (born 1980), New Zealand football player Nicola Sturgeon (born 1970), Leader of the Scottish Nationalist Party and the current First Minister of Scotland Nicola Tappenden (born 1982), British glamour model Nicola Walker (born 1970), British actress Nicola Zalewski (born 2002), Polish football player Nicola (Okanagan leader) (1780/85 – ~1865), First Nations political figure in the fur trade era of British Columbia, CanadaSurname Carlos Nicola (born 1973), Uruguayan former footballer Davide Nicola (born 1973), Italian football manager and retired player Enrico De Nicola (1877–1959), Italian jurist, journalist, politician and provisional Head of State of republican Italy from 1946 to 1948 Isaac Nicola (1916–1997), Cuban guitarist James C. Nicola, American theatre director Lewis Nicola (1717–1807), Irish-American military officer during the American Revolutionary War, author of the Newburgh letter Marcelo Nicola (born 1971), Argentine-Italian basketball coach and retired player

Edith is a feminine given name derived from the Old English word ēad, meaning 'riches or blessed', and is in common usage in this form in English, German, many Scandinavian languages and Dutch. Its French form is Édith. Contractions and variations of this name include Ditte, Dita, and Edie. It was a common first name prior to the 16th century, when it fell out of favour. It became popular again at the beginning of the 19th century, and in 2016 it was ranked at 488th most popular female name in the United States, according to the Social Security online database. It became far less common as a name for children by the late 20th century. The name Edith has five name days: May 14 in Estonia, January 13 in the Czech Republic, October 31 in Sweden, July 5 in Latvia, and September 16 in France, Hungary, Poland and Lithuania.

Edith is a feminine given name derived from the Old English word ēad, meaning 'riches or blessed', and is in common usage in this form in English, German, many Scandinavian languages and Dutch. Its French form is Édith. Contractions and variations of this name include Ditte, Dita, and Edie. It was a common first name prior to the 16th century, when it fell out of favour. It became popular again at the beginning of the 19th century, and in 2016 it was ranked at 488th most popular female name in the United States, according to the Social Security online database. It became far less common as a name for children by the late 20th century. The name Edith has five name days: May 14 in Estonia, January 13 in the Czech Republic, October 31 in Sweden, July 5 in Latvia, and September 16 in France, Hungary, Poland and Lithuania.

Origin The name derives from the Provençal name Aliénor, which became Eléonore in Langue d'oïl, i.e., French, and from there Eleanor in English.The origin of the name is somewhat unclear; one of the earliest bearers appears to have been Eleanor of Aquitaine (1120s–1204). She was the daughter of Aénor de Châtellerault, and it has been suggested that having been baptized Aenor after her mother, she was called alia Aenor, i.e. "the other Aenor" or Aliénor in childhood and would have kept that name in adult life. Some sources say that the name Aénor itself may be a Latinization of an unknown Germanic name.Eleanor of Aquitaine, the most powerful woman in 12th century Europe, was certainly the reason for the name's later popularity. However, the name's origin with her, and the explanation of alia Aenor is uncertain; there are records of possible bearers of the name Alienor earlier in the 12th, or even in the 11th or 10th centuries, but the records of these women post-date Eleanor of Aquitaine, at a time when Alienor had come to be seen as an equivalent variant of the name Aenor (so that presumably, these women during their own lifetime used the given name Aenor):

Origin The name derives from the Provençal name Aliénor, which became Eléonore in Langue d'oïl, i.e., French, and from there Eleanor in English.The origin of the name is somewhat unclear; one of the earliest bearers appears to have been Eleanor of Aquitaine (1120s–1204). She was the daughter of Aénor de Châtellerault, and it has been suggested that having been baptized Aenor after her mother, she was called alia Aenor, i.e. "the other Aenor" or Aliénor in childhood and would have kept that name in adult life. Some sources say that the name Aénor itself may be a Latinization of an unknown Germanic name.Eleanor of Aquitaine, the most powerful woman in 12th century Europe, was certainly the reason for the name's later popularity. However, the name's origin with her, and the explanation of alia Aenor is uncertain; there are records of possible bearers of the name Alienor earlier in the 12th, or even in the 11th or 10th centuries, but the records of these women post-date Eleanor of Aquitaine, at a time when Alienor had come to be seen as an equivalent variant of the name Aenor (so that presumably, these women during their own lifetime used the given name Aenor):