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Astronomical research Work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich In January 1890, Annie was told about a position at Greenwich that was available by her good friend Alice Everett. In response, Annie wrote many times to the Royal Observatory hoping to be considered for the position. Annie's father submitted a request for her to obtain the job, and a powerful promoter, Sir Robert Ball, wrote her a letter of recommendation. For a year, Annie worked as a mathematics mistress at the Ladies' High School on the island of Jersey until she was offered the position by the Chief Assistant, Herbert Hall Turner. In 1891, Annie began her work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, serving as one of the "lady computers" assigned to the solar department. This was a special department set up in 1873 to photograph the sun. Annie was offered £4 a month which she regarded as being barely enough to live on, as a teacher she had made £8 a year and was provided housing.Annie worked under Walter Maunder on the Greenwich photoheliograph program. Her duties included using the Dallmeyer photo-heliograph to capture pictures of sunspots, find their location, and determine their properties. There, Annie assisted Walter Maunder, and she spent a great deal of time photographing the sun. She also tracked the movements of a great number of sunspots caused by the solar maximum of 1894. This included the giant sunspot of July 1892 which was caused by a magnetic storm resulting in the largest spot ever record at Greenwich at the time. In her first year at Greenwich (1891), the number of recorded observations in the solar department exceeded 7 times the average number of recordings for the past 35 years. While she was not credited for this, Walter Maunder nominated her for the Fellowship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1892. In November 1894, she was made editor of the Journal of the British Astronomical Association (BAA) by her husband who was president at the time. She kept this position for 35 years.

Annie Scott Dill Maunder (née Russell) (14 April 1868 – 15 September 1947) was an Irish-British astronomer, who recorded the first evidence of the movement of sunspot emergence from the poles toward the equator over the sun's 11-year cycle. She was one of the leading astronomers of her time, but because of her gender, her contribution was often underplayed at the time. In 1916 she was elected to the Royal Astronomical Society, 21 years after being refused membership because of her gender.

Annie Scott Dill Maunder (née Russell) (14 April 1868 – 15 September 1947) was an Irish-British astronomer, who recorded the first evidence of the movement of sunspot emergence from the poles toward the equator over the sun's 11-year cycle. She was one of the leading astronomers of her time, but because of her gender, her contribution was often underplayed at the time. In 1916 she was elected to the Royal Astronomical Society, 21 years after being refused membership because of her gender.

Astronomical research Work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich In January 1890, Annie was told about a position at Greenwich that was available by her good friend Alice Everett. In response, Annie wrote many times to the Royal Observatory hoping to be considered for the position. Annie's father submitted a request for her to obtain the job, and a powerful promoter, Sir Robert Ball, wrote her a letter of recommendation. For a year, Annie worked as a mathematics mistress at the Ladies' High School on the island of Jersey until she was offered the position by the Chief Assistant, Herbert Hall Turner. In 1891, Annie began her work at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, serving as one of the "lady computers" assigned to the solar department. This was a special department set up in 1873 to photograph the sun. Annie was offered £4 a month which she regarded as being barely enough to live on, as a teacher she had made £8 a year and was provided housing.Annie worked under Walter Maunder on the Greenwich photoheliograph program. Her duties included using the Dallmeyer photo-heliograph to capture pictures of sunspots, find their location, and determine their properties. There, Annie assisted Walter Maunder, and she spent a great deal of time photographing the sun. She also tracked the movements of a great number of sunspots caused by the solar maximum of 1894. This included the giant sunspot of July 1892 which was caused by a magnetic storm resulting in the largest spot ever record at Greenwich at the time. In her first year at Greenwich (1891), the number of recorded observations in the solar department exceeded 7 times the average number of recordings for the past 35 years. While she was not credited for this, Walter Maunder nominated her for the Fellowship of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1892. In November 1894, she was made editor of the Journal of the British Astronomical Association (BAA) by her husband who was president at the time. She kept this position for 35 years.

Early life and education Annie Scott Dill Russell was born in 1868 in The Manse, Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland, to William Andrew Russell and Hessy Nesbitt Russell (née Dill). Her father was the minister of the Presbyterian Church in Strabane until 1882. Her mother was the daughter of a minister at the same church. Annie was one of six children brought up in a devoutly Christian household with a "serious minded upbringing." All of the children were talented, high-level academics. Her older sister, Hester Dill Russell (later Smith), studied medicine under Dr Elizabeth Garrett Anderson at the London School of Medicine for Women. Hester qualified as the first exhibitioner in the final MB examination in 1891. Hester became a medical missionary in India and later married another medical missionary.Annie and her sister Hester pursued secondary education at the Ladies Collegiate School in Belfast, which later became Victoria College. Winning a prize in an 1886 intermediate school examination at the age of 18, Annie was able to sit the Girton open entrance scholarship examination and was awarded a three-year scholarship of £35 annually.Annie studied at Girton College, Cambridge, and in 1889 she passed the degree examinations with honours, as the top mathematician of her year at Girton. Here, she also ranked Senior Optime (equivalent to second class at other universities) in the university results list. Annie was the first woman from Ireland to receive this rank. Her mathematician tutor was a fellow of a men's college. He praised her for ability to "throw herself into her work with such success, in spite of being more than ordinarily handicapped, even for a woman, with insufficiency of preliminary training". However the restrictions of the period did not allow her to receive the bachelor's degree she had earned; Cambridge did not award degrees to women until 1948.

Annie Scott Dill Maunder (née Russell) (14 April 1868 – 15 September 1947) was an Irish-British astronomer, who recorded the first evidence of the movement of sunspot emergence from the poles toward the equator over the sun's 11-year cycle. She was one of the leading astronomers of her time, but because of her gender, her contribution was often underplayed at the time. In 1916 she was elected to the Royal Astronomical Society, 21 years after being refused membership because of her gender.Early life and education Annie Scott Dill Russell was born in 1868 in The Manse, Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland, to William Andrew Russell and Hessy Nesbitt Russell (née Dill). Her father was the minister of the Presbyterian Church in Strabane until 1882. Her mother was the daughter of a minister at the same church. Annie was one of six children brought up in a devoutly Christian household with a "serious minded upbringing." All of the children were talented, high-level academics. Her older sister, Hester Dill Russell (later Smith), studied medicine under Dr Elizabeth Garrett Anderson at the London School of Medicine for Women. Hester qualified as the first exhibitioner in the final MB examination in 1891. Hester became a medical missionary in India and later married another medical missionary.Annie and her sister Hester pursued secondary education at the Ladies Collegiate School in Belfast, which later became Victoria College. Winning a prize in an 1886 intermediate school examination at the age of 18, Annie was able to sit the Girton open entrance scholarship examination and was awarded a three-year scholarship of £35 annually.Annie studied at Girton College, Cambridge, and in 1889 she passed the degree examinations with honours, as the top mathematician of her year at Girton. Here, she also ranked Senior Optime (equivalent to second class at other universities) in the university results list. Annie was the first woman from Ireland to receive this rank. Her mathematician tutor was a fellow of a men's college. He praised her for ability to "throw herself into her work with such success, in spite of being more than ordinarily handicapped, even for a woman, with insufficiency of preliminary training". However the restrictions of the period did not allow her to receive the bachelor's degree she had earned; Cambridge did not award degrees to women until 1948.

Annie Scott Dill Maunder (née Russell) (14 April 1868 – 15 September 1947) was an Irish-British astronomer, who recorded the first evidence of the movement of sunspot emergence from the poles toward the equator over the sun's 11-year cycle. She was one of the leading astronomers of her time, but because of her gender, her contribution was often underplayed at the time. In 1916 she was elected to the Royal Astronomical Society, 21 years after being refused membership because of her gender.

Annie Scott Dill Maunder (née Russell) (14 April 1868 – 15 September 1947) was an Irish-British astronomer, who recorded the first evidence of the movement of sunspot emergence from the poles toward the equator over the sun's 11-year cycle. She was one of the leading astronomers of her time, but because of her gender, her contribution was often underplayed at the time. In 1916 she was elected to the Royal Astronomical Society, 21 years after being refused membership because of her gender.

Ondi Doane Timoner is an American filmmaker and the founder and chief executive officer of Interloper Films, a full-service production company located in Pasadena, California. Timoner is a two-time recipient of the Sundance Film Festival's Grand Jury Prize for her documentaries Dig! (2004) and We Live in Public (2009). Both films have been acquired by New York's Museum of Modern Art for their permanent collection.Timoner is a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, the DGA, the PGA, the International Documentary Association, Film Fatales, and Women in Film.

Ondi Doane Timoner is an American filmmaker and the founder and chief executive officer of Interloper Films, a full-service production company located in Pasadena, California. Timoner is a two-time recipient of the Sundance Film Festival's Grand Jury Prize for her documentaries Dig! (2004) and We Live in Public (2009). Both films have been acquired by New York's Museum of Modern Art for their permanent collection.Timoner is a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, the DGA, the PGA, the International Documentary Association, Film Fatales, and Women in Film.2000s Timoner created, executive produced and directed the VH1 original series SOUND AFFECTS (2000), a film about music's effect at critical moments in people's lives. Timoner directed, co-produced, and edited DIG! (2004) with her brother David Timoner, which chronicles seven years in the lives of two neo-psychedelic bands, The Dandy Warhols and The Brian Jonestown Massacre. The film explores the love-hate relationship of the band's frontmen, Courtney Taylor and Anton Newcombe. The film won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival in 2004, is now part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, and was screened as the finale of the Film Society at Lincoln Center and MoMA's 33rd annual New Directors/New Films Festival, in 2004.Timoner co-directed the short film Recycle (2005), a documentary about a homeless man who makes a garden in downtown Los Angeles. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2005 and also played at the Cannes Film Festival. Her third feature documentary, Join Us (2007), follows families in their escape from a cult. It premiered at LA Film Festival, winning awards at the Sidewalk Film Festival and the Vancouver International Film Festival. When the Jonas Brothers were signed to Columbia Records, Timoner was hired to film three music videos for the group.Timoner debuted We Live in Public (2009) at the Sundance Film Festival. The film focuses on Josh Harris, an American internet entrepreneur who founded Pseudo.com, a webcasting website that filed for bankruptcy in 1993.We Live in Public won the Grand Jury Prize award in the Documentary category at the Sundance Film Festival and a Special Jury Mention for 'Best Documentary Film Over 30 Minutes Long' at the 2009 Karlovy Vary International Film Festival.

Early life Timoner was born in Miami, Florida to Elissa and Eli Timoner, co-founder of Air Florida. She has two siblings, Rabbi Rachel Timoner and David Timoner, who co-founded Interloper Films and has collaborated on several of her works. Timoner attended Yale University, where she founded the Yale Street Theater Troupe, a guerrilla theater ensemble that performed spontaneously in unexpected environments, in 1992. She made her directorial stage debut in 1993 with her production of Sarah Daniels' Masterpieces. Timoner shot her first documentary film, Three Thousand Miles and a Woman with a Video Camera, with her younger brother David and John Krokidas, interviewing people at crossroads and convenience stores while on a cross country road trip.She subsequently filmed Reflections on a Moment: The Sixties and the Nineties, an exploration of her generation's nostalgia for the 1960s and The Purple Horizon, a 60-minute documentary on the March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. For her film Voices From Inside Time she interviewed women inmates which would eventually lead her to Bonnie Jean Foreshaw, the subject of her first feature film, The Nature Of The Beast. The film went on to win the Howard Lamar Film Prize for Best Undergraduate Film at Yale University.Timoner graduated cum laude from Yale in 1994, where she majored in American Studies, with a concentration in Film and Literature and Theater Studies.

Ondi Doane Timoner is an American filmmaker and the founder and chief executive officer of Interloper Films, a full-service production company located in Pasadena, California. Timoner is a two-time recipient of the Sundance Film Festival's Grand Jury Prize for her documentaries Dig! (2004) and We Live in Public (2009). Both films have been acquired by New York's Museum of Modern Art for their permanent collection.Timoner is a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, the DGA, the PGA, the International Documentary Association, Film Fatales, and Women in Film.

Early life Timoner was born in Miami, Florida to Elissa and Eli Timoner, co-founder of Air Florida. She has two siblings, Rabbi Rachel Timoner and David Timoner, who co-founded Interloper Films and has collaborated on several of her works. Timoner attended Yale University, where she founded the Yale Street Theater Troupe, a guerrilla theater ensemble that performed spontaneously in unexpected environments, in 1992. She made her directorial stage debut in 1993 with her production of Sarah Daniels' Masterpieces. Timoner shot her first documentary film, Three Thousand Miles and a Woman with a Video Camera, with her younger brother David and John Krokidas, interviewing people at crossroads and convenience stores while on a cross country road trip.She subsequently filmed Reflections on a Moment: The Sixties and the Nineties, an exploration of her generation's nostalgia for the 1960s and The Purple Horizon, a 60-minute documentary on the March on Washington for Lesbian, Gay and Bi Equal Rights and Liberation. For her film Voices From Inside Time she interviewed women inmates which would eventually lead her to Bonnie Jean Foreshaw, the subject of her first feature film, The Nature Of The Beast. The film went on to win the Howard Lamar Film Prize for Best Undergraduate Film at Yale University.Timoner graduated cum laude from Yale in 1994, where she majored in American Studies, with a concentration in Film and Literature and Theater Studies.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.Projects Canonical Ltd. has created and continues to back several projects. Principally these are free and open-source software (FOSS) or tools designed to improve collaboration between free software developers and contributors. Some projects require a Contributor License Agreement to be signed.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.Subsidiaries Canonical Group Ltd is located in London. Canonical USA Inc. is located in Boston, Massachusetts and Austin, Texas. Canonical China Ltd (Chinese: 科能（上海）软件科技有限公司 and 科能（上海）软件科技有限公司北京分公司) is located in Shanghai and Beijing. Canonical Ltd Taiwan Branch (Chinese: 英商科能有限公司台灣分公司) is located in Taipei. Canonical Limited is located in Isle of Man and Tokyo (Japan). Canonical Brasil Ltd is located in São Paulo (this office is no longer listed on their website). Canonical Canada Ltd is located in Montreal (the office is no longer in service).Employees Canonical has more than 600 employees. The head office is in London on the 5th Floor of the Blue Fin Building, Southwark Street, having previously moved from the 27th floor of Millbank Tower. In the summer of 2006, Canonical opened an office in Montreal to house its global support and services operation. Taipei 101 is also home to a Canonical office. There was formerly an OEM team in Lexington, Massachusetts, United States.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.Projects Canonical Ltd. has created and continues to back several projects. Principally these are free and open-source software (FOSS) or tools designed to improve collaboration between free software developers and contributors. Some projects require a Contributor License Agreement to be signed.Open-source software Ubuntu Linux, a Debian-based Linux distribution with GNOME (formerly with Unity) desktop Ubuntu Core, tiny, transactional version of Ubuntu GNU Bazaar, a decentralized revision control system Storm, an object-relational mapper for Python, part of the Launchpad code base Juju, a service orchestration management tool MAAS, a bare-metal server provisioning tool cloud-init, the de facto standard for the initial setup of virtual machines in the cloud Upstart, an event-based replacement for the init daemon Quickly, a framework for creating software programs for Linux Ubiquity, installer Mir display server MicroK8s since December 2018 Snappy package manager Snapcraft, python-based tool for packaging software Launchpad a centralised website containing several component web applications designed to make collaboration between free software projects easier: PPA, a special software repository for uploading software packages to be built and published as an APT repository, Blueprints, a tool for planning features of software, Code, hosting of Bazaar branches, Answers, support tracker, Rosetta, an online language translation tool to help localisation of software (cf. the Rosetta Stone), Malone (as in "Bugsy Malone"), a collaborative bug-tracker that allows linking to other bug-trackers, Soyuz, a tool for creating custom-distributions, such as Kubuntu and Xubuntu.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Canonical Ltd. is a UK-based privately held computer software company founded and funded by South African entrepreneur Mark Shuttleworth to market commercial support and related services for Ubuntu and related projects. Canonical employs staff in more than 30 countries and maintains offices in London, Austin, Boston, Shanghai, Beijing, Taipei, Tokyo and the Isle of Man.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Mary Shore Walker (1882–1952) was the first woman faculty member at the University of Missouri, and taught in the department of Mathematics.She was born in 1882. She earned her B.A. and M.A. at the University of Missouri in 1903 and 1904, respectively. The thesis she wrote for her M.A. was titled, "On finite groups with special reference to Klein’s ikosaeder.” While at the University of Missouri, she studied with Earle Hedrick, Oliver Dimon Kellogg, and W. D. A. Westfall.She became an Assistant in Mathematics there in 1905, and was promoted to Instructor in Mathematics in spring 1907. She obtained leaves and started her graduate work at Yale University in 1907, and received her PhD in mathematics there in 1909. She titled her dissertation, "A Generalized Definition of an Improper Multiple Integral." While at Yale, she met Albert Wallace Hull, a PhD candidate in Physics and her future spouse.Once she earned her PhD, she returned to the University of Missouri and continued to teach there as an instructor in Mathematics. She worked until her marriage to Hull in 1911, and is said to have been a gifted teacher. Her freshman classes "made math sound like poetry."She died in 1952.

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).Education Born on 22 April 1946, Davies was brought up in Finchley, London. He attended Woodhouse Grammar School and studied physics at University College London, gaining a Bachelor of Science degree with first-class honours in 1967. In 1970, he completed his PhD under the supervision of Michael J. Seaton and Sigurd Zienau at University College London. He carried out postdoctoral research under Fred Hoyle in the University of Cambridge.Scientific research Davies' research interests are theoretical physics, cosmology and astrobiology; his research has been mainly in the area of quantum field theory in curved spacetime. His notable contributions are the so-called Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect, according to which an observer accelerating through empty space will be subject to a bath of induced thermal radiation, and the Bunch–Davies vacuum state, often used as the basis for explaining the fluctuations in the cosmic background radiation left over from the Big Bang. A paper co-authored with Stephen Fulling and William Unruh was the first to suggest that black holes evaporating via the Hawking effect lose mass as a result of a flux of negative energy streaming into the hole from the surrounding space. Davies has had a longstanding association with the problem of time's arrow, and has also identified the mystery of ‘dark energy’ as one of the most important issues facing fundamental science. Davies was also an early proponent of the theory that life on Earth may have come from Mars cocooned in rocks ejected by asteroid and comet impacts. He is also a propagator of scientific research and technology development in order to prevent future comet impacts threatening the development or existence of humankind. He proposed that a one-way trip to Mars could be a viable option in the future. During his time in Australia he helped establish the Australian Centre for Astrobiology. Davies was a co-author with Felisa Wolfe-Simon on the 2011 Science article "A Bacterium That Can Grow by Using Arsenic Instead of Phosphorus". Reports refuting the most significant aspects of the original results were published in the same journal in 2012. Following the publication of the articles challenging the conclusions of the original Science article first describing GFAJ-1, the website Retraction Watch argued that the original article should be retracted because of misrepresentation of critical data.Davies is an outreach investigator at Arizona State University's Center for Convergence of Physical Science and Cancer Biology. This is part of a program set up by the National Institutes of Health's National Cancer Institute to involve physicists in cancer research which has set up a network of 12 Physical Sciences-Oncology Centers. Davies has been criticized for promoting a hypothesis that cancer is an evolutionary atavism or throwback to single-celled life, a claim that has been described as biologically unfounded.

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).Scientific research Davies' research interests are theoretical physics, cosmology and astrobiology; his research has been mainly in the area of quantum field theory in curved spacetime. His notable contributions are the so-called Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect, according to which an observer accelerating through empty space will be subject to a bath of induced thermal radiation, and the Bunch–Davies vacuum state, often used as the basis for explaining the fluctuations in the cosmic background radiation left over from the Big Bang. A paper co-authored with Stephen Fulling and William Unruh was the first to suggest that black holes evaporating via the Hawking effect lose mass as a result of a flux of negative energy streaming into the hole from the surrounding space. Davies has had a longstanding association with the problem of time's arrow, and has also identified the mystery of ‘dark energy’ as one of the most important issues facing fundamental science. Davies was also an early proponent of the theory that life on Earth may have come from Mars cocooned in rocks ejected by asteroid and comet impacts. He is also a propagator of scientific research and technology development in order to prevent future comet impacts threatening the development or existence of humankind. He proposed that a one-way trip to Mars could be a viable option in the future. During his time in Australia he helped establish the Australian Centre for Astrobiology. Davies was a co-author with Felisa Wolfe-Simon on the 2011 Science article "A Bacterium That Can Grow by Using Arsenic Instead of Phosphorus". Reports refuting the most significant aspects of the original results were published in the same journal in 2012. Following the publication of the articles challenging the conclusions of the original Science article first describing GFAJ-1, the website Retraction Watch argued that the original article should be retracted because of misrepresentation of critical data.Davies is an outreach investigator at Arizona State University's Center for Convergence of Physical Science and Cancer Biology. This is part of a program set up by the National Institutes of Health's National Cancer Institute to involve physicists in cancer research which has set up a network of 12 Physical Sciences-Oncology Centers. Davies has been criticized for promoting a hypothesis that cancer is an evolutionary atavism or throwback to single-celled life, a claim that has been described as biologically unfounded.

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Awards Davies received the Templeton Prize in 1995.Davies' talent as a communicator of science has been recognized in Australia by an Advance Australia Award and two Eureka Prizes, and in the UK by the 2001 Kelvin Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics, and the 2002 Faraday Prize by The Royal Society. Davies was made a member of the Order of Australia in the 2007 Queen's birthday honours list. The minor planet 6870 Pauldavies is named after him.

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Education Born on 22 April 1946, Davies was brought up in Finchley, London. He attended Woodhouse Grammar School and studied physics at University College London, gaining a Bachelor of Science degree with first-class honours in 1967. In 1970, he completed his PhD under the supervision of Michael J. Seaton and Sigurd Zienau at University College London. He carried out postdoctoral research under Fred Hoyle in the University of Cambridge.

Awards Davies received the Templeton Prize in 1995.Davies' talent as a communicator of science has been recognized in Australia by an Advance Australia Award and two Eureka Prizes, and in the UK by the 2001 Kelvin Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics, and the 2002 Faraday Prize by The Royal Society. Davies was made a member of the Order of Australia in the 2007 Queen's birthday honours list. The minor planet 6870 Pauldavies is named after him.

Paul Charles William Davies (born 22 April 1946) is an English physicist, writer and broadcaster, a professor in Arizona State University and Director of BEYOND: Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science. He is affiliated with the Institute for Quantum Studies in Chapman University in California. He previously held academic appointments in the University of Cambridge, University College London, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, University of Adelaide and Macquarie University. His research interests are in the fields of cosmology, quantum field theory, and astrobiology. In 1995, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.In 2005, he took up the chair of the SETI: Post-Detection Science and Technology Taskgroup of the International Academy of Astronautics. Davies serves on the Advisory Council of METI (Messaging Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Jean-Paul Viguier (born 4 May 1946) is a French architect. He is considered one of the world's leading architects and one of the few French ones to work extensively outside of Europe.Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Jean-Paul Viguier et Associés practice Jean-Paul Viguier Architecture and Associates works on a very wide range of building types. In the area of housing, with achievements in Paris (Bercy, Dupleix), Créteil, Asnieres-sur-Seine, Clichy and recently (in 2009) in the 15th district of the capital, rue de la Convention. In the cultural field, the firm realized the Cathedral library (now named "Jean-Falala") at Reims in 2002, and restructured the Natural History Museum of Toulouse. She also designed urban facilities such as the layout of the site of the Pont du Gard and built an archaeological museum on the same site in 2000. The fields of activity of the practice is completed by the making of office buildings, as Angle in Boulogne-Billancourt (2008), seat of the Journal L'Équipe, the headquarters of IBM Europe in Bois-Colombes (2009), the seat of Prisma Presse inGennevilliers or Heart Mediterranean, the islet of D3 ZAC Joliette Marseille (2008). Finally, the Majunga tower is located in the heart of La Défense. In the same time, the agency develops an international activity: taking care of the construction of the Hotel Sofitel Water Tower in Chicago for Accor in 2002 and working in a draft new city in Malaysia. In spring 2008, in Budapest central square, the Vorosmarty Plaza Project was opened to the public: a mixed building dressed in a glass envelope. In June 2008, the McNay Museum of Art in San Antonio, the first American modern art museum built by a French architect, was inaugurated. The agency also worked in Morocco at the construction of the headquarters of Morocco Telecom in Rabat in 2009. As it is rightlynoted on their website: “The agency has thus shown an ability to build in various parts of the world and strives to bring to its projects the best possible responses to the relationship between buildings and their environment.”

Awards and personal titles Member of the High Commission of Historical Monuments. Knight of the Legion of Honour since 15 April 2003 he was promoted to officer of the Legion of Honor on 14 July 2011. Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. Knight of the National Order of Merit.Jean-Paul Viguier was awarded the grand prize of the Cities Monitor for the Parc André-Citroën, got a mention for the prix de l’equerre d’Argent of Architecture for his industrial hotel activity building rue d ' Aubervilliers in Paris19th, and the Architectural Record-Business Week Award in New York for the head office of Astra Pharmaceutical Headquarters in Rueil-Malmaison. The Sofitel Chicago Water Tower has received "the best building since ten years award" in 2003 by the AIA Chicago; This building is listed among the "150 favorite buildings of America" by the American Institute of Architects, and got the MIPIM Award in 2005. The Pont du Gard has the ”Grand site de France " label. He has been elected member of the Academy of Architecture since 1993, academy for which he was president from 1999 to 2002. He is also a founding member of AFEX (French Architects for export). He was appointed "honorary Fellow" of the AIA (American Institute of Architects) in 2001 and Honorary Professor of Tongji University in Shanghai, China. Furthermore, a majority of his firm projects are frequently awarded for environmental distinctions and certifications : BREEAM, BBC, HQE.

Awards and personal titles Member of the High Commission of Historical Monuments. Knight of the Legion of Honour since 15 April 2003 he was promoted to officer of the Legion of Honor on 14 July 2011. Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. Knight of the National Order of Merit.Jean-Paul Viguier was awarded the grand prize of the Cities Monitor for the Parc André-Citroën, got a mention for the prix de l’equerre d’Argent of Architecture for his industrial hotel activity building rue d ' Aubervilliers in Paris19th, and the Architectural Record-Business Week Award in New York for the head office of Astra Pharmaceutical Headquarters in Rueil-Malmaison. The Sofitel Chicago Water Tower has received "the best building since ten years award" in 2003 by the AIA Chicago; This building is listed among the "150 favorite buildings of America" by the American Institute of Architects, and got the MIPIM Award in 2005. The Pont du Gard has the ”Grand site de France " label. He has been elected member of the Academy of Architecture since 1993, academy for which he was president from 1999 to 2002. He is also a founding member of AFEX (French Architects for export). He was appointed "honorary Fellow" of the AIA (American Institute of Architects) in 2001 and Honorary Professor of Tongji University in Shanghai, China. Furthermore, a majority of his firm projects are frequently awarded for environmental distinctions and certifications : BREEAM, BBC, HQE.

Jean-Paul Viguier (born 4 May 1946) is a French architect. He is considered one of the world's leading architects and one of the few French ones to work extensively outside of Europe.Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Notable works1992 France Pavilion at the World Exhibition in Seville 1997 Social Headquarters Alstom Transport Alstom in Saint-Ouen 1997 AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical social headquarter, Rueil-Malmaison. (for which he will receive the award Business Week / Architectural Record 1999 - American Institute of Architect) 1998 France television Headquarters, Paris 2000 Landscaping around the Pont du Gard 2000 Parc André-Citroën in Paris. 2001 Coeur Defense towers, La Défense. 2002 Headquarters BMS (Bristol Myers Squibb) / UPSA in Rueil-Malmaison 2002 Media Cathedral, Reims. 2002 Shopping center, Carré Sénart. 2002 Sofitel Chicago Water Tower, Chicago, USA 2004 Ilot M7, office building including the Ministry of Sports, and shops. Paris 2005 Hotel Novotel Le Havre. 2008 Office building, housing, shops, parking, Vorosmarty Square, Budapest, Hungary 2008 Natural History Museum of Toulouse, Toulouse. 2008 Mcnay art Museum extension, San Antonio, Texas, United States 2008 ZAC de la Joliette, Block D3, Heart Mediterranean, Marseille 2008 Zac Seguin Lot A1, Angle Building, Boulogne-Billancourt 2009 Residential building, Paris 15th Convention 2009 Sodexho France headquarters, Guyancourt in the Yvelines 2010 Hospital Castres Mazamet. 2012 Leisure Pole, Lyon Confluence, 2012 Morocco Telecom tower, Rabat, Morocco 2013 University Cancer Institute, Cancéropole Toulouse 2013 SFR Headquarters in Saint-Denis 2013 UGC theatre, Paris 2014 Majunga tower La Defense 2014 Amphitheatre district, Metz 2014 Holon, urban park in IsraelFor further information about the projects go to the Firm Website

Awards and personal titles Member of the High Commission of Historical Monuments. Knight of the Legion of Honour since 15 April 2003 he was promoted to officer of the Legion of Honor on 14 July 2011. Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. Knight of the National Order of Merit.Jean-Paul Viguier was awarded the grand prize of the Cities Monitor for the Parc André-Citroën, got a mention for the prix de l’equerre d’Argent of Architecture for his industrial hotel activity building rue d ' Aubervilliers in Paris19th, and the Architectural Record-Business Week Award in New York for the head office of Astra Pharmaceutical Headquarters in Rueil-Malmaison. The Sofitel Chicago Water Tower has received "the best building since ten years award" in 2003 by the AIA Chicago; This building is listed among the "150 favorite buildings of America" by the American Institute of Architects, and got the MIPIM Award in 2005. The Pont du Gard has the ”Grand site de France " label. He has been elected member of the Academy of Architecture since 1993, academy for which he was president from 1999 to 2002. He is also a founding member of AFEX (French Architects for export). He was appointed "honorary Fellow" of the AIA (American Institute of Architects) in 2001 and Honorary Professor of Tongji University in Shanghai, China. Furthermore, a majority of his firm projects are frequently awarded for environmental distinctions and certifications : BREEAM, BBC, HQE.

Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Awards and personal titles Member of the High Commission of Historical Monuments. Knight of the Legion of Honour since 15 April 2003 he was promoted to officer of the Legion of Honor on 14 July 2011. Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters. Knight of the National Order of Merit.Jean-Paul Viguier was awarded the grand prize of the Cities Monitor for the Parc André-Citroën, got a mention for the prix de l’equerre d’Argent of Architecture for his industrial hotel activity building rue d ' Aubervilliers in Paris19th, and the Architectural Record-Business Week Award in New York for the head office of Astra Pharmaceutical Headquarters in Rueil-Malmaison. The Sofitel Chicago Water Tower has received "the best building since ten years award" in 2003 by the AIA Chicago; This building is listed among the "150 favorite buildings of America" by the American Institute of Architects, and got the MIPIM Award in 2005. The Pont du Gard has the ”Grand site de France " label. He has been elected member of the Academy of Architecture since 1993, academy for which he was president from 1999 to 2002. He is also a founding member of AFEX (French Architects for export). He was appointed "honorary Fellow" of the AIA (American Institute of Architects) in 2001 and Honorary Professor of Tongji University in Shanghai, China. Furthermore, a majority of his firm projects are frequently awarded for environmental distinctions and certifications : BREEAM, BBC, HQE.

Early works Graduated from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1970, Jean-Paul Viguier, with Jean Bossu and Georges-Henri Pingusson, founded the teaching unit n°5. 3 years later, he received a "master of city planning in urban design" at the Harvard Graduate School of Design from Harvard University, and, as he came back in France, he hosted a section of urban architecture in the journal Urbanisme. From 1975-1992, projects were carried out in association with Jean-François Jodry. In 1981, he won the "first prize of the jury" in the competition for the Opera Bastille and then, in 1983, the "first tie price" for the project head Defense. In 1986, he won alongside Alain Provost, Patrick Berger and Gilles Clément, the competition for the construction of the Parc André-Citroën in Paris, whose creation will last 6 years (1992-2002) soon after they won the Seville Expo’92 contest for the French Pavilion. In 1988, he designed The Atrium : headquarters of the Caisse des Depots et Consignations in Boulogne-Billancourt. In 1990, he won the competition organized by the Public Establishment for the development of the Defence area for the construction of the Heart defense complex at the Esso headquarters location. Then he realized the headquarters of France Télévisions in Paris, as well as many others, such as Alstom in Saint-Ouen and AstraZeneca and Bristol-Myers Squibb in Rueil-Malmaison.

Sufism The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century. Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.

Hijra The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina, 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.Migration to Medina A delegation, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community; due to his status as a neutral outsider. There was fighting in Yathrib: primarily the dispute involved its Arab and Jewish inhabitants, and was estimated to have lasted for around a hundred years before 620. The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal concept of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases. The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina, until nearly all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr. By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).

Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born. According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan. For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim. According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade. Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea." Muhammad acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين, meaning "faithful" or "trustworthy") when he was young, but historians disagree about whether the name was a reflection of his nature, or whether the name was given to Muhammad as a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.

Hijra The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina, 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.

Last years before Hijra Muhammad's wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "Year of Sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, leadership of the Banu Hashim clan passed to Abu Lahab, a tenacious enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterward, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection over Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger; the withdrawal of clan protection implied that blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger. Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im ibn Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him to safely re-enter his native city.Many people visited Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina). The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and were prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there. They also hoped, by the means of Muhammad and the new faith, to gain supremacy over Mecca; the Yathrib were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage. Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina; by June of the subsequent year, seventy-five Muslims came to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what is known as the "Second Pledge of al-'Aqaba", or, in Orientalists' view, the "Pledge of War". Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.

Opposition According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid. Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public. Most Meccans ignored and mocked him, though a few became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.According to Ibn Saad, opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the polytheism practiced by the Meccan forefathers. However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as Muhammad started public preaching. As his followers increased, Muhammad became a threat to the local tribes and rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life that Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad's denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaaba. Powerful merchants attempted to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching; he was offered admission to the inner circle of merchants, as well as an advantageous marriage. He refused both of these offers.After Muhammad Muhammad united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt, large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate.

Life Childhood and early life Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born. According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan. For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim. According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade. Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea." Muhammad acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين, meaning "faithful" or "trustworthy") when he was young, but historians disagree about whether the name was a reflection of his nature, or whether the name was given to Muhammad as a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.

Life Childhood and early life Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.

Hijra The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In June 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca and moved his followers to Medina, 450 kilometres (280 miles) north of Mecca.

Life Childhood and early life Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.

Conflict with Mecca The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr. In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan. Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Medina.A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625. Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims. The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness.Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery. Muhammad's new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up. Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner. One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr. Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies.Battle of the Trench With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks. Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home. The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27. During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts. After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved. Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative. Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar. Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved. Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished. Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting. While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).Truce of Hudaybiyyah Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj, the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj. Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca. According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion. Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh. The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector.Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one. It was later that Muhammad's followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Medina to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals.After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources). He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others. In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah.

Household Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina. At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one. Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage. After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint Zamah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both. Muhammad's marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad, with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age of nine or ten years old. She was therefore a virgin at marriage. Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women. Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him. Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him. Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse. According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".

Life Childhood and early life Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants.Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569.Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born. According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan. For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim. According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade. Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God.Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea." Muhammad acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين, meaning "faithful" or "trustworthy") when he was young, but historians disagree about whether the name was a reflection of his nature, or whether the name was given to Muhammad as a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all.

Household Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina. At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one. Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage. After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint Zamah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both. Muhammad's marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances.According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad, with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age of nine or ten years old. She was therefore a virgin at marriage. Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage.After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women. Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him. Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him. Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse. According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".

Biography Khan Roshan Khan was born in the village of Nawa Killi, Swabi in 1914 and died on 19 November 1988. He was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan. He wrote many books on the history of Pushtuns. He was a major figure in contemporary Pushto literature. Roshan Khan was an active member of the movement Khudai Khidmatgar. He was very energetic in the Pakistan Movement and was the president of the Muslim League in Swabi. An area in Swabi, called Roshan Pura is named after him, where his tomb is also located.

Biography Khan Roshan Khan was born in the village of Nawa Killi, Swabi in 1914 and died on 19 November 1988. He was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan. He wrote many books on the history of Pushtuns. He was a major figure in contemporary Pushto literature. Roshan Khan was an active member of the movement Khudai Khidmatgar. He was very energetic in the Pakistan Movement and was the president of the Muslim League in Swabi. An area in Swabi, called Roshan Pura is named after him, where his tomb is also located.Career Khan received his primary education from the Islami School Uthmanzai in Charsadda. Later on, he could not complete his further education due to the worsening conditions during the time of the British Government of India. The changing circumstances diverted his attention towards history. He wrote books on the history of Pathans. These books are Tazkira, Pathanon ki Tareekh aur in ki asliat which describes the races of Pashtun tribes and their origins. In addition, he wrote Yousafzai qaum ki sarguzisht, which gives details on the various tribes of Pukhtoons. Khan also authored Afghano ki nasli tarikh, which describes the origin of Afghans (Pashtuns) from Bani Israel, (that is, the theory that the Pashtuns are descended from the biblical Israelites). Other booklets include Malika-Sawat, Baba-e-qaum Sheikhmali (RA) among others. His most important work is Tawarikh-e-Hafiz Rehmat Khani, which includes the details about the biographies of prominent Pukhtoon leaders and elders like Hafiz Rehmat Khan, Hafiz Alpuri (Abdulsamad) of Shangla, Ahmed Shah Abdali, Sardar Mohammad Khan, Dost Muhammad Khan and many others. It also sheds light on the important events and wars of Pukhtoons with other empires and tribes. Moreover, all the family trees of Pashtun tribes are also discussed in this book. He also discussed the brief history of a famous Pashtun tribe, Shalmani.

Biography Khan Roshan Khan was born in the village of Nawa Killi, Swabi in 1914 and died on 19 November 1988. He was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan. He wrote many books on the history of Pushtuns. He was a major figure in contemporary Pushto literature. Roshan Khan was an active member of the movement Khudai Khidmatgar. He was very energetic in the Pakistan Movement and was the president of the Muslim League in Swabi. An area in Swabi, called Roshan Pura is named after him, where his tomb is also located.

Biography Khan Roshan Khan was born in the village of Nawa Killi, Swabi in 1914 and died on 19 November 1988. He was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan. He wrote many books on the history of Pushtuns. He was a major figure in contemporary Pushto literature. Roshan Khan was an active member of the movement Khudai Khidmatgar. He was very energetic in the Pakistan Movement and was the president of the Muslim League in Swabi. An area in Swabi, called Roshan Pura is named after him, where his tomb is also located.Books written by Roshan Khan Tawarikh-e Hafiz Rehmat Khani, 3rd Edition, 1977, Peshawar Pushtu Academy, Peshawar University. Tazkarah (Pathano ki Asliyat aur in ki Tarikh), 1st Edition, 1980, Karachi Roshan Khan Education Trust. Afghano ki Nasli Tarikh, 1st Edition, 1981, Karachi Roshan Khan and Company. Yousafzai Qaum ki Sarguzisht, 1st Edition, 1986, Karachi Roshan Khan and Company. Malika-e Swat, 1st Edition, 1983, Roshan Khan, Nawan Killi, Swabi District, Pakistan. Baba-ye Qaum Sheikhmali (RA), 1st Edition, 1985, Roshan Khan and Company, Phool Chowk, Karachi, Pakistan.

Photius Fisk (Greek: Φώτιος Καβασάλης Φισκ; January 1807/1809 – February 4, 1890), also known as Photius Kavasales or Kavasalis, was a Greek-American statesman, botanist, philanthropist, clergyman, abolitionist, and civil rights activist. He is known for lobbying to end flogging in the U.S. Navy. Congress officially passed the law in 1850. The legislation was particularly beneficial to slaves working in the U.S. Navy. Fisk funded countless abolitionist causes and erected several monuments for abolitionists. He had a saffron or bronze complexion. Photius dedicated his life to the poor and destitute.Photius was back in the United States and contributed largely to anti-slavery monuments. He contributed to the monument erected by the anti-slavery society for Charles Turner Torrey. William Shreve Bailey was printing two weekly papers supporting General Grant in Nashville, Tennessee in the spring of 1868. He continued issuing Republican circulars but on November 30, 1875, his printing press was burned. Photius again contributed a sizeable amount of money for William Shreve Bailey to continue his printing business. In 1878, Photius erected a monument for Jonathan Walker. Six thousand people were at the funeral. The monument became a national shrine for those working towards racial justice.Another Greek American Michael Anagnos was living in Boston, he was the head of the Perkins School for the Blind. Photius gave the institute a large donation. In 1881, he donated one hundred twenty-nine volumes of Ancient Greek books to the University of Iowa. In 1884, Chaplain Fisk donated one thousand dollars to the Paine Memorial Company which owned the Paine Memorial building and was the home of the Boston Investigator. The condition of the donation was that the money would support lectures in Paine Hall. He also donated his valuable collection of pictures and artifacts which were collected in Europe and the United States. The collection at the time was worth thousands of dollars and it was sent to the Paine Memorial Building in Boston. The building was located at 11 Appleton Street and burned down in 1940. In the fall of 1886, Chaplain Fisk erected another monument for his abolitionist friend William Shreve Bailey. Fisk continued his philanthropy until his death. In the span of twenty-five years from the close of the American Civil War until his death, Photius contributed to dozens of philanthropic organizations and countless individuals. He contributed to the tuitions of poor students attending: Harvard, Yale, Amherst, and Dartmouth Colleges. After his death, his massive fortune was donated to the poor and destitute. The Colored Woman's Home was listed by name. The trustees of his will were instructed to disburse the money to the impoverished as they deemed fit. Lyman F. Hodge published his autobiography in 1891. He detailed some of the philanthropic contributions of Photius and outlined his life story.

Photius Fisk (Greek: Φώτιος Καβασάλης Φισκ; January 1807/1809 – February 4, 1890), also known as Photius Kavasales or Kavasalis, was a Greek-American statesman, botanist, philanthropist, clergyman, abolitionist, and civil rights activist. He is known for lobbying to end flogging in the U.S. Navy. Congress officially passed the law in 1850. The legislation was particularly beneficial to slaves working in the U.S. Navy. Fisk funded countless abolitionist causes and erected several monuments for abolitionists. He had a saffron or bronze complexion. Photius dedicated his life to the poor and destitute.

Anti Flogging Campaign Photius was back in the United States in 1845 and he was assigned chaplain of the Washington Navy Yard. He stayed at this post for five years. He went to Washington because he wanted to lobby members of the government for abolitionist causes. Prominent Greek American Master Gunner George Marshall was also stationed at the Navy Yard. Photius stayed in the same boarding house as Congressmen Samuel L. Southard. John Quincy Adams and Joshua Reed Giddings were also close friends of Photius and abolitionists.A large majority of chaplains in the U.S. Navy wanted to abolish the practice of flogging. Photius joined the group of chaplains and tirelessly lobbied to abolish the practice. Samuel L. Southard, Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams and Joshua Reed Giddings were all part of the movement to abolish the practice but the bill was defeated many times during his five-year service at the Washington Navy Yard. The nation was divided on the idea and the media was publishing mixed views on the subject.Around December 21, 1847, the government introduced a bill to officially change Photius Fisk's name to Fisk from Kavasales. Regrettably, Fisk's close friend former President and abolitionist John Quincy Adams died on February 23, 1848, one day after Washington's birthday. On May 3, 1848, a bill was passed changing Photius Kavasales to Photius Fisk. The government finally abolished flogging in the U.S. Navy in 1850. Six months before the bill was passed Fisk was reassigned to the Frigate Raritan.

Photius was back in the United States and contributed largely to anti-slavery monuments. He contributed to the monument erected by the anti-slavery society for Charles Turner Torrey. William Shreve Bailey was printing two weekly papers supporting General Grant in Nashville, Tennessee in the spring of 1868. He continued issuing Republican circulars but on November 30, 1875, his printing press was burned. Photius again contributed a sizeable amount of money for William Shreve Bailey to continue his printing business. In 1878, Photius erected a monument for Jonathan Walker. Six thousand people were at the funeral. The monument became a national shrine for those working towards racial justice.Another Greek American Michael Anagnos was living in Boston, he was the head of the Perkins School for the Blind. Photius gave the institute a large donation. In 1881, he donated one hundred twenty-nine volumes of Ancient Greek books to the University of Iowa. In 1884, Chaplain Fisk donated one thousand dollars to the Paine Memorial Company which owned the Paine Memorial building and was the home of the Boston Investigator. The condition of the donation was that the money would support lectures in Paine Hall. He also donated his valuable collection of pictures and artifacts which were collected in Europe and the United States. The collection at the time was worth thousands of dollars and it was sent to the Paine Memorial Building in Boston. The building was located at 11 Appleton Street and burned down in 1940. In the fall of 1886, Chaplain Fisk erected another monument for his abolitionist friend William Shreve Bailey. Fisk continued his philanthropy until his death. In the span of twenty-five years from the close of the American Civil War until his death, Photius contributed to dozens of philanthropic organizations and countless individuals. He contributed to the tuitions of poor students attending: Harvard, Yale, Amherst, and Dartmouth Colleges. After his death, his massive fortune was donated to the poor and destitute. The Colored Woman's Home was listed by name. The trustees of his will were instructed to disburse the money to the impoverished as they deemed fit. Lyman F. Hodge published his autobiography in 1891. He detailed some of the philanthropic contributions of Photius and outlined his life story.

Photius Fisk (Greek: Φώτιος Καβασάλης Φισκ; January 1807/1809 – February 4, 1890), also known as Photius Kavasales or Kavasalis, was a Greek-American statesman, botanist, philanthropist, clergyman, abolitionist, and civil rights activist. He is known for lobbying to end flogging in the U.S. Navy. Congress officially passed the law in 1850. The legislation was particularly beneficial to slaves working in the U.S. Navy. Fisk funded countless abolitionist causes and erected several monuments for abolitionists. He had a saffron or bronze complexion. Photius dedicated his life to the poor and destitute.Abolitionist Road to the Civil War By the Summer of 1853, he was reassigned to Pensacola Navy Yard in Florida. He remained in this position for five years. He was a known abolitionist. Officers and seamen knew Photius lobbied to stop flogging in the U.S. Navy. This benefited the slaves. As late as June 1855, the navy yard payroll listed 155 slaves. One to three people showed up to church service on Sundays. When Photius visited the local town sometimes people shouted angry slurs and spit on him. He was afraid of having problems with the local slave owners and he frequently kept to himself. He stayed secluded reading and playing with his pet animals and birds. He kept constant communication with abolitionists namely Samuel L. Southard and Joshua Reed Giddings. He paid to erect a monument for abolitionist Captain Daniel Drayton in 1857. After five years, in the fall of 1858, he was reassigned.Photius took a leave of absence for three months. The Navy sent him orders to wait at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston for two years until they completed his reassignment. Around early 1859, in Boston, he was active within the abolitionist community. He was very close to William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, Theodore Weld, Parker Pillsbury, and other anti-slavery agitators. He donated large sums of money to the abolitionist cause. In May 1859, Photius was with John Brown in Boston. Brown was preparing for his raid on Harpers Ferry. Photius donated one hundred dollars to Brown and his cause. Roughly 3000 dollars adjusted for 2020 inflation. He also obtained his autograph which was presented to the Kansas Historical Society.During the outbreak of the American Civil War, he was in Boston aiding the abolitionist cause. Mainly funding different endeavors. Around 1861, Photius donated a substantial amount of money to abolitionist William Shreve Bailey. Photius was instrumental in funding abolitionist causes during the American Civil War. Another Greek American abolitionist John Celivergos Zachos was in Boston around this period assembling his book for the free people of the South. Photius's leave continued until 1864. He was retired by order of Abraham Lincoln on July 18, 1864. After the war, Photius continued his philanthropic effort. He amassed close to forty thousand dollars. Adjusted for 2020 inflation, the amount was close to one million dollars. He contributed large sums of money to Berea College and the Holley School at Lottsburgh, Virginia. He also sent them crackers.

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Life and times Background Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in AD 23 or 24. Pliny was the son of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio. The form is an elegy. The most commonly accepted reconstruction is

How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from Pliny the Younger's estate at Colle Plinio, north of Città di Castello, identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at Como, not at Verona: it is only as a native of old Gallia Transpadana that he calls Catullus of Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, not his municeps, or fellow-townsman. A statue of Pliny on the façade of the Como Cathedral celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus (avunculus meus), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (levis et facilis) following the customs of our forefathers (veterum more interdiu). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One (CIL V 5262) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667) identifies his father Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of Cantù, near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.Gaius was a member of the Plinia gens: the Insubric root Plina still persists, with rhotacism, in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own multiple estates around Rome and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in Comasco and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself. The community was thus multi-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or Julius Pokorny's derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald" is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens. Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic, who assert that it applied to the name change[what name change?] only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death. For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in Misenum with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance.

Natural History as the First Encyclopedia Some historians consider Natural History to be the first encyclopedia ever written. It was the earliest encyclopedia to survive. There were many ancient histories written before Pliny the Elder's Natural History, but scholars still recognize Natural History as an encyclopedia, setting it apart from the other ancient histories. Regardless of if it was first, it is certainly the most significant. Through Natural History, Pliny the Elder gives modern experts a view into meanings of various things from first century Rome in a way that no other surviving text does. Each book of the Natural History covers a different topic, and the work is meant to cover every topic. Given the organization of the work, it is clear that it was meant to be a reference resource. Even modern scholars will sometimes compare an unknown object mentioned in a different ancient text with the objects described by Pliny and make comparisons. Modern scholars are also able to use Natural History to understand the traditions, fantasies, and prejudices in Ancient Rome. Some people have said that certain prejudices that have been prevalent throughout western history (such as a stigma around menstruation) were spread by Natural History. The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth of subject matter examined, the need to reference original authors, and a comprehensive index list of the contents. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published, lacking a final revision at his sudden and unexpected death in the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:Death Pliny, who had been appointed praefectus classis in the Roman navy by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at Misenum at the time of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. He organized and led a rescue mission upon receiving a message from his friend Rectina, who had been left stranded in Stabiae during the eruption. Pliny boarded one of several galleys that he dispatched across the Gulf of Naples to Stabiae.As Pliny's vessel approached the shore near Herculaneum, cinders and pumice began to fall on it. The helmsman advised turning back, to which Pliny replied, "Fortune favours the bold; steer to where Pomponianus is." Upon reaching Stabiae, they found Senator Pomponianus, they had supper and Pliny went to sleep that night while his company were agitated to take rest. Early the next day, he woke up to falling stones and ashes all over the place and probably, earthquake. That same time, they decided to flee to the fields with pillows on their heads as defense to the falling calcined stones and cinders rather than stay under the shaking walls and roofs. They rushed to the shore and found the sea waves running high and boisterous. The group fled when a plume of hot toxic gases engulfed them. Pliny, a corpulent man who suffered from a chronic respiratory condition, possibly asthma, died from asphyxiation caused by the toxic gases, and was left behind. Upon the group's return three days later after the plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.Twenty-seven years later, upon a request from Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided an account (obtained from the survivors from Stabiae) of his uncle's death.Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore only from scientific interest and then asked a slave to kill him to avoid heat from the volcano. In 1859, Jacob Bigelow, after summarizing the information about Pliny's death contained in Pliny the Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died from apoplexy (stroke) or heart disease.In 1967, science historian Conway Zirkle similarly stated that "there is widespread and persisting misinformation" about Pliny's death. He suggested that despite his rescue attempt, Pliny never came within miles of Mount Vesuvius and no evidence has been found that shows he died from breathing in fumes, and like Bigelow, concluded that he died of a heart attack.

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Life and times Background Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in AD 23 or 24. Pliny was the son of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio. The form is an elegy. The most commonly accepted reconstruction is

Life and times Background Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in AD 23 or 24. Pliny was the son of an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th-century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio. The form is an elegy. The most commonly accepted reconstruction isPLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father [Ce]ler and his mother [Grania] Marcella The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of Catullus.

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – AD 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist, natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:

Presidency (1961–1963) John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens: "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country." He asked the nations of the world to join to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself". He added:

John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person to assume the presidency by election and the youngest president at the end of his tenure. Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat, Kennedy represented Massachusetts in both houses of the U.S. Congress prior to his presidency. Born into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940 before joining the U.S. Naval Reserve the following year. During World War II, he commanded a series of PT boats in the Pacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking of PT-109 and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy represented a working-class Boston district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate and served as the junior senator for Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book, Profiles in Courage, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the 1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum after the first televised presidential debates in American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeating Republican opponent Richard Nixon, who was the incumbent vice president. He was the first Catholic elected president. Kennedy's administration included high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number of American military advisors in South Vietnam. He authorized numerous operations to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro, including the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961. The following October, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases in Cuba; the resulting period of tensions, termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted in the breakout of a global thermonuclear conflict. He also signed the first nuclear weapons treaty in October 1963. Kennedy presided over the establishment of the Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress with Latin America, and the continuation of the Apollo program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon. He also supported the civil rights movement but was only somewhat successful in passing his New Frontier domestic policies. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, assumed the presidency upon Kennedy's death. Lee Harvey Oswald, a former U.S. Marine, was arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby two days later. The FBI and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone, but conspiracy theories about the assassination still persist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has also been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments and extramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recent U.S. president to have died in office.U.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945) Kennedy planned to attend Yale Law School after auditing courses on business law at Stanford, but canceled when American entry into World War II seemed imminent. In 1940, Kennedy attempted to enter the army's Officer Candidate School. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic lower back problems. On September 24, 1941, Kennedy, with the help of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) and the former naval attaché to Joseph Kennedy, Alan Kirk, joined the United States Naval Reserve. He was commissioned an ensign on October 26, 1941, and joined the staff of the Office of Naval Intelligence in Washington, D.C.