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So heat shock proteins are a group of proteins. They are regulated by transcription factors called Heat Shock Factors. During cell stress, this family of proteins is made to help the cell cope with the stress. So these proteins normally "chaperone" other proteins by helping them fold correctly. Proteins have different structures they fold on top of themselves and heat shock proteins make sure that they fold right. They also act in the immune system as antigen presenters, so they can kind of hold out "bad" bacterial or viral proteins to immune cells and say "hey, kill this thing". :)

what are heat shock proteins and how are they good for your body?

<P> Heat shock response The heat shock response (HSR) is a cellular response that increases the number of molecular chaperones to combat the negative effects on proteins caused by stressors such as increased temperatures, oxidative stress, and heavy metals. In a normal cell, protein homeostasis (proteostasis) must be maintained because proteins are the main functional units of the cell. Proteins take on a defined configuration in order to gain functionality. If these structures are altered, critical processes could be affected, leading to cell damage or death. With the importance of proteins established, the heat shock response can be employed under stress <P> to induce heat shock proteins (HSP), also known as molecular chaperones, that help prevent or reverse protein misfolding and provide an environment for proper folding. Protein folding is already challenging due to the crowded intracellular space where aberrant interactions can arise; it becomes more difficult when environmental stressors can denature proteins and cause even more non-native folding to occur. If the work by molecular chaperones is not enough to prevent incorrect folding, the protein may be degraded by the proteasome or autophagy to remove any potentially toxic aggregates. Misfolded proteins, if left unchecked, can lead to aggregation that prevents the <P> protein from moving into its proper conformation and eventually leads to plaque formation, which may be seen in various diseases. Heat shock proteins induced by the HSR can help prevent protein aggregation that can lead to common neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, or Parkinson's Disease. Induction of the heat shock response With the introduction of environmental stressors, the cell must be able to maintain proteostasis. Acute or chronic subjection to these harmful conditions elicits a cytoprotective response to promote stability to the proteome. HSPs (e.g. HSP70, HSP90, HSP60, etc.) are present under normal conditions but under heat stress, they

There are many different sources of line broadening. The must fundamental limit is lifetime broadening: since an atom does not remain arbitrarily long in an excited state, the uncertainty principle, or if you prefer the Fourier relationship, guarantees that the line will have a finite width. Otherwise, any interaction may cause an increase in line width of the order of the transition frequency associated with the interaction. Examples for this are dipolar broadening, unresolved fine structure (Lamb shift and such), hyperfine structure, etc. You are also correct in that Doppler broadening can be important. Very stable transitions are actually hard to get and a lot of effort is expended into having as sharp as possible transitions for use in atomic clocks or laser systems. The eigenvalues of a composite quantum system are not "supposed to be" a single exact frequency. That is an approximation that is often made, but it's not how you should generally think about things.

why are absorption lines not lines?

<P> as well as their physical conditions. Mechanisms other than atom-photon interaction can produce spectral lines. Depending on the exact physical interaction (with molecules, single particles, etc.), the frequency of the involved photons will vary widely, and lines can be observed across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays. Line broadening and shift A spectral line extends over a range of frequencies, not a single frequency (i.e., it has a nonzero linewidth). In addition, its center may be shifted from its nominal central wavelength. There are several reasons for this broadening and shift. These reasons may be divided into two <P> a variety of local environments for a given atom to occupy. In liquids, the effects of inhomogeneous broadening is sometimes reduced by a process called motional narrowing. Broadening due to non-local effects Certain types of broadening are the result of conditions over a large region of space rather than simply upon conditions that are local to the emitting particle. Opacity broadening Electromagnetic radiation emitted at a particular point in space can be reabsorbed as it travels through space. This absorption depends on wavelength. The line is broadened because the photons at the line center have a greater reabsorption probability than <P> the gas, the wider the distribution of velocities in the gas. Since the spectral line is a combination of all of the emitted radiation, the higher the temperature of the gas, the broader the spectral line emitted from that gas. This broadening effect is described by a Gaussian profile and there is no associated shift. Inhomogeneous broadening Inhomogeneous broadening is a general term for broadening because some emitting particles are in a different local environment from others, and therefore emit at a different frequency. This term is used especially for solids, where surfaces, grain boundaries, and stoichiometry variations can create

Snapchat doesn't own the photos taken with the app. You can read their Terms of Use: > You retain all ownership rights in your User Content. However, by submitting User Content to Snapchat, you hereby grant us an irrevocable, nonexclusive, worldwide, perpetual, royalty-free, sublicensable, and transferable license to use, reproduce, modify, adapt, edit, publish, create derivative works from, distribute, perform, promote, exhibit, and display such User Content in any and all media or distribution methods, now known or later developed (the "User Content License"), subject to any privacy settings you have set to control who can see your User Content.

if snapchat owns all the photos taken with the app, why isn't the owner being charged with possession of child pornography?

<P> In 2015, Snapchat updated their privacy policy, causing outrage from users because of changes in their ability to save user content. These rules were put in place to help Snapchat create new and cool features like being able to replay a Snapchat, and the idea of “live” Snapchat stories. These features require saving content to snapchat servers in order to release to other users at a later time. The update stated that it has the rights to reproduce, modify, and republish photos, as well as save those photos to Snapchat servers. Users felt uncomfortable with the idea that all photo <P> content was saved and the idea of “disappearing photos” advertised by Snapchat didn't actually disappear. There is no way to control what content is saved and what isn't. Snapchat responded to backlash by saying they needed this license to access our information in order to create new features, like the live snapchat feature. Live Stories With the 2015 new update of Snapchat, users are able to do “Live Stories,” which are a “collection of crowdsourced snaps for a specific event or region.” By doing that, you are allowing snapchat to share your location with not just your friends, but with <P> with ten other leading social media applications, including Facebook, iMessage, FaceTime, and Skype on how well they protect users’ privacy. The report assessed Snapchat's use of encryption and found that it ranks poorly in how it uses encryption to protect users’ security as a result of not using end-to-end encryption. Because of this, third parties have the ability to access Snapchats while they are being transferred from one device to another. The report also claimed that Snapchat does not explicitly inform users in its privacy policy of the application's level of encryption or any threats the application may pose to

Even within Poland a lot of people disagreed with it. Pilsudski's plan relied on many, many countries coming together to coordinate. Here was the problem. Pilsudski pissed off Lithuania when he waltzed into Vilnus/Wilno and claimed it for Poland (as it as his hometown). Ukraine was in a civil war, and they were suspicious of the idea as it was likely to result in Polish hegemony, like under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Ditto with Belarus. Latvia and Estonia had little interest in falling under a Polish hegemony. Germany and France were extremely suspicious of Pilsudski, and would likely have frustrated his attempts to create this federation. The Soviets also opposed it and actively sought to frustrate his attempts. Lastly, a large chunk of Poland opposed it, preferring instead to occupy territories that were historically Polish or could be easily Polonized. Source: Davies, White Eagle, Red Star

was there any real support for pilsudski's miedzymorze plan outside poland?

<P> western intervention in the Russian Civil War or in conquering Russia itself. Failure In the aftermath of the Polish-Soviet War (1919–21), Piłsudski's concept of a federation of Central and Eastern European countries, based on a Polish-Ukrainian axis, lost any chance of realization. Piłsudski next contemplated a federation or alliance with the Baltic and Balkan states. This plan envisioned a Central European union including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Scandinavia, the Baltic states, Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Greece—thus stretching not only west-east from the Baltic to the Black Sea, but north-south from the Arctic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. This project also <P> nearly dictatorial powers. In particular, his project is viewed unfavorably by most Ukrainian historians, with Oleksandr Derhachov arguing that the federation would have created a greater Poland in which the interests of non-Poles, especially Ukrainians, would have received short shrift. Some historians hold that Piłsudski, who argued that "There can be no independent Poland without an independent Ukraine," may have been more interested in splitting Ukraine from Russia than in assuring Ukrainians' welfare. He did not hesitate to use military force to expand Poland's borders to Galicia and Volhynia, crushing a Ukrainian attempt at self-determination in disputed territories east of the <P> failed: Poland was distrusted by Czechoslovakia and Lithuania; and while it had relatively good relations with the other countries, they had tensions with their neighbors, making it virtually impossible to create in Central Europe a large block of countries that all had good relations with each other. In the end, in place of a large federation, only a Polish-Romanian alliance was established, beginning in 1921. In comparison, Czechoslovakia had more success with its Little Entente (1920–38) with Romania and Yugoslavia, supported by France. Piłsudski died in 1935. A later, much reduced version of his concept was attempted

Quantum mechanics lacks^1 determinism, therefore the Laplace Demon would only be aware of statistical aggregate behavior and would not be able to predict the future to arbitrary precision. ^1 Some interpretations keep the concept, but generally it's always much more restrictive than classical determinism. Most people just drop the concept entirely and accept true random physics.

how does laplace's demon conflict with quantum mechanics?

<P> which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes. — Pierre Simon Laplace, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities This intellect is often referred to as Laplace's demon (in the same vein <P> as Maxwell's demon) and sometimes Laplace's Superman (after Hans Reichenbach). Laplace, himself, did not use the word "demon", which was a later embellishment. As translated into English above, he simply referred to: "Une intelligence ... Rien ne serait incertain pour elle, et l'avenir comme le passé, serait présent à ses yeux." Even though Laplace is known as the first to express such ideas about causal determinism, his view is very similar to the one proposed by Boscovich as early as 1763 in his book Theoria philosophiae naturalis. Surface tension Laplace built upon the qualitative work of Thomas Young to develop the <P> "best" in the sense that it minimised the asymptotic variance and thus both minimised the expected absolute value of the error, and maximised the probability that the estimate would lie in any symmetric interval about the unknown coefficient, no matter what the error distribution. His derivation included the joint limiting distribution of the least squares estimators of two parameters. Laplace's demon In 1814, Laplace published what is usually known as the first articulation of causal or scientific determinism: We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its past and the cause of its future. An intellect

Assuming you've accounted for all the other variables (gravity, etc.) that an 'inflated' Earth would bring, let's look at the math! Jupiter's surface area is over 120 times that of Earth. So this brings another assumption into play: The distribution of land masses. Again we'll ASSUME that we don't just copy-paste our land masses and ocean onto a Jupiter sized globe. Because if we did, an ocean that size (473,280 km between France and Canada!) would have prevented the discovery of the New World and changed the resource and technology curve quite a bit. Instead let's say there's new continents at reasonable intervals, with a 71% water coverage. The means the discovery of new continents will be available, and technology can progress at roughly the same rate. Now that we've covered THAT, we can fast forward. There would likely have been no circumnavigation of the world until the era of long distance flight. On old boats, it would have taken well over 10 years if they managed to live off seafood and rain water somehow. And it would have taken hundreds of years to establish outposts or supplies, do the cartography, establish seasonal prevailing currents, etc. And circumnavigation just means ONE ROUTE, not mapping the hundreds of possible land masses from pole to pole. The 1900's would have pounded out a good chunk of the 120X sized globe with aerial circumnavigation, but space flight would have been the real nail in the coffin. A view of the globe from space would have shown all of the nooks and crannies that needed to be looked at, and directed our explorers to the right places. By now, they would have 'caught up' to our level of exploration. So how long would it take to travel around that planet? In a modern sailboat, based on Jessica Watson's circumnavigation of 210 days, it would take 2,520 days or 6.9 YEARS to sail around the Jupiter-Earth. Based on jet flight, an SR-71 Blackbird slowing for in-flight refueling regularly would take around 6 days at cruising speed. Based on space flight, it would take around 20 hours to orbit at the level that Vostok 1 accomplished it. In other words: Good luck. :) Edit 1: Gah, brainfart on circumnavigation figures, thanks for everyone pointing that out! Divide by 10, add 'about', kazam! In the sailing cases, we're talking very rough estimates anyway, since we don't really know how many times they would get lucky with Austrailias, or unlucky with north/south America without a Panama canal. :)

if earth was the size of jupiter, would we have explored the entire planet by now?

<P> and are thus now termed ice giants. Mass and size Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of the Sun, and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two <P> Jupiter mass Context and implications Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies beyond the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Because the mass of Jupiter is so large compared to the other objects in the solar system, the effects of its gravity must be included when calculating satellite trajectories and the precise orbits of other bodies in the solar system, including Earth's moon and even Pluto. Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at <P> present, its atmosphere would collapse, and the planet would shrink. For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, but above about 500 M⊕ (1.6 Jupiter masses) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high-mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter

"In accordance with the Nazi cross-European policy of genocide against the Jews, the SS "processed" thousands of Romani people, (male) homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, intellectuals and the clergy from all occupied territories.[4]" The Nazi's murdered many millions of people, not all of whom were Jewish.

who did, and who did not, hitler gas exactly?

<P> other "undesirables", suddenly had within its borders the largest concentration of Jews in the world. The solution was to round up Jews and place them in Nazi concentration camps or in ghettos, cordoned off sections of cities where Jews were forced to live in deplorable conditions, often with tens of thousands starving to death, and the bodies decaying in the streets. As appalling as this sounds, they were the lucky ones. After the invasion of the Soviet Union, armed killing squads of SS men known as Einsatzgruppen systematically rounded up Jews and murdered an estimated one million Jews within the <P> 330,000 were murdered. Jews were treated slightly differently as they were gathered together into ghettos in the cities. Himmler ordered all Jews in the annexed lands to be deported to central Poland. In winter 1939–40, about 100,000 Jews were deported. All Polish males were required to perform forced labour. Between 1939 and 1945, at least one and a half million Polish citizens were detained and transported to the Reich for forced labour against their will. One estimate has one million (including POWs) from annexed lands and 1.28 million from the General Government. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs believes the figure was <P> country. As barbaric and inhuman as this seems, it was too slow and inefficient by Nazi standards. In 1942, the top leadership met in Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin, and began to plan a more efficient way to slaughter the Jews. The Nazis created a system of extermination camps throughout Poland, and began rounding up Jews from the Soviet Union, and from the Ghettos. Not only were Jews shot or gassed to death en masse, but they were forced to provide slave labor and they were used in horrific medical experiments (see Human experimentation in Nazi Germany). Out of the widespread

The ethnic composition of Vilnius (for convenience's sake, I'll just use Vilnius here, but keep in mind this city has many names: Wilno [Polish], Vilnia [Belorussian], Vilna [Russians and Jews]) is somewhat nebulous and defies an easy demographic answer. The Russian empire conducted a census in 1897 and the city had 152, 532 residents, of whom 40 percent were Jews, 31 percent Poles, 20 percent Russians, and 2.1 percent Lithuanians. These figures are deceptively precise. The census itself though was based upon "native language" and the tsarist officialdom was highly leery of the national question, which is why the number of "Russians" in the census is quite high as they enfolded both Ukrainian and Belorussians as part of the city's Russian community. Furthermore, the officials likely downplayed the number of Poles in the city as the anti-Polish sentiments of the tsarist state ensured that they would not accept any evidence of a Polandization outside of the borders of Congress Poland. This bias reflected itself in other tsarist era mapping projects wherein Polish/Catholic areas became erased or discounted. The census also precluded the existence of "national amphibians" who spoke multiple languages and for whom the issue of of national identity was much more malleable. The issue becomes even more cloudy given that the fact that nationality/ethnicity in Russia's Northwest and Western provinces were not fixed and still evolving at the turn of the century. This is perhaps best seen in the case of Vilnius's Jewish population, who could Russify, tap into the Polish activism and push for a position as Polish Jews, or argue that being a Jew was its own ethnic category distinct from other groups in the Northwest Provinces. The last option increasingly emerged as the dominant one as Jewish organizations emerged such as the socialist Bund or Zionism hat fostered such particularism. Yet this trend should not obscure the fact that ethnic identity was seldom clear-cut or innate. The 1897 census's low numbers of Lithuanian speakers reflects that "Lithuanian" itself was a very hazy concept for identity during this time. The area's surrounding Lithuanian national activists sought to project onto Vilnius a historical provenance that stretched back to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Like the tsarist state, these Lithuanian activists used a very skewed sense of statistics and ethnography to confirm their biases. Belorussian or Polish speakers were Lithuanians who simply spoke Polish by an accident of history in this schema. After the First World War, the Poles also employed a similiar methodology to project onto Vilnius a strong Polish identity. The long and short of it is there is no clear answer as much of the data on the city's ethnic composition reflected nationalist or state imperatives and grossly oversimplified or ignored the Vilnius's multiethnic reality. *Sources* Bartov, Omer, and Eric D. Weitz, editors. *Shatterzone of Empires Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013. Petronis, Vytautas. *Constructing Lithuania: Ethnic Mapping in Tsarist Russia, Ca. 1800-1914*. Stockholm: Stockholm University, 2007. Seegel, Steven. *Mapping Europe's Borderlands: Russian Cartography in the Age of Empire*. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 2012. Snyder, Timothy. *The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999*. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.

what was really the ethnic distribution of vilnius (wilno) in early xxth century?

<P> the area, Polish-Lithuanian relations worsened. In demographic terms Vilnius was one of the most Polonized and Russified of Lithuanian cities during 1795-1914 Russian rule, with Lithuanians constituting a mere fraction of the total population: 2% - 2,6% according to Russian (1897), German (1916) and Polish (1919) censuses. The latter two indicated that 50,1% or 56,2% of the inhabitants were Poles, while the Jewish share in the population amounted to 43,5% or 36,1% (they were conducted after large part of the inhabitants of Vilnius were evacuated to Russia, mostly Voronezh because of war in 1915). The Lithuanians nonetheless have strong historical <P> Latin alphabet was prohibited in 1859 (Belarusian language) and in 1865 (Lithuanian language) - the ban was lifted in 1904. During the second half of 19th and the beginning of 20th century Vilnius also became one of the centers of Jewish, Polish, Lithuanian and Belarusian national rebirths. According to the 1897 Russian census, by mother tongue, 40% of the population was Jewish, 31% Polish, 20% Russian, 4.2% Belarusian and 2.1% Lithuanian. Jewish culture and population was so dominant that some Jewish national revival leaders argued for a new Jewish state to be founded in a Vilnius region, with a city as <P> established themselves in the city. Each group made its contribution to the life of the city, and crafts, trade and science prospered. In the 17th century, Polish and polonized elements achieved a cultural and likely numerical preponderance. In 1655 during the Russo-Polish War in 1654–1667 Vilnius was captured by the forces of Tsardom of Russia and was pillaged, burned and the population was massacred. The death toll of around 20,000 included a large proportion of Vilnius Jews. The city's growth lost its momentum for many years, yet the number of inhabitants recovered. During the decline of the Commonwealth, Vilnius became known as