Datasets:

euirim

/

goodwiki

like 47

Alfred V. Verville

American aviation pioneer and aircraft designer

Alfred Victor Verville (November 16, 1890 – March 10, 1970) was an American aviation pioneer and aircraft designer who contributed to civilian and military aviation. During his forty-seven years in the aviation industry, he was responsible for the design and development of nearly twenty commercial and military airplanes. Verville is known for designing flying boats, military racing airplanes (such as the record breaking Verville-Sperry R-3), and a series of commercial cabin airplanes. His planes were awarded with the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy in 1920 and 1924. Verville was a founder of three aeronautical companies, the General Aeroplane Company, Verville Aircraft Company, and the Buhl Aircraft Company. He worked for General Billy Mitchell during his service at the United States Army Air Service from 1918 to 1925. From 1937 to 1945, he worked as a consultant for companies such as Douglas Aircraft, Curtiss-Wright, Snead Aircraft, and Drexel Aviation. Verville spent the next sixteen years in the U.S. federal government, primarily in the Bureau of Aeronautics, before retiring in 1961. Verville received many honors and awards, including a selection as a fellow of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum in 1962. An airmail stamp was issued in 1985 by the US Postal Service in Verville's honor. In 1991, he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame. ## Early life and career Verville was born in Atlantic Mine, a small town in Michigan's Upper Peninsula, on November 16, 1890, as the son of Victor Verville and Fabianna Miron. As a child, his mother bought him a Conyne-style box kite from Sears Roebuck, which captured his imagination and started his interest in flight and aviation. Verville also began reading stories about the Wright brothers in newspapers and magazines with great interest. Later he even wrote to the Wrights and Glenn Curtiss and received responses. After graduating from Adams Township High School, Verville took a correspondence course in electrical engineering. He moved to Detroit, Michigan, at the age of twenty, and from 1910 to 1913 he worked in the electrical departments of the Detroit Edison Company, Ford Motor Company, and Hudson Motor Car Company. By 1913, Verville had made his mind up that he wanted to learn to fly. William Edmund Scripps, the editor and owner of The Detroit News, introduced Verville to Glenn Curtiss in July 1913. Curtiss encouraged Verville to apply for his spring 1914 flight school. Instead, Verville went to Hammondsport, New York, in February 1914, where Curtiss Aeroplane Company was located, and told Curtiss he wanted to work as an apprentice in his drafting and engineering shop. Curtiss agreed and this began Verville's aviation career. Verville excelled as a draftsman and designer, but still wanted to attend flight school and to become an exhibition pilot. After applying and being passed over three times for the Curtiss Flying School, Verville went to Curtiss, who responded: "No, Mr. Verville you don't want to be a pilot. We can get all the pilots we want. What we want are designers. You're [really] a designer and you don't know it." While at Curtiss Aeroplane, Verville took an active part in the development of the transatlantic flying boat America (which was a Curtiss H-2) and the Curtiss Jenny of World War I fame. In the fall of 1914, Verville left the company and joined the Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company in New Jersey; shortly thereafter, he joined the Thomas-Morse Airplane Company. In March 1915, he returned to Detroit and joined the General Aeroplane Company, where he led his first full design and build to his specifications, the Verville Flying Boat. On July 9, 1917, Verville married Bertha M. Kamrath in Escanaba, Michigan. He had three children with her, daughters Betty and Janet, and son Myron. Also in 1917, Verville left the General Aeroplane Company to become executive engineer of Fisher Body Corporation, where he supervised the construction of de Havilland DH-4 airplanes. ## U.S. Army service In June 1918, Verville joined the Engineering Division of the U.S. Army Air Service (USAAS) as a civilian, and was based out of the USAAS Engineering Division at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. In 1920, the young engineer gained national prominence when his Verville-Packard R-1 won the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy at the first held National Air Races (at Roosevelt Field, New York) by finishing first out of twenty four other planes, achieving a top speed of 156.54 mph. In 1919 Brigadier General Billy Mitchell requested the Engineering Division to design a light-weight "motorcycle of the air" that could operate as a liaison between Army field units. Verville completed the Messenger design in early 1920. The Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Company of Farmingdale was contracted to build five Messengers in April 1920. The first Messenger flight was on November 1. Later designated the Verville-Sperry M-1 Messenger, the plane is notable for its small size, simple construction, and inexpensive cost, which made it ideal for testing and experimentation. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics used one in its pioneering aerodynamic research programs from 1923 to 1929. Sperry modified twelve into the radio-controlled Messenger Aerial Torpedo and developed the apparatus for a Messenger to make the first successful airship hook on and release in December 1924. Following World War I, in the capacity as an engineering advisor, Verville joined General Billy Mitchell and his aide, Lieutenant Clayton Bissell, on their sailing trip to Europe in December 1921. The three men toured France, Italy, Germany, Holland, and England in order to check on the European progress of aviation. From their research they produced a 206-page report, which was published as a U.S. Army Air Service Information Circular. General Mitchell asked Verville to incorporate some of the European developments they had observed and to produce a plane for the U.S. Army Air Service's participation in the upcoming 1922 National Air Races. The resulting plane, the Verville-Sperry R-3, was the second plane to utilize retractable landing gear and incorporated many features advanced for its time. The completion of the R-3 encountered challenges because the planned Curtiss D-12 engine was not available. So, instead Verville had to use the problematic Wright H-3 (Hispano) engine, which had major vibration issues. Three R-3s competed in the 1922 National Air Races, but only one finished in 5th place with a top speed of 181 mph. After the 1922 race, Verville was able to finally obtain a Curtiss D-12 engine. It was installed on an R-3 and based on trials, it was determined that it could break a world record. On March 31, 1923, with Orville Wright officially observing from the ground, pilot Lieutenant Alexander Pearson Jr. set a 500 km world speed record of 167.73 mph (269.94 km/h) over a 10-lap course at Wilbur Wright Field. For the 1924 National Air Races, his R-3 won the 1924 Pulitzer Speed Trophy at 216 mph. While at the Air Service, Verville was awarded eight aeronautical patents for technologies such as airplane truss design, radiator mounting, and an automatic gun mechanism. ## Buhl and Verville Aircraft Companies In 1925, Verville left the government service to co-found the Buhl-Verville Aircraft Company with the Buhl family in Detroit. On March 29, 1927, Buhl was awarded the first Approved Type Certificate for its Buhl-Verville CA-3 Airster (i.e. A.T.C. No. 1) issued by the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce on March 29, 1927. There were a total of 20 of this aircraft manufactured and it broke a number of speed and endurance records, placing at the top of the Ford National Reliability Air Tour and the National Air Races. Verville was the chief designer from the company's founding in 1925 until 1927. In 1928, Verville left Buhl-Verville to establish the Verville Aircraft Company, also in Detroit. The company sought to market planes to the wealthy private owner. Verville Aircraft produced the Verville Air Coach, a four-passenger, high-wing monoplane, which made its debut at the 1929 Detroit Air Show and the Verville Sport Trainer, a two-seat tandem biplane. The United States Army Air Corps purchased four Sport Trainers under the designation YPT-10. The USAAC tested with five different engine versions resulting in YPT-10 thru YPT-10D designations. ## Bureau of Air Commerce and consulting Verville joined the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce in 1933. The Aeronautics Branch became the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934. During his time there, Verville served in the following roles: aeronautical engineer; chief of the Manufacturing, Engineering, and Inspections Service; and finally assistant chief of the Aeronautic Development Section. In his role as chief of the Manufacturing, Engineering, and Inspections Service, he was in charge of the reviews for issuing type certificates for all manufactured airplanes. Verville left government service to be a consultant for companies including Douglas Aircraft (1937–38), Curtiss-Wright (1941–42), Snead Aircraft (1942), and the Drexel Aviation Company (1942–45). Verville briefly returned to the Bureau of Air Commerce from 1939 to 1941. ## U.S. Navy service and retirement In 1945, once again returning to government service, he joined as a member of the Naval Technical Mission to Europe, and later, the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (1946–1961). At the Bureau of Aeronautics, from 1950 until his retirement in 1961, Verville was a technical advisor and consultant to the director of the Technical Data Division. Verville retired in 1961 and moved to La Jolla, California. ## Death He died on March 10, 1970, from a heart attack at age 79. ## Honors In 1962, Verville was selected as a fellow of the Smithsonian's National Air Museum. He was honored with ten Certificates or Letters of Commendation from the U.S. Armed Forces. He was an honorary fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and was named an Elder Statesman of Aviation by the National Aeronautic Association in 1956. In 1961, he was elected as a fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. In 1991, he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame. The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum established the Verville Fellowship in his name, which is a competitive nine-to-twelve month in-residence fellowship for researching the history of aviation. Over 20 boxes of material from Verville's estate are housed at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum's Garber Facility. A 33 cent United States Postal Service airmail stamp was issued on February 13, 1985, bearing Verville's name, picture, the text "Aviation Pioneer", and an image of his Verville-Sperry R-3 low-wing monoplane. ## Planes designed by Verville Over the course of his forty-seven years in designing and building planes, Verville contributed to the design and development of nearly twenty different aircraft. A plane he designed, the Verville-Sperry M-1 Messenger is on permanent exhibition at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Another plane he designed, the Verville-Sperry R-3 won first place at the 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races. In June 1961, it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics and it was featured on a USPS airmail stamp issued in 1985. ### Curtiss Aircraft Company Curtiss Jenny (1914) - famous World War I plane - Verville contributed to design America (1914) - first plane of Curtiss H-2 line - planned to be first transatlantic flight, but interrupted by WWI - transatlantic flying boat ### General Aeroplane Company Verville Flying Boat (1916) - 2 passenger, open cockpit, biplane, flying boat - 100 hp Curtiss OX-5 or Maximotor pusher - Mahogany hull and wing floats constructed by Mayea Boat Company (Detroit) Gamma S (1917) - A two-seater, open cockpit, floatplane, biplane with an 80 hp Le Rhône pusher engine. Gamma L (1917) - Similar to Gamma S, with wheels. - Twin floats were replaced with wheels for winter operations off the ice of Lake St. Clair. ### U.S. Military Verville-Clark-Pursuit 1 & 2' (1920) - Function: fighter (also known as VCP-1/2) - Two VCP-1 and two VCP-2 built - VCP-1 re-designated VCP-1A & R-1, VCP-2 redesignated PW-1 & PW-1A - While at the Engineering Division and Aeronautical Systems Center of the Signal Corps – post-World War I: November 11, 1918-September 1919 Verville-Packard R-1 (1920) - Function: racing; crew: 1; engines: 1x 638 hp Packard 1A-2025 V-12 - On November 27, 1920, Captain C. C. Moseley, flying a Verville-Packard VCP-R, won the Pulitzer Trophy Race at Mitchel Air Force Base. with a maximum speed of 177 miles per hour (285 km/h). - While in the Air Service Verville-Sperry M-1 Messenger (1921) - Function: messenger, manufactured by Sperry Aircraft Company - This plane is exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Verville-Sperry R-3 (1922) - Participated in the 1922 and 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races; won first place in 1924. In June 1961, it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics. Engineering Division TP-1 (1923) - Was a two-seat biplane fighter designed by Alfred V. Verville and Virginius E. Clark at the United States Army Air Corps Engineering Division. - Prototype TP-1 was built as the XTP-1 and tested at McCook Field in 1923. YPT-10 (1925), Primary Trainer - Similar design to Verville Sport Trainer AT - While at the Air Corps ### Buhl-Verville Buhl-Verville CA-3/CW-3 Airster' (1925–1926) - CA-3 Airster, 200 hp Wright J-4 engine - CA-3A Airster, 225 hp Wright J-5 engine - CW-3 OX5 Airster, 90 hp Curtiss OX-5 engine - CW-3 Wright Trainer, 220 hp Wright J-5 engine (short military trial) - Also known as: J4/J5 Airster or B-V Airster ### Verville Aircraft Company Verville Air Coach (1929) - four passenger, high-wing cabin monoplane designed in 1927 by Verville - Model 102 (104-W, Warner Engine) - Model 104-C - Model 104-P (Packard Diesel Coach) Verville Sport Trainer' (1930)' - This plane is in storage in the Smithsonian Institution system; its engine was a Packard DR-980. ## See also - List of people on stamps of the United States - List of United States airmail stamps - Sperry Corporation

SMS Arcona (1902)

Light cruiser of the German Imperial Navy

SMS Arcona was the ninth member of the ten-ship Gazelle class of light cruisers that were built for the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) in the late 1890s and early 1900s. The Gazelle class was the culmination of earlier unprotected cruiser and aviso designs, combining the best aspects of both types in what became the progenitor of all future light cruisers of the Imperial fleet. Built to be able to serve with the main German fleet and as a colonial cruiser, she was armed with a battery of ten 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns and a top speed of 21.5 knots (39.8 km/h; 24.7 mph). Arcona was a modified version of the basic Gazelle design, with improved armor and additional coal storage for a longer cruising range. Arcona served in all three German navies over the course of a career that spanned more than forty years. After commissioning in 1903, she served with the fleet's reconnaissance force until early 1907, when she was decommissioned, overhauled, and then sent to the East Asia Squadron. During her deployment abroad, she was involved in the suppression of a revolt against colonial rule in German Samoa in 1909. She was recalled to Germany in 1910 and thereafter modified for use as a minelaying cruiser; during World War I, she operated in this capacity in the mouth of the Ems, while also fulfilling secondary duties. She saw no action during the war. Following Germany's defeat, Arcona was converted into a mother ship for minesweepers tasked with clearing the minefields that had been laid in the North Sea as mandated by the Treaty of Versailles. After the work was completed in 1920, she was restored to cruiser configuration and she served briefly with the German fleet in the North Sea before being decommissioned in 1923. After spending seven years in reserve, she was used as a barracks ship in the 1930s. In 1940, during World War II, she was converted into a floating anti-aircraft battery and used to defend the port of Wilhelmshaven. She was scuttled by her crew in the final days of the war and was later raised and broken up between 1948 and 1949. ## Design Following the construction of the unprotected cruisers of the Bussard class and the aviso Hela for the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy), the Construction Department of the Reichsmarineamt (Imperial Navy Office) prepared a design for a new small cruiser that combined the best attributes of both types of vessels. The designers had to design a small cruiser with armor protection that had an optimal combination of speed, armament, and stability necessary for fleet operations, along with the endurance to operate on foreign stations in the German colonial empire. The resulting Gazelle design provided the basis for all of the light cruisers built by the German fleet to the last official designs prepared in 1914. After the first seven ships had been built or were under construction, the Construction Department improved the design slightly, strengthening the armor on the conning tower and increasing the beam, which allowed more space for coal storage, and thus a longer cruising radius. These changes were applied to the last three members of the class: Arcona, Frauenlob, and Undine. Arcona was 105 meters (344 ft 6 in) long overall and had a beam of 12.4 m (40 ft 8 in) and a draft of 4.99 m (16 ft 4 in) forward. She displaced 2,706 t (2,663 long tons) normally and up to 3,180 t (3,130 long tons) at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of two triple-expansion steam engines manufactured by AG Weser. They were designed to give 8,000 metric horsepower (7,900 ihp), for a top speed of 21.5 knots (39.8 km/h; 24.7 mph). The engines were powered by eight coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers. Arcona carried 700 t (690 long tons; 770 short tons) of coal, which gave her a range of 4,400 nautical miles (8,100 km; 5,100 mi) at 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph). She had a crew of 14 officers and 256 enlisted men. The ship was armed with ten 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/40 guns in single mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, six were located amidships, three on either side, and two were placed side by side aft. The guns could engage targets out to 12,200 m (13,300 yd). They were supplied with 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for 150 shells per gun. She was also equipped with two 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes. They were submerged in the hull on the broadside. The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm (0.79 to 0.98 in) thick. The conning tower had 80 mm (3.1 in) thick sides, and the guns were protected by 50 mm (2 in) thick gun shields. ## Service history ### Kaiserliche Marine Arcona was ordered under the contract name "H" and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1901. She was launched on 22 April 1902, and at her launching ceremony, Prince Freidrich Karl of Hesse gave a speech and his wife, Princess Margaret of Prussia, christened the ship. Afterward, fitting-out work commenced and the completed ship was commissioned into the fleet on 12 May 1903 for sea trials under the command of Korvettenkapitän (KK–Corvette Captain) Karl Zimmermann. Initial testing lasted for two months and on 18 July she was assigned to the fleet's Reconnaissance Unit. She joined the fleet for its summer training cruise to Norway that year, after which she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers held in August and September. The ship's training activities for the year ended with a winter cruise with the fleet, which had been re-designated as the Active Battlefleet on 22 September. Arcona spent the years 1904–1906 in a similar if uneventful routine, her time primarily occupied with unit and fleet maneuvers and training cruises. She was present for a naval review held for the visit of King Edward VII of Britain in June 1904, after which she and the fleet made visits to Britain, the Netherlands, and Norway for its summer training cruise. During the voyage, Arcona stopped in Aberdeen, Scotland to pick up mail for the fleet. In September, KK Hubert von Rebeur-Paschwitz replaced Zimmermann as the ship's captain. The 1905 summer cruise went to Sweden, and Arcona made port calls in Kungsbacka and Södertälje. The rest of the year passed uneventfully, and in September, KK Herwarth Schmidt von Schwind took command of the vessel. She also participated in the 1906 summer cruise, which went to Norwegian waters that year. The fleet maneuvers, which had immediately followed the cruise, concluded with a naval review on 13 September for Grossadmiral (Grand Admiral) Hans von Koester, who was retiring at the end of the year. Arcona took part in exercises with the Reconnaissance Unit from 21 to 28 March 1907. On 4 April, she was removed from the Active Battlefleet; her crew was reduced, being transferred to man the new cruiser Danzig, which was to take Arcona's place in the reconnaissance unit. #### Deployment to East Asia The ship was then modernized at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven for service overseas. She also received a coat of white paint, as was common for German ships on overseas stations at the time. With the work completed on 14 August, Arcona received a new crew and a new captain—KK Horst von Hippel—and she got underway for East Asia on 27 August. After passing through the Suez Canal, she reached Singapore on 23 October and joined the East Asia Squadron, which was at that time commanded by Konteradmiral (Rear Admiral) Carl von Coerper aboard his flagship, the armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck. Arcona then left Singapore for Hong Kong and then Amoy, remaining in Chinese waters to the end of March 1908. During this period, she steamed from the German Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory to assist the British steamer SS Chingpin that had run aground further south on the Shandong Peninsula. Attempts to pull the merchant ship free failed. Arcona next went to visit Japan in April before returning to the East Asia Squadron's main base at Qingdao in Jiaozhou Bay, where she took part in training exercises with the rest of the squadron. She won the Schiesspreis (Shooting Prize) for the East Asia Squadron, an award Kaiser Wilhelm II gave to every major unit every year. She thereafter cruised in Chinese and Japanese waters for much of the rest of 1908. On 8 December, she began a training cruise through the Celebes Sea, arriving back in Qingdao on 22 February 1909. She departed the next day to visit Apia in German Samoa, arriving there on 22 March. The local population had begun to revolt against German rule and Arcona was used to help suppress the unrest, along with the light cruiser Leipzig, which at that time had Coerper aboard, and the gunboat Jaguar. After the warships bombarded the restive villages on the island, the attacks stopped and on 6 May, Arcona left for Suva in British Fiji in company with the squadron collier SS Titania. The ships carried rebels who had been taken prisoner who were to be exiled from Samoa; from Suva, they steamed to Matupi in New Georgia and then to Saipan in the Marianas Islands, where they disembarked the prisoners. The ships then steamed to Guam and continuing on to Qingdao, arriving there on 5 June. At that time, KK Hermann Schröder relieved now-Kapitän zur See (KzS—Captain at Sea) Hippel. The ship remained in Qingdao for the next several months before being sent in early September to represent Germany at celebrations in San Francisco in the United States marking the progress in rebuilding the city after the 1906 earthquake, along with the 140th anniversary of the European discovery of San Francisco Bay. Arcona also made a port call in Honolulu, Hawaii on the way to San Francisco, and later stopped in Seattle, San Pedro, and San Diego on the West Coast of the United States. While on the way back, she stopped in Honolulu again and pulled the British sailing ship Celtic Chief free after the latter had run aground. Arcona arrived in Yokohama, Japan on 24 December, where her crew went ashore to assist in the suppression of a major fire. She thereafter returned to Qingdao, where on 17 January 1910, she received orders to return to Germany. She steamed south to Weh Island in the Dutch East Indies where she met Leipzig; the two ships exchanged commanders. Schröder, by this time having been promoted to the rank of fregattenkapitän (FK—Frigate Captain), transferred to Leipzig and FK Karl Heuser took command of the ship for the voyage home. After passing through the Suez Canal and stopping in Port Said from 4 to 7 March, she met her replacement, the cruiser Nürnberg, and some officers and enlisted men were exchanged there as well. Arcona arrived back in Wilhelmshaven on 24 March and she was decommissioned there on the 30th. #### Return to Germany and World War I The ship was then taken into the Kaiserliche Werft for an overhaul, during which it was found that the ship's condition was still good. The Reichsmarineamt decided that the ship should be rebuilt into a minelaying cruiser, and so over the course of 1911–1912, she was converted for that purpose. Two of her amidships 10.5 cm guns were removed and two 50 cm (20 in) deck-mounted torpedo tubes were installed, along with provisions to carry 200 naval mines. The latter necessitated cutting down her main deck aft, where the mines would be dropped into the sea. Arcona was recommissioned on 31 October 1912 and was assigned to the Coastal Artillery and Mine Weapons Inspectorate. She was then allocated to the Mine Testing Commission on 29 November, based in Emden, for operations in the German Bight. During this period, she took part in the fleet maneuvers held in August and July 1913. After the outbreak of World War I in July 1914, Arcona assisted in the laying of a mine barrier off the mouth of the river Ems. She then had the two 10.5 cm guns reinstalled and she became the flotilla leader for the Coastal Defense Division that was based in the Ems in early 1915. In early 1917, she was transferred to the Patrol Flotilla, also based in the Ems, replacing the old coastal defense ship Heimdall as the flotilla leader. During this period, KK Erich Heyden commanded the ship from July to February 1918. In October 1917, she was prepared to lay emergency minefields in the event that the British attempted to attack while substantial elements of the High Seas Fleet were conducting Operation Albion against Russian forces in the Baltic Sea, though no such attack materialized. Throughout the war, she was also used to coordinate wireless communications between ships at sea and stations on land, including the U-boats that waged the U-boat campaign against Allied merchant shipping. She helped to reinforce the defensive mine barriers in the area in April, May, and August 1918. ### Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine Following Germany's defeat in the war, much of the German fleet was decommissioned, but there is no record of Arcona having been removed from service. The Treaty of Versailles that ended the war mandated that Germany was responsible for clearing the mines that had been laid in the North Sea during the conflict, and Arcona was selected in early 1919 to serve as a mother ship for the minesweepers that were tasked with clearing the mines; this decision was made after the old pre-dreadnought battleship Preussen proved to be unsuited to the task. Arcona was modified for the role at what was now the Reichsmarine Werft (formerly the Kaiserliche Werft) in Wilhelmshaven; all of her guns except the stern pair were removed, with those being retained to detonate mines that were encountered. After the work was completed, Kapitänleutnant (Captain Lieutenant) Erich Haeker took command of the vessel in May. She was then assigned to support V Minesweeping Flotilla and operated with the unit until February 1920, by which time the work was completed. Arcona was thereafter decommissioned to be rebuilt for fleet service. Arcona was modernized and rearmed, which included the reconstruction of her bow into a clipper-style prow that improved seakeeping. On 25 May 1921, she was recommissioned and assigned to the Marinestation der Nordsee (North Sea Naval Station), at that time commanded by KAdm Konrad Mommsen. Her first commander after returning to fleet service was FK Friedrich Hermann. Arcona visited Arendal and Sandefjord in Norway in August and then she steamed to Frederikshavn, Denmark, where a monument to the sailors who had died in the Battle of Jutland during the war. The ship was used as an auxiliary icebreaker in February 1922 in the western Baltic Sea and the Kattegat, and in the Gulf of Riga in March. While in the gulf, she was damaged by the sea ice and had to be relieved by the battleship Hessen so she could return to port for repairs. In mid-1922, she visited Balestrand, Norway, and in 1923, she steamed to Åbo, Finland and Karlskrona, Sweden. In July of that year, KzS Walter Gladisch relieved Hermann as the ship's commander. On 1 December 1923, Arcona was decommissioned, her place in the fleet being taken by her sister ship Amazone. The ship remained in reserve for the next seven years, before being struck from the naval register on 15 January 1930. She was then used as a barracks ship for ships' crews in Wilhelmshaven, later being moved to Swinemünde in 1936 and then to Kiel in 1938, by which time the Reichsmarine had been renamed as the Kriegsmarine (War Navy). She remained there after the outbreak of World War II in September 1939. In May 1940, Arcona was converted into a floating anti-aircraft battery in Swinemünde, where she was stationed initially. Her armament now consisted of one 10.5 cm SK C/32 gun, four 10.5 cm SK C/33 guns, two 3.7 cm SK C/30 guns, and four 2 cm guns. She was later moved to Wilhelmshaven, where she was assigned to Naval Anti-Aircraft Group 233, and she was transferred to Brunsbüttel later in the war. In closing days of the war in Europe, her crew scuttled the ship to prevent her from being captured, on 3 May 1945. Following Germany's surrender, the British Royal Navy took control of the naval installation at Brunsbüttel on 7 May. Arcona was among the warships that were seized, including four U-boats and the badly damaged destroyer Z31. Their German crews unloaded ammunition and removed weapons from the ships under British supervision. She was subsequently broken up for scrap in 1948–1949.

Bare-tailed woolly opossum

Species of marsupial

The bare-tailed woolly opossum (Caluromys philander) is an opossum from South America. It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The bare-tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a gray head, brown to gray coat, orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail. It is nocturnal (active mainly at night) and solitary; there is hardly any social interaction except between mother and juveniles and in mating pairs. The opossum constructs nests in tree cavities, and its litter size ranges from one to seven. Gestation lasts 25 days, and the juveniles exit the pouch after three months; weaning occurs a month later. The bare-tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests, rainforests, secondary forests, and plantations; its range extends from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil. The IUCN classifies this opossum as least concern. ## Names It is called mucura-xixica in Portuguese, zarigüeya lanuda parda in Spanish, and wakaro in the Kwaza language of Rondônia, Brazil. ## Taxonomy The bare-tailed woolly opossum is one of the three members of Caluromys, and is placed in the family Didelphidae in the marsupial order Didelphimorphia. It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as Didelphis philander in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758). It was given its present binomial name, Caluromys philander, by American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen in 1900. A 1955 revision of marsupial phylogeny grouped Caluromys, Caluromysiops, Dromiciops (monito del monte) and Glironia (bushy-tailed opossum) under a single subfamily, Microbiotheriinae, noting the dental similarities among these. A 1977 study argued that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution, and placed Caluromys, Caluromysiops and Glironia in a new subfamily, Caluromyinae. In another similar revision in 2009, the bushy-tailed opossum was placed in its own subfamily, Glironiinae. The following four subspecies are recognized: - C. p. affinis Wagner, 1842: Occurs in Mato Grosso (Brazil) and Bolivia. - C. p. dichurus Wagner, 1842: Occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil. - C. p. philander Linnaeus, 1758: Occurs to the east of Rio Negro in Brazil, the Guianas, and to the south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. - C. p. trinitatis Thomas, 1894: Occurs in Trinidad and to the north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The cladogram below, based on a 2016 study, shows the phylogenetic relationships of the bare-tailed woolly opossum. ## Description The bare-tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a brown to gray coat, gray head, orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail furry at the base. A distinctive, narrow dark brown stripe runs between the eyes and the ears, from the tip of the nose to the back of the ears. Similar but broad streaks run from brown rings around either eye. Grayish fur separates these stripes from one another. Ears are large and almost always hairless. The coat is thick, soft and woolly; the flanks may be grayer than the back. The dorsal hairs continue up to 5–7 centimetres (2.0–2.8 in) onto the tail, after which it is naked, as the name suggests. The tail is dark brown towards the end, spotted with white and dark brown, terminating in a white or yellowish-white tip. The size appears to decrease from Venezuela to Suriname; the mean weight is 170 grams (6.0 oz) in Venezuela and 250 grams (8.8 oz) in Suriname. The head-and-body length is typically between 16 and 26 centimetres (6.3 and 10.2 in). The ears measure 3 to 3.5 centimetres (1.2 to 1.4 in), the tail 25 to 36 centimetres (9.8 to 14.2 in) and the hind feet 3.2 to 3.9 centimetres (1.3 to 1.5 in). The dental formula is – typical of didelphids. ## Ecology and behavior The bare-tailed woolly opossum is nocturnal (active mainly at night), and thus difficult to observe or capture. Nevertheless, it is one of the very few opossums that have been successfully studied in detail. A study showed that activity of bare-tailed woolly opossums can be affected by the extent of moonlight. While activity in males dropped from new moon to full moon (that is, with increasing exposure to moonlight), activity in females remained largely unaffected. The opossum is arboreal (tree-living) and a good climber. A study showed that the tail, being prehensile, can act as an additional limb for locomotion, avoiding falls and carrying leaves to build nests. It builds nests with dry leaves in tree cavities. Individuals tend to be aggressive to one another; hisses, grunts and even distress calls accompany agonistic behavior. Largely solitary, the only interactions observed are between mother and juveniles and in a mating pair. In a primary forest of French Guiana, the mean home range size was calculated as 3 hectares (0.012 sq mi). Ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively. The size of home ranges is influenced by environmental factors such as forage availability and individual needs. 'Click's are a common vocalization, produced by the young as well as adults. Bare-tailed woolly opossums, like other Caluromys species, will bite on being handled or to escape predators. Predators include the jaguarundi and margay. The Bare-tailed woolly opossum is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Gigantorhynchus lutzi. ### Diet An omnivore, the bare-tailed woolly opossum feeds on fruits, vegetables, gum, flowers, nectar, arthropods (such as beetles, butterflies and other insects), other small invertebrates, small birds and reptiles. A study of the foraging behavior of the bare-tailed woolly opossum and the sympatric kinkajou showed that both feed on a variety of plants, choose plants by their abundance, show similar preferences, and favor certain plant parts at certain times of the year. A notable difference between the two was that while the kinkajou focused on plants with a wide distribution, the bare-tailed woolly opossum also fed on less common plants. ### Reproduction In French Guiana, females mate successfully after they are a year old. Females can have three litters a year, unless food is scarce. Gestation lasts 25 days – the longest among didelphimorphs; the young come out of the pouch at three months and weaning occurs at four months. A study in French Guiana showed that development of the offspring is slow for the first 40 days, and then accelerates during the last 40 days. The litter size ranges from one to seven. Newborn weigh 200 milligrams (0.0071 oz), and their weight increases to 11 grams (0.39 oz) after weaning. After exiting the pouch, offspring are sheltered in nests, where the mother regularly visits them for nursing. ## Distribution and status The bare-tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests, rainforests, secondary forests and plantations; it prefers dense cover, though it can be seen on canopies as well. It can occur up to an altitude of 1,200–1,800 metres (3,900–5,900 ft) above the sea level. The range extends from northern Venezuela eastward to northeastern and southcentral Brazil, and includes Guiana, French Guiana, Margarita Island, Trinidad, and Suriname. The IUCN classifies the bare-tailed woolly opossum as least concern, due to its wide distribution and presumed large population. The survival of this opossum is threatened by deforestation and habitat loss.

Tick

Order of arachnids in the arthropod phylum

Ticks (order Ixodida) are parasitic arachnids that are part of the mite superorder Parasitiformes. Adult ticks are approximately 3 to 5 mm in length depending on age, sex, species, and "fullness". Ticks are external parasites, living by feeding on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. The timing of the origin of ticks is uncertain, though the oldest known tick fossils are from the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years old. Ticks are widely distributed around the world, especially in warm, humid climates. Ticks belong to two major families, the Ixodidae or hard ticks, and the Argasidae, or soft ticks. Nuttalliella, a genus of tick from southern Africa, is the only member of the family Nuttalliellidae, and represents the most primitive living lineage of ticks. Adults have ovoid/pear-shaped bodies (idiosomas) which become engorged with blood when they feed, and eight legs. Their cephalothorax and abdomen are completely fused. In addition to having a hard shield on their dorsal surfaces, known as the scutum, hard ticks have a beak-like structure at the front containing the mouthparts, whereas soft ticks have their mouthparts on the underside of their bodies. Ticks locate potential hosts by sensing odor, body heat, moisture, and/or vibrations in the environment. Ticks have four stages to their life cycle, namely egg, larva, nymph, and adult. Ticks belonging to the Ixodidae family undergo either a one-host, two-host, or three-host life cycle. Argasid ticks have up to seven nymphal stages (instars), each one requiring blood ingestion, and as such, Argasid ticks undergo a multihost life cycle. Because of their hematophagous (blood-ingesting) diets, ticks act as vectors of many serious diseases that affect humans and other animals. ## Biology ### Taxonomy and phylogeny Ticks belong to the Parasitiformes, a distinctive group of mites that are separate from the main group of mites, the Acariformes. Whether the two groups are more closely related to each other than to other arachnids is uncertain, and studies often recover them as not closely related. Within the Parasitiformes, ticks are most closely related to the Holothyrida, a small group of free living scavengers with 32 described species confined to the landmasses that formed the supercontinent Gondwana. Fossilized ticks have been discovered from the end of the Early Cretaceous onwards, most commonly in amber. The oldest discovered tick fossils are an argasid bird tick from Late Cretaceous (Turonian \~94-90 million years ago) aged New Jersey amber, and various ticks found in Burmese amber, including Khimaira and Deinocroton, which do not belong to any living family of tick, and members of the living ixodid genera Amblyomma and Ixodes dating the earliest Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around . An undescribed juvenile tick is known from late Albian Spanish amber, dating to 105 million years ago. The younger Baltic and Dominican ambers have also yielded examples that can be placed in living genera. A phylogenetic analysis suggests that the last common ancestor of all living ticks likely lived around 195 million years ago in the Southern Hemisphere, in what was then Gondwana. Ticks belong to three different families. The majority of tick species belong to the two families: Ixodidae (hard ticks) and Argasidae (soft ticks). The third living family is Nuttalliellidae, named for the bacteriologist George Nuttall. It comprises a single species, Nuttalliella namaqua, and as such is a monotypic taxon. Nuttalliella namaqua is found in southern Africa ranging from Tanzania to Namibia and South Africa. The Ixodidae contain over 700 species of hard ticks with a scutum or hard shield, which the Argasidae lack. The Argasidae contain about 200 species; the genera accepted as of 2010 are Antricola, Argas, Nothoaspis, Ornithodoros, and Otobius. They have no scutum, and the capitulum (mouth and feeding parts) is concealed beneath the body. The phylogeny of the Ixodida within the Acari is shown in the cladogram, based on a 2014 maximum parsimony study of amino acid sequences of 12 mitochondrial proteins. The Argasidae appear monophyletic in this study. ### Anatomy and physiology Ticks, like mites, belong to the subclass Acari that lack their primary somatic segmentation of the abdomen (or opisthosoma), rather these parasitic arachnids present a subsequent fusion of the abdomen with the cephalothorax (or prosoma). The tagmata typical of other Chelicerata have developed into the gnathosoma (head), which is retractable and contains the mouthparts, and idiosoma (body), which contains the legs, digestive tract, and reproductive organs. The gnathosoma is a feeding structure with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood; it is the front of the head and contains neither the brain nor the eyes. Features of the gnathosoma include two palps, two chelicerae, and hypostome. The hypostome acts as stabilizer and helps to anchor the tick's mouthparts to the host. The chelicerae are specialized appendages used for cutting and piercing into the host's skin while palps are leglike appendages that are sensory in function. The ventral side of the idiosoma bears sclerites, and the gonopore is located between the fourth pair of legs. In the absence of segmentation, the positioning of the eyes, limbs, and gonopore on the idiosoma provide the only locational guidance. Most ticks are inornate and appear to be brown or reddish brown in color. However, some species are ornate and have distinctive white patterns on the scutum. Larval ticks hatch with six legs, acquiring the other two after a blood meal and molting into the nymph stage. In the nymphal and adult stages, ticks have eight legs, each of which has seven segments and is tipped with a pair of claws. The legs are sometimes ornamented and usually bear sensory or tactile hairs. In addition to being used for locomotion, the tarsus of leg I contains a unique sensory structure, Haller's organ, which can detect odors and chemicals emanating from the host, as well as sensing changes in temperature and air currents. Ticks can also use Haller's organs to perceive infrared light emanating from a host. When stationary, their legs remain tightly folded against the body. Ticks are extremely tough, hardy, and resilient animals. They can survive in a near vacuum for as long as half an hour. Their slow metabolism during their dormant periods enables them to go prolonged durations between meals. During droughts, they can endure dehydration without feeding for as long as eighteen weeks, however, ticks with limited energy reserves may succumb to desiccation after thirty-six weeks. To keep from dehydrating, ticks hide in humid spots on the forest floor or absorb water from subsaturated air by secreting hygroscopic fluid produced by the salivary glands onto the external mouthparts and then reingesting the water-enriched fluid. Ticks can withstand temperatures just above −18 °C (0 °F) for more than two hours and can survive temperatures between −7 and −2 °C (20 and 29 °F) for at least two weeks. Ticks have even been found in Antarctica, where they feed on penguins. #### Ixodidae In nymphs and adults, the capitulum is prominent and projects forwards from the body. The eyes are close to the sides of the scutum and the large spiracles are located just behind the coxae of the fourth pair of legs. The hard protective scutellum, a characteristic of this family, covers nearly the whole dorsal surface in males, but is restricted to a small, shield-like structure behind the capitulum in females and nymphs. When an ixodid attaches to a host the bite is typically painless and generally goes unnoticed. They remain in place until they engorge and are ready to molt; this process may take days or weeks. Some species drop off the host to molt in a safe place, whereas others remain on the same host and only drop off once they are ready to lay their eggs. #### Argasidae The body of a soft tick is pear-shaped or oval with a rounded anterior portion. The mouthparts cannot be seen from above, as they are on the ventral surface. A centrally positioned dorsal plate with ridges projecting slightly above the surrounding surface, but with no decoration are often present. Soft ticks possess a leathery cuticle as well. A pattern of small, circular depressions expose where muscles are attached to the interior of the integument. The eyes are on the sides of the body, the spiracles open between legs 3 and 4, and males and females only differ in the structure of the genital pore. #### Nuttalliellidae Nuttalliellidae can be distinguished from both ixodid and argasid ticks by a combination of a projecting gnathosoma and a soft leathery skin. Other distinguishing characteristics include the position of the stigmata, the lack of setae, the strongly corrugated integument, and the form of the fenestrated plates. ### Diet and feeding Ticks are ectoparasites and consume blood to satisfy all of their nutritional requirements. They are obligate hematophages, and require blood to survive and move from one stage of life to another. Ticks can fast for long periods of time, but eventually die if unable to find a host. Hematophagy evolved independently at least six times in arthropods living during the late Cretaceous; in ticks it is thought to have evolved 120 million years ago through adaptation to blood-feeding. This behavior evolved independently within the separate tick families as well, with differing host-tick interactions driving the evolutionary change. Some ticks attach to their host rapidly, while others wander around searching for thinner skin, such as that in the ears of mammals. Depending on the species and life stage, preparing to feed can take from ten minutes to two hours. On locating a suitable feeding spot, the tick grasps the host's skin and cuts into the surface. It extracts blood by cutting a hole in the host's epidermis, into which it inserts its hypostome and prevents the blood from clotting by excreting an anticoagulant or platelet aggregation inhibitor. Ticks find their hosts by detecting an animals' breath and body odors, sensing body heat, moisture, or vibrations. A common misconception about ticks is they jump onto their host or they fall from trees, however, they are incapable of flying or jumping, although static electricity from their hosts have shown to be able to pull the tick over distances several times their own body length. Many tick species, particularly Ixodidae, lie in wait in a position known as "questing". While questing, ticks cling to leaves and grasses by their third and fourth pairs of legs. They hold the first pair of legs outstretched, waiting to grasp and climb on to any passing host. Tick questing heights tend to be correlated with the size of the desired host; nymphs and small species tend to quest close to the ground, where they may encounter small mammalian or bird hosts; adults climb higher into the vegetation, where larger hosts may be encountered. Some species are hunters and lurk near places where hosts may rest. Upon receiving an olfactory stimulus or other environmental indication, they crawl or run across the intervening surface. Other ticks, mainly the Argasidae, are nidicolous, finding hosts in their nests, burrows, or caves. They use the same stimuli as non-nidicolous species to identify hosts, with body heat and odors often being the main factors. Many of them feed primarily on birds, though some Ornithodoros species, for example, feed on small mammals. Both groups of soft tick feed rapidly, typically biting painfully and drinking their fill within minutes. Unlike the Ixodidae that have no fixed dwelling place except on the host, they live in sand, in crevices near animal dens or nests, or in human dwellings, where they come out nightly to attack roosting birds or emerge when they detect carbon dioxide in the breath of their hosts. Ixodidae remain in place until they are completely engorged. Their weight may increase by 200 to 600 times compared to their prefeeding weight. To accommodate this expansion, cell division takes place to facilitate enlargement of the cuticle. In the Argasidae, the tick's cuticle stretches to accommodate the fluid ingested, but does not grow new cells, with the weight of the tick increasing five- to tenfold over the unfed state. The tick then drops off the host and typically remains in the nest or burrow until its host returns to provide its next meal. Tick saliva contains about 1,500 to 3,000 proteins, depending on the tick species. The proteins with anti-inflammatory properties, called evasins, allow ticks to feed for eight to ten days without being perceived by the host animal. Researchers are studying these evasins with the goal of developing drugs to neutralise the chemokines that cause myocarditis, heart attack, and stroke. Ticks do not use any other food source than vertebrate blood and therefore ingest high levels of protein, iron and salt, but few carbohydrates, lipids or vitamins. Ticks’ genomes have evolved large repertoires of genes related to this nutritional challenge, but they themselves cannot synthesize the essential vitamins that are lacking in blood meal. To overcome these nutritional deficiencies, ticks have evolved obligate interactions with nutritional endosymbionts. The first appearance of ticks and their later diversification were largely conditioned by this nutritional endosymbiosis lasting for millions of years. The most common of these nutritional endosymbionts belong to the Coxiella and Francisella bacterial genera. These intracellular symbiotic microorganisms are specifically associated with ticks and use transovarial transmission to ensure their persistence. Although Coxiella and Francisella endosymbionts are distantly related bacteria, they have converged towards an analogous B vitamin-based nutritional mutualism with ticks. Their experimental elimination typically results in decreased tick survival, molting, fecundity and egg viability, as well as in physical abnormalities, which all are fully restored with an oral supplement of B vitamins. The genome sequencing of Coxiella and Francisella endosymbionts confirmed that they consistently produce three B vitamin types, biotin (vitamin B₇), riboflavin (B₂) and folate (B₉). As they are required for tick life cycle, these obligate endosymbionts are present in all individuals of the tick species they infect, at least at early stages of development since they may be secondarily lost in males during nymphal development. Since Coxiella and Francisella endosymbionts are closely related to pathogens, there is a substantial risk of misidentification between endosymbionts and pathogens, leading to an overestimation of infection risks associated with ticks. ### Range and habitat Tick species are widely distributed around the world. They tend to flourish more in warm, humid climates, because they require a certain amount of moisture in the air to undergo metamorphosis, and low temperatures inhibit their development of eggs to larvae. The occurrence of ticks and tick-borne illnesses in humans is increasing. Tick populations are spreading into new areas, due in part to the warming temperatures of climate change. Tick parasitism is widely distributed among host taxa, including marsupial and placental mammals, birds, reptiles (snakes, iguanas, and lizards), and amphibians. Ticks of domestic animals cause considerable harm to livestock through pathogenic transmission, causing anemia through blood loss, and damaging wool and hides. The Tropical Bont tick wreaks havoc on livestock and wildlife in Africa, the Caribbean, and several other countries through the spread of disease, specifically heartwater disease. The spinose ear tick has a worldwide distribution, the young feed inside the ears of cattle and various wildlife. A habitat preferred by ticks is the interface where a lawn meets the forest, or more generally, the ecotone, which is unmaintained transitional edge habitat between woodlands and open areas. Therefore, one tick management strategy is to remove leaf litter, brush, and weeds at the edge of the woods. Ticks like shady, moist leaf litter with an overstory of trees or shrubs and, in the spring, they deposit their eggs into such places allowing larvae to emerge in the fall and crawl into low-lying vegetation. The 3 meter boundary closest to the lawn's edge are a tick migration zone, where 82% of tick nymphs in lawns are found. ### Ecology In general, ticks are found wherever their host species occur. Migrating birds carry ticks with them on through their migrations; a study of migratory birds passing through Egypt discovered more than half the bird species examined were carrying ticks. It was also observed the tick species varied depending on the season of migration, in this study it is spring and autumn migrations, this is thought to occur due to the seasonal periodicities of the different species. For an ecosystem to support ticks, it must satisfy two requirements; the population density of host species in the area must be great enough and it must be humid enough for ticks to remain hydrated. Due to their role in transmitting Lyme disease, Ixodid ticks, particularly the North American I. scapularis, have been studied using geographic information systems to develop predictive models for ideal tick habitats. According to these studies, certain features of a given microclimate – such as sandy soil, hardwood trees, rivers, and the presence of deer – were determined to be good predictors of dense tick populations. Mites and nematodes feed on ticks, which are also a minor nutritional resource for birds. More importantly, ticks act as a disease vector and behave as the primary hosts of many different pathogens such as spirochaetes. Ticks carry various debilitating diseases therefore, ticks may assist in controlling animal populations and preventing overgrazing. Ticks can transmit an array of infectious diseases that affect humans and other animals. Ticks that carry zoonotic pathogens often tend to have a wide host range. The infective agents can be present not only in the adult tick, but also in the eggs produced plentifully by the females. Many tick species have extended their ranges as a result of the movements of people, domesticated pets, and livestock. With increasing participation in outdoor activities such as wilderness hikes, more people and their dogs may find themselves exposed to ticks. ### Life cycle All three tick families ticks have four life cycle stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. #### Ixodidae Ixodidae ticks have three different life cycles. Depending on the species, Ixodids can either possess a one-host life cycle, two-host life cycle, or three-host life cycle. ##### One-host ticks In one-host ticks the tick remains on the host through the larval, nymphal, and adult stages, only to leave the host to lay eggs. Eggs laid in the environment hatch into larvae, which immediately seek out a host in which to attach and feed. Fed larvae molt into unfed nymphs that remain on the host. After engorging on the host's blood, the nymphs molt into sexually mature adults that remain on the host in order to feed and mate. Once a female is both fed and ready to lay eggs, only then does she leave the host in search of a suitable area to deposit her eggs. Ticks that follow this life cycle are called one-host ticks. The winter tick Dermacentor albipictus and the cattle tick Boophilus microplus are examples of one-host ticks. ##### Two-host ticks The life cycle of a two-host tick often spans two years. During fall the pregnant female tick will drop off her second host and lay her eggs. The eggs hatch during winter, the following spring the larvae emerge and attach to their first host. Newly hatched larvae attach to a host in order to obtain a blood meal. They remain on the host then develop into nymphs. Once engorged, they drop off the host and find a safe area in the natural environment in which to molt into adults, this typically occurs during the winter. Both male and female adults seek out a host on which to attach, which may be the same body that served as host during their early development but is often a larger mammal. Once attached, they feed and mate. Gravid females drop from the host to oviposit in the environment. Ticks that complete their life cycle in this manner are called two-host ticks, like Hyalomma anatolicum excavatum. ##### Three-host ticks Most ixodid ticks require three hosts, and their life cycles typically span three years. The female tick drops off its host, often in the fall, and lays thousands of eggs. The larvae hatch in the winter and emerge in the spring. When the larvae emerge, they attach and feed primarily on small mammals and birds. During the summer the larvae become engorged and drop off the first host to molt and become nymphs, this often occurs during the fall. The following spring the nymphs emerge and seek out another host, often a small rodent. The nymphs become engorged and drop off the host in the fall to molt and become adults. The following spring the adult ticks emerge and seek out a larger host, often a large mammal such as cattle or even humans. Females will mate on their third host. Female adults then engorge on blood and prepare to drop off to lay her eggs on the ground, while males feed very little and remain on the host in order to continue mating with other females. #### Argasidae Argasid ticks, unlike ixodid ticks, may go through up to seven nymphal stages (instars), requiring a meal of blood each time. Often, egg laying and mating occurs detached from the host in a safe environment. The eggs hatch and the larvae feed on a nearby host for anywhere from a few hours to several days, this depends on the species of tick. After they feed the larvae drop and molt into their first nymphal instars, then the nymph seeks out and feeds on its second host, often this is the same as the first host, within an hour. This process occurs repeatedly and until the last nymphal instar occurs, thus allowing the tick to molt into an adult. Once an adult these ticks feed rapidly and periodically their entire life cycle. In some species an adult female may lay eggs after each feeding. Their life cycles range from months to years. The adult female argasid tick can lay a few hundred to over a thousand eggs over the course of her lifetime. Both male and female adults feed on blood, and they mate off the host. During feeding, any excess fluid is excreted by the coxal glands, a process that is unique to argasid ticks. #### Nuttalliellidae Nuttalliellidae is an elusive monotypic family of tick, that is, possesses a single species, Nuttalliella namaqua. There is little to nothing known about the life cycle and feeding habits of N. namaqua but it is speculated this species of tick has multiple different hosts. ## Relationship with humans ### Tick-borne disease Ticks are implicated in the transmission of a number of infections caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. A tick can harbor more than one type of pathogen, making diagnosis more difficult. Species of the bacterial genus Rickettsia are responsible for typhus, rickettsialpox, boutonneuse fever, African tick bite fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Flinders Island spotted fever, and Queensland tick typhus (Australian tick typhus). Other tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease and Q fever, Colorado tick fever, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever, tularemia, tick-borne relapsing fever, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, Bourbon virus, and tick-borne meningoencephalitis, as well as bovine anaplasmosis and the Heartland virus. In the United States, Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector-borne disease in the country. Some species, notably the Australian paralysis tick, are also intrinsically venomous and can cause tick paralysis. Eggs can become infected with pathogens inside a female tick's ovaries, in which case the larval ticks are infectious immediately at hatching, before feeding on their first host. Tropical bont ticks transmit the heartwater, which can be particularly devastating in cattle. The ticks carried by migratory birds act as reservoirs and vectors of foreign infectious diseases. In the Egyptian migratory bird study, over 20 strains of pathogenic viruses were detected within the tick sample from autumn. Not all ticks in an infective area are infected with transmittable pathogens, and both attachment of the tick and a long feeding session are necessary for diseases to be transmitted. Consequently tick bites often do not lead to infection, especially if the ticks are removed within 36 hours. Adult ticks can be removed with fine-tipped tweezers or proprietary tick removal tools, before then disinfecting the wound. In Australia and New Zealand, where tick-borne infections are less common than tick reactions, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy recommends seeking medical assistance or killing ticks in-situ by freezing and then leaving them to fall out to prevent allergic/anaphylactic reactions. Professor Sheryl van Nunen, whose research in 2007 identified tick-induced mammalian meat allergy, famously said "tweezers are tick squeezers", referring to the tick toxins squeezed into people attempting to remove ticks with tweezers. Ticks can be disposed of by flushing them down the toilet, placing them in a container of soapy water or alcohol, or sticking them to tape that can then be folded over and thrown away. Bifenthrin and permethrin, both pyrethroids, are sometimes used as tick-control measures, although they have the disadvantage of being carcinogenic and able to attack the nervous systems of other species besides ticks. Those who walk through tick-infested areas can make it harder for ticks to latch onto them by tucking their trousers into boots made of smooth rubber, which ticks have trouble climbing. Research since 2008 has documented red-meat allergies (mammalian meat allergy and Alpha-gal allergy) in the U.S. due to lone star tick bites. The range of the problem has been expanding with the range of the tick. Other species of ticks are known for being responsible for meat allergies in other countries, including Sweden, Germany, and Australia. Many tick-transmitted viruses, such as Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Kyasanur Forest disease virus, Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus, and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, are classified as dangerous enough to require biosafety level 4 precautions in laboratory environments. This includes five levels of containment, viz., storage vials within humidified desiccators, within environmental chambers, within a tick suite, within a BSL4 laboratory. Precautions such as glove boxes, sticky pads, Vaseline barriers, safety suits, gloves, sticky tape, silicone vacuum grease, sticky trap paste, and micro mesh are used to safely contain ticks and prevent them from escaping. ### Population control measures With the possible exception of widespread DDT use in the Soviet Union, attempts to limit the population or distribution of disease-causing ticks have been quite unsuccessful. The parasitoid encyrtid wasp Ixodiphagus hookeri has been investigated for its potential to control tick populations. It lays its eggs into ticks; the hatching wasps kill their hosts. Predators and competitors of tick hosts can indirectly reduce the density of infected nymphs, thereby lowering tick-borne disease risk by lowering the density and/or tick burden of reservoir-competent hosts. A study in the Netherlands found that the number of larval ticks on bank voles and wood mice was lower at sites with significant red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and stone marten (Martes foina) activity. This supports the results of a study from the northeastern United States, in which the incidence of Lyme borreliosis was negatively correlated with the density of red fox, possibly because foxes decrease the density of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), the most important reservoir-competent host for Borrelia burgdorferi. Another natural form of control for ticks is the helmeted guineafowl, a bird species that consumes mass quantities of ticks. Opossums groom themselves, swallowing many ticks; they are net destroyers of ticks, killing around ninety percent of the ticks that attempt to feed on them. More generally, high animal diversity has a strongly protective effect against tick-borne disease. Topical tick medicines may be toxic to animals and humans. The synthetic pyrethroid insecticide phenothrin in combination with the hormone analogue methoprene was a popular topical flea and tick therapy for felines. Phenothrin kills adult ticks, while methoprene kills eggs. Some products were withdrawn, and others are known to cause adverse reactions. ## See also - Parasitology - Ticks of domestic animals - Tick-borne disease - Arachnids in medicine

New York State Route 368

Former highway in New York

New York State Route 368 (NY 368) was a state highway in Onondaga County, New York, in the United States. It was one of the shortest routes in the county, extending for only 1.69 miles (2.72 km) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge. NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served near its midpoint. The route was assigned in the 1930s and removed in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Onondaga County. ## Route description NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter's Brook Fish Hatchery in the town of Elbridge. The route headed north as Halfway Road, passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway. Here, NY 368 served a small number of homes as it crossed a Conrail railroad line (now part of the Finger Lakes Railway) at the center of the community. Outside of Halfway, the route turned to the northwest toward the village of Elbridge, avoiding a marshy area directly north of Halfway. It intersected with Lynch Road and Campbell Road before turning slightly northward and following Carpenter's Brook through another undeveloped area to an intersection with NY 5 east of the village, where NY 368 ended. ## History NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway. It remained unchanged until April 1, 1980, when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. The county also assumed ownership and maintenance of the Onondaga County portion of NY 31B as part of the exchange. NY 368 was redesignated as County Route 107 (CR 107) following the swap. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of county routes in Onondaga County, New York

1977 Dry Blackthorn Cup

Invitational professional snooker tournament, December 1977

The 1977 Dry Blackthorn Cup was a professional invitational snooker tournament on 21 December 1977. Created by promoter Mike Barrett, it was played at the Wembley Conference Centre in London and featured four professional players. The participants included three players who between them had won each edition of the World Snooker Championship since 1969: John Spencer (1969, 1971, 1977), Ray Reardon (1970, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976) and Alex Higgins (1972). The fourth player was Patsy Fagan, who had won the 1977 UK Championship earlier in the month. The event attracted around 1,500 spectators and was televised, with a forty-minute programme on ITV being broadcast on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1977. Fagan won the tournament by defeating Higgins by 4 to 2 in the final. Reardon made the highest break of the competition, 77. ## Background Created by promoter Mike Barrett, who later promoted boxing matches involving Frank Bruno, The 1977 Dry Blackthorn Cup was an invitational snooker event, named after the event's sponsors, a cider company based in Taunton. It took place at the Wembley Conference Centre in London and featured four professional players. This was the first snooker event to be held at the venue, which from 1979 to 2006 hosted the Masters Championship. The tournament was played on a knockout basis, and all three matches were the best-of-seven . The participants included three players who between them had won each edition of the World Snooker Championship since 1969: John Spencer (1969, 1971, 1977), Ray Reardon (1970, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976) and Alex Higgins (1972). The fourth player was Patsy Fagan, who had won the 1977 UK Championship earlier in the month. The event attracted around 1,500 spectators and was televised, with a forty-minute programme on ITV being broadcast on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1977. ## Tournament summary In the semi-finals, Fagan faced Spencer, and Higgins played Reardon. Fagan won the first frame but lost the second after failing in an attempt to pot the last , following which Spencer compiled a break of 30 and won the frame on the final . Spencer had breaks of 43 and 51 in third frame and won it by 102 to 28. The match was level at 2–2 when Fagan, having made a break of 25 early on, won the fourth frame. He was ahead in the fifth frame, after which Spencer made a 43 break which concluded when he opted to Fagan rather than attempt a . Fagan escaped from the snooker successfully; he hit a red ball by sending the on a trajectory that saw it rebound from four . He went on to add the frame to his tally. A break of 53 early in the sixth frame contributed to Fagan taking a 58-point lead in the sixth frame, but the break ended when he failed in an attempt to pot the next ball. Spencer followed this with a break of 32, but after failing to pot the ball when only the were left and leaving it in a position close to the , where Fagan could easily pot it, Spencer conceded the match. Higgins took three of the first four frame against Reardon, making breaks of 44, 36, 30 and 64 in the process. Reardon won the third frame with a break of 77, the highest of the tournament. in the fifth frame, Higgins recorded a 42 break, but Reardon prevailed, concluding with a break of 48. Higgins secured his progression to the final with a 28 break after Reardon erred with a shot in the sixth frame. In the final, Higgins won the first frame after a break of 38. Fagan equalised with a 58 break in the second frame and took the lead with breaks of 62 and 53 contributing to a 123–1 points score in the next frame. Higgins then levelled the match at 2–2. Both players made errors during the fifth frame, won by Fagan. Higgins established a 39–22 points lead in the sixth frame, but Fagan exhibited high-quality safety play and won the frame after potting a long-distance then completing a to secure the title. The reporter for Snooker Scene magazine wrote that "winning two important tournaments within a month confirms not so much an advance in his technique as Fagan's ability—hitherto in doubt—of being able to win on the showcase occasion" and praised his "soundness and consistency". Fagan received prize money of £2,000 as the winner, and Higgins received £1,000 as runner-up. Spencer and Reardon received £500 each as losers in the semi-finals. £50,000 would have been awarded to any player making a maximum break of 147. To cover the potential award of the maximum break prize, promoter Mike Barrett paid an insurance premium of £500. Players making breaks of over 100 points would have been rewarded with £100 for each one; breaks of 50 or more attracted a prize of £50. The total prize fund of £4,350 was a record for a one-day snooker tournament. The following year, Barrett promoted the 1978 Champion of Champions event at the same venue. Like the Dry Blackthorn Cup, this was an invitational event for four players. Fagan, Reardon and Higgins participated in the 1978 tournament, along with Doug Mountjoy. ## Main draw Results are shown below. Players in bold are match winners.

Kosala (novel)

1963 Marathi novel by Bhalchandra Nemade

Kosala (English: Cocoon), sometimes spelled Kosla, is a Marathi novel by Indian writer Bhalchandra Nemade, published in 1963. Regarded as Nemade's magnum opus, and accepted as a modern classic of Marathi literature, the novel uses the autobiographical form to narrate the journey of a young man, Pandurang Sangvikar, and his friends through his college years. Kosala is considered to be the first existentialist novel in Marathi literature. Since its publication, its open-ended nature and potential for varied interpretations have been viewed as ground-breaking. The novel has become a modern classic of post-1960 Marathi fiction, and has been translated into eight South Asian languages and into English. ## Publication Kosala, Bhalchandra Nemade's debut novel, was conceived and written during his Bombay phase. At 21, Nemade had failed in his journalistic aspirations, and returned to his native village. He was rebuffed there by his father, who was disappointed that his son risked squandering an expensive education to end up being a cowherd. In 1963, Nemade was 25 and living in his village. Likening himself to the Hindu king Trishanku, accepted neither by the city nor his village family, a despairing Nemade shut himself away and wrote his novel over a three-week period. Kosala was published in September that same year by J. J. Deshmukh, who had learned of Nemade's talent and encouraged him to write during his sojourn in Bombay. The novel proved innovative, and quickly became a success. As a Bildungsroman, tracing the author's own story from childhood until his return to his village, it broke with Marathi narrative traditions. Several editions appeared in the years following the novel's initial publication. The twenty-second edition of Kosala was published in 2013. ## Contents Kosala uses the first-person narrative technique to recount the first twenty-five years in the life of Pandurang Sangavikar, a young man of rural upbringing who moves to Pune for his higher education. He feels isolated in his new social setting, and this persistent feeling of estrangement leads him to return home. There, he encounters further disillusionment, with the death of his sister, his father's domination, and his own financial dependence. The novel aims to portray the spectrum of society from the viewpoint of Pandurang as a young boy. ## Characters Main characters: - Pandurang Sangavikar – The protagonist, and only son of a rich village farmer. His fellow hostel students call him by his nickname, Pandu. - Pandurang's father – The head of a joint family, and a rich and respected man in his village. - Mani – Pandurang's younger sister. - Giridhar – Pandurang's village friend. - Suresh Bapat – Pandurang's college friend in Pune. ## Plot The story unfolds during the 1950s in Khandesh (a region in Central India), and in Pune. Using the autobiographical form, Kosala narrates the life-story of Pandurang Sangvikar, a young man of 25, in six sections. Pandurang is the son of a well-to-do farmer from Sangvi, a village in Khandesh. His family includes his parents, his grandmother, and his four sisters. Pandurang's relationship with his father is a difficult one, and they have been estranged since Pandurang was a boy. His father, who typifies the patriarchal family head, beats his son in childhood for wandering around in the company of his friends. He does not allow the young boy to learn to play the flute, or to perform in his school's plays. Pandurang considers his father excessively money-minded, materialistic, selfish, unscrupulous, and dictatorial. In sharp contrast to his relationship with his father, Pandurang loves his mother and his sisters dearly. After passing his local school's matriculation examination, Pandurang moves to Pune to attend college. While studying, Pandurang lives in a hostel. He decides to make the most of college life, and becomes the secretary of the college debating society, prefect of the hostel, and directs a play at the college Annual Day function. Out of kindness, he gives responsibility for the management of the hostel mess to one of his poor friends. But, although Pandurang tries to help everyone around him, he ultimately discovers that his friends are using him. Finally, when he fails his exams badly and his financial position deteriorates, his father becomes angered by Pandurang's lifestyle. Pandurang learns a lesson: that good deeds do not count for much in life. In his second year of college, Pandurang is an entirely new man, carefree and adventurous. Even his father now hesitates to ask him to mend his ways. He is shaken by the untimely death of his younger sister, Mani, but otherwise has no care for anything. In consequence, he fails his exam. After unsuccessful attempts to find work in the city, ultimately Pandurang returns to his village, his mind "existentially vacant". He is now one of many unemployed youngsters of the village. As Pandurang tries to understand their views on life, their sorrows and their joys, the true meaning of life begins to dawn. ## Theme and techniques The main theme of Kosala is alienation. The novel is influenced by existential philosophy, exploring existentialist ideas such as an obsession with birth and death, dread, alienation, and absurdity. Like other existential novels, Kosala uses the first person point of view to recount an individual's experiences, and in this exploration raises many questions regarding the meaning of life and the value of existence. It is considered the first existential novel in Marathi literature. The novel's protagonist, Pandurang, has been described as a "quintessential anti-hero", refusing all forms of colonial modernity: literacy, Western education, urbanisation, industrialisation, capitalism, nationalism, and the values of "progress" they embody. Pandurang is estranged from his father, and has been from childhood. Later in the novel, this estrangement develops into a major theme of the younger generation's mute revolt against the patriarchal value system characteristic of traditional Indian life. Pandurang has not found anything meaningful in his experience of village life. Over a six-year period, this experience of meaninglessness repeats itself in his college life in Pune. Despite the novel's pessimistic undertones, an element of humour runs through Kosala. Oblique, irrelevant humour is used as a serious moral strategy, to unmask the falseness of society and culture. In its narrative, Kosala presents a fusion of different genres, including: autobiography, the diary, the novel, Indian folktales, folk narrative, and medieval hagiography. The novel makes varied use of language, style and register, including: standard and archaic language, urban and non-urban dialect, slang, jargon, poetry, and rhetoric. Kosala is said to have been inspired in part by J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, a novel to which it has a similar narrative style. ## Reception Kosala is widely regarded as both a modern classic and a ground-breaking novel which left its mark on sathottari, or post-1960, Marathi fiction. Nemade rapidly came to be considered a representative writer of his generation with its publication. According to Nemade himself, Kosala was given a hostile reception by the Marathi establishment, both for its portrayal of the professorial class, and for its description of the profane world. But it gained an enthusiastic following among readers of the younger generation, who identified with the thinking exemplified by its protagonist. The novel heralded a new trend in Marathi literature, and other commentators hold that it received immediate critical acclaim. Since its publication, Kosala has been considered a trendsetter in Marathi literature, because of its open-ended quality and its potential for varied interpretation. It is the novel most widely appreciated and interpreted by a number of literary critics, including: Dilip Chitre, Narhar Kurundkar, Chandrashekhar Jahagirdar, Vilas Sarang, Sukanya Aagase, Rekha Inamdar-Sane, and Vasudev Sawant. Chandrashekhar Jahagirdar wrote: "It was only Kosla [sic], which responding as it did to a crisis in the cultural consciousness of Maharashtra, that opened up new, native possibilities of form and meaning and thus sought to change the direction of both literary taste and fictional tradition". Kosala has been adapted into a play, Me, Pandurang Sangavikar (lit. I am Pandurang Sangavikar), directed by Mandar Deshpande. ## Translations Kosala has been translated into eight Indian languages, and into English. The available translations of the novel are as follows:

Ruislip

Area of west London, England

Ruislip (/ˈraɪslɪp/ RY-slip) is an area in the London Borough of Hillingdon in West London. Prior to 1965 it was in Middlesex. Ruislip lies 13.8 miles (22.2 km) west-north-west of Charing Cross, London. The manor of Ruislip appears in the Domesday Book, and some of the earliest settlements still exist today, designated as local heritage sites. The parish church, St Martin's, dates back to the 13th century and remains in use. The buildings at the northern end of Ruislip High Street form the core of the original village square and are now Grade II listed. It originally featured a central water pump, but this was moved out of the road in the 1970s as a result of increased traffic. The expansion of the Metropolitan Railway from Harrow in the early 20th century acted as a catalyst for development in the area. Ruislip station opened in 1904, and a new urban district was created to reflect the forthcoming population growth; the Ruislip-Northwood Urban District split from the Uxbridge Rural District and continued until 1965, when Ruislip became part of the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon. Major landmarks in the area include Ruislip Lido, a former reservoir, now an area of public parkland with its own miniature railway and Manor Farm, a settlement dating from the 9th century which is now designated as a local heritage site. Ruislip is included within the Ruislip, Northwood and Pinner and Uxbridge & South Ruislip parliamentary constituencies and is covered by three electoral wards within the local council. As of the 2019 general election, Ruislip is represented by two Conservative MPs: the former Prime Minister Boris Johnson, and David Simmonds. ## History ### Toponymy At the time of Edward the Confessor, the manors of Ruislip and Ickenham belonged to a Saxon named Wulfward White, a thane of the king who owned land in 11 counties. Ruislip parish included what are now Ruislip, Northwood, Eastcote, Ruislip Manor and South Ruislip. Wulfward lost much of his land during the Norman conquest of England; Arnulf de Hesdin took control of Ruislip – his ownership is recorded within the 1086 Domesday Book. Ruislip appears in Domesday Book as Rislepe, thought to mean 'leaping place on the river where rushes grow', in reference to the River Pinn. It is formed from the Old English 'rysc' and 'hlȳp'. Translated from Latin, an entry reads: > M. Arnulf [Ernulf] of Hesdin holds Rislepe [Ruislip]. It is assessed for 30 hides. Land for 20 ploughs. In lordship 11 hides; 3 ploughs there. There are 12 ploughs between the Frenchmen and the villagers; a further 5 possible. > > A priest, 1⁄2 hide; 2 villagers with 1 hide; 17 villagers, 1 virgate each; 10 villagers, 1⁄2 virgate each; 7 smallholders, 4 acres each; 8 cottagers; 4 slaves; 4 Frenchmen with 3 hides and 1 virgate. > > Pasture for the village livestock; a park for woodland beasts; woodland, 1500 pigs, and 20d too. > > Total value £20; when acquired £12; before 1066 £30. > > Wulfward White, a thane of King Edward's, held this manor; he could sell it to whom he would. Under Edward the Confessor, Ruislip had been valued at £30, though the reduction to £12 by the time Ernulf de Hesdin took possession is believed to have been caused by a passing unit of the Norman Army taking crops. This led to the construction of buildings at Manor Farm to protect produce. Before leaving England to fight in the Holy Lands, Ernulf de Hesdin gave ownership of Ruislip to the Benedictine Bec Abbey in 1087. He died fighting and is commemorated in annual masses held in June at Sacred Heart Church and on the remains of the motte-and-bailey at Manor Farm. It was an ancient parish in the historic county of Middlesex, part of the hundred of Elthorne. ### Early developments The parish church, St Martin's, has been dated to the mid-13th century. An earlier church is believed to have been built during the Norman period, as a stone was found within the grounds with markings from that time. The name St. Martin is believed to have been given to the church by the monks of the Bec Abbey, after Martin of Tours, a saint in Normandy. Before 1245, references to the church only name it as "Ruislip church". The present church is said to have been built upon the insistence of the Proctor-General, William de Guineville, under the ownership of Bec Abbey, to serve the growing population. He used the priory at Manor Farm as his main residence The first recorded vicar was William de Berminton in 1327. The building itself has been remodelled in parts over the centuries and was substantially restored by George Gilbert Scott in 1870. It received Grade B listed status as an Anglican church in 1950, corresponding as Grade II. Under the ownership of the Bec Abbey, timber from the woods around Ruislip – Park Wood, Mad Bess Wood and Copse Wood – was used in the construction of the Tower of London in 1339, Windsor Castle in 1344, the Palace of Westminster in 1346 and the manor of the Black Prince in Kennington. The woods were coppiced on rotation throughout the years with the timber sold to local tanneries. By the time King's College took ownership of the manor, the woods were let for sport, with pheasants kept for shooting. ### Urban development In 1812, Bishop Winnington Ingram School was established by the vestry of St Martin's church in Eastcote Road. The school had 111 pupils by 1845 but fell into a state of disrepair until its rebuilding in 1931. Ruislip came under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Police in 1845. By 1869, the police were renting a house in the High Street to serve as the local police station, the copyhold of which was purchased in 1873. A new station was built in The Oaks in 1961. In 1863, the White Bear public house came under the ownership of the Harman's Brewery in Uxbridge. It had been built close to Primrose Hill Farm near the junction of the Ickenham Road and Kings End. Kings End was a hamlet, with one building dating back to the 16th century. It was named after a family who had lived there at that time. A well was sunk in 1864 in the High Street at the junction with Bury Street, constructed by Mr Charles Page from Uxbridge. The first 15-foot (4.6 m) were dug, before 90.75-foot (27.66 m) was bored through the London clay and the final 30-foot (9.1 m) was cut through chalk. A drought in 1898 led to the parish council requesting a well be created on what are now the Pinn Meadows, to make use of the natural spring there. The Colne River Water Company agreed, upon the guarantee of £45 per year, and the service was established. A report had been prepared for the parish council in 1903 which noted the population in Northwood – 2,700 by that time, with 530 houses – compared with the largely rural character of the rest of Ruislip parish. At a meeting of the Ruislip parish council on 28 October 1903, the forthcoming extension of the Metropolitan Railway from Harrow on the Hill to Uxbridge was also discussed as it was known that a station would be opened in Ruislip on the new line. Councillors were also aware that King's College, Cambridge, owners of much of the land in the parish and lords of the manor, were planning to sell some for development. With this in mind, a vote was cast which went in favour of becoming an urban district. The new district was designed to better reflect to increase in development, as councillors felt a parish council would work slower than an urban district. The first train on the new railway line ran on 30 June 1904, and the new station at Ruislip opened on 4 July. The area became popular with ramblers, who would head to the Ruislip Lido, and general day-trippers who sought out the countryside. Local residents in Ruislip established their own tea gardens, which they advertised for the visitors. In particular, the Poplars, a Georgian house built in 1774 on the corner of the High Street and Ickenham Road, opened a tea garden in the grounds. It was eventually demolished in 1929 to make way for shops. A similar establishment was opened in light of the new railway on the corner of Sharps Lane, known as the Orchard Bungalow. It was eventually expanded and became The Orchard Hotel. The new urban district was formed on 30 September 1904, covering the parish, which had previously been part of the Uxbridge Rural District. At the time the parish incorporated Ruislip Manor, South Ruislip, Eastcote and Northwood. The new urban district council held its first meeting at Northwood School on 1 October, the day after forming. King's End was developed as a residential road in the early 1900s. By 1907, the first of the new homes were completed and residents began to move into them. The road was named King's End Avenue, though reverted to the original name of King's End later in the century. The district experienced a sharp rise in population, from 6,217 in 1911 to 72,791 in 1961, caused by the extension of the Metropolitan Railway, termed Metro-land, which brought with it an increase in suburban house building. As a consequence, the district was one of the first in England to devise a statutory planning scheme in 1914, following the Housing and Town Planning Act 1909. The council had been prompted to follow this new act by the chairman of the council, Mr. Elgood, an architect, and the clerk to the council, Mr. Abbot. Members of the council had already raised concerns over some of the new building work around Eastcote and South Ruislip, and the new development near Northwood station which they described as "badly arranged and closely-packed". Together with King's College, the urban district council worked to establish plots of land for development around Ruislip and Ruislip Manor. A town planning competition was held and A & J Soutar from Wandsworth won. They plan to create a symmetrical design spreading across Ruislip parish. Many of the woods and historic sites including Manor Farm were to be demolished and cleared as part of the plan, making way for a projected total of 7,642 homes, enough for 35,000 residents. Only St. Martin's Church would have been spared. An outline map was made public on 30 November 1910 with few objections recorded. A Local Board inquiry followed on 17 February 1911 which required negotiations with landowners to allow for a full planning scheme to be compiled. This was presented in February 1913 with an adaptation of the original Soutars plan, receiving approval from the Local Government Board in September 1914. Three roads with residential housing, Manor Way, Windmill Way and Park Way were completed before the outbreak of the First World War when all construction work was halted. It did not resume until 1919. Manor Farm and the local woods eventually avoided demolition in January 1930, after the visit by a member of the Royal Society of Arts to choose the buildings that should be conserved. The Great Barn and Little Barn were singled out from the site, together with the old post office, the Old Bell public house and the Priest's House of the local church. The woods were included in a sale by King's College to the district in February 1931. Park Wood was sold for £28,100 with Manor Farm and the old post office included as a gift to the people of Ruislip. King's had wished to also present the wood as a gift but was required by the University and Colleges Act to receive payment as it was the trustee of the land. Middlesex County Council contributed 75% of the cost as the urban district council argued that many of those who would make use of the land would be recreational day-trippers from outside the district. Under a 999-year lease, the council agreed to maintain the wood and ensure no new building was constructed without the permission of the county council. An area of the wood to the south was not included in the lease agreement and three residential roads were later constructed on it. Copse Wood was later purchased by Middlesex County Council and London County Council in 1936 for £23,250, later joined by Mad Bess Wood in the same year. The urban district council purchased the 186 acres (75 ha) wood together with Middlesex and London County Councils for £28,000 in a compulsory purchase from Sir Howard Stransom Button. Sir Howard became High Sheriff of Middlesex in 1937. On 19 December 1946 a Railway Air Services Dakota 3 airliner taking-off from Northolt Aerodrome crashed into a house in Angus Drive, Ruislip, fortunately with no serious injuries to anyone, either in the aircraft or on the ground. On 6 January 1948 a British European Airways Vickers VC.1 Viking flying from Renfrew Airport to RAF Northolt crashed in a ploughed field approximately five miles from the runway. The crew had tried to land the aircraft twice unsuccessfully when the aircraft struck a tree on the third approach attempt. Of the 18 passengers and crew on board, one crew member was killed in the crash. In 1961, the Portland Spy Ring was uncovered. Peter and Helen Kroger were found to have been involved whilst living in Ruislip. They were visited each Saturday evening by Gordon Lonsdale and were eventually placed under police surveillance. The Krogers were eventually arrested and found to have codes, a microdot reader and film of the Admiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment in Portland Harbour concealed within ordinary household items. A radio transmitter hidden in the garden was not retrieved until 1977. Primrose Hill Farm was demolished to make way for housing in 1965. Field End Farm, covering 50 acres (20 ha) at the junction of Wood Lane and West End Road, was demolished in 1966. The farmhouse had been owned by the manor of Northolt under the name of Berrengers. Bishop Winnington Ingram School moved to Southcote Rise in 1968 and the original school building was demolished. In 1976, the war memorial dedicated to those killed during the First World War was moved from the graveyard of St Martin's to the entrance of Manor Farm. Bury Street Farm near the Plough was demolished in 1980. In 1984, the Battle of Britain House, built within Copse Wood in 1905, was destroyed by fire and the ruins demolished. The house became a college in 1948 and included plaques with the crests of all Royal Air Force squadrons involved in the Battle of Britain as a memorial. In April 2007, restoration work began on the Manor Farm site using funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund. The work was completed in June the following year, and included the renovation of the Grade II listed library. The Duck Pond Market began in the Great Barn in December 2008, following the refurbishment, and runs on the first and third Sunday of every month. Winston Churchill Hall on the site received a £370,000 grant from Hillingdon Council in March 2011 to enable its refurbishment. ## Demographics Between 1911 and 1961, Ruislip-Northwood experienced a significant rise in population largely due to the extension of the railway. In 2011, the population of five wards which approximate to the Ruislip area was 58,217. ## Local government Ruislip formed an ancient parish of 6,585 acres (26.65 km²) in the Elthorne hundred of Middlesex. Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, the parish lost control of poor relief to Uxbridge Poor Law Union and it was grouped into the Uxbridge rural sanitary district in 1875. In 1894 the sanitary district was replaced by Uxbridge Rural District and the parish vestry was replaced with a parish council. Due to increasing population, the parish split off from the rural district and formed the Ruislip-Northwood Urban District, with the parish council replaced by an urban district council. The urban district was abolished in 1965 and was transferred to Greater London to form part of the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon. Within the London Borough of Hillingdon, Ruislip is covered by three electoral wards: Eastcote and East Ruislip, South Ruislip and West Ruislip. Ruislip is part of the Ruislip, Northwood and Pinner and Uxbridge and South Ruislip constituencies within the UK Parliament, represented by David Simmonds and former Prime Minister Boris Johnson, respectively. ## Education Primary schools in Ruislip include Bishop Winnington Ingram Church of England Primary School, Lady Bankes Infant School, Lady Bankes Junior School, Warrender Primary School, Whiteheath Infant School, and Whiteheath Junior School. Secondary schools include Bishop Ramsey School, and Ruislip High School. ## Sports clubs Ruislip is represented by the Non-League football club Hillingdon Borough F.C., who plays at the Middlesex Stadium. The non-league club Wealdstone FC is based at the Grosvenor Vale Stadium, although the club is originally from Harrow and have been based in Ruislip since 2008. Grosvenor Vale Stadium also played host to Ruislip Manor F.C. between 1938 and 2008, (when the ground was known by a different name) before the non-league club folded following a period of financial uncertainty during its latter two trading years. Ruislip Rugby Club is based in West End Road and was formed in 1954, succeeding an earlier club from around 1950. The club's ground is at West End Road in Ruislip. Ruislip Golf Course, on Ickenham Road, was opened in 1922, and is operated by a private company on behalf of the London Borough of Hillingdon. Ruislip is also the home of Eastcote Hockey Club, based at Kings College playing fields. The club was originally based in Eastcote, from where it took its name, but moved to the present location in 1964. ## Transport ### London Underground Stations in the area: - South Ruislip station (Central line and Chiltern Railways) - Ruislip station (Metropolitan line & Piccadilly line) - Ruislip Manor station (Metropolitan line & Piccadilly line) - Ruislip Gardens station (Central line) - West Ruislip station (Central line & Chiltern Railways) ### Buses London Buses serving Ruislip are: ## Landmarks ### Village square The buildings at the north end of Ruislip High Street, Nos 1 to 15, the Duck House restaurant and the Swan public house, which has since been operated as Cafe Rouge, form the core of the original village and are Grade II listed. This area formed the village square, at the junction of the High Street, Bury Street and Eastcote Road. The village water pump was sunk in the centre of the square in 1864, to a depth of 105 feet (32 m) 9 inches (230 mm), though was moved to be beside the Manor Farm Lodge in the 1970s. It was moved again in 1982 to sit outside 7–15 High Street. ### Manor Farm To the north of Ruislip High Street, the 22 acres (8.9 ha) Manor Farm site incorporates the remains of settlements dating back to the 9th century, as well as buildings including the Great Barn, dated by English Heritage as having been built around 1280. A working farm until the 1930s, the farm was let by King's College, Cambridge, the owners of the land from 1500 to the mid 20th century. It has been designated as a local heritage site and was refurbished between 2007 and 2008 with funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund. ### Ruislip Lido Ruislip Lido is a nineteenth century reservoir with an artificial sand beach, surrounded by woodlands through which runs the Ruislip Lido Railway, a miniature 12" gauge railway with diesel and steam locomotives. The Lido was established as a reservoir to feed the Grand Union Canal by damming and flooding the lower part of the valley between Park Wood and Copse Wood, including the hamlet of Park Hearn. Work began in 1811; the consulting engineer John Rennie announced completion of the project to the Grand Junction Waterworks Company on 5 December that year. Unsuccessful as a canal feeder lake, it was reconstructed as a pleasure resort in 1933. ### Orchard Hotel Following the extension of the Metropolitan Railway to Ruislip, and the resulting influx of visitors to the area, Albert Cross built a bungalow from where teas were served to day-trippers. This became a success and Cross had the building expanded, which soon became the Orchard Hotel. Between 1933 and 1971 it became an Ansells licensed bar and well known high class restaurant. It then became a Berni Inn then Beefeater restaurant, which it remains, and was recently extended with a Premier Inn hotel. During the Battle of Britain, the Orchard was very popular with the pilots of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron stationed at RAF Northolt, who celebrated many of their successes in battle there. The owner was known to open a bottle of champagne for each German aircraft shot down by the squadron. ## Notable people - Optical mineralogist Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) was born in Ruislip. - Mary Bankes (c. 1598–1661), Royalist figure of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society, lived in Ruislip. Lady Bankes Infant and Junior School is named after her. - Experimental musician Paul Burwell (1949–2007) was born in Ruislip. - Conn Iggulden, author, attended Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Primary. - Poet Peter Levi (1931–2000) was born in Ruislip. - Actress Lana Morris (1930–1998) was born in Ruislip. - Author Leslie Thomas alluded to Ruislip in a novel entitled Tropic of Ruislip. - Choral director and television song composer Fred Tomlinson lived in Walnut Way. - Actress Jessie Matthews (1907-1981) is buried in St Martins graveyard. - Actor Simon Fisher-Becker was born in Ruislip in 1961. ## In popular culture Ruislip was the setting for the 1967 film Poor Cow. In one scene, a title card states "When Tom was in the money, the world was our oyster, and we chose Ruislip" before cutting to an aerial view of a large council estate. The former Punch and Judy cafe on Ducks Hill Road was the location for Dave Allen's bank note under a car sketch. Alvin Stardust filmed a Green Cross Code advert on Ruislip High Street. This safety film dates from circa 1976. The children's TV programme Come Outside features Ruislip Manor library in the edition called Buses. Episode 7 of series 7 of The Two Ronnies featured a sketch titled "Home Rule for Ruislip". The sketch features Ronnie Barker dressed as a Viking taking on the role of chief spokesmen. ## See also - List of schools in Hillingdon

Pacific Salmon War

1990s fishing dispute between American and Canadian fishers

The Pacific Salmon War was a period of heightened tensions between Canada and the United States over the Pacific Salmon catch. It began in 1992 after the first Pacific Salmon Treaty, which had been ratified in 1985, expired, and lasted until a new agreement was signed in 1999. Disagreements were high in 1994, when a transit fee was set on American fishing vessels using the Inside Passage and a ferry was blockaded by fishing boats in Friday Harbor, Washington. Tensions peaked in 1997, when Canadian fishers, pursuing a "Canada First" strategy, began catching as many salmon as they could. After aggressive tacks on both sides, Alaskan fishers were granted free rein to fish for 56 hours around Noyes Island. In retaliation, a flotilla consisting of between 100 and 200 Canadian fishing boats surrounded the Alaskan ferry MV Malaspina in the port of Prince Rupert, British Columbia, for three days. Heightened tensions continued for the rest of the fishing season, with Premier Glen Clark of British Columbia threatening to close the Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental and Test Ranges (CFMETR) in Nanoose Bay. Alaskan ferry services to Prince Rupert were halted. Disagreements were largely resolved by 1999, although court cases continued until a new agreement was signed on June 3, 2001. ## Background Pacific salmon have been an important food source and trade commodity for Northwest First Nations peoples for millennia. After European explorers arrived, the first large-scale commercial salmon fisheries were started in the early 1800s. Lucrative fisheries were established on the Columbia and Fraser rivers, including canneries geared for export. Harvests increased annually until the 1910s. The abundance of the resource had precluded any disagreements between the Canadian and American governments until this point. However, from the 1920s, stocks began to decline, a result of over-fishing and the degradation and obstruction of migratory rivers. Competition between American and Canadian fisheries for the dwindling resource led to conflict. Disputes were complicated by the fact that the salmon crossed several international borders during their lifespan. In 1930, the governments met and proposed the Fraser River Convention to regulate fishing and mitigate environmental damage to salmon habitats. The International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission was formally founded in 1937. By the 1970s, cooperation between the two governments in setting fishing quotas had faltered. In 1982, after 14 or 15 years of negotiations, a comprehensive treaty known as the Pacific Salmon Treaty was signed and was fully ratified in 1985. It limited catches of Alaska, Fraser, and Columbia salmon to pre-set quotas and committed the governments to improving the spawning capacities of the region's rivers. The treaty had two main purposes: to "prevent overfishing and provide for optimum production" of salmon and to "provide for each Party to receive benefits equivalent to the production of salmon originating in its waters." Though the treaty was generally successful at increasing fish populations, it failed to prevent large amounts of 'interceptions', or fish being caught disproportionately by one country. In 1999, Karon de Zwager Brown calculated that the US had intercepted 35 million more salmon than Canada since 1985. The disagreements were exacerbated by the fact that American salmon production was going down and Canadian stocks were increasing, resulting in a disproportionate number of American interceptions. In 1992 the treaty expired. 1993 was the last year both countries agreed on fishing limits. Regulations regarding how many fish could be caught ended in 1994. ## Conflict In May 1994, negotiations over a new treaty collapsed. The following month, the AP wrote that "The opening shots in what some people are calling an international 'fish war' could be fired by the Canadian government Thursday." The same month, the Associated Press quoted Minister of Fisheries Oceans Brian Tobin as saying "There will be an aggressive fishing strategy, but no fish war," as Canadian fishers announced a fishing plan that would increase catches of salmon and restrict American fishing in Canadian waters. The plan was deliberately aggressive, intending to "maximize disruption" according to Tobin. On August 15, a ferry was briefly blockaded by around 12 fishing boats in Friday Harbor, Washington. They were protesting a lack of progress in fishing negotiations. In late August, Canada seized five American ships. On June 9, 1994, Canada announced a C\$1500 'transit fee' on fishing boats traveling to Alaska via the Inside Passage. The US argued that the fee was in violation of the law of the sea, which grants "innocent right of passage to vessels through a country's territorial waters". Canada contended that the passage was a waterway. Though it was supported by various Canadians, the fee was suspended after Vice President of the United States Al Gore agreed to further negotiations, but not before C\$325,000 had been charged to 285 fishing boats. The US reimbursed fishers for the fees. Negotiations again failed in 1995 after Alaskan delegates were unwilling to restrict their catch. In June, Al Gore urged Alaskan fishers to lower their catch. On July 9 an Alaskan ferry was prevented from docking in Prince Rupert by Canadian fishers. Later that year, on August 11 a temporary ban on Alaskan fishing of Chinook salmon was put in place by Barbara Rothstein, a senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington, after Native American tribes in the region filed a lawsuit. The tribes, Washington state, Oregon, and British Columbia all supported lower Alaskan limits. After the Turbot War between Canada and Spain, Tobin urged outside mediation. In October an attempt at mediation, led by New Zealand diplomat Chris Beeby, began. Beeby determined that the Americans would have to dramatically decrease their catch in order to balance interests of both nations. The United States rejected his conclusions, and 1996 Alaska was accused of placing limits on their fishers that were too high by British Columbia. In 1996, general conservation plans were agreed upon and Canada claimed that the US took 5.3 million more salmon then it was "entitled to". Later that year, Alaska's limits were again called too high. That year, American fishers 'intercepted' 5.3 million salmon. Discussions begun in February 1997 failed to resolve the disagreement. Canadian fishers resolved to enter the fishing season by adopting a "Canada First" strategy, where they would attempt to catch large amounts of salmon before the salmon reached the Fraser River. As a result, they caught three million—or almost ten times the amount American fishers caught. In June 1997, American fishers caught an estimated 315,000 of the 2.35 million sockeye salmon caught—almost three times their 120,000 average. Canadians alleged that the Americans were targeting the valuable sockeye salmon, which the Americans denied. The "Canada First" policy was equated by the conservationist David Ellis to a "scorched earth" fishing policy, because it threatened salmon stocks. That same month, four American fishing boats were detained in a port in British Columbia for violating a new law that required all fishing boats to check in with the Canadian Coast Guard and store fishing gear below deck. They were fined and then released. After the incident, American senator Frank H. Murkowski proposed an escort for the boats composed of US Navy or US Coast Guard ships. Two fishermen of the Makah tribe were arrested and fined \$4,000 each for illegal fishing by Canadian authorities. Alaskan governor Tony Knowles equated Canadian actions to gunboat diplomacy. During a breakdown in treaty negotiations in early July, a group of around 100 American fishermen were allowed to fish as much as they wanted around Noyes Island for 56 hours. Canadian fishers argued that \$50 million to \$60 million of fish were taken during that time. Clark was reluctant to give the US Navy permission to operate submarines and canceled a US Canada economic conference. The US was accused of violating the terms of the Pacific Salmon Treaty on July 18, 1997. On July 19, 1997, a flotilla consisting of between 100 and 200 Canadian fishing boats surrounded the Alaskan ferry MV Malaspina in the port of Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in retaliation for the Noyes Island incident. 328 passengers were trapped aboard the ship and the ship was not allowed to travel to Ketchikan, Alaska, its next stop. A court ordered the boats to move the following day, and they refused, requesting to speak to David Anderson, the Canadian Minister of Fisheries. Another ferry boat avoided docking in Prince Rupert and instead went to its next stop, Bellingham, Washington. After three days the Malaspina was released when Anderson ordered the blockade to be lifted. The United States Department of State complained, and the United States Senate condemned Canada for not acting to end the blockade quicker. In response to the blockade, Alaskan ferry services to Prince Rupert were halted, depriving the region of many tourists—a major source of income. Alaska also sued the fishermen for C\$2.8 million in lost revenue, and Canadian fishers counter-sued over revenue lost. The halt was extended through the middle of 1998 in September. An American flag was burned in Prince Rupert. Glen Clark, then Premier of British Columbia, attempted to close via expropriation or cancel the lease to CFMETR, Nanoose Bay, a Nanoose Bay torpedo testing site that was leased to the US Navy. The Canadian federal government halted Clark's efforts. ## Resolution In September 1997 in Seattle, Glen Clark filed a lawsuit against the United States, seeking C\$325 million in damages and alleging American fishers broke the terms of the treaty. He claimed that Americans were taking 500,000 sockeye salmon, which was four times the Pacific Salmon Treaty's limit. Americans countered that the Canadians were over-fishing coho and chinook salmon. Clark was not supported in his suit by the Canadian federal government and called it "treasonous". In October, Raymond Chrétien, the Canadian Ambassador to the United States, wrote a letter to the US House Natural Resources Committee, saying that "During the last three years, cooperation with the United States on the conservation of chinook salmon has been a major problem," and complaining about Alaskan over-fishing. The federal governments quickly became further involved, with William Ruckelshaus appointed by US President Bill Clinton to represent the US and the geologist David Strangway by Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien to represent Canada. Their first report was published on January 12, 1998. On January 22, 1998, Alaska offered to drop the lawsuit in exchange for the counter-suit being dropped and Canada spending C\$2.75 million promoting tourism in Cascadia. Clark's case was dismissed on January 30, 1998, and later in 2001 by US District Judge John C. Coughenour. Before the 1999 fishing season, a deal between Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Canada, and various native tribes was signed with new restrictions, and the conflict was essentially ended. The dispute formally ended June 3, 2001, when the 1985 agreement was revised and signed. Gary Locke, an American negotiator and governor of Washington State, said "Today we mark an end to the last several years of stalemate ... an end to the U.S.-Canada salmon war" on the day of signing the agreement. Some in Canada felt that David Anderson had not pushed enough for a better deal for Canadians.

Whatcha Think About That

2008 single by The Pussycat Dolls

"Whatcha Think About That" is a song recorded by American girl group the Pussycat Dolls for their second studio album, Doll Domination (2008). The song features a guest appearance from American rapper Missy Elliott, who co-wrote it with the song's producer Polow da Don, Ester Dean, and Mickaël Furnon, who received songwriting credit due to his work being sampled. It was released on September 9, 2008, as the album's second single in the United States and on February 23, 2009, as the third single in the United Kingdom. The electropop and R&B midtempo song samples "Je m'appelle Jane" by Jane Birkin and is built on a bhangra-inspired guitar riff. Lyrically, the Pussycat Dolls reverse roles towards an overbearing and controlling partner. Elliott references American singer Katy Perry and her song "I Kissed a Girl". The song received moderate reviews from music critics; some praised the production and Elliott's contribution, while others had the opposite opinion. "Whatcha Think About That" did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100 but peaked at number eight on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. The song peaked at number 12 in Ireland and number nine in the UK, where it received a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). An accompanying music video was directed by Diane Martel and was released on October 6, 2008. It depicts the group performing Fosse-inspired choreography in a burlesque lounge. The Pussycat Dolls performed the song for a few televised appearances and on their 2009 Doll Domination Tour. ## Background and release "Whatcha Think About That" was written by its sole producer Polow da Don, Ester Dean, Missy Elliott, and Mickaël Furnon of the French rock group Mickey 3D. It features a sample of "Je m'appelle Jane", written by Furnon and performed by Jane Birkin. Dean handled the vocal production as well, along with Ron Fair. The artist's vocals were recorded at Zac Studio in Atlanta, Georgia and The Boiler Room Studio in Santa Monica, California by Mike “Angry” Eleoploulos, Tal Herzberg, Tony Terrebonne, Aubry "Big Juice" Delaine, and Matt Wheeler, with the assistance of Johnathan Merritt and Bryan Morton. The song was mixed by Dave Pensado and Jayson Joshua. Elliott appears courtesy of The Goldmind Inc. and Atlantic Records. She is the first female rapper the Pussycat Dolls collaborated with, after previously working with male rappers such as Busta Rhymes and Snoop Dogg. According to lead singer, Nicole Scherzinger, Elliott's contribution to the song elevated the group to another level, acknowledging they always wanted to work with her. Fellow group member, Kimberly Wyatt has frequently stated Elliott is a dream collaboration of hers. The song premiered through the Pussycat Dolls' website for streaming on August 29, 2008. Rap-Up unveiled the cover art, confirming that "Whatcha Think About That" was selected to be released as the follow-up to their single "When I Grow Up". The song impacted US contemporary hit radio stations on September 9, 2008, as the second single in the United States from Doll Domination, and a remixes version was made available for digital download in the country on October 21, 2008. In the United Kingdom, the song was released as a CD single on February 23, 2009, after "I Hate This Part", standing as the third single to coincide with the group's Doll Domination Tour run within the UK. ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "Whatcha Think About That" is an electropop and R&B midtempo song, with elements of dance music and a sample of Birkin's "Je m'appelle Jane". Built around a bhangra-inspired guitar riff, the Pussycat Dolls adopt a "spunky attitude" and lay "down the law to a deadbeat boyfriend" who is overbearing and controlling. They partake in a gender-role reversal approach and propose different activities, such as the protagonist going out in a club, while her boyfriend stays home. A reviewer from Newsday noted the group sound "sleek and empowered", and where compared to M.I.A.'s vocals, resembling a near-tribal sound. Maura Johnston of Idolator wrote that the song is reminiscent of Whitney Houston's single "I'm Your Baby Tonight" (1990). "Whatcha Think About That" features three verses from Elliott, who joins the Pussycat Dolls "for a boy-baiting session", and uses risqué lyrics in her "brash" rap teasing, "You ain't gonna get no more pussy... cat". Elliott references singer Katy Perry and her song "I Kissed a Girl" (2008) during one of the verses with the line, "Up in that club it's just me and my girls, play like Katy Perry kissing on girls." ## Reception ### Critical Alex Fletcher from Digital Spy called "Whatcha Think About That" a "vibrant slice" of a song that finds the group "somewhere near the top of their game". Vancouver Province's Stuart Derdeyn wrote that "Whatcha Think About That" "is a far better tune" than "When I Grow Up" for its "all kinds of innuendo". The Sunday Times reviewer Elan Priya considered the former an exception to how Doll Domination "lacks any distinct personality" and highlighted Elliot's rap as "cheeky". Allison Stewart of The Washington Post wondered if it is the least objectionable song the Pussycat Dolls has recorded and described the track as a "nifty tale of sexual role reversal". BBC's Vicki Lutas attributed the song's catchiness to Elliott, adding that "she does make this song just that little bit more distinctive". Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani labelled "Whatcha Think About That" as "pure filler" despite the presence of Elliott. Nic Oliver of musicOMH equated Elliott's contribution to someone who is sleepwalking, adding that the lyrics were written by a "sophomore student on a weekend bender". A reviewer from Entertainment.ie commented that Elliott lowers herself "to new levels of cheese" with her contribution. Nick Levine of Digital Spy wrote the song "is slightly disappointing after the hyperactive pop brilliance of 'When I Grow Up'". Johnston criticized Scherzinger Scherzinger for "whining and preening", and Elliot for her weak contribution in the song. ### Commercial "Whatcha Think About That" did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100, though it peaked at number eight on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart, for the week ending September 28, 2008. That same week, the song debuted and peaked at number 66 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. In Europe, the track peaked at number 12 on the Irish Singles Chart on the week ending February 12, 2009, three weeks since its debut. In the UK, "Whatcha Think About That" debuted at number 36 on the UK Singles Chart, while their previous single "I Hate This Part" dropped out of the top-40. On its fifth week, the song peaked at number nine, giving Elliott her first top-10 entry since 2005 with "Lose Control". In October 2018, the song was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for track-equivalent sales of 200,000 units in the UK. The Official Charts Company (OCC) ranks "Whatcha Think About That" as the Pussycat Dolls' ninth most successful song on the singles chart. ## Promotion The music video for "Whatcha Think About That" was directed by Diane Martel over the time span of two days, ending on September 10, 2008. The two-day shoot was exhausting for the group as they kept on dancing until the early morning and in return some of the members, like Wyatt, began to blister in their feet. Wyatt elaborated, "It can get kind of crazy, but when we’re tired as hell, we turn to each other for support, or maybe just a laugh." On September 15, 2008, the Pussycat Dolls released a sneak peek of the music video through AOL Music. The music video was released on October 6, 2008. The music video is an ode to the group's burlesque origins, where they would frequently perform at Johnny Depp's Viper Room. During an interview with Rap-Up, member Melody Thornton described the choreography as Fosse-inspired and stylized. Throughout the video the group, the Pussycat Dolls wear different cabaret-inspired costumes, fishnets, along with black or white corsets. Scenes also feature the Pussycat Dolls on "dominatrix-style [...] swing[s]". According to a writer from Rap-Up, "the Pussycat Dolls turn up the heat in their smoldering [music video]". The Pussycat Dolls and Elliott gave their first performance of "Whatcha Think About That" on October 28, 2008, on Dancing with the Stars. A writer for Rap-Up commented that the performers "sounded a mess". A week later, they performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The following year, the group performed the song during their headlining Doll Domination Tour. ## Track listing and versions - Digital download – Remixes 1. "Whatcha Think About That" (Urban Club Remix) featuring Missy Elliott – 3:48 2. "Whatcha Think About That" (Ron Fizzle Remix) – 3:33 - Digital download – Remixes EP 1. "Whatcha Think About That" featuring Missy Elliott – 3:48 2. "Whatcha Think About That" (Ron Fizzle Remix) – 3:32 3. "Whatcha Think About That" (Music video) – 3:48 - UK 3 mobile Exclusive 1. "Whatcha Think About That" (Wideboys Club Mix) featuring Missy Elliott – 6:26 - UK Orange Exclusive 1. "Whatcha Think About That" (Urban Club Mix) featuring Missy Elliott – 3:49 - UK T-Mobile Exclusive 1. "Whatcha Think About That" (Hybrid Remix) featuring Missy Elliott – 3:49 - UK Vodafone Exclusive 1. "Whatcha Think About That" (Dave Pensado Remix) featuring Missy Elliott – 3:33 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doll Domination. Recording - Recorded at Zac Studio (Atlanta, Georgia); The Boiler Room (Santa Monica, California) Personnel - Ester Dean – songwriter, vocal producer - Aubry "Big Juice" Delaine – recording - Mike "Angry" Eleopoulos – recording - Missy Elliott – songwriter, background vocals - Ron Fair – vocal producer, string arrangement and conduct - Eric Florence – tuba - Mickaël Furnon – songwriter - Tal Herzberg – recording, Pro Tools - Jamal Jones – songwriter, producer - Jaycen Joshua – mixing - Johnathan Merritt – assistant recording - Bryan Morton – assistant recording - Dave Pensado – mixing - Jason Perry – keyboards - Lissy Rosemond – banjo - Tony Terrebonne – recording - Matt Wheeler – recording - Andrew Wuepper – mixing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history

Chris Carter (screenwriter)

American television and film producer (born 1956)

Christopher Carl Carter (born October 13, 1956) is an American television and film producer, director and writer who gained fame in the 1990s as the creator of the Fox science fiction supernatural drama series The X-Files. Born in Bellflower, California, Carter graduated with a degree in journalism from California State University, Long Beach before spending thirteen years working for Surfing Magazine. After beginning his television career working on television films for Walt Disney Studios, Carter rose to fame in 1993 for creating The X-Files. The show earned high viewership ratings, and eventually led to Carter's being able to negotiate the creation of future series. Carter has his own television production company, Ten Thirteen Productions, wherein he went on to create three more series for the network—Millennium, a doomsday-themed series which met with critical approval and low viewer numbers; Harsh Realm, which was canceled after three episodes had aired; and The Lone Gunmen, a spin-off of The X-Files which lasted for a single season. Carter's film roles include writing both of The X-Files' cinematic spin-offs—1998's successful The X-Files and the poorly received 2008 follow-up The X-Files: I Want to Believe, the latter of which he also directed—while his television credits have earned him several accolades including eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations. ## Early life Chris Carter was born on October 13, 1956 in Bellflower, California. His father worked in the construction industry. Carter has described his childhood as "fairly normal", and was fond of both Little League Baseball and surfing; his surfing stance is goofy footed. He attended California State University, Long Beach in Long Beach, graduated with a journalism degree in 1979. An avid surfer, he began writing for Surfing Magazine, a San Clemente-based journal, eventually becoming its editor at the age of 28. Carter would work for the magazine for thirteen years, and credits his tenure there for teaching him how to run a business. It was also at this time that Carter began taking an interest in pottery, making "hundreds of thousands of pieces" of dinnerware as a hobby. He has compared the process of making pottery to Zen meditations, although he has since thrown out most of his work. ## Personal life In 1983, Carter began dating Dori Pierson, whom he had met through a cousin of hers who worked with him at Surfing Magazine. The couple were married in 1987, and live in Santa Barbara. ## Career ### Starting in television Pierson's connections at Walt Disney Studios led to chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg hiring Carter on a standard contract. Carter began writing television films for the studio, penning The B.R.A.T. Patrol in 1986 and Meet the Munceys in 1988. These scripts led to Carter being associated with contemporary youth comedy at the studio, and although he enjoyed the work he felt that his real strengths and interests lay in serious drama instead. Carter met the then-president of NBC, Brandon Tartikoff, at a company softball game in Brentwood, California. Tartikoff and Carter began talking between innings, and when Tartikoff eventually read some of Carter's script work, he brought him over to write for the network. There, Carter developed a number of unproduced television pilots—Cameo By Night, featuring Sela Ward; Brand New Life, which has been described as being similar to The Brady Bunch; Copter Cop, a science fiction series that was hampered by Tartikoff's injuries after a car accident; and Cool Culture, influenced by Carter's passion for surfing and experience with Surfing Magazine. During this time Carter would also work as a producer on Rags to Riches, a job he accepted in order to learn more about producing a series. Peter Roth, at that time the president of Stephen J. Cannell Productions, obtained a copy of Carter's pilot script for Cool Culture, and although the series was never picked up, Roth was interested in hiring Carter to work on the CBS series Palace Guard. However, Roth would soon leave Cannell Productions to work for Fox as the head of its television production wing. Carter was among the first wave of new staff hired by Roth in 1992 to develop material for the network, and he began work on a series based on his own childhood fondness for The Twilight Zone and Kolchak: The Night Stalker. ### The X-Files and success Carter's new series would take its stylistic inspiration from Kolchak, while thematically reflecting his experiences growing up during the Watergate scandal. Carter also drew inspiration from his friend John E. Mack's survey of American beliefs in ufology, which indicated that three percent of the population believed they had been abducted by aliens. Roth warmed to the idea upon hearing of the influence of Kolchak, believing that vampires—one of the central antagonists of the original series—would be popular with audiences given the interest being shown in the upcoming film Interview with the Vampire, although Carter insisted on an extraterrestrial-focused series. However, Carter had never been interested in science fiction before this point, professing to have briefly read one novel each by Ursula K. Le Guin and Robert A. Heinlein. Basing his characters instead on those found in the English television series The Avengers, Carter took an eighteen-page treatment for his new project—by now titled The X-Files—to a pitch meeting at Fox, where it was soon rejected. With the help of Roth, Carter was able to arrange a second pitch meeting, at which the network reluctantly agreed to greenlight a pilot for the series. After finding the series' two starring leads in Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny, Carter was given a budget of \$2 million to produce a pilot episode. The series aired on Friday nights on the Fox network, being broadcast in tandem with The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. in what was perceived to be an unpopular timeslot. The series earned relatively impressive Nielsen ratings for its Friday timeslot, and was given a full twenty-four episode order. The series' popularity and critical acclaim built over the course of its second and third seasons, and saw it earning its first Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama and breaking the record for highest price paid by a network for rights to air re-runs, fetching \$600,000 per episode from Fox's sister network FX. After Carter's initial three-year signing for Fox had ended, the success of the series allowed him to negotiate a five-year contract with several additional perks, including the guarantee of a feature film adaptation to be produced by the parent company's film studio, and the greenlighting of Carter's next television project. In March 2015, it was confirmed that Carter was set to executive produce and write for the revival of The X-Files, which was set for a six-episode event series. In 2017 it was announced that The X-Files would return to Fox with a ten-episode season 11, with Carter set to executive produce and write. Both Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny returned, as well as veteran writers Glen Morgan, Darin Morgan, and Jim Wong, and newcomers Gabe Rotter, Benjamin Van Allen, and Brad Follmer. The eleventh season has received generally positive if somewhat lukewarm reviews from critics, but ratings fell dramatically, and Gillian Anderson has stated she will not play Scully again. In August 2020, Fox announced that an animated comedy spin-off series was in development. In October 2020, Chris Carter said: "I always thought there would be even more X-Files." He admitted that continuing the series at this point with Duchovny and Anderson is unlikely, but has plans to continue the franchise with an upcoming animated spinoff. "Being that Gillian has decided to move on with her career, we certainly couldn't do Mulder and Scully again. But that's not to say there isn't another way to do The X-Files. And so right now I think the future is unwritten." The rights are now owned by Disney. ### Millennium Carter began work on a new series, Millennium. The genesis of this new project stemmed from "Irresistible", a second-season episode of The X-Files which Carter had written, which focused on a sexually motivated serial killer with none of that series' usual supernatural trappings. Carter fleshed out the basis of the new show's protagonist, Frank Black, and travelled to Seattle for inspiration for a new setting. Influence was also drawn from the works of Nostradamus, and the increasing popular interest in eschatology ahead of the coming millennium. The central role of Black was eventually filled by Lance Henriksen, and the series began airing in the Friday timeslot formerly occupied by The X-Files. "Pilot", the début episode, was heavily promoted by Fox, and brought in over a quarter of the total audience during its broadcast. The series also attracted a high degree of critical appraisal, earning a People's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Dramatic Series" in its first year. At the beginning of the second season, Carter handed over control of the series to Glen Morgan and James Wong, with whom he had previously worked on both Millennium's first season and several seasons of The X-Files. Despite its promising start, however, ratings for Millennium after the pilot remained consistently low, and it was cancelled after three seasons. ### Feature films During the production of the fourth season of The X-Files, work on the first feature film adaptation of the series began. Also titled The X-Files, Carter initially began a treatment for the script over Christmas holidays in Hawaii in 1996. Series producer Frank Spotnitz collaborated on the story outline at this time. Carter would later return to Hawaii for a ten-day stint in 1997 to begin fleshing out the finished script. Carter appointed frequent series director Rob Bowman as director of the film, which went on to feature many of the series' regular cast, including Duchovny, Anderson, Mitch Pileggi and William B. Davis. The X-Files premiered on June 19, 1998, eventually making a worldwide gross of \$189 million, and received mixed reviews. Ten years after the success of the first film, and six years after The X-Files final season had finished, Carter would both write and direct a second feature film, titled The X-Files: I Want to Believe. Filmed in British Columbia, I Want To Believe was released on July 25, 2008; eventually grossing \$68,369,434 worldwide. The film was received generally negative reviews from critics. ### Other work Carter has had several brief cameo roles as an actor — first appearing in The X-Files' "Anasazi" as an FBI agent; before portraying a member of a film audience in "Hollywood A.D.", a later episode of the same series. Carter also made a brief appearance in "Three Men and a Smoking Diaper", an episode of The Lone Gunmen. In 1999, Carter began adapting the comic book series Harsh Realm as a television show. Carter's friend and frequent collaborator Daniel Sackheim had optioned the comics for adaptation in 1996. However, when the series first aired on October 8, 1999, the comics' writers Andrew Paquette and James Hudnall were given no writing credits for the work; the two then filed suit against Fox to be credited for their work. Harsh Realm received disappointing viewing figures, and was cancelled after only three episodes had been broadcast. Two years later, Carter launched a spin-off of The X-Files titled The Lone Gunmen, a series centred on three minor characters from the former series. The Lone Gunmen was cancelled after thirteen episodes, later receiving a coda in the form of a crossover episode with The X-Files. Carter has since been involved with writing and directing the as-yet unreleased film Fencewalker, set to feature Natalie Dormer and Katie Cassidy. In 2011, he began working to develop Unique, a police thriller television series; the project was eventually dropped before completion. Carter next began work on the Amazon Studios television series The After. The pilot episode was made available for viewing on February 6, 2014; the series was green-lit the following month, but finally cancelled on January 5, 2015, without another episode beyond the pilot being shot. ### Influences As well as The Twilight Zone and Kolchak: The Night Stalker, Carter has spoken about the influence on his work of Frankenstein (both the Whale film and the Mary Shelley novel), The Wizard of Oz (1939), Spielberg films (specifically citing E.T., Schindler's List and Munich), and Twin Peaks, about which he has said, "I could have watched that show every night of the week, that's how much I loved it." In addition to these cultural sources, Carter has spoken about the impact that witnessing the hypnosis, by John Mack, of an alleged abductee, and meeting alleged abductees and UFO witnesses in general, had upon his work writing The X-Files: "When I was writing about the phenomenon, it wasn’t as a disbeliever – it was as a person who wanted to believe." ## Accolades Carter's work has earned him several accolades over his career, including eight nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards. Carter has also received award nominations for the Directors Guild of America Awards, the Edgar Awards, and the British Academy Television Awards. ## Filmography ### Film ### Television

George Whitney Calhoun

American sports editor

George Whitney Calhoun (September 16, 1890 – December 6, 1963) was an American newspaper editor and co-founder of the Green Bay Packers, a professional American football team based in Green Bay, Wisconsin. After establishing the Packers in 1919 with Curly Lambeau, Calhoun served the team in various capacities for 44 years until his death in 1963. Utilizing his editorial job at the Green Bay Press-Gazette, he became the team's first publicity director, helping to establish local support and interest. He also served as the first team manager and was a member of the board of directors of the non-profit corporation that owns the team. Although often overshadowed by the more famous Curly Lambeau, Calhoun was instrumental to the early success of the Packers. In recognition of his contributions, Calhoun was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in 1978. ## Personal life George Whitney Calhoun was born in Green Bay, Wisconsin on September 16, 1890, the son of Walter A. Calhoun and Emmeline Whitney Calhoun. The Calhoun family was well known in the area: Walter was employed at the Green Bay Water Company and Emmeline was the granddaughter of Daniel Whitney, one of the founders of Green Bay. Calhoun and his family moved to Buffalo, New York, where they lived until 1915. While in New York, Calhoun attended the University at Buffalo where he played hockey and football. While being tackled during a collegiate football game, he crashed into a goalpost, which left him temporarily paralyzed and permanently unable to play competitive sports. Calhoun recovered and completed his studies in 1913. Before moving back to Green Bay in 1915, he started working in the newspaper industry for the Buffalo Times, where he stayed for two years. In 1915, Calhoun was hired by the Green Bay Review as a telegraph editor, where he worked for two years. He then joined the Green Bay Press-Gazette, also as a telegraph editor, a job he held for 40 years until his retirement in 1957. While working for the Press-Gazette, Calhoun helped form hockey, baseball, and football teams across the region. He also became a well-known sportswriter who was respected by his peers for his knowledge of the Green Bay Packers and the early history of the National Football League (NFL). Calhoun died on December 6, 1963, in Green Bay, six years after retiring from the Press-Gazette. ## Green Bay Packers Professional football began in Green Bay in 1919, although various city teams had been organized for years. During a chance encounter, Calhoun raised the idea of starting a football team with Curly Lambeau. Calhoun was familiar with Lambeau's sports experience at Green Bay East High School and maintained a friendship with him while Lambeau was at the University of Notre Dame to play football. Their encounter occurred after Lambeau had dropped out of Notre Dame due to illness. Lambeau still wanted to play football, so Calhoun recommended they start a football team together. Lambeau persuaded his employer the Indian Packing Company to sponsor the team and pay for its uniforms and equipment. Calhoun, using his job at the Press-Gazette, wrote a few articles inviting potential football players to attend a meeting to discuss the formation of a local football team. The Green Bay Packers were officially organized on August 11, 1919, in the Press-Gazette office. A second meeting three days later on August 14 attracted up to 25 people interested in playing for the newly formed team. After two years of playing teams around Wisconsin, the Packers entered the American Professional Football Association, the precursor to the modern-day NFL. Calhoun became the team's publicity director and traveling manager, helping to organize games and promote the new franchise. Because the Packers played in such a small market, they relied heavily on the revenue from away games, which was generated by Calhoun's efforts promoting the team. He also helped raise funding for the Packers during periods of financial difficulty. Before the Packers charged for admission, he organized cash collections during games to raise additional funds. After the Packers erected a fence, Calhoun manned the front gates and ensured game attendees paid to enter the grounds. Calhoun wrote The Dope Sheet, the Packers' official newsletter and game program from 1921 to 1924. Because of the constant changing of teams and players in the NFL during the 1920s, The Dope Sheet was important in keeping fans up-to-date on the Packers and their opponents. Calhoun used his job at the Press-Gazette to network with other sports editors and maintain a vast database of early NFL game summaries and statistics. His love of beer and his unique networking abilities were so well known that Calhoun's hotel room was a popular venue before and after Packers games. Calhoun continued in his role as publicity director until 1947, when he was forced to resign by Lambeau. This was unpopular and permanently damaged Calhoun's relationship with Lambeau. Even after leaving the team, Calhoun remained a strong supporter of the Packers and attended every home game from 1919 to 1956. He also served on the Board of Directors of Green Bay Packers, Inc. until his death. ## Legacy Calhoun's legacy is complicated and often overlooked when compared to his counterpart, Curly Lambeau. Lambeau served as both a player (for ten years) and the head coach, a role he had for 30 years from 1919 to 1949. The prominence of these roles and the early success of the Packers helped enshrine Lambeau in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and led to the Packers naming their current stadium after him. Calhoun never received these same honors, although his contributions were significant. Calhoun's penchant for publicizing the team, his ability to raise funds, and his role as team manager were essential to the Packers surviving as a franchise and succeeding on the field. He is attributed with developing the name "Packers" and his Dope Sheet was an important tool to keep fans informed of game results, statistics, and players. The Packers have recognized Calhoun's influence and contributions in many ways. After Calhoun's death in December 1963, his ashes were scattered on the field at City Stadium. In 1978, Calhoun was elected to the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame in recognition of his status as a founder of the team, publicist, and board member. In 2013, a bronze sculpture of Calhoun was dedicated as part of the Packers Heritage Trail plaza in downtown Green Bay. Decades after its last publication, the Packers revived the title The Dope Sheet for its modern-day game program to honor Calhoun's early contributions to the team.

Manchester Martyrs

Three Irish nationalists hanged in 1867

The "Manchester Martyrs" (Irish: Mairtirígh Mhanchain) is a term used by Irish nationalists to refer to three men—William Philip Allen, Michael Larkin and Michael O'Brien—who were executed following their conviction of murder in 1867 after an attack on a police van in Manchester, England, in which a police officer was accidentally shot dead, an incident that was known at the time as the "Manchester Outrages". The three were members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, also known as the Fenians, an organisation dedicated to ending British rule in Ireland, and were among a group of 30–40 Fenians who attacked a horse-drawn police van transporting two arrested leaders of the Brotherhood, Thomas J. Kelly and Timothy Deasy, to Belle Vue Gaol. Police Sergeant Charles Brett, travelling inside with the keys, was shot and killed while looking through the keyhole of the van as the attackers attempted to force the door open by shooting the lock. Kelly and Deasy were released after another prisoner in the van took the keys from Brett's body and passed them to the group outside through a ventilation grill; the pair were never recaptured, despite an extensive search. Although Allen and Larkin admitted taking part in the attack, none of the defendants was accused of firing the fatal shot, but they were convicted on the basis of "joint enterprise" for taking part in a criminal enterprise that ended in the killing. The trial has nonetheless been described by an eminent Irish historian as "unsatisfactory", and the evidence as "dubious". Two others were also charged and found guilty of Brett's murder, Thomas Maguire and Edward O'Meagher Condon, but their death sentences were overturned—O'Meagher Condon's through the intercession of the United States government (he was an American citizen), and Maguire's because the evidence given against him was considered unsatisfactory by the court. Allen, Larkin and O'Brien were publicly hanged on a temporary structure built on the wall of Salford Gaol, on 23 November 1867, in front of a crowd of 8,000–10,000. Ireland reacted with revulsion and anger to the executions, and Allen, Larkin and O'Brien were hailed as political martyrs. Annual commemorations were held throughout Ireland, and monuments were built in many Irish towns. Brett, the first Manchester City Police officer to be killed on duty, is memorialised in a monument in St Ann's Church. ## Background The whole of Ireland had been under British rule since the end of the Nine Years' War in 1603. The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) was founded on 17 March 1858 by James Stephens, with the aim of establishing an independent democratic republic in Ireland. The IRB was a revolutionary fraternal organisation, rather than an insurrectionary conspiracy; Stephens believed that a "thorough social revolution" was required in Ireland before the people could become republicans. The Fenian Brotherhood was founded in New York in 1858 by John O'Mahony, ostensibly the IRB's American wing. By 1865 the IRB had an estimated 100,000 members, and was carrying out frequent acts of violence in metropolitan Britain. The Irish community in Manchester accounted for more than 10 per cent of the population, and one contemporary estimate put the number of Fenians and Fenian sympathisers living within 50 miles (80 km) of the city at 50,000. In 1867 the Fenians were preparing to launch an armed uprising against British rule, but their plans became known to the authorities, and several key members of the movement's leadership were arrested and convicted. Two succeeded in evading the police, Thomas J. Kelly and Timothy Deasy, and travelled from Ireland to Britain to reorganise and raise the morale of the Fenian groups there in the wake of the failed uprising. Both were Irish Americans who had fought with distinction in the American Civil War—Kelly achieving the rank of colonel and Deasy that of captain—and both had played important roles in the abortive uprising; Kelly had been declared the chief executive of the Irish Republic at a secret republican convention, and Deasy commanded a Fenian brigade in County Cork. During the early hours of 11 September 1867, police arrested two men found loitering in Oak Street, Shudehill, suspecting them of planning to rob a shop. Both were charged under the Vagrancy Act and held in custody. The Manchester police were initially unaware of their identities, until their colleagues in the Irish police identified them as Kelly and Deasy. ## Rescue On 18 September 1867, Kelly and Deasy were being transferred from the courthouse to Belle Vue Gaol on Hyde Road, Gorton. They were handcuffed and locked in two separate compartments inside a police van escorted by a squad of 12 mounted policemen. The van contained six prisoners: a 12-year-old boy who was being taken to a reformatory, three women convicted of misdemeanours, and the two Fenians. As it passed under a railway arch, a man darted into the middle of the road, pointed a pistol at the driver and told him to stop. Simultaneously, a party of about 30–40 men leaped over a wall at the side of the road, surrounded the van and seized the horses, one of which they shot. The unarmed police were described by O'Meagher Condon, who organised the attack on the police van, as "a miscellaneous lot, apparently embracing the long and short and the fat and lean of the Manchester force"; they offered little resistance and soon fled. The rescuers, after an unsuccessful attempt to force open the van with hatchets, sledgehammers, and crowbars, called upon Police Sergeant Brett, who was inside the van with the prisoners, to open the door. Brett refused, so one of the rescuers placed his revolver at the keyhole of the van to blow the lock, just as Brett looked through the keyhole to see what was happening outside. The bullet passed through his eye into his brain and killed him. The door was opened when one of the women prisoners took the keys from Brett's pocket, and passed them through a ventilator to the Fenians outside, allowing Kelly and Deasy to escape. Brett was the first Manchester police officer to be killed on duty, in an incident that became known locally as the "Manchester Outrages". ## Investigation The police suspected that Kelly and Deasy had been taken by their rescuers to Ancoats, considered at that time to be a Fenian area of Manchester. Anonymous letters alleged that the pair were being sheltered in a house on Every Street, but the 50 armed police who raided the premises found no signs of the fugitives. Despite a reward of £300 offered by the authorities, equivalent to about seven times a worker's average annual earnings, neither Kelly nor Deasy were recaptured. An article published in the 14 November edition of The Times newspaper reported that they had made their way to Liverpool, from where they had taken passage on a ship bound for New York. The police raided Manchester's Irish quarters and brought "dozens of suspects, selected almost at random", before local magistrates; the raids have been described as a "reign of terror" for the Irish in Manchester. Amongst those arrested was Thomas Maguire, a young Royal Marine on leave who had been in the vicinity of the attack on the police van and was Irish. Such was the zeal of the police that one man with a strong Irish accent surrendered himself to the magistrates "as the only means I have of saving myself from being arrested over and over again wherever I go, as a Fenian". ## Committal proceedings On 27 September 1867 committal proceedings were heard in front of a magistrate to establish whether there was a prima facie case against the 28 accused. The team of defence barristers included Chartist leader Ernest Jones, who had spent two years in prison for making seditious speeches, and W. P. Roberts, whose fee was paid by subscribers to a defence fund to represent nine of the men. Jones, representing Condon and O'Brien, clashed with the court almost immediately because the accused were handcuffed, saying "It appears to be discreditable to the administration of justice that men whom the law presumes to be innocent should be brought into Court handcuffed together like a couple of hounds." Jones also objected to the presence of a number of soldiers in the courtroom, and when the magistrate refused to order the prisoners' handcuffs to be removed he "marched dramatically" out of the courtroom saying "Then as a member of the Bar I decline to sit in any Court where the police override the Magistrate ... I cannot disgrace the Bar by proceeding with the defence." All but two of the accused, Allen and Larkin, claimed that they had witnesses who would testify that they were elsewhere when the police van was attacked. The defence argued that "the rescue was not illegal as the prisoners [Kelly and Deasy] were wrongly imprisoned", and that there was no intention of "sacrificing human life", as evidenced by only a single fatality despite the presence of so many guns and so many shots being fired. Nevertheless, 26 of the prisoners were sent for trial before a judge and jury at the next assizes; two were released because of "unsatisfactory identification". ## Trial Proceedings began on 28 October 1867, in front of Mr Justice Blackburne and Mr Justice Mellor. Twenty-six appeared in court on the first day in front of a grand jury, which found that there was a prima facie case against all of the defendants for murder, felony, and misdemeanour. It was decided to charge the five "principal offenders"—Allen, Larkin, Gould (O'Brien), Shore (Condon), and Maguire—under one indictment. They were therefore brought back to the courtroom the following day, when their trial proper began, despite none of them having fired the fatal shot. However, under the terms of the English law principle of common purpose "joint enterprise", all that flowed from the execution of a plan made all the participants liable - and both Allen and Larkin admitted to being participants in the attempt to free the prisoners. Allen was a 19-year-old carpenter; Larkin was a tailor, the only married member of the group, and had five children. O'Brien, who had fought in the American Civil War, was a 30-year-old shop assistant from County Cork. O'Meagher Condon, born in Cork and 32 years old, had also fought for the Union side in the American Civil War. Thomas Maguire was a Royal Marine who had served for 10 years and had just returned home on leave. The trial took place in what was described as a "climate of anti-Irish hysteria" by the radical British weekly Reynold's Newspaper, which described it as a "deep and everlasting disgrace to the English government", the product of an ignoble panic which seized the governing classes. A yell of vengeance, it said, had issued from every aristocratic organ, and that before any evidence had been obtained the prisoners' guilt was assumed and their executions had been demanded. The Irish historian F. S. L. Lyons, writing in the 1970s, said that the men were convicted "after an unsatisfactory trial, and on evidence that, to say the least, was dubious". More recently, the events have been described as "accidental murder, public panic and rumour-mongering, elaborate trial...and lingering doubts about a miscarriage of justice." The jury retired at 6:15 pm on the fifth day and returned at 7:30 pm to give its verdict of guilty for each of the five defendants. When asked if they had anything to say before sentence was passed, several of the convicted men made a closing speech. Allen stated his innocence, and that he regretted the death of Sergeant Brett, but that he was prepared to "die proudly and triumphantly in defence of republican principles and the liberty of an oppressed and enslaved people". Larkin said he felt that he had received a fair trial, and that his counsel had done everything they could in his defence. He ended by saying: "So I look to the mercy of God. May God forgive all who have sworn my life away. As I am a dying man, I forgive them from the bottom of my heart. May God forgive them." O'Brien claimed that all of the evidence given against him was false, and that as an American citizen he ought not to be facing trial in a UK court. He then went on at length to condemn the British government, the "imbecile and tyrannical rulers" of Ireland, until he was interrupted by the judge, who appealed to him to cease his remarks: "The only effect of your observations must be to tell against you with those who have to consider the sentence. I advise you to say nothing more of that sort. I do so entirely for your own sake." O'Meagher Condon's address to the court was considered by The Times to have "excelled all the other convicts in his zeal for the Fenian cause". He admitted to having organised the attack on the police van in his role as leader of the north-west section of the movement, but claimed that he "never threw a stone or fired a pistol; I was never at the place [where the attack took place] ... it is all totally false". He went on to say that "had I committed anything against the Crown of England, I would have scorned myself had I attempted to deny it". Towards the end of his speech he shouted, "God save Ireland!", a cry taken up by his companions in the dock. Allen, Larkin, O'Brien, Maguire and O'Meagher Condon were sentenced to death by hanging—the only punishment English law at that time allowed for murder—again crying "God save Ireland" from the dock after sentence was pronounced. In Thomas Maguire's case the witnesses who had identified the prisoners and had testified that Maguire was in the forefront of the attack had their evidence shown to be transparently false. This resulted in over 30 English reporters sending an appeal to the Home Secretary to have him pardoned. With such widespread doubts about the conviction of Maguire the government yielded to the pressure to grant him a pardon. This led many to believe that the other four would not be hanged since they had been convicted on the evidence of the same witnesses who, according to Liz Curtis, had "blatantly perjured themselves in the case of Maguire". While eminent lawyers tried through procedural means to halt the executions, leading figures such as John Bright, Charles Bradlaugh and John Stuart Mill appealed for clemency. O'Meagher Condon's sentence was commuted on the eve of his execution. ## Execution A crowd estimated at 8,000–10,000 gathered outside the walls of Salford Gaol on the evening of 22 November 1867 to witness the public execution of the three convicted men the following morning. A platform had been built about 30 feet (9.1 m) above ground, through the outside wall of the jail facing New Bailey Street, to support the gallows. The spectators were "well supplied by the gin palaces of Deansgate and the portable beer and coffee stalls". According to Father Gadd, one of the three Catholic priests who attended to the men: > A crowd of inhuman ghouls from the purlieus of Deansgate and the slums of the City ... made the night and early morning hideous with the raucous bacchanalian strains of "Champagne Charlie", "John Brown", and "Rule Britannia". No Irish mingled with the throng ... They had obeyed the instructions of their Clergy. Throughout Manchester and Salford, silent congregations with tear-stained faces ... assembled for a celebration of early Mass for the eternal welfare of the young Irishmen doomed to die a dreadful death that morning. The authorities took considerable pains to discourage any rescue attempt. Over 2,500 regular and special police were deployed in and around the prison, augmented by a military presence which included a detachment of the 72nd Highlanders and a squadron of the Eighth Hussars. All traffic in and out of the city was stopped. The Times newspaper reported that by the time the hangings took place, shortly after 8:00 am, "the mob were quiet and orderly", in contrast to the previous night and early morning. The executioner, William Calcraft, was the most famous of the 19th century, but was reportedly nervous of executing Fenians, because of threats he had received. He was also "particularly incompetent", and was "notoriously unable to calculate the correct length of rope required for each individual hanging; he frequently had to rush below the scaffold to pull on his victim's legs to hasten death". Most accounts claim that Allen died almost instantaneously from a broken neck, but Larkin and O'Brien were not so fortunate. Father Gadd reported that: > The other two ropes, stretched taut and tense by their breathing twitching burdens, were in ominous and distracting movement. The hangman had bungled! ... Calcraft then descended into the pit and there finished what he could not accomplish from above. He killed Larkin. Father Gadd refused to allow Calcraft to dispatch O'Brien in the same way, and so "for three-quarters of an hour the good priest knelt, holding the dying man's hands within his own, reciting the prayers for the dying. Then the long drawn out agony ended." The bodies of the three men were buried in the New Bailey Prison graveyard, from which they were transferred to Strangeways Prison Cemetery when New Bailey Prison closed in 1868. In 1991 their remains were among those of 63 executed who were exhumed from Strangeways following rebuilding work, cremated and reinterred at Blackley Cemetery in Manchester. ## Aftermath Most of the British press had demanded "retribution swift and stern", not just because the men were Irish, but because they were Fenians; "the public demand for the death penalty was not simply an expression of anti-Irish sentiment, but rather a product of the Fenian panic and popular feelings of insecurity and the desire for order." The Daily Telegraph, for instance, although like most of its contemporaries describing Brett's death as "a vulgar, dastardly murder", nevertheless supported reform in Ireland; "we may hang convicted Fenians with good conscience, but we should also thoroughly redress those evils distinctly due to English policy and still supported by English power." Ireland reacted to the executions with revulsion and anger. Allen, Larkin and O'Brien were hailed as political martyrs. Many funeral processions were held in Ireland and even in a few British cities during the weeks following the executions, sometimes attracting crowds of thousands. These demonstrations of support for the three Fenians further outraged British public opinion, and "reinforced the prevailing sentiment that the Irish moral compass was somehow off-center". The executions gave rise to an enormous groundswell of feeling among Irish communities the world over. In New Zealand, for instance, seven men were convicted of unlawful assembly in a high-profile trial following a mock funeral to Hokitika cemetery; two of the seven, a newspaper editor and a priest, pleaded guilty to seditious libel, having published "a succession of very rabid articles about the Queen's Government." The viceregal government declared the holding of a Manchester Martyr funeral procession illegal. Throughout Ireland Masses, even public ones, were said for the three, although Bishop David Moriarty of Kerry prohibited celebration of Mass for them in his diocese. Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam, on the other hand, personally assisted at a High Mass for them, and Cardinal Archbishop Paul Cullen of Dublin, while opposing public celebrations, instructed his priests to pray for the dead Fenians, and to say Mass privately for them. The day after the executions, Frederick Engels wrote to Karl Marx: > So yesterday morning the Tories, by the hand of Mr Calcraft, accomplished the final act of separation between England and Ireland. The only thing that the Fenians still lacked were martyrs. They have been provided by Derby and G Hardy. Only the execution of the three has made the liberation of Kelly and Deasy the heroic deed which will now be sung to every Irish babe in the cradle in Ireland, England and America ... To my knowledge, the only time that anybody has been executed for a similar matter in a civilised country was the case of John Brown at Harpers Ferry. The Fenians could not have wished for a better precedent. The Southerners had at least the decency to treat J. Brown as a rebel, whereas here everything is being done to transform a political attempt into a common crime. Annual commemorations, often involving mock funerals and stirring speeches, continued to be held in many towns in Ireland into the twentieth century. The cry of the condemned men was the inspiration for the song "God Save Ireland", which became Ireland's unofficial national anthem until officially replaced by "Amhrán na bhFiann" ("The Soldier's Song"). The executions were also "incalculable" in their influence on the "political awakening" of Charles Stewart Parnell. Speaking in the House of Commons ten years later, Parnell told the House: "I wish to say as directly as I can that I do not believe, and never shall believe, that any murder was committed in Manchester." ## Monuments Monuments erected in honour of Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien stand in Skibbereen, County Cork, Tralee (County Kerry), Limerick, Kilrush (County Clare), Clonmel (County Tipperary), Tipperary Town (County Tipperary), Birr (County Offaly), Ennis (County Clare), Milltown Cemetery, Belfast, (County Antrim), Ladysbridge (County Cork), Glasnevin Cemetery (Dublin), and in St Joseph's Cemetery, Moston, Manchester. The monument in St Joseph's Cemetery was designed by J. Geraghty and unveiled in November 1898 (). Commissioned by the Manchester Martyrs Central Memorial Committee, it stands just over 20 feet (6 m) high and takes the form of a Celtic cross. On three sides of the pedestal are medallion portraits of the three men, originally surmounted by figures of the Irish Wolfhound, now removed. The site of this monument has been the scene of several disturbances, as it has been the tradition for Republicans to parade there on the anniversary of the deaths of those hanged. The monument has suffered several attacks to its structure, as well as acts of vandalism, and is listed as being "at risk" by the Public Monument and Sculpture Association National Recording Project. To commemorate the centenary of the men's execution, the Manchester Connolly Association commissioned the artist Arthur Dooley to produce a memorial sculpture to stand on the site of New Bailey prison in Salford. There was opposition to the proposal, and it seems that the sculpture was never made, let alone installed. Dooley did however produce a foot-high maquette (a small concept sculpture) which now forms part of the collection of the Working Class Movement Library in Manchester. The maquette suggests that the memorial was to consist of a Wicklow granite base with three standing steel pillars with attached Celtic shields each bearing a martyr's name and some detail of the event's significance. The maquette was donated to the WCML in 2011 by the family of Jud Cooper who had been given the maquette by Dooley. Police Sergeant Brett was buried in Harpurhey Cemetery; the words "I will do my duty" are engraved on his tombstone. There is also a memorial tablet to him in St Ann's Church, Manchester.

Todos Los Romances

Todos Los Romances (All the Romances) is a box set compilation album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel. Released on 11 August 1998 by WEA Latina, the record features the three previously released Romance-themed albums in which Miguel covered classic boleros in each of them: Romance (1991), Segundo Romance (1994), and Romances (1997). An editor for AllMusic rated the album four of five stars. Commercially, Todos Los Romances peaked at number four in Spain and was certified double Platinum in the country. It also achieved Gold status in Argentina and peaked at number 12 on the Billboard'''s Top Latin Albums in the United States. ## Background and release In 1991, Miguel released his eighth studio album, Romance, a collection of classic boleros, the oldest dating to the 1940s. Produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti, the record was a success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide. It revived interest in the bolero genre, and was the first record by a Spanish-speaking artist to be certified Gold in Brazil, Taiwan and the United States. It received a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Pop Album. Its follow-up, Segundo Romance, was released in 1994; Manzanero, Juan Carlos Calderón and Kiko Cibrian co-produced the record with Miguel, with it winning a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Performance. In 1997 Romances was released, with Miguel and Manzanero co-producing Silvetti's arrangements; it sold over 4.5 million copies, winning another Grammy for Best Latin Pop Performance. Each of the three discs were certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping one million copies in the United States. One year after the release of Romances, WEA Latina announced that it will issue a three-disc compilation album Todos Los Romances, which contains three Romance-themed albums and was released on 11 August 1998. ## Reception An editor for AllMusic gave the album a four out of five star rating. In Spain, Todos Los Romances debuted and peaked number four on the Spanish Albums Chart, selling over 200,000 copies in the country and gaining a double Platinum certification awarded by Productores de Música de España for shipping 200,000. In the United States, the record peaked at number 12 on the Billboard'''s Top Latin Albums and number six on the Latin Pop Albums chart. In Argentina, it was awarded Gold by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers for shipments of 30,000 copies. ## Track listing ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications

M. P. Bajana

Indian amateur cricketer (1886–1927)

Manek Pallon Bajana (14 September 1886 – 28 April 1927) was an Indian amateur cricketer who played 55 first-class cricket matches between 1911 and 1920. Originally a member of the Indian team which toured England in 1911, he remained in the country and joined Somerset County Cricket Club, for which he played as an opening batsman until 1920. During his nine-year first-class cricket career, Bajana scored 1,975 runs at an average of 20.78. He scored three centuries, and made his highest score in 1920, scoring 115 runs against Cambridge University. ## Early life and Indian tour Manek Pallon Bajana was born on 14 September 1886 in India. Leading up to 1911, he was employed in India by Maharaja Nripendra Narayan of Cooch Behar, and early that year, Bajana travelled as part of the Maharajah's retinue to England, where Narayan was attending the coronation of King George V. In England, he joined up with the touring Indian cricket team, as one of seven Parsi players in the side. The 1911 tour was the first by a representative Indian team, and included a mix of Hindus, Parsis, Muslims, and two members of the untouchable Chamar caste. Bajana appeared in seven matches during the tour, of which four had first-class status. The team did not fare very well in their contests; the captain of the side, Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, only played three matches and spent the rest of his time socialising with the British high society, and there were rumours of sectarianism between the Parsi and Hindu members of the team. In twenty-three matches, they won six and lost fifteen, the remaining two being drawn. Bajana was one of four batsmen to score a first-class century for the Indians; he struck 108 against Somerset at Taunton. On his first-class debut, Bajana suffered the ignominy of a pair – dismissed without scoring in both innings. During the tour, Bajana made it known that he was looking to remain in England and play county cricket. His century against Somerset drew the attention of that county, and he joined them in 1912. ## County cricketer At the time of Bajana's arrival in the Somerset team, the county were struggling to compete in the County Championship, and were making a financial loss. In three of the four years prior to 1912, Somerset had finished bottom of the championship table, and there was little improvement in the final three years before the First World War, each of which resulted in a bottom-three finish. The Somerset cricket historian, David Foot, records that at this time, the county's recruitment policy was "susceptible to exotic grandeur and haughty lineage," and suggested that a player's cricketing ability was often a secondary consideration to their social standing. Bajana made his debut for Somerset in May 1912, opening the batting for the county against Sussex. He scored twenty-two and seven in a six-wicket victory for his county. In the subsequent match, against Hampshire, Bajana scored his first half-century in county cricket, hitting 71 runs in the second innings; the highest score of any Somerset batsman in the match. He passed 50 on three further occasions that year, and along with Len Braund and Ernie Robson, was ever-present in the Somerset team that season. His year's aggregate of 575 runs in the County Championship, and his score of 95, made against Worcestershire in August, were both the county's best that season, in a year in which no player scored a century for Somerset. Bajana appeared less frequently for Somerset in 1913, playing ten matches for the county. He only scored one half-century, accruing 78 runs against Derbyshire. His batting average of 19.75 in 1913 placed him fourth in the Somerset batting averages. He did not play for Somerset in 1914, as business interests had taken him to London. Instead he played regularly for Shepherd's Bush, for whom he had appeared on occasion from his first arrival in England, and for whom in 1914 he made two centuries over one bank holiday weekend; 134 against Brixton and 121 against North London. At the outbreak of the First World War county cricket was suspended, but Bajana continued to play for Shepherd's Bush until in 1916 he became involved in the foundation of the Indian Gymkhana club in Mill Hill, north London, scoring a century in the club's first match against Australian Imperial Forces. Thereafter Bajana played, and captained, in a number of matches for Indian Gymkhana, scoring another century for the team against a New Zealand APS side in 1918. In 1919 he returned to the Somerset team, playing in six of their twelve County Championship matches. His batting average of 27.55 in that competition was the second-highest amongst his team, bettered only by Jack MacBryan. Bajana hit two half-centuries during the season, scoring 77 against Derbyshire, and 59 against Essex. The following 1920 season was Bajana's last with Somerset. He appeared fifteen times for the county in first-class cricket, averaging just over twenty. In a match against Cambridge University, he achieved his highest first-class score, hitting 14 fours on his way to a total of 115 runs in 135 minutes. In his next match, he scored a second century for Somerset, and his only one in the County Championship, scoring 106 runs against Warwickshire. Bajana played his final first-class match against Middlesex in August 1920, scoring six and a duck. In all, Bajana scored 1,975 first-class runs at an average of 20.78. He scored three centuries and seven half-centuries in 96 innings. He was rarely used as a bowler, and took four wickets at an average of 33.00. ## Personal and later life In his history of Somerset cricket, David Foot describes Bajana as a "smallish solidly built opening bat". During his time at Somerset, he was known as "Pyjamas", which sounds similar to his surname. For a time, he ran an antiques and art dealership in Bayswater, London with Constantine Diamandis, but they dissolved their partnership in early 1920. After the conclusion of his first-class cricket career, he continued to play for Indian Gymkhana, including matches at Lord's against the Marylebone Cricket Club in each of 1922, 1923 and 1924. He died in Bethnal Green, London on 28 April 1927 at the age of 40.

Tony DeAngelo

American ice hockey player

Anthony "Tony" DeAngelo (born October 24, 1995) is an American professional ice hockey defenseman for the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League (NHL). He previously played with the Arizona Coyotes, New York Rangers, and the Philadelphia Flyers. DeAngelo was born in Sewell, New Jersey, and played minor ice hockey there until the age of 14, when he joined the Cedar Rapids RoughRiders to become the youngest ever player for the United States Hockey League. Although DeAngelo's season with the RoughRiders ended early due to a knee injury, he was taken by the Sarnia Sting of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) in the second round of the 2011 OHL Priority Selection Draft. He had a strong offensive output for the Sting, scoring 58 points in his sophomore season. He was traded to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in 2015, with whom he won both the Max Kaminsky Trophy for OHL defensemen, and the CHL Defenceman of the Year award. The Tampa Bay Lightning selected DeAngelo 19th overall in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft, and he signed a three-year, entry-level contract with them later that year. After one season with their American Hockey League affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch, DeAngelo was traded to the Coyotes, and he made his NHL debut in 2016. He was again traded, this time to the Rangers, in 2017, and steadily improved his performance until the 2019–20 NHL season was cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ## Early life The youngest of four siblings, DeAngelo was born in Sewell, New Jersey shortly after his family moved there. Growing up in Washington Township, he began playing minor ice hockey in South Jersey at Hollydell Ice Arena in Sewell, and was known for his competitive nature. In addition to playing for the Mercer Chiefs of the Atlantic Youth Hockey League, DeAngelo dabbled in baseball and basketball. DeAngelo was also close to his grandparents, and his paternal grandfather Lou would drive him to and from the local ice rink during his youth hockey career. In 2008, he appeared in the Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Philadelphia Flyers' minor hockey affiliate. ## Playing career ### Amateur DeAngelo left Washington Township at the age of 14 to play junior ice hockey for the Cedar Rapids RoughRiders of the United States Hockey League (USHL). He was the youngest player in USHL history, often competing with college athletes. DeAngelo played 28 games with the RoughRiders in the 2010–11 USHL season, scoring one goal and 14 assists for a total of 15 points. In January 2011, he suffered a broken patella while blocking a slapshot in a game against the Des Moines Buccaneers, and the injury kept him out for the rest of the season. After watching his performance in the USHL, the Sarnia Sting of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) selected DeAngelo in the second round, 24th overall, of the 2011 OHL Priority Selection Draft. DeAngelo considered continuing with the USHL, which carried a potential invitation to the USA Hockey National Team Development Program, but chose to sign with Sarnia because it offered him a faster opportunity to progress his career than waiting to play college hockey. He struggled to adjust to the new league, saying that it took "[m]aybe 15, 20 games before I started getting power-play time and was able to do what I do". As a rookie in the 2011–12 OHL season, DeAngelo scored 23 points in 68 games. He found his stride in the 2012–13 season, improving to 58 points in 62 games, the fifth-highest for Sarnia that season. Beginning in 2013–14, DeAngelo's on-ice behavior began to overshadow his athletic performance. He was removed from the ice during the second period of the Sting's game against the Guelph Storm on January 31, 2014, and the OHL released a statement on February 14 that DeAngelo would be suspended for eight games following a violation of the league's Harassment and Abuse/Diversity Policy. The OHL statement also revealed that this was DeAngelo's second suspension that season for violating the Abuse/Diversity policy, but that this was the first time his comments were directed towards a teammate. The details of his first suspension were kept confidential. Later in the season, DeAngelo received a two-game suspension for abuse of an official. He returned on March 14 for the final game of the season, against the Erie Otters, but was ejected in the third period for another abuse of an official violation. Going into the 2014 National Hockey League draft, DeAngelo was considered a top North American prospect. He led all OHL defensemen in scoring with 71 season points (15 goals and 56 assists), and was ranked No. 10 in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau's 2014 midterm report. He also made an appearance for Team Cherry at the 2014 CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game. On June 27, 2014, the Tampa Bay Lightning selected DeAngelo in the first round, 19th overall, at the 2014 NHL Entry Draft. Lightning director of amateur scouting Al Murray addressed DeAngelo's past suspensions, saying he believed that some of the incidents were "blown out of proportion", while general manager Steve Yzerman said that the organization believed "he'll change and grow up". He signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the team on December 2, 2014. On January 7, 2015, the Sting traded DeAngelo to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in exchange for Anthony Salinitri and three future draft picks. At the time, he had 38 points in 29 season games with the Sting. At the end of the season, DeAngelo was awarded the Max Kaminsky Trophy, given to the OHL's Most Outstanding Defenseman of the Year. He led all defensemen for scoring that season, with 89 points in 55 games, including 25 multi-point games. He was the fourth Greyhound in OHL history to receive the award. He was also named the CHL Defenceman of the Year for the 2014–15 season. ### Professional #### Tampa Bay Lightning organization After attending training camp in 2015, DeAngelo was assigned to the Lightning's 2015 American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Syracuse Crunch. After accruing no penalty minutes in his first 19 AHL games, he was given two 10-minute game misconduct penalties in a December 7 match against the Albany Devils, first for conduct against Joseph Blandisi, and then for commentary against a referee. While he had an offensively-productive season with the Crunch, scoring six goals and 37 assists in 69 games, DeAngelo was also a healthy scratch for eight games, a decision rumored to be a combination of behavioral issues and poor defensive ability. #### Arizona Coyotes On June 25, 2016, in the midst of the 2016 NHL Entry Draft, the Lightning traded DeAngelo to the Arizona Coyotes in exchange for the No. 37 overall draft pick, with which they selected defenseman Libor Hájek. After being recalled from the Tucson Roadrunners to replace an injured Michael Stone, DeAngelo scored his first NHL goal in his professional debut on November 8, 2016, scoring on Colorado Avalanche goalie Calvin Pickard in the second period of a 4–2 win. His first NHL assist came later that week, assisting Radim Vrbata in a 2–1 loss to the Boston Bruins. On January 1, 2017, DeAngelo was suspended for three games for physical assault of a referee during a 4–2 loss to the Calgary Flames the day before. The incident occurred towards the end of the second period, when DeAngelo was being steered away from a scrum and shoved away the official's hands. In addition to the suspension, he was required to forfeit \$14,388.90 to the Players' Emergency Assistance Fund. DeAngelo finished his first NHL season with five goals and nine assists in 39 games. #### New York Rangers On June 23, 2017, the Coyotes traded DeAngelo, as well as the seventh overall pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft, to the New York Rangers in exchange for center Derek Stepan and goaltender Antti Raanta. He started ten games with the Rangers in the 2017–18 season before being sent down to the Hartford Wolf Pack of the AHL, with whom he scored 13 points in 29 games. After Kevin Shattenkirk suffered a knee injury in January 2018, DeAngelo was called back up to take his place. DeAngelo suffered a sprained ankle during a match against the Carolina Hurricanes on March 12, and missed the final weeks of the season to recover. Ryan Sproul was called up to replace him, and he finished the season with eight assists in 32 NHL games. DeAngelo's on-ice performance and character showed signs of improvement during the 2018–19 season. He scored 30 points in 61 games, and his 26 assists tied DeAngelo with Shattenkirk and Mats Zuccarello for third-highest among the Rangers. Although DeAngelo also led the team in penalty minutes with 77, coaches and sports journalists noted that he was showing more discretion in when to respond aggressively. DeAngelo credited his development to the guidance of first-year coach David Quinn, telling reporters that, "it's been nice to have a coach that communicates more". Quinn had a notable intolerance for the outbursts that had characterized the earlier part of DeAngelo's career; the player was a healthy scratch for about 20 games during the season. Despite serving on the top defensive pair with Marc Staal, Quinn benched DeAngelo for two games in a row due to what he said was a "maturity issue" stemming from a game against the Philadelphia Flyers. DeAngelo was also part of a high-profile incident in which he knocked Kyle Okposo of the Buffalo Sabres unconscious in the third period of a 6–2 Rangers victory. Okposo was later diagnosed with his third concussion in as many years. After the 2018–19 season, DeAngelo became a restricted free agent. Salary negotiations dragged into the Rangers' training camp before DeAngelo agreed to a one-year, \$925,000 deal on September 20, 2019, less than two weeks before the start of the season. DeAngelo's stock continued to rise during the 2019–20 season. He scored 53 points, 15 goals and 38 assists, in 68 regular-season games, the fourth among all NHL defensemen, before the season was shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. DeAngelo told reporters that "I struggled a little bit early on – maybe the first five, six games I wasn't happy with where my game was – and then from there I kind of picked it up and started to feel real confident." His best game came on January 9, 2020, when DeAngelo scored a hat trick in a 6–3 win over the New Jersey Devils. He was the first Rangers defenseman to do so since Reijo Ruotsalainen in 1982. On October 15, 2020, the Rangers signed DeAngelo to a two-year, \$9.6 million contract extension. On opening night of the 2020–21 season, DeAngelo took an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty that Quinn called "undisciplined", and he was subsequently benched for the second game of the season. General manager Jeff Gorton later said that DeAngelo "wasn't able to move on from that" incident, and that he was told that, if there was another behavioral incident, he would be placed on waivers. On January 31, 2021, following reports that DeAngelo had a physical altercation with Rangers goaltender Alexandar Georgiev following a 5–4 overtime loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins, the Rangers placed DeAngelo on waivers. He cleared the process and was officially assigned to the team's taxi squad, but Gorton clarified that the assignment was a formality, and that DeAngelo would be kept away from his teammates and other taxi squad skaters. In a press conference after the altercation, Gorton told reporters that DeAngelo had "played his last game for the Rangers". In only six games that season, DeAngelo had one assist and a −6 plus–minus rating. On July 23, 2021, the Rangers placed DeAngelo on unconditional waivers, allowing the team to buy out the remainder of his contract and releasing him as a free agent. #### Carolina Hurricanes On July 28, 2021, the Carolina Hurricanes signed DeAngelo to a one-year, \$1 million contract. The signing was controversial among Hurricanes fans, who were aware of DeAngelo's reputation and lamenting the off-season departure of defenseman Dougie Hamilton, but after recording eight points in the first seven games of the season, DeAngelo was subject to cheers at PNC Arena. On October 30, DeAngelo registered his first Gordie Howe hat trick with a goal, an assist, and a fight with Reese Johnson of the Chicago Blackhawks. #### Philadelphia Flyers On July 8, 2022, the Hurricanes traded DeAngelo to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for a fourth-round selection in the 2022 NHL Entry Draft, a third-round pick in the 2023 draft, and a second-round pick in the 2024 draft. He agreed to terms on the same day, signing to a two-year, \$10 million contract with the Flyers. On March 8, 2023, the NHL Department of Player Safety issued DeAngelo a two-game suspension for spearing Tampa Bay Lightning forward Corey Perry. After rumors that he would be traded back to Carolina, DeAngelo was placed on waivers for the purpose of a buyout on July 14, 2023. This made him the first player in NHL history to be bought out more than once. #### Second stint with Carolina Following his buyout, DeAngelo signed a one-year deal to return to the Hurricanes on July 24, 2023. ## International play DeAngelo first represented the United States at the under-18 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in 2012. He registered three assists in the final game of the tournament, a 5–3 win against Slovakia, and the US finished in seventh place. In 2015, DeAngelo was one of 22 skaters named to the US junior team for the 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He scored one of three goals in a 5–3 loss to Canada during the preliminary round. Although he scored again against Russia in the quarterfinals, the US lost 3–2 and was eliminated from the competition. ## Playing style DeAngelo is primarily an offensive-minded defenseman, with what Rangers coach David Quinn once described as a "world-class skill" as a playmaker. Most of his points have come from assists; through the first part of the 2019–20 season, DeAngelo played a role in 61.7 percent of all Rangers points that were scored during his time on the ice. He is also known for his skill on the power play. In 2019-20, he was third on the Rangers with power play points, behind forwards Mika Zibanejad and Artemi Panarin. One area in which his playing has suffered is on the defensive end, which contributed to his trade away from the Lightning. ## Personal life In 2018, DeAngelo participated in the Checking for Charity tournament, a summer hockey tournament in South Jersey that raises money for charities of the team's choice. DeAngelo and his team chose to raise money for the Wounded Warrior Project. He participated in the tournament again in 2021 alongside fellow NHL players Adam Fox, Joel Farabee and Oliver Wahlstrom. Throughout his NHL career, DeAngelo has been known for his frequent use of social media. Unlike many of his teammates, who were not active on social media, he used Twitter and Instagram to engage with hockey fans. One of his earliest viral tweets was in response to a graph showing teammate Ryan Strome's shooting percentage, to which DeAngelo responded, "@strome18 has been one of our best players since being traded here last year. Watch the games." When the NHL season was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, DeAngelo began using his social media accounts to voice his support for then-President Donald Trump and express skepticism over the severity of the pandemic. After Trump was banned from using Twitter in light of the 2021 United States Capitol attack, DeAngelo announced that he was deactivating his account and joining the conservative social media platform Parler instead. ## Career statistics ### Regular season and playoffs ### International ## Awards and honors

Girl at the End of the World

Album by James

Girl at the End of the World is the 14th studio album by British rock band James. It was released on 11 March 2016, through BMG. The band spent three weeks in the Scottish Highlands working on new material for their album. Re-enlisting producer Max Dingel, who produced their previous studio album, La Petite Mort (2014), James spent five months between May and September 2015 recording in separate blocks. Long-time collaborator Brian Eno, and former member Adrian Oxaal, contributed instrumentation to the sessions. The album reprised its predecessor's electronic-centred songs and dance rhythm sections. Girl at the End of the World received generally positive reviews from music critics, with some complimenting James' change in style. It peaked at number one in Scotland and number two in the UK, as well as charting in Belgium and Portugal. "Nothing But Love" was released as the lead single in March 2016, being followed by the second single "Attention" two months later. James promoted the album with a UK tour in May 2016, and appeared at a number of festivals over the succeeding few months. "To My Surprise" was released as the third single in April 2017, which was followed by UK festival appearances in July and August. ## Background and development James released their 13th studio album La Petite Mort in June 2014. La Petite Mort was a shift for the band, encouraged by producer Max Dingel, using less organic-sounding drums. Although some band members were hesitant, the album was a success. By October 2014, the band had started writing material for its follow-up. When touring to promote La Petite Mort concluded at the end of the year, vocalist Tim Booth asked Dingel if he would produce their next album; recording had been planned for mid-2015. Their label, BMG, suggested that the band should return to the studio to work on their next album while they had momentum built up. James travelled to the Scottish Highlands in January 2015, and spent three weeks working on material, as they had done for La Petite Mort; writing sessions this time included keyboardist Mark Hunter and guitarist-violinist Saul Davies. Despite an attempt to avoid distractions, the band took breaks to explore nearby beaches. Writing was divided between the Tolbooth in Stirling and a house in Gairloch. James set up a space on the top floor of the Tolbooth, building a rehearsal room with mattresses that were taped to the windows for soundproofing. The band then moved to Gairloch, where they wrote additional material. James jammed on improvised material, playing against a drum machine set to high tempos to help create songs they felt would be good in a live setting. Booth generated beats and altered the rhythm with the FunkBox app on his iPhone. The jams lasted from 10 minutes to over an hour. All of them were recorded by Hunter; if a band member liked one, the jam would be edited down to a three-to-eight-minute recording. The band later worked on the segments, developing them into songs. Booth often sang phonetics, with an occasional line or word spoken, attempting to come up with melodies. James sent Dingel over 20 potential song ideas, most of which he liked. ## Recording and production During a series of festival performances, Girl at the End of the World was recorded at RAK Studios and Offtape Studios, which are both in London, with Dingel producing. The recording sessions were split into three blocks throughout 2015; the first in late May and early June, the second in July, and the third in late August and early September. Though James worked on most of the songs they had sent Dignal during the May–June block, little of them were in a finished state. Although Dingel anticipated picking up where they had left off when recording La Petite Mort, the band took a while to get back into the groove of recording. For the July block, James recorded more tracks live in the studio; some ended up on the final recordings, although numerous songs were built around programmed and electronic sections. The band had tried recording "Nothing But Love" during the first block, but scrapped it and re-recorded the song in the second block. The final block, in August and September, saw James work on the last details of the recordings, and complete some lead vocals for the tracks. Hannes Plattmeier and Manon Grandjean served as the main engineers, accompanied by additional engineers Izzy Grundy, Joel Davies and Ran Steiner. Booth contacted Brian Eno, who had produced five of James' previous albums, about helping with two tracks on which they were working, one of them being "Nothing But Love". Glennie said Eno's contributions amounted to "sporadic problem solving". This marked their first collaboration since the band's ninth studio album Pleased to Meet You (2001). Dingel mixed the recordings over a three-to-four week period in late September and early October 2015 at Mothership, with the exception of "Waking" being done by Plattmeier, before they were mastered by Dick Beetham at 360 Mastering. ## Composition and lyrics All the songs on Girl at the End of the World were written by Booth, guitarist Larry Gott, bassist Jim Glennie, Davies and Hunter, with lyrics by Booth. The album continues the sound of La Petite Mort, with electronic-focused tracks and dance rhythm sections. Davies said that working at Tolbooth gave it "a weird Scottish flavour ... a Celtic kind of theme." Unlike La Petite Mort, which is centred around one theme, the songs on Girl at the End of the World address a variety of motifs: love, passion, imagery of fire and traveling, and living in California. Dingel added synthesized bass to "Bitch", and electronic drums throughout the album. Eno played the synthesizer on "Nothing But Love", and former guitarist Adrian Oxaal played cello and mandolin on the song as well as "Girl at the End of the World". Larion Stolk arranged the backing vocals, which were sung by touring member Ron Yeadon. In addition to his regular role as James' keyboardist, Hunter played guitar on "Waking". "Bitch" opens with a bass riff that begins a two-minute electropop intro, which was edited together from several recordings. It then shifts into krautrock and space rock similar to the music of Hawkwind. The wonky pop and synth-pop song "To My Surprise" continues the previous track's upbeat sound, with a more dance-like nature. The song was compared to music by the Killers, a band whom Dingel had previously produced for. "Nothing But Love" is an anthemic track with a chorus that repeats the title phrase. According to Booth, the song is about "love's euphoria and ecstasy – that love-bomb that goes off and changes everything." "Attention" begins as a piano ballad, turning into a dance track with a techno feeling. It initially began as two separate tracks that were merged during the recording sessions. Booth said that the change was decided upon when some band members sped "it up to a mega-fast, comedy Pinky & Perky speed." Booth wrote the song's lyrics after he and his family moved further north to Berkeley, California, before moving back to Topanga eight months later when his son could not settle down in Berkeley. "Dear John" is a synth-pop track about the end of a relationship; the synthesizer line is reminiscent of the one in Kylie Minogue's "Can't Get You Out of My Head" (2001). Booth referred to it as a "[j]aunty dark divorce song"; it was originally called "Jesus" and tackled sexual abuse by priests. Booth examines mortality and art on the acoustic "Feet of Clay", recalling the title track from James' fourth studio album Seven (1992). The electro track "Surfer's Song" was written after Booth saw his son surfing. "Catapult" has a drum and bass beat, and a guitar riff reminiscent of the music of Ned's Atomic Dustbin. Booth wrote the song about "someone close where the red mist would descend after a few glasses of red." "Move Down South" features an alternative country-sounding slide guitar, with distorted riffs being played in the vein of The Joshua Tree (1987)-era U2. The opening evokes some of James' earliest songs, such as "Hymn from a Village" (1985), and deals with droughts in California, where Booth lived. The Goldfrapp-esque track "Alvin" was named for Alvin Stardust. Booth sung it in French, much to the confusion of his bandmates. "Waking" showcases Diagram's trumpet playing with a Casio-synthesized beat. Discussing "Girl at the End of the World", Booth said that there were several hairpin turns near his home in Topanga where drivers would go over the edge. The song's lyrics address "what would I feel if I came round the corner and that was it ... I got this split second to just appreciate my life." ## Release and promotion In August 2015, James made a number of festival appearances; Gott was unable to play the shows, being replaced by Oxaal. Glennie later revealed that Gott left as he "didn't want to do what we were doing". On 16 November 2015, Girl at the End of the World was announced for release in March 2016. That same month, "To My Surprise" was made available for streaming, after a premiere via BBC Radio 6. Alongside this, the album's track listing was revealed. The song's music video, made by Kris Merc, premiered on The Quietus' website on 16 December 2015. According to Booth, the video stars a "female activist/terrorist detonates a love bomb which dismantles our fear based society." On 22 January 2016, "Move Down South" premiered on BBC Radio 6; this was followed by the premiere of "Nothing But Love" on BBC Radio 2 two weeks later. Two release shows for Girl at the End of the World were played in February 2016, followed by a performance at the Dubai Jazz Festival. "Nothing But Love" was released as the album's lead single on 1 March 2016. Its music video, directed by James FitzGerald, premiered on Clash's website that same day. "Attention" was released as the second single on 11 March 2016. Girl at the End of the World was made available for streaming via The Telegraph's website, before its 18 March 2016 release through BMG, the first of a three-album contract with the label. Glennie said BMG acted closer to a publishing company as opposed to a traditional record label, where they "never really work with you as a company unless they are handling your publishing". BMG let the band assemble their own team within the company, particularly those that were enthusiastic about James, to help promote the album. Initially promotional efforts saw the band give a series of in-store performances and signings. They began a UK tour in May 2016, with support from the Slow Readers Club and Jack Savoretti. On 23 May 2016, the music video for "Girl at the End of the World", also made by Merc, premiered on Culture Collide's website; it features the Killers frontman Brandon Flowers and Alexandra Chelaru. James played at a number of festivals across France, the UK, Spain, Greece, and Portugal between June and September 2016, including an opening slot at Glastonbury. The music video for "Dear John", directed by Péter Vácz, premiered via Under the Radar's website on 6 July 2016. In November 2016, the band toured Australia for the first time, and played shows in New Zealand. The following month, James played a one-off show at the Echo Arena in Liverpool with the Charlatans. The band played in Mexico during March and April 2017, with "To My Surprise" being released as the third single from Girl at the End of the World during the latter month. James played at festivals across the UK in July and August 2017, including Sounds of the City in Manchester. ## Reception Girl at the End of the World was met with generally favourable reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 69, based on 10 reviews. AnyDecentMusic? gave it a score of 6.6, based on 8 reviews. The Music writer Mac McNaughton called Girl at the End of the World "densely produced," which "almost suffocat[ed] the guitars in places." McNaughton wrote that it was band's most emotional record since Pleased to Meet You. Under the Radar's Aug Stone appreciated the tracks in the middle of the album that pushed James' sound, but felt let down by the title track because it "reverts to the more safe James sound." Clash writer Sam Walker-Smart wrote that although the album has "some bad ideas," he liked the band's decision to experiment, and "sounding like they're enjoying it while they do." Dan Lucas of Drowned in Sound said that despite the album attempting to shy away from the rock sound of James' previous records, it was "an uncertain" move. AllMusic reviewer Timothy Monger wrote that Girl at the End of the World is "a little stylistically scattershot and lacking in cohesion." Louder Than War writer Martin Unsworth said that the album is "certainly a strong one," though it isn't "re-inventing the wheel, but it certainly isn't repackaging it either." In a review for musicOMH, Neil Dowden found the album "much more positive" despite lacking emotional depth. According to Record Collector's Max Bell, the album is "never short on dizzying rhythmic crescendos." Gary Kaill of The Skinny saw it as "more of the same" from James, with "bulging" arrangements, and "hefty half-hooks" that are "intelligent, accomplished and likeable." Girl at the End of the World came close to knocking Adele's album 25 (2015) off the top of the UK Albums Chart; it reached number one on the midweek chart in its first week of release, 2,000 units ahead of Adele's album. At the end of its first full week of release, the album debuted at number two on the chart. In Scotland, however, it reached the top spot on the Scottish Album Chart. The album reached number 35 in Portugal, number 149 in the Wallonia region of Belgium, and number 194 in the Flanders region of the country. QRO ranked the album at number 11 on their list of the top 15 best releases from the year. ## Track listing All songs written by Tim Booth, Larry Gott, Jim Glennie, Saul Davies, and Mark Hunter. All lyrics by Booth. All recordings produced by Max Dingel. 1. "Bitch" – 4:52 2. "To My Surprise" – 4:21 3. "Nothing But Love" – 3:29 4. "Attention" – 4:08 5. "Dear John" – 4:04 6. "Feet of Clay" – 2:37 7. "Surfer's Song" – 3:51 8. "Catapult" – 4:02 9. "Move Down South" – 5:19 10. "Alvin" – 2:13 11. "Waking" – 2:44 12. "Girl at the End of the World" – 3:00 ## Personnel Personnel per booklet. James - Tim Booth – lead vocals - Larry Gott – guitar - Jim Glennie – bass guitar - Saul Davies – guitar, violin - Mark Hunter – keyboards, guitar (track 11), drum programming - David Baynton-Power – drums - Andy Diagram – trumpet Additional musicians - Brian Eno – synthesizer (track 3) - Adrian Oxaal – cello (tracks 3 and 12), mandolin (tracks 3 and 12) - Max Dingel – synth bass (track 1), electronic drums - Ron Yeadon – backing vocals - Larion Stolk – backing vocal arranger Production and design - Max Dingel – producer, mixing (all tracks except track 11) - Hannes Plattmeier – engineer, mixing (track 11) - Manon Grandjean – engineer - Izzy Grundy – additional engineer - Joel Davies – additional engineer - Ran Steiner – additional engineer - Dick Beetham – mastering - Luke Insect – artwork ## Charts

Parable of the Sunfish

Anecdote by Ezra Pound about empirical learning

"The Parable of the Sunfish" is an anecdote with which Ezra Pound opens ABC of Reading, a 1934 work of literary criticism. Pound uses this anecdote to emphasize an empirical approach for learning about art, in contrast to relying on commentary rooted in abstraction. While the parable is based on students' recollections of Louis Agassiz's teaching style, Pound's retelling diverges from these sources in several respects. The parable has been used to illustrate the benefits of scientific thinking, but more recent literary criticism has split on whether the parable accurately reflects the scientific process and calls into question Pound's empirical approach to literature. ## The Parable The text of the parable below is excerpted from Pound's ABC of Reading. > > A post-graduate student equipped with honors and diplomas went to Agassiz to receive the final and finishing touches. The great man offered him a small fish and told him to describe it. > > > > Post-Graduate Student: "That's only a sunfish." > > > > Agassiz: "I know that. Write a description of it." > > > > After a few minutes the student returned with the description of the Ichthus Heliodiplodokus, or whatever term is used to conceal the common sunfish from vulgar knowledge, family of Heliichtherinkus, etc., as found in textbooks of the subject. > > > > Agassiz again told the student to describe the fish. > > > > The student produced a four-page essay. Agassiz then told him to look at the fish. At the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition, but the student knew something about it. ## Context ### ABC of Reading Pound opens ABC of Reading with the following pronouncement: > The proper METHOD for studying poetry and good letters is the method of contemporary biologists, that is careful first-hand examination of the matter, and continual COMPARISON of one 'slide' or specimen with another. No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish. In the parable, a graduate student is sent to noted biologist Louis Agassiz to complete his education, and Agassiz asks the student three times to describe a sunfish specimen. The student replies with, in turn, the common name of the fish, a brief summary of the species, and a four-page essay on the species. Agassiz finally tells the student to "look at the fish" and "[a]t the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition, but the student knew something about it." The text of the parable itself spans 131 words over sixteen lines and is often reproduced in full when cited. Pound contrasts this empiricism against knowledge gained through increasingly abstract definitions. As an example, Pound relates what might happen if a European is asked to define "red". After the initial response that red is a color, Pound imagines asking for a definition of color and having it described in terms of vibration, with vibration then defined in terms of energy, and that successive abstractions eventually reach a level where language has lost its power. Returning to empiricism, Pound reminds the reader that the progress of science increased rapidly once "Bacon had suggested the direct examination of phenomena, and after Galileo and others had stopped discussing things so much, and had begun really to look at them". Pound provides several other examples of the same contrasting ideas throughout the first chapter, ranging over topics as diverse as chemistry, Chinese writing, and Stravinsky. At the end of the chapter he summarizes his argument by claiming abstraction does not expand knowledge. ### Literary essays Pound subsequently refers to the parable in two essays: "The Teacher's Mission" and "Mr Housman at Little Bethel". Both were republished in The Literary Essays of Ezra Pound and reference Agassiz without including details of the parable. "The Teacher's Mission" in particular provides a straightforward explanation of how Pound wished the parable to be interpreted. #### "Mr Housman at Little Bethel" In January 1934, Pound published a critique of A. E. Housman's The Name and Nature of Poetry in the Criterion. As part of the critique, Pound offers an emendation to Housman's claim that "the intelligence" of the eighteenth century involved "some repressing and silencing of poetry". Pound replies that the root cause was the tendency towards abstract statements, which came about in part because eighteenth century authors "hadn't heard about Professor Agassiz's fish." #### "The Teacher's Mission" Also in 1934, Pound published an essay critiquing existing methods for teaching literature in general and university-level instruction methods in particular. He identifies the root of the problem as abstraction and uses the word "liberty" as an example of a term where a specific, concrete meaning has been lost. Pound finds this situation "inexcusable AFTER the era of 'Agassiz and the fish'" and demands an approach to general education that "parallels ... biological study based on EXAMINATION and COMPARISON of particular specimens." ## Interpretation and criticism ### Agassiz Science historian Mary P. Winsor provides extensive commentary on Agassiz's initial assignments for his students. The solution to the "riddle", as she calls it, lies in a similar anecdote given by Agassiz in his Essay on Classification: > Suppose that the innumerable articulated animals, which are counted by tens of thousands, nay, perhaps by hundreds of thousands, had never made their appearance upon the surface of the globe, with one single exception: that, for instance, our Lobster (Homarus americanus) were the only representative of that extraordinarily diversified type,—how should we introduce that species of animals in our systems? Agassiz provides several potential solutions: the species of lobster could have a single genus "by the side of all the other classes with their orders, families, etc.", or a family with one genus and one species, or a class with one order and one genus, etc. Agassiz concludes a single species is sufficient to derive the entirety of the hierarchy: at the time, this would have been "a distinct genus, a distinct family, a distinct class, a distinct branch." The point of the sunfish is not observing characteristics that distinguish individuals, species and genus, but rather characteristics that are held in common higher up the taxonomic hierarchy. Scudder's observation that finally satisfies Agassiz is that the sunfish has bilateral, paired organs; a characteristic that Winsor notes is common to all vertebrates. ### Pound Pound, echoing Cooper, opens ABC of Reading by stating that the correct method for the study of poetry is "the method of contemporary biologists" and that "No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the fish." Commentators have summarized Pound's position with the term empiricism, but have divided over whether the parable endorses or indicts the idea. The simplest interpretations in scientific writing, history of science, and literary criticism take the parable at face value, accepting empiricism and observation as legitimate techniques. For example, when writing about stellar atmospheres, Dimitri Mihalas states that "it is specimens, not facts, that are the ultimate empirical currency that we must use if we wish to purchase a valid theory" before beginning a discussion of Pound's sunfish. Moving from acceptance of empiricism to an understanding of its limitations, Christopher Tilley emphasizes in his comments on "scientific archeology" that Pound's student "was not simply learning about 'reality', the sunfish, but a way of approaching that reality – a discourse bound up in a particular thought tradition (empiricism)". Robert Scholes reaches a similar conclusion, noting that the student "seems to be reporting about a real and solid world in a perfectly transparent language, but actually he is learning how to produce a specific kind of discourse, controlled by a particular scientific paradigm". Author Bob Perelman takes the suspicion of empiricism one step further in his 1994 The Trouble With Genius: Reading Pound, Joyce, Stein, and Zukofsky. Perelman discusses the parable as one of two anecdotes in ABC of Reading that frame Pound's discussion of Chinese ideograms. The former describes attendance at two hypothetical concerts: one of Debussy and another of Ravel. Pound states that a person who attended both concerts knows more about the composers than someone who has only read "ALL of the criticisms that have ever been written of both". Perelman considers the contradiction between "everyone" and "knowledge" to be the key to Pound's thinking: only a gifted or lucky few are able to apprehend the truth (whether by attending the concert or observing the specimen); the rest can only make do with "a fog of clichés, received ideas, second-hand and second-rate opinions, written darkness." With regard to the parable, Perelman observes the lack of "scientific institutions, pedagogic procedures, or communicable terminologies" where any mediating written descriptions ("sunfish", "diplodokus") only serve to obscure knowledge. Knowledge ultimately resides within Agassiz rather than the world, and "[w]hat looks initially like a commitment to empiricism has led instead to an authoritarian idealism." Two critics have also commented on the parable's implications in describing the nature of knowledge in terms of the decay of Pound's fish. Celeste Goodridge notes that Marianne Moore's 1934 review of Pound's Cantos uses a detailed metaphor of a grasshopper wing to describe the conversations therein. In Goodridge's opinion, Moore's "microscopic examination" both undercuts the work as well as "pays homage, in its precision, to Pound's reverence for 'the applicability of scientific method to literary criticism.'" Goodridge then reproduces the parable in full and comments, "Agassiz teaches Pound that all knowledge is necessarily fragmented and does not constitute a whole." Knowledge of the fish cannot begin until decay has commenced, reducing the specimen to its constituent parts. Peter Nicholas Baker reaches a fundamentally different conclusion. He begins the discussion of the parable by first quoting Pound on the topic of genius: > The genius can pay in nugget and in lump gold; it is not necessary that he bring up his knowledge into the mint of consciousness, stamp it either into the coin of conscientiously analyzed form-detail knowledge or into the paper money of words before he transmit it. Baker finds the most striking feature of the parable to be the absence of description of the fish. Baker asks: "Do readers of this anecdote learn about the fish, or rather about a certain kind of authoritarian teaching practice?" Baker claims that Pound's images of coining metal are just as unrealistic as his ideas regarding science and the scientific method. The reader, following Pound's student, reaches knowledge through intuition alone; the decomposing fish, so far as epistemology is concerned, has become "transparent".

Spira (Final Fantasy)

Fictional world in Final Fantasy games

Spira is the fictional world of the Square role-playing video games Final Fantasy X and X-2. Spira is the first Final Fantasy world to feature consistent, all-encompassing spiritual and mythological influences within the planet's civilizations and their inhabitants' daily lives. The world of Spira itself is very different from the mainly European-style worlds found in previous Final Fantasy games, being much more closely modeled on a setting influenced by the South Pacific, Thailand and Japan, most notably with respect to its vegetation, topography and architecture. The creation of Spira includes distinct ethnic minorities including a portrayal of the fictional Al Bhed language that is prevalent throughout the game's dialogue. The backstory and concept behind the dark religious themes of Final Fantasy X were a central theme to the story and their ultimate resolution was well received. The popularity of the Eternal Calm video served as the impetus of Square Enix to do Final Fantasy X-2 to make their first direct sequel in video game form and depict the evolution of Spiran society after religious and political upheaval results in new factions and instability in the world. Spira and its inhabiting characters have been featured in several other Square Enix works including Dissidia Final Fantasy and its prequel Dissidia 012, three games within the Kingdom Hearts series and Theatrhythm Final Fantasy. There have been numerous academic essays on the game's presentation, narrative and localization aspects. Washburn writes that mastering the game comes with the mastering of the cultural knowledge of Spira to unlock skills and abilities. O'Hagan writes on the localization of the games that impact the game experience, detailing alterations to the script and dialogue with modifications, additions and omissions. Another aspect was that the presentation of Spira without an overworld view can be considered a pioneer in 3D role-playing game maps. ## Concept and creation In speaking about the inspiration behind Spira, producer Yoshinori Kitase recounted that players had found fault with the science fiction atmosphere of Final Fantasy VII and VIII, instead desiring a "simple fantasy world". To Kitase, the word "fantasy" did not indicate a purely medieval European setting, so he intentionally set out with the objective of redefining the stereotype held in players' minds. Nomura identified the South Pacific, Thailand, and Japan as major influences on the cultural and geographic design of Spira, particularly in regard to the geographic locations of Besaid and Kilika. Yusuke Naora, the art director, noted that during the concept stage many people on the project were interested in Asian themes including Nojima and Kitase. For Zanarkand, the Uzbek city of Samarkand has been cited as an inspiration. Nomura said that Spira deviates from the worlds of past Final Fantasy games most notably in the level of detail incorporated, something he has expressed to have made a conscious effort to maintain during the design process. Fumi Nakashima, the sub-character chief designer, concentrated on giving characters from different regions and cultures distinct styles of clothing. Nakashima wanted the machine-oriented society of the Al Bhed to stand out and had them wear masks and goggles to give them a strange and eccentric appearance. Koji Sugimoto, main programmer for characters, said that the complexities of the PlayStation 2 hardware made mastering it difficult, but more rewarding because the details on Yuna's sleeves to the depiction of shine and shadow could be rendered more realistically. Final Fantasy X was the first game that allowed for 3-D model rendering of backgrounds that increased the presentation, including small details like grass blowing in the wind and cloud movement. Takayoshi Nakazato decided to abandon the typical world map concept for a more realistic depiction. Final Fantasy X's spatial presentation of Spira is tied to progression, with a player's progress being marked through the panoramic introduction and depiction of the area upon first entry. Chiharu Minekawa, the supervising sound editor, commented that the transition in sound from one environment to the next was done seamlessly in order to mimic the natural surroundings of these environments as the player moved through them. The decision to create Final Fantasy X-2 came after fan response to the "Eternal Calm" in the International Edition of Final Fantasy X which depicted events two years following Yuna's final battle. The dark religious theme of the first game was concluded and the cultural changes were explored as the people of Spira focus on fashion that "reflects their state of mind". Toriyama believes the most important element incorporated into X-2 was the "peaceful world of Spira achieved in X and unification of characters' state of mind". Kitase identified Final Fantasy X's theme as "independence from the ties of law and customs" and X-2's theme is about "the changes that occurred from the chaos after gaining that independence". For Final Fantasy X-2 many pop culture references were used, including Charlie's Angels and with the transformation of the dress spheres being a reference to the magical girl genre of anime. ### Remastering Square Enix chose to update Final Fantasy X and X-2's graphics for a remastered release in high-definition. With a production cycle longer than two years, the graphics were not merely upscaled to higher resolutions and feature updated models and textures. Kitase commented that he wanted to excite new and returning players and added more depth to do so and opened up the possibility of further remasters based on reception. Many views could not simply be reframed to 16:9 because that would reveal characters waiting for their cues off-screen, so the remastering team performed a lot of redrawing and additions to the visuals. ## Setting ### Geography The main landmass of Spira is surrounded by small islands, including: Besaid, a tropical town serving as the origin of Yuna's pilgrimage; Kilika, a larger island featuring dense jungles and numerous conflicts during the games; and the desert island of Bikanel, which is also the location of the Al Bhed's headquarters — "Home". The ruins of Baaj Temple are on an island to the south of the Spira mainland; this is where Tidus begins his journey in Spira. The mainland of Spira is where the bulk of Final Fantasy X takes place. The southernmost location of the mainland, Luca, is a large city home to Spira's pastime, Blitzball. North of Luca is the mountainous area of Djose, which features a Yevonite temple. Connecting Luca and Djose are several roads: the Mi'ihen Highroad, a historical path that features Chocobos for transportation; the Mushroom Rock Road, home of the failed operation to defeat Sin; and Djose Highroad, a rocky path that forks north into the Moonflow and east to Djose Temple. The Moonflow is a large river running through the heart of Spira, featuring shoopuf rides, ancient ruins, and a high density of pyreflies. A path from the Moonflow leads to Guadosalam, home of the Guado race and the gateway to the "Farplane" (異界, ikai, lit. "other world"). North of Guadosalam are the Thunder Plains, which are the site of a never-ending thunderstorm made safe by lightning rods calibrated by the Al Bhed. The Thunder Plains lead into Macalania, a sparkling forest complemented by a frozen lake and a Yevonite temple. Bevelle, the spiritual center of the Yevon religion, lies on a thin strip of land slightly north of Macalania. The city is built as a series of layers, with the headquarters of Yevon located at the top. The Via Purifico, located beneath Bevelle, serves as an oubliette for outcasts. Further north are the Calm Lands, a series of plains that have been the site of numerous battles in Spira's history; the Cavern of the Stolen Fayth, an equally historical area; and Mt. Gagazet, home of the Ronsos. Lastly, the sacred city of Zanarkand is on the northern tip of the Spiran mainland, reduced to ruins by Sin one thousand years before the events of FFX. Final Fantasy X-2 features several changes to the locations of Spira. The Djose Temple, abandoned by a faltering Yevon after X, becomes the headquarters of the Machine Faction; likewise, the Youth League sets up their headquarters at the site of the failed operation on the Mushroom Rock Road. Bevelle remains the capital of the New Yevon faction, although the game introduces a large, technological area hidden beneath the city. Several new enterprises have been started, including a new pastime in Luca called Sphere Break; a group of entertainers at the Moonflow; a tourist service at the Zanarkand Ruins; and machina transportation in favor of Chocobos on the Mi'ihen Highroad. Lastly, the death of the Aeons at the end of X causes the Macalania forest and lake to melt, sinking the former Yevon temple and destroying the forest's life. X-2 also introduces floating ruins atop Mt. Gagazet and previously unexplored caverns throughout Spira. ### Creatures and races Although it is predominantly populated by humanoids, Spira features a variety of races. The people of Spira mainly reside in small towns and villages and cities like Bevelle and Luca. The Al Bhed is a unique ethnic group which plays an important role in the storyline and world of the games with distinctive green eyes with spiral-shaped pupils. The culture and conflicts of the Al Bhed permeate the games. The main character Rikku is Al Bhed, and Yuna is part Al Bhed on her mother's side and assistance in gaining through a cast of supporting Al Bhed character's, prevalent in Final Fantasy X-2. With the collapse of the teachings of Yevon and the wider acceptance of machina at the end of X, prejudice against the Al Bhed seems to have eased significantly by the time of X-2, though it is still present. The Al Bhed speak their own "language" which is really just a substitution cipher of Japanese (English in the English localization of the game), a system of transposing certain letters for others; however, within the game world, it is intended to be an actual language. The original Japanese version of the cipher uses the syllable-based kana system of writing where each symbol represents a combination of "consonant + vowel" or simply a vowel. Certain keywords are not translated into Al Bhed in the game, to give the impression of use of loanwords compared to modern foreign languages. Most keywords are proper nouns, but some common nouns also are not translated, such as "fiend" (e.g. Y fiend! Eh risyh teckieca! [A fiend! In human disguise!]). Alexander Smith decided to "map common phonemes in English to common phonemes in Welsh" and gave preference to Welsh pronunciations, but had to work with new diphthongs to maintain consistency in the Al Bhed language. Several other races are found throughout Spira, including the Guado, the Hypello, and the Ronso races. The Guado are an arboreal humanoid race with long limbs and fingers, pale skin, and wild, tangled hair. The Guado are the keepers of the entryway to the Farplane, where the dead are sent and have the unique ability to "smell the deceased" and other abilities related to pyreflies. The Ronso are a race of horned, blue-furred, lion-like humanoids who live on Mt. Gagazet, which they consider sacred and guard fiercely. Ronso are tall and formidable warriors with a strong sense of honor and loyalty. A subplot of FFX involves Kimahri Ronso's conflict with his social status that results in his leadership of the Ronso in X-2. The Hypello are a docile, amphibious race with blue skin and live primarily in and around the area of the Moonflow. Though extremely quick and agile swimmers, they are the only race in Spira that does not participate in Blitzball tournaments. The male Hypello are all voiced by John DeMita. Spira also features various animal species and fictional species, such as the gigantic shoopuf and the chocobo that are used primarily for transport purposes. Most other unusual creatures encountered in Final Fantasy X are "fiends", monsters created from the restless dead by Pyreflies to devour the living. Aeons and the unsent are also forms created by pyreflies. Sin, the bringer of destruction, is a powerful fiend that is made of high-density pyreflies; it can control gravitation forces to replenish its strength and even fly. Sin's high concentration of pyreflies affect the pyreflies present in the bodies of those present, and is known as "Sin's toxin". Despite the Final Summoning being able to destroy Sin itself, the central core of Sin, which is an entity known as Yu Yevon, would survive. From this, Sin is "reborn" after a time. ### Fictional history Spira's history centers around an ancient war a thousand years prior to the start of the game between Bevelle and Zanarkand, the latter's ruler deeming his city's eventual demise and reserve to preserve its memory. Yevon's people became the fayth to create this manifestation and Yevon made himself the core of a powerful monster known as Sin to protect it, though the process destroyed his mind as he continuously maintains Sin's summoning as the creature is compelled to destroy. Through the machinations of Yevon's daughter Yunalesca, Bevelle established a religious faith built on atonement and sacrifice to conceal the spiral of death that runs throughout Spira's history. This process involves Yunalesca teaching a summoner a ritual known as "the Final Summoning", which would give Spira a brief reprieve from Sin's terror in a period known the "Calm" (ナギ節, Nagisetsu, lit. "calm time"). However, the Final Summoning is based on a strong bond, and requires a summoner to turn their guardian into the Fayth of a Final Aeon whose summoning kills the summoner who is memorialized as a high summoner. Though the Final Aeon can destroy Sin, it would become a new vessel of Yu Yevon and turned into a new Sin. A thousand years following the establishment of the Yevon Order, Spira became a rustic land, almost completely devoid of large cities and higher civilization. Due to the actions of Sin, and the Yevon ban on machina, few territories reached larger than hamlet size, as they were destroyed by Sin and their populations decimated before they were able to develop. The only cities left larger than small villages were Luca, which houses the only blitzball stadium in Spira, and Bevelle, the center of the temples of Yevon. Yuna and her guardians break the cycle and bring about the "Eternal Calm". As a result of the events in Final Fantasy X, in X-2 the teachings of Yevon were deemed invalid after the order's secrets were exposed while the Al Bhed accepted by the Spirans with association with machina no longer sacrilegious. Spirans in general had a positive outlook with the onset of the Eternal Calm. New political groups fought for power, two being the Youth League, the New Yevon Party, while Machine Faction seeks to salvage machina. Yuna ultimately restores peace and saves Spira a second time with multiple endings based on the player's performance. ### Mythos In the world of Final Fantasy X and its sequel, many supernatural elements influence events in the fictional world of Spira, defining the life of the planet's inhabitants. Magic, spiritual energy, and the power of memories are heavily intertwined, and their effects manifest in a number of situations, including sporting events, religious practices, technology, and even in some of the native wildlife of the planet. The most popular pastime is Blitzball. The depiction of Sin as an "existence that agonizes the world" and as a "disaster with form" plays an important role in Spira's everyday life throughout the game. In X-2, the population of Spira pursues additional leisures including attending concerts and a coin-collecting fad called Sphere Break. In Spira, when a person dies suddenly and unexpectedly, his or her life force, manifested as pyreflies, must be released from the body and sent to the Farplane, the final resting place of departed souls. If the sending is not performed, the body's spirit may remain trapped in the physical plane and take on the form of a fiend. A spirit of the dead may resist the transformation into a fiend, even when not sent and remain among the living, they are "unsent". The unsent play a prominent role in the storyline and mythos, including the playable character Auron and other characters including Maester Jyscal Guado, Shuyin, and Lady Yunalesca. #### Pyreflies Pyreflies are a mysterious, naturally occurring phenomenon that heavily influence the events of Final Fantasy X and X-2, as well as the world of Spira at large. Heavily prevalent throughout Spira, these "bundles of life energy" are closely associated with death and other spiritual events and entities by the people of Spira. At high concentrations, Pyreflies are capable of recording memories, sights and sounds. Pyreflies are also associated with many commonplace technological innovations including sphere-shaped recording devices and large, suspended spherical conglomerations of congealed water (called "sphere pools") that serve as the playing field for blitzball games. The pyreflies are also a source of raw energy to empower the giant machina, Vegnagun. Shinra of the Gullwings suggests that the life energy flowing through Spira on the Farplane could possibly be harnessed for the purpose of supplying electricity to a city. In interviews published in the Final Fantasy X Ultimania Ω and Final Fantasy X-2 Ultimania guidebooks, scenario writer Kazushige Nojima and producer Yoshinori Kitase revealed that Final Fantasy VII and X-2 share a plot-related connection, in which the Shin-ra corporation in VII is founded on another planet after about one thousand years, after space travel became possible, by descendants of Shinra of the Gullwings in X-2. This connection was conceived only after Final Fantasy X was already finished and realized in X-2 riding on the success of the original game and is not reflected in the gameplay or storylines of Final Fantasy VII or X. #### Religion Religion is an important part of life for many of the peoples of Spira, with a large majority of the population describing themselves as "Yevonites". Though by the end of Final Fantasy X some people had begun to question them, nevertheless the teachings of Yevon were millennium-old and heavily influential. The Yevonite clergy taught that Sin was a divine punishment set upon the people for their pride in the use of machines. As a result, the temples forbade the use of modern technology, and promoted a culture of atonement for past sins in the hopes of appeasing Sin. While the Yevon church forbids most machina including weapons, their capital Bevelle retains machina to ensure its dominance. The Al Bhed are seen as dangerous to the Yevon clergy because they use machina and pose a threat to the church's uncontested control of Spira. The church retains its power by role in using the Final Summoning which results in the sacrifice of the summoner and her guardian to prevent its secrets from being divulged. Though Yevon set up Operation Mi'ihen to instill further loyalty to the teachings by making the Crusaders use machina that would never win against Sin. By the end of FFX, the Yevon religion was effectively disbanded once evidence of its corruption was discovered, and its remaining priests volunteered the truth. Half a year later, the moral teachings of Yevon were revitalized in the form of the New Yevon Party, later led in Final Fantasy X-2 by Praetor Baralai. Although technically a splinter group of Yevon, the New Yevon party was not a religion, but a simple philosophy, their motto and position on Spira's advancement being "One thing at a time". In Final Fantasy X the "Hymn of the Fayth" (祈りの歌, Inori no Uta, lit. 'song of prayer') is an important song. Its fictional history started as a song of defiance turned scripture and has numerous variations that is played throughout the game throughout Yuna's journey; primarily as the music of the temples. Though the Hymn's words apparently have no discernible meaning within the context of Spira, the lyricist and scenario writer, Kazushige Nojima, composed a small puzzle with the lyrics, using Japanese syllables. When properly deciphered, they form sentences that translates thus: Pray to Yu Yevon. Dream, fayth. Forever and ever, grant us prosperity. The hymn was composed and arranged by Nobuo Uematsu and Masashi Hamauzu. Final Fantasy X's negative depiction of organized religion has been compared to the Catholic Church and the corruptibility of organized religion in general with the ultimate battle against a god. Stark writes that the game is a thesis on religion and the final battle with Yu Yevon offers a discourse on how to defeat it, by "let[ting] it die a slow death, murder it with sheer force, or utilize one's knowledge of the (game) world to give it no power to stand on". The Game Theorists add additional concepts, going further as to cite Final Fantasy as "anti-religion". #### Aeons and fayth The fayth (祈り子, inorigo, lit. "prayer child") are humans who willingly give up their lives to have their souls sealed in statues and commune with summoners with whom they have established a mental link. This link grants a summoner access to a fayth's dreams and enables him or her to physically realize those dreams as aeons (召喚獣, shōkanjū, lit. "summon beast"), powerful creatures which may be employed to aid the summoner in battle or in a time of special need. During the events of Final Fantasy X, the fayth of the aeon Bahamut serves as the chosen representative of the fayth as a collective. The fayth aids High Summoner Yuna and her guardians in bringing the spiral of death to an end, which results in their own passing. In X-2, the fayth return in their aeon forms, this time having been overcome by the despair and malice of Shuyin, rendering them his unwilling puppets of chaos. Yuna and her allies free both the fayth and Shuyin from the darkness that has consumed them. Ten aeons are identified in Final Fantasy X: Valefor, Ifrit, Shiva, Ixion, Bahamut, Anima, Yojimbo and the three Magus Sisters. The game builds on mythological figures through the inclusion of the aeons, such as the Arabic Ifrit, the Hindu deity Shiva and even the Jungian figure Anima and the demon Valefor. Wilder wrote on the Jungian analysis of Anima and tied Square Enix's depiction of the Aeon as both a representation of Seymour's corruption. Wilder analyzes the chained and blinded depiction of the figure that is Seymour's mother and tying the form to her bound to servitude to Seymour in his descent into madness. #### Militant factions The Crusaders (formerly known as the "Crimson Blades") were a loosely-knit army that existed to protect towns and temples from Sin. The group was founded by Lord Mi'ihen, who made a journey to Bevelle 800 years ago to calm the maesters' fears that he was assembling an army to conquer them. Mi'ihen managed to win their trust, and the Crimson Blades were thereafter inducted into the Yevon clergy as the Crusaders. The road Mi'ihen had walked was renamed the "Mi'ihen Highroad" in his honor. Unlike guardians, Crusaders are directly related to the temples. No non-Yevonite is permitted to serve as a Crusader, although there are unofficial chapters composed entirely of people who have been excommunicated. All of the Crusaders were excommunicated, however, when they set up Operation Mi'ihen, a joint Crusader-Al Bhed attempt to destroy Sin with a giant machina weapon. The operation failed and the Crusaders were largely eradicated in the process. A group known as the Crimson Squad was also formed around Operation Mi'ihen. Three candidates survived the final exercise; Baralai, Nooj and Gippal, all of whom would eventually lead one of the three political factions during the events of Final Fantasy X-2. ## Appearances Spira is the world of Final Fantasy X and X-2, but elements of its world and characters have been included in other Final Fantasy media. For Dissidia Final Fantasy and its prequel Dissidia 012 the characters Tidus, Yuna, Jecht and an area known as The Dream's End (夢の終わり, Yume no Owari) were featured. The Dreams' End shares similarities to the final area of Final Fantasy X complete with a large replica of Jecht's sword in the center. Tidus and Wakka are supporting characters in Kingdom Hearts and its follow-ups Chain of Memories and Coded. Auron makes an appearance in Kingdom Hearts II as a supporting team member and Final Fantasy X-2's main cast of Yuna, Rikku and Paine appear also make an appearance as supporting characters. Tidus, Auron and Yuna are also playable characters in Theatrhythm Final Fantasy. ## Analysis In Imagined History, Fading Memory: Mastering Narrative in Final Fantasy X, Washburn writes that Final Fantasy X "makes the relationship of memory, history, and the struggle for control of knowledge a central element of both its gameplay and its narrative". Washburn gives a synopsis of the game's alternate history and describes Spira's development as "evok[ing] a number of culturally vital discourses in Japan that the designers of the game drew on: the modernist aesthetics of evanescence, the loss of faith and belief in a society where technology and religion clash, the desire for a dream realm of memories as the source of an alternative history, and the nostalgic desire for the sublime experience of the annihilation of the past and the completion of history". Washburn uses FFX and the analysis of its narrative to make the case for academic study of the medium and counter the critical views held by detractors like Espen Aarseth, summarizing that "the ability to complete the game requires mastering not only the instrumental controls needed to acquire and perfect game skills but also the narrative itself, the cultural knowledge of Spira that facilitates the acquisition of skills and abilities". In Languages Of Navigation Within Computer Games Flynn asserts that Final Fantasy X's navigation is a representative and symbolic language, writing that "[a]lthough FFX establishes itself through the opening cut scene as narrative based, it becomes clear that a poetic and mythic experience of space rather than a cinematic sense of space is in operation". The localization process of Final Fantasy X and X-2 was analyzed as a case study by Mangiron and O'Hagan to highlight the liberties of localization. Technical limitations include localizing over a thousand weapons with unique names that must be conveyed in 15 characters yet have no English equivalent as in the case of 花鳥風月 (kachōfūgetsu, Meaning "Beauties of nature" Literally: "flower, bird, wind, and moon") that became "Painkiller" in English. Other cases include the addition of accents as in the case of Final Fantasy X-2's O'aka, a merchant, who speaks Cockney despite no accent being present in Japanese. Also included were references to Lollapalooza and humorous references to speech, with Rikku's verb conjugation of a noun having been modified for English audiences. Other differences like Sano's name being changed to Ormi for the English version, with Mangiron and O'Hagan noting a possible issue with the Spanish meaning of "Sano" as "healthy" in stark contradiction to Ormi's obese appearance. Mangiron and O'Hagan conclude that these changes and contextualisation by addition result in transcreation instead of just translation. Using the games as a case study, Mangiron and O'Hagan highlight that the freedom to modify, omit or add content results in the traditional concept of fidelity being discarded to maintain the "game experience". In the Marie Curie Euroconference on the Challenges of Multidimensional Translation, Minako O'Hagan expanded on the localization issue including the extreme rewrite of Final Fantasy X-2's theme song 1000 words and the International Edition, saying that in-game dialogues were produced fresh to match the dubbed American version, instead of using the original Japanese script. O'Hagan noted a point of contention raised by fans were Yuna's final words to Tidus in Final Fantasy X as "Thank you" (Arigato) being translated in English as "I love you"; this translation would extend to the European release and the voice dialogue would be in English. Other academic publications refer to the localization process of Final Fantasy X including Hevian and Marco. Final Fantasy X's depiction of Spira set a new standard with the traversing of real-time 3D environments instead of an overworld map, making the portrayal of Spira a pioneer in 3-D RPG maps.

M-110 (Michigan highway)

Former state highway in Manistee County, Michigan, United States

M-110 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan. The highway was a 1.715-mile-long (2.760 km) spur that provided access from US Highway 31 (US 31) to Orchard Beach State Park. The highway was designated in 1927 and lasted until 2003. ## Route description The southern terminus of M-110 was at a junction with US 31 near Parkdale on the northern boundary of the city of Manistee. From there, the trunkline traveled north along Lake Shore Road near Lake Michigan. Along the way, the highway passed through the unincorporated community of Parkdale. The landscape contains fields as the roadway approaches the forest at Orchard Beach State Park. M-110 continues past the park and terminated at an intersection with Kott Road. ## History A highway was first designated along Lakeshore Road in 1927 bearing the M-110 designation. The highway was improved the following year. That year, M-110 was listed as one of a few rural highways that was lighted. In a 1972 profile, M-110 was listed as one of the 13 shortest highways in the state, noting its connection to Orchard Beach State Park. In 2003, the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) transferred M-110 to the Manistee County Road Commission. In the last traffic surveys before the transfer, MDOT determined that an average of 2,335 vehicles used M-110 on a daily basis in 2002. ## Major intersections ## See also

2006 Bass Pro Shops MBNA 500

The 2006 Bass Pro Shops MBNA 500 was the thirty-third stock car race of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series, and the seventh in the 10-round season-ending Chase for the Nextel Cup. It was held on October 29, 2006 at Atlanta Motor Speedway in Hampton, Georgia before a crowd of 115,000 people. The 325-lap race was won by Joe Gibbs Racing driver Tony Stewart after starting from the eleventh position. Jimmie Johnson finished second and Dale Earnhardt Jr. came in third. Although Matt Kenseth was awarded the pole position after qualifying was rained out and the starting order was determined by owners' points, he was immediately passed by Kevin Harvick at the start of the race. Earnhardt became the leader on lap ten, and held it for the next 14 laps when Stewart passed him on lap 24. Earnhardt, Johnson, and Stewart assumed the lead through the various pit stop cycles and cautions waved for incidents over the course of the race. At the race's final restart on lap 315, Earnhardt led the field back up to speed, and remained the leader until Stewart moved past him on the run to turn four on the lap. Stewart maintained the first position for the last ten laps to win the event. There were nine cautions and 24 lead changes by seven drivers. Stewart's victory was his fourth of the season, and the 28th of his career. After the race, Matt Kenseth's lead in the Drivers' Championship over Johnson was lowered to 28 points. By finishing third, Earnhardt moved from eighth to fourth. Chevrolet maintained its unchallenged lead in the Manufacturers' Championship with 257 points, 72 ahead of Ford and 80 in front of Dodge with three races left in the season. ## Background The Bass Pro Shops MBNA 500 was the thirty-third of thirty-six scheduled stock car races of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the seventh in the ten-race season-ending Chase for the Nextel Cup. It was held on October 29, 2006 at Atlanta Motor Speedway in Hampton, Georgia, an intermediate track that holds NASCAR-sanctioned races. The standard track at Atlanta Motor Speedway is a 1.54 mi (2.48 km) four-turn quad-oval. The track's turns are banked at twenty-four degrees, while the front stretch, the location of the finish line, and the back stretch are banked at five. Going into the race, Matt Kenseth led the Drivers' Championship with 5,848 points; his nearest rival Kevin Harvick thirty-six points behind in second, and Jimmie Johnson was a further five points adrift in third. Denny Hamlin and Jeff Burton were separated by one point in fourth and fifth, and Dale Earnhardt Jr., Mark Martin, Kasey Kahne, Jeff Gordon and Kyle Busch rounded out the top ten drivers competing for the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet (with 246 points) were confirmed as champions six races prior to the Bass Pro Shops MBNA 500. Dodge was second with 185 points, and Ford were eight points behind in the battle for the position. Carl Edwards was the race's defending champion. One driver made his debut appearance in the Nextel Cup Series at the race. Champ Car World Series driver A. J. Allmendinger replaced 1988 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Bill Elliott in the No. 83 Red Bull Racing Team car. This was to help him acquaint himself with stock car racing, and for preparation for the team's full-time debut at the 2007 Daytona 500. Elliott was asked by the team to vacate the seat for Allmendinger, and he decided to join R&J Racing and drive its No. 37 car. Allmendinger spoke of his excitement over the switch to NASCAR, "To race against some of the best drivers in the world in front of fans that are as enthusiastic about racing as I am is going to be a pretty big thrill.” Elsewhere, David Ragan was not cleared by the NASCAR committee to run at Atlanta Motor Speedway because of his lack of experience driving on 1 mile tracks, and Roush Racing withdrew his entry. ## Practice and qualifying Three practice sessions were scheduled before the Sunday race: one on Friday and two on Saturday. The first session lasted 90 minutes, the second 60 minutes and the third 45 minutes. Constant heavy rain forced NASCAR officials to cancel all of Friday's scheduled activity, including that afternoon's qualifying session. Thus, the starting order for the race was determined by where the drivers were placed in the Owners Championship. This gave Kenseth the pole position. He was joined on the front row of the grid by his nearest rival Harvick. Johnson, Hamlin, Burton, Earnhardt, Martin, Kahne, Gordon and Kyle Busch completed the top ten starters. The four drivers who failed to qualify were Derrike Cope, Kirk Shelmerdine, Mike Skinner and Allmendinger due to them being outside the top 35 positions in the Owners' Championship. Kevin Lepage withdrew from the race prior to qualifying for undisclosed reasons but was later restored to the entry list. Afterward, Kenseth spoke of his happiness over being awarded the pole position, "That means I start up front, and I probably wouldn’t have been starting up there without the rain." The first practice session was rescheduled by NASCAR to Saturday morning, and would run for an hour, while the final practice session of 45 minutes would take place as scheduled. In the first practice session, Edwards was fastest with a lap of 29.516 seconds. Kurt Busch, Martin Truex Jr., Johnson, Harvick, Greg Biffle, Kenseth, Robby Gordon, Joe Nemechek and Earnhardt occupied positions two through ten. The engines installed in Robby Gordon and Ken Schrader's cars failed, and their respective teams changed engines. Earnhardt spun on cold tyres after leaving pit road, but managed to avoid colliding against a wall beside the track. Terry Cook, substituting for Kenny Wallace who was competing in the Sam's Town 250 Busch Series race at Memphis Motorsports Park, had the No. 78 car's right-side window detach. Kahne was fastest in the final practice session with a time of 29.512 seconds; Casey Mears was second, and Earnhardt placed third. Fourth position was taken by Nemechek, Kurt Busch was fifth-quickest, and David Gilliland sixth. Biffle was seventh-fastest, Johnson eighth, Burton ninth, and David Stremme tenth. ## Race Live television coverage of the race on NBC began at 2:30 p.m. Eastern Standard Time. Around the start of the race, weather conditions were clear and sunny. Bill Brannon, chaplain of Atlanta Motor Speedway, began pre-race ceremonies with an invocation. Christian rock band DecembeRadio performed the national anthem, and television host Bill Dance led a group of conservationists and representatives from Bass Pro Shops in commanding the drivers to start their engines. During the pace laps, Robby Gordon and Schrader moved to the rear of the field because they had changed their engines, and Elliott did the same for changing his car's transmission. The race began at 3:08 p.m. Harvick got a better start as he accelerated faster than Kenseth off the line, and got past him around the outside to lead the field on the first lap. Earnhardt moved from sixth to third by the lap three. The first caution was displayed a lap later when the eighth-placed Kyle Busch lost control of his car in the outside of the track at turn three and spun. He slid down the track, and glanced Brian Vickers' car with the front of his vehicle. None of the leading drivers made pit stops. Harvick led the back up to speed at the lap-eight restart, with Kenseth second, and Earnhardt third. Earnhardt caught Harvick, and made the pass on the outside of the track to gain the lead on the tenth lap. On lap 15, Kenseth was on the outside of the track with Jeff Gordon on the inside lane. Kenseth overtook Gordon for second on the lap. Tony Stewart overtook Harvick, Kenseth, and Gordon over the next three laps to move into second place. On the 24th lap, Stewart went past Earnhardt for first place. Earnhardt fell to fourth as Gordon and Harvick passed him on laps 25 and 30. He made an unscheduled pit stop on the 31st lap to correct a vibration that put him a lap behind the leader in 41st. Hamlin was passed by Truex for fourth on lap 46. Three laps later, the first round of green flag pit stops began when Kahne drove to pit road earlier than scheduled to remove a coil spring from the right-rear corner of his car, and correct a vibration that was caused by a heavily worn tire. Stewart made his stop for an air pressure adjustment on lap 55, handing the lead to Gordon. His teammate Johnson led for one lap before his pit stop on the 57th lap. After the pit stops, Earnhardt gained the lead since he was on a different strategy than other drivers around him. Earnhardt led Gordon by 7.871 seconds, but this was reduced to 2.605 seconds by the time of the second caution's deployment for debris in turn two on lap 82. During the caution, all of the leaders made pit stops. At the lap-85 restart, Earnhardt held the lead with Hendrick Motorsport's Johnson and Gordon second and third. Three laps later, Johnson lost second place to Gordon. Stewart steered onto the outside of the track on the backstretch to pass Truex for fourth . Gordon caught and overtook Earnhardt for the lead on lap 109. Earnhardt retook the lead from Gordon on the same lap. Continuous side-by-side racing enabled Gordon to claim the lead from Earnhardt on the outside five laps later. Stewart moved past Earnhardt to take over second as Burton passed Johnson to move into fourth on the 125th and 126th laps respectively. Green flag pit stops were made from laps 133 and 150, with Gordon retaking the lead, and Stewart moving into second. Stewart gained on Gordon to lower the deficit to half a second, and was close enough to affect an overtake on lap 157. Gordon attempted to lap Nemechek, but the latter had an understeer that put Gordon into a wall, pushing his right-front fender in slightly. Stewart used the incident to pass Gordon for the lead and pull away from him. On lap 170, the third caution was necessitated when Gordon had his right-rear tire go flat in turn two, and the rear of his car was rammed by Jamie McMurray, who was blinded by sunlight glare in his eyes. Gordon spun and made two pit stops to repair car damage. All drivers chose to make pit stops under caution. Stewart maintained the lead at the lap-178 but he lost it to Earnhardt on the following lap. Stewart attempted to retake the first position by drawing alongside Earnhardt on lap 187 but was unsuccessful. On lap 194, Burton was passed by Kahne for fifth. A fourth caution was given on the 197th lap when race officials located debris in turn one. Most drivers again took the opportunity to make pit stops for fuel and tyres during the caution. Racing resumed on the 202nd lap with Stewart leading Earnhardt and Kenseth. Earnhardt had a loose car, and Johnson passed him for second six laps later. He lost a further place to Kurt Busch on lap 209. By lap 212, Gordon had moved into the top ten and got past Burton for ninth four laps later. Johnson moved in front of Kenseth to get into second on lap 218, and Kahne got ahead of Earnhardt to take over fourth on the 219th lap. Johnson closed up to Stewart over the intervening laps, and overtook him for the lead in traffic on lap 238. As Johnson increased his advantage over Stewart to a half a second. the fifth caution was waved on lap 243 when Newman crashed into a wall on the backstretch, and scattered debris on the track. Johnson maintained the lead through another pit stop cycle, and held it at the lap-248 restart. On the next lap, Kahne steered right to go up the track on the run to the first turn, and went into the path of Stremme, causing the sixth caution. Both went into the wall heavily. Johnson again led at the restart on the 255th lap. He held it for the next five laps until Stewart passed him to reclaim the position. On lap 281, Burton made a pit stop to replace a cut right-hand side tire after glancing the wall 16 laps earlier. Harvick made his own stop for tires seven laps later. The seventh caution came out on the 292nd lap after a section of foam-rubber roll-bar padding was located on the backstretch. All of the leaders decided to make pit stops under the caution. The race restarted on lap 295 with Stewart maintaining his lead over Johnson. Kenseth lost third place to Earnhardt five laps later. On lap 301, Gordon was overtaken by Biffle for fifth position. Four laps later, the front-right wheel bearing on Truex's car failed, causing him to clout the wall with the right-hand side of his car, and left fluid on the track, prompting the eighth caution. Most drivers, including Stewart, went down pit road for tires. The race resumed on lap 310, when the ninth (and final) caution was issued for a multi-car accident in turn two..Wallace drove onto the turn one apron, and made contact with Jeff Green. This caused Sterling Marlin to brake heavily; he was hit on the outside by Martin, who in turn, got rammed by Dale Jarrett. Mears and Clint Bowyer were also caught up in the accident. Earnhardt led at the lap-315 restart, but lost the lead to Stewart heading into the fourth turn. Johnson moved into second place with overtakes on Edwards and Earnhardt over the following two laps. Kenseth lost fourth place to Edwards on the 318th lap. Bowyer drifted into a wall six laps later but no caution was given. Stewart held the lead for the remainder of the race to clinch his fourth victory of the season, and the twenty-eighth of his career. Johnson finished second, and Earnhardt repelled an late challenge by Kenseth to claim third by a margin of 0.007 seconds. Biffle took fifth, Jeff Gordon sixth, Edwards seventh, Hamlin eighth, Nemechek ninth and Robby Gordon tenth. The race had a total of nine cautions and 24 lead changes by seven drivers. Stewart led seven times for a total of 146 laps, more than any other competitor. ### Post-race Stewart appeared in victory lane in front of the crowd of 170,000 to celebrate his fourth win of the season, which earned him \$373,286. Stewart was happy with the victory, saying not being in the chase helped ease the pressure placed upon him, and spoke of his feeling that he could not attained his recent successes had he been contenting for the championship, "Sometimes it gets you off your game a little bit. Sometimes it makes you be a little bit conservative. Sometimes, because of the pressure, you make mistakes. Those guys are in a totally different situation than we are. So it's easier for us to go out and just try to win races." Johnson said of his second-place finish, "We got off to a rough start, but we had the speed in the car and now we're getting the results. 'It was a fun race. You really had to challenge yourself and scare yourself on every lap. We're on a great roll right now.'' Third-placed Earnhardt stated that he was not prepared to make a pit stop during the eighth caution, "They were doing everything, swapping, and juking, and carrying on, I just kind of got left out there.'' Kahne had been favored to win due to his recent record of winning races at one-and-a half mile tracks, but admitted being at fault for causing the crash with Stremme, "I just drove into him. Had he kept going, it was just a matter of time until we were going to be leading. ... But, driver error. I screwed up." Hamlin, who finished eighth, had a poor-handling car that put him one lap down before regaining it with 75 laps remaining, and spoke of his fortune over avoiding the multi-car accident on lap 310, "We sucked real bad. I don't know, I can't get a grip on this race track. I haven't had and I don't know if I will in the foreseeable future. I've got to work on it." Kenseth revised his chances of winning the Drivers' Championship by half. Although he had more optimism, Kenseth said he would have felt more comfortable if his lead was larger, "At least we came close to running with them today. That feels good because other people’s troubles have kind of put us in the points lead. We had a 44th-place car on Saturday and finished fourth today, so the crew did a great job. This is how we need to run to have a shot at it." After cutting his right-front tire on lap 268, Burton spoke of his anger with the roll bar padding that caused a caution 24 laps later. He called for NASCAR to stop all cars on pit road and penalize those lacking a roll bar, "It is starting to happen just too often and NASCAR gets on everybody when it happens. Well, they should find out who did it and penalize them.'' Television footage broadcast after the race appear to show Robby Gordon throwing a roll bar out of his car. He protested his innocence, and NASCAR did not initially penalize him as they deemed the footage "inconclusive". Nextel Cup Series Director John Darby stated that inspectors would search all cars as they were transported into their haulers to see whether any lacked a roll bar. Later, series officials investigated Robby Gordon after an initial search discovered nothing, and gathered all information regarding the incident to come up with a conclusion. Three days after the race, it was announced that after reviewing new television footage, and re-inspecting Robby Gordon's car, the driver was fined \$15,000, and penalized 50 points in the Owners and Drivers' Championship. Both Gordon and his crew chief Greg Erwin were put on probation until December 31, 2006, and Erwin received a \$10,000 fine. The result kept Kenseth in the lead of the Drivers' Championship with 6,008 points. Johnson's second-place finish advanced him to second with 5,982 points. Hamlin moved to third, while Earnhardt progressed from sixth to fourth, but was tied with fifth-placed Burton on points (5,924). Harvick's poor finish dropped him to sixth. He, Gordon, Martin, Kahne and Kyle Busch were mathematically ruled out of contention for the Drivers' Championship. In the Manufacturers' Championship, Chevrolet led with 255 points. Ford moved three points closer to Dodge in the battle for second position with three races left in the season. The race took three hours, 29 minutes and 23 seconds to complete, and the margin of victory was 1.195 seconds. ## Race results ## Standings after the race - Note: Only the top ten positions are included for the driver standings. These drivers qualified for the Chase for the Nextel Cup.

The Hardest Day

World War II air battle part of the greater Battle of Britain

The Hardest Day was a Second World War air battle fought on 18 August 1940 during the Battle of Britain between the German Luftwaffe and British Royal Air Force (RAF). On that day, the Luftwaffe made an all-out effort to destroy RAF Fighter Command. The air battles that took place on that day were amongst the largest aerial engagements in history to that time. Both sides suffered heavy losses. In the air, the British shot down twice as many Luftwaffe aircraft as they lost. However, many RAF aircraft were destroyed on the ground, equalising the total losses of both sides. Further large and costly aerial battles took place after 18 August, but both sides lost more aircraft combined on this day than at any other point during the campaign, including 15 September, the Battle of Britain Day, generally considered the climax of the fighting. For this reason, Sunday 18 August 1940 became known as "the Hardest Day" in Britain. By June 1940, the Allies had been defeated in Western Europe and Scandinavia. After Britain rejected peace overtures, Adolf Hitler issued Directive No. 16, ordering the invasion of the United Kingdom. The invasion of the United Kingdom was codenamed Operation Sea Lion (Unternehmen Seelöwe). However, before this could be carried out, air supremacy or air superiority was required to prevent the RAF from attacking the invasion fleet or providing protection for any attempt by the Royal Navy's Home Fleet to intercept a landing by sea. Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe's commander-in-chief, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, and the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (High Command of the Air Force) to prepare for this task. The primary target was RAF Fighter Command. In July 1940, the Luftwaffe began military operations to destroy the RAF. Throughout July and early August, the Germans targeted convoys in the English Channel and occasionally RAF airfields. On 13 August, a major German effort, known as Adlertag (Eagle Day), was made against RAF airfields, but failed. The failure did not deter the Germans from persisting with air raids against the RAF or its infrastructure. Five days later came the Hardest Day. ## Background The Luftwaffe was detailed to destroy Fighter Command before the planned invasion of Britain could take place. The OKL hoped that the destruction of the British fighter defence would force the British to come to terms by air power alone and the very risky Operation Sea Lion would not be needed. The enormous numerical superiority of British naval forces over their German opponents made a crossing of the Channel very dangerous, even with air superiority. Furthermore, the aircraft losses of the spring campaign had weakened the Luftwaffe before the Battle of Britain, and it could not begin its campaign against Fighter Command immediately. It was forced to wait until it had reached acceptable levels before a main assault against the RAF could be made in August 1940. Until the Luftwaffe was ready to begin operations over the mainland, the first phase of the German air offensive targeted British shipping in the Channel. The raids rarely involved attacks against RAF airfields inland, but enticed RAF units to engage in battle by attacking British Channel convoys. These operations lasted from 10 July to 8 August 1940. The attacks against shipping were not very successful, and only 24,500 GRT was sunk. Mine laying from aircraft had proved more profitable, sinking 38,000 tons. The impact on Fighter Command was minimal. It had lost 74 fighter pilots killed or missing and 48 wounded in July, but British strength rose to 1,429 by 3 August, leaving it short of just 124 pilots. Still, the attacks succeeded in forcing the British to abandon the Channel convoy route and to redirect shipping to ports in north-eastern Britain. With this achieved the Luftwaffe began the second phase of its air offensive, attacking RAF airfields and support structures in Britain. The month of August witnessed an escalation in air combat, as the Germans made a concentrated effort against Fighter Command. The first major raid inland and against RAF airfields came on 12 August, and the Luftwaffe quickly escalated its offensive. The Germans did not achieve a degree of success commensurate with their exertions on this date. Nevertheless, in the belief they were having considerable effect on Fighter Command, they prepared to launch their all-out assault on the RAF the following day. By 13 August, German air strength had reached acceptable levels. After bringing its serviceable rates up, the Luftwaffe carried out heavy attacks under the codename Adlertag (or Eagle Day), with 71 per cent of its bomber force, 85 per cent of its Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter units, and 83 per cent of its Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighter/fighter-bomber units operational. The day went badly for the Germans, who failed to impair Fighter Command and its bases or command and control system. This was due in large part to poor intelligence, which failed to identify Fighter Command airfields and distinguish them from those of Bomber and Coastal Commands. Still, the Germans pursued their strategy against Fighter Command on 15 August, suffering 76 losses. Undeterred, they prepared to make another large-scale attack on RAF bases on 18 August. ## Luftwaffe plan German intelligence suggested that the RAF was down to just 300 serviceable fighters on 17 August 1940, taking into consideration German pilots' claims and estimates of British production capabilities. In fact, there were 855 machines serviceable, with another 289 at storage units and 84 at training units. These resources were included in a total of 1,438 fighters, twice as many as at the beginning of July 1940. Expecting weakening opposition, the Luftwaffe prepared for a major action against RAF Sector Stations on 18 August. The Luftwaffe's plan of attack was simple. German bombers were to strike at the RAF airfields in the south-east corner of England. The most important airfields in this region, under the command of AOC (Air Officer Commanding) Keith Park and his No. 11 Group RAF, were the Sector Stations at RAF Kenley, Biggin Hill, Hornchurch, North Weald, Northolt, Tangmere and Debden. The first five were on the periphery of Greater London. Tangmere was in the south near the coast at Chichester, while Debden was north of London near Saffron Walden. Each of these airfields housed two to three squadrons and had its own sector operations room. From there, its fighters were directed from its satellite airfields into combat. There were six satellite airfields at Westhampnett, Croydon, Gravesend, Manston, Rochford and RAF Martlesham Heath; Manston and Martlesham Heath each housed two squadrons, the remainder each housed one. Finally, there was RAF Hawkinge, just inland from Folkestone. Not all of these airfields were targeted on 18 August. Despite the failure of Adlertag and considerable loss rates on 15, 16 and 17 August, Kesselring convinced Göring that the only sound strategy was to continue to send heavily escorted bombers to destroy British airfields. Kesselring also advocated the use of Jagdgeschwader (fighter wings) in free-chase tactics. Messerschmitt Bf 109 single-engine fighters were to be sent out in advance of the main raids to force the British fighters into large-scale air battles which, in theory, would destroy RAF aircraft in combat and deplete the British defences. However, this time, Kesselring changed his operational methods. In consultation with Hugo Sperrle, commanding Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleet 3), he chose not to scatter his effort against a large number of targets. Instead, he narrowed down the targets to a short list in order to concentrate his strength and striking power. Sector stations RAF Kenley, North Weald, Hornchurch and Biggin Hill were chosen as the prime targets. ## RAF defences ### Initial strategy and tactics Up to the late spring of 1940, Fighter Command had been preparing to meet a possible air attack on the British Isles coming only from due east, from Germany itself; prior to the German victory in Western Europe. The possibility that France might fall and Britain would continue to fight on had not been considered. An air attack from Germany meant the Luftwaffe's bombers would operate beyond the range of their fighters and be vulnerable to attack. If twin-engine fighters, such as the Messerschmitt Bf 110s were used, they would be fighting at the limits of their range. It was also doubted that fast fighter aircraft could engage in dogfights. The g-force effect on the human body also seemed to suggest the prospect of air-to-air combat between fighters was impractical anyway. The threat they saw related only to the return-fire of the bomber's gunners. Before the war the effectiveness of return, or cross-fire, from bombers had been exaggerated by the Air Staff and Air Ministry. This short-sighted belief had a detrimental impact on the tactical effectiveness of RAF Fighter Command until the summer, 1940. With German bombers perceived as the only prey, AOC Fighter Command Hugh Dowding and his planners devised a system and tactics which used unwieldy and tight fighter formations to bring the RAF fighters into combat with bombers, followed by set-piece tactics for the engagement. Because the bomber's return fire was considered so dangerous, fighter pilots were trained to open fire at long range, 300 to 400 yards, then break away without closing to short-range. These tactics, practised so thoroughly over the years, proved totally useless in the battle situation facing them over Britain in 1940. The tactics were also unsuitable for fighter-versus-fighter combat. Packed in tight formation, the RAF pilots were more concerned with keeping their position and not colliding with each other than they were keeping watch for the enemy. It made them vulnerable to surprise attacks by Bf 109s and Bf 110s. Even if the British fighters reached the bombers without interception, the chaos of modern aerial combat made it impossible to concentrate attacks with large, rigid formations. Pilots were also forced into paying far too much respect to the bomber's defensive capabilities. Attacks were broken off far too early and caused little damage to bombers. These tactical failures were evident during the battles in Belgium and France. Moreover, rushed training with pilots who were barely able to use the old tactical methods meant that airmen could not cope with much needed radical changes. The V or Vic formation was developed in June, which made a greater emphasis on each pilot looking for the enemy, search capability and avoiding being taken by surprise. Still, it was inferior to German fighter tactics. German fighter tactics were more flexible. In the Spanish Civil War, Werner Mölders developed a new system of fighter tactics. The primary deployment was to use large numbers of Bf 109s on free-hunting missions, or sweeps, over the battle area. Instead of flying the standard V formation, used by many air forces, the Germans paired their fighters into Rotte. It consisted of two fighters; a pilot and his wingman 200 yards abreast. Flying this way meant each could cover the others blind spots. If an enemy made an attack, the other could move in behind it to protect the other Rotte member. The Rotte could be expanded into a Schwarm (Swarm or Flight). The formation was eventually given the name "Finger-four". It offered maximum protection and all members of a Schwarm were on the lookout for threats and targets. ### C3: Command, communication and control At the operational level the British fighter defences proved to be far more sophisticated. The RAF defences were not just based on the combat power of Fighter Command. Just as important as the "teeth" of the defence was the "eyes and ears" – its nervous system which carried intelligence and information between them to position the "teeth" to strike. By the summer, 1940, the Chain Home radar stations along the English and Scottish coasts were able to track incoming aircraft from continental Europe at all but the lowest altitudes. The best detection altitude was 20,000 ft (6,100 m). Aircraft at this height could be detected over 100 mi (160 km) away. To assess their identity, IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) could, by means of a distinctive blip on radar screens, distinguish German and British aircraft. The radar technology was not flawless. It struggled to gauge heights of incoming formations above 25,000 ft (7,600 m) and could not measure their numerical strength. It could also take several minutes to assess the line of advance for aircraft on a zigzag course. Moreover, the radar looked out to sea and was unable to track aircraft overland. That was the job of the Royal Observer Corps. Tens of thousands of volunteers, the length and breadth of Britain tracked the German formations over land. They were connected to Sector airfields by landline and could communicate intelligence in real time. The detection and interception of incoming raids was as follows: - Radar detects the enemy aircraft - Radar plots are dispatched by landline to the filter room at Fighter Command Headquarters, Stanmore Park - At the filter room enemy plots were compared with known plots of RAF fighters to assess identity to corroborate IFF - Unidentified or hostile plots were dispatched by landline to fighter group or Sector operations rooms for plotting on situation maps - No. 11 Groups operations room at RAF Uxbridge kept a record of the status of each unidentified or hostile raid, and the state of RAF Squadrons; whether they were refuelling, landing, in combat or scrambling - Fighter controllers at the Sector operations rooms would choose which formations to engage and exactly what and how many Squadrons to scramble and issue the relevant orders to satellite controllers - Fighter controllers at satellite fields would then bring their Squadrons into the field as directed by Sector controllers - Squadrons would be loosely deployed across the south east to prevent the enemy slipping through - Squadron Leaders are then responsible for the combat engagement ### Anti-aircraft defences Conventional defensive weapons included the anti-aircraft artillery piece. The three main types were the 4.5-inch, 3.7-inch and 3-inch guns. The first two were modern, and effective over 26,000 ft (7,900 m). The last was a First World War weapon effective only to 14,000 ft (4,300 m). Usually batteries were sited in fours, with a range-finder and predictor which measured the speeds and heights of enemy aircraft while taking into account the time shell took to reach their intended targets, thus calculating when to detonate the fuse in the shell. As with most artillery weapons firing at aircraft, the higher the shell travelled the less effective it became. A shell fired to 5,000 ft (1,500 m) would only be half as effective at 10,000 ft (3,000 m) and a quarter as accurate at 15,000 ft (4,600 m). The German bombers usually tried to fly around heavy concentrations of anti-aircraft guns, and if forced to fly through them, chose to fly at heights of around 15,000 ft (4,600 m). Most of the heavy artillery defences were located around London and the Thames Estuary. Others were concentrated around Dover, Folkestone, Harwich, Ipswich, Portsmouth and Southampton docks. For low-level defence, the Bofors 40 mm was used. This cannon had a rate of fire of 120 rounds a minute. The 2-pound (0.9 kg) shells were capable of blowing a hole in an aircraft big enough for a man to fit through. However, there were only a few available and they were in short supply at RAF Kenley and Biggin Hill. To make up the difference 3 inch guns, firing over open sights from 1918 were used. They could fire only 15 rounds per minute. One unusual defensive weapon was in use at Kenley on 18 August; the parachute-and-cable. Located on the north side of the airfield at 60 ft (18 m) intervals, these were fired vertically by a rocket in salvoes of nine or more. As enemy aircraft came in at low-altitude, the parachute deployed and held a 480 ft (150 m) long steel cable from an altitude of 600 ft (180 m). If struck by an aircraft, a second parachute deployed and tangled the device around the victim. If the cable was picked up on the wing, there was a good chance that the aircraft would go down out of control. This device had not been used before 18 August 1940. Also available were barrage balloons with cutting cables capable of tearing off bombers' wings. ## Lunchtime engagement ### German build-up The morning weather was clear and sunny, making ideal flying conditions. At his headquarters in Brussels, Albert Kesselring commanding Luftflotte 2 (Air Fleet 2) directed the Geschwader (wings) under his command to carry out attacks on Biggin Hill and Kenley. KG 1 was to send 60 Heinkel He 111s from its base in Amiens to conduct a high-level attack on Biggin Hill. KG 76, based in airfields to the north of Paris, was to attack RAF Kenley. The Kampfgeschwader (bomber wing) could muster 48 Dornier Do 17s and Junkers Ju 88s. The force attacking Kenley was smaller numerically than the one hitting Biggin Hill and the Ju 88 and Do 17 carried only two-thirds the bomb-load of a He 111. The planners reasoned that a more accurate low-level strike carried out by a staffel from KG 76 would compensate for the weaker firepower of KG 76s main formations. Fighter escort was provided by Jagdgeschwader 3 (JG 3), Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26), Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51), Jagdgeschwader 52 (JG 52), Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54) and Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26). The Jagdgeschwader would carry out free-hunting and close escort from bases in the Pas-de-Calais. Both of the targeted airfields contained sector operations rooms from which the British fighters were directed into action. These airfields were selected by the Luftwaffe because they were the largest ones known to be operating RAF fighters. The German intelligence had no knowledge of the sector operations rooms there. The rooms were above ground and had little protection. If these buildings were to be hit, it would be a serious blow to the control system in the region. At their airfield at Cormeilles-en-Vexin, 9 Staffel (Squadron) KG 76 were briefed by their commander Hauptmann (Captain) Joachim Roth. The Staffel was to conduct a low-level attack against Kenley with Roth flying as a navigator in the lead aircraft. The unit had specialised in low-level attacks in France with great success. The nine Do 17s were to head across the Channel and make landfall at Beachy Head. From there they were to follow the Brighton–London rail line north-east to the target area. The crews were ordered to concentrate their attacks against buildings and hangars on the southern end of the airfield. The Dorniers were to carry twenty 50 kg (110 lb) bombs each fitted with a fuse that would allow for function if released higher than 50 ft (15 m); the type of bomb previously used by the Staffel had to release from twice this height, making the unit's Do 17s correspondingly more vulnerable to ground fire. The attack was to be part of a coordinated pincer movement against the airfields. Ju 88s from II./KG 76 were to dive-bomb buildings and hangars from high-altitude first. Five minutes later, 27 Do 17s from I. and II./KG 76 would level-bomb from high altitude to crater the runways and landing grounds while knocking out its defences. 9 Staffel KG 76, the specialist low-level strike unit, would go in and finish off any buildings still standing. It was a bold and imaginative plan. If it worked, it would wreck Kenley from end-to-end. The high-flying bombers would have full fighter escort but the low-flying bombers would have to use stealth to avoid interception to and from the target area. The operation began at 09:00 but was postponed because of heavy haze reducing visibility up to 4,000 feet. In the intervening time, a few skirmishes took place between RAF fighters and German reconnaissance aircraft. A Lehrgeschwader 2 (LG 2) Bf 110 was shot down in the morning. At 11:00 KG 1's formations took off and the main formations headed out to sea. The form-up was more difficult for KG 76 and its Do 17s and Ju 88s. Their bases in and around Calais were covered in 8/10ths cloud cover with a base of 6,500 feet which reached to 10,000 feet. As the bombers climbed through the haze the formation soon lost cohesion. Valuable time was lost as they reformed. The Do 17s of I. and III./KG 76 had overtaken the III./KG 76 Ju 88s which should have been ahead of them by five minutes. These delays had serious consequences for 9 Staffel KG 76. Meanwhile, Gerhard Schöpfel, leading III./JG 26 and Bf 109s from JG 3, 40 in total, were already crossing the Dover straits to sweep the skies clear ahead of the main raid. Some 25 miles behind him were the 27 Do 17s of I. and III./KG 76 escorted by 20 Bf 110s that were to strike Kenley. Close by the Dorniers were the Ju 88s of III./KG 76 escorted by Bf 109s from JG 51. This formation should have been 15 miles in front. Some 15 miles to the rear of the Ju 88s, KG 1's He 111s were bound for Biggin Hill, escorted by 40 Bf 109s from JG 54. The formations were moving at around three miles per minute, at 12,000 feet. Around 50 miles to the south-west, the nine Do 17s of 9 Staffel were at wave-top height, halfway between Dieppe, Seine-Maritime and Beachy Head, intent on sneaking under British radar beams unobserved. Altogether, the raiding force contained 108 bombers and 150 fighters. ### British scramble The British followed the main raids and were aware of all the approaching aircraft, save for the low-altitude 9 Staffel. The radar station near Dover began reporting a build-up over the Pas-de-Calais area. This activity increased until 12:45 when six concentrations were reported. The plotters estimated the strength of the force as 350 aircraft, a third more than the actual size. At RAF Uxbridge, AOC No. 11 Group RAF Keith Park and his controllers directed No. 501 Squadron RAF and its 12 Hawker Hurricanes, already in the air, to Canterbury at 20,000 feet. They had been on their way back to RAF Gravesend having spent most of the morning on patrol operating from RAF Hawkinge near Folkestone. Within minutes eight more Squadrons were dispatched to meet them; two from Kenley, two from Biggin Hill and one each from North Weald, Martlesham Heath, Manston and Rochford. Within a short time the fighters assigned to engage were all airborne. Five Squadrons; No. 17, No. 54, No. 56, No. 65, and 501 with 17 Supermarine Spitfires and 36 Hurricanes were moving to patrol the Canterbury–Margate line to block any attack on the Thames Estuary ports or the airfields to the north of it. Four squadrons, No. 32, No. 64, No. 601, and No. 615, with 23 Spitfires and 27 Hurricanes went into position above Kenley and Biggin Hill; 97 RAF fighters were to meet the attack. Park did not send all of his forces aloft, keeping a reserve. Three squadrons at RAF Tangmere were kept ready to meet more attacks from the south. Six more were in reserve to meet a possible follow-up to the coming raid. ### 9 Staffel KG 76 attacks Kenley As the advance led by Gerhard Schöpfel made their way past the coast it spotted the vic-formation of RAF fighters. They were Hurricanes of 501 Squadron which were conducting wide spirals to gain height. Schöpfel bounced them and shot down four in two minutes killing one pilot and wounding three others. As he departed other members of his Geschwader (Wing) dived on the Squadron and an inconclusive dogfight ensued. Schöpfel's victims were Donald McKay and Pilot Officers J.W Bland, Kenneth Lee and F. Kozlowski. Bland was the only one killed. Both the Do 17s and Ju 88s of the III./KG 76 encountered flak as they crossed Dover. The Do 17s were escorted by ZG 26 while III./JG 51 led by Hannes Trautloft escorted the Ju 88s. The German bombers had flown east of Canterbury and thereby avoided the main concentration of fighters on the Canterbury-Margate line. At 13:01 they passed over Ashford and had a clear 40 mi (65 km) run before they reached Biggin Hill and its four defending squadrons. As 9 Staffel crossed the coast they were fired at by Royal Navy patrol boats. The machine gun fire was ineffective. However, the Royal Observer Corps Post K3, situated on top of Beachy Head, spotted the Dorniers. They immediately telephoned a warning to Observer Group Headquarters at Horsham and fighter sector stations in the area, including RAF Kenley. Wing Commander Thomas Prickman, the station commander at Kenley, noticed the low-flying Dornier plot appear on his situation map. They appeared to be heading away towards the west, and Prickman was unsure of their target. His controllers were organising Nos. 64 and 615 Squadrons to meet the high-altitude raid. Roth headed past Lewes until he picked up the Brighton–London rail line. He then turned north-west. With the Observer Corps passing a steady stream of reports regarding approaching German formations they soon realised a coordinated attack was under way. The two Squadrons approaching the high-altitude attack could not be diverted and no fighters had been asked to engage the 9 Staffel. The only Squadron on the ground in the area was No. 111 Squadron RAF that had 12 Hurricanes at RAF Croydon. Although usually the responsibility of Park, the controllers took the matter into their own hands and ordered all aircraft into the air. Even those that were not in combat condition were flown north-east, to avoid them being caught on the ground. No. 111 Squadron managed to get into position above Kenley at 3,000 feet. With luck they could intercept 9 Staffel. Biggin Hill soon took the same precaution of ordering all fighters into the air by order of Group Captain Richard Grice. At 13:10 the German bombers were within 40 miles of the BBC high-power transmitter at Hatfield, Hertfordshire. In accordance with policy, it was shut down to deny the Germans the opportunity to use it as direction-finding beacon and the BBC Home Service was taken off air in the process. Using the railway lines, Roth, in the lead Do 17, homed in on Kenley from the south. They were now just six miles away. Joachim Roth's low-level navigation had been extremely accurate. He had navigated his unit to within two minutes flying time from the target without interception, over unfamiliar enemy territory, on time and exactly on the planned route. But as the Dorniers neared the airfield they noticed that there was no smoke, or signs of damage. They expected to finish off a damaged fighter station. As the Germans burst over the airfield the air was suddenly filled with tracer rounds as the Dorniers' gunners engaged the Bofors and British AAA defences. Some of No. 111 Squadron dived onto the Dorniers, but one Hurricane was shot down, either by the Dorniers or British ground fire. Pilot Flight Lieutenant Stanley Connors was killed. The rest pulled up and away to avoid friendly fire. They flew to the northern edge of the airfield to catch the raiders as they emerged. Two Hurricanes from No. 615 were taking off under the attack. Within minutes all the Dorniers had been hit. Feldwebel Johannes Petersen's Do 17 was flying higher than the others. It was hit, and caught fire, but carried on. Günter Unger lined up his Do 17 in order to attack a hangar and released his 20 110-lb bombs before his starboard engine was knocked out. Unteroffizier (Junior Officer or NCO) Schumacher watched as three hangars were destroyed by Unger's bombs. Unger's Dornier then was hit by something. It bled black smoke and lost speed. Unger was engaged by Harry Newton of 111 Squadron. Newton was shot down by accurate return fire and bailed out. However, Newton fired a burst of machine gun fire at the Dornier in frustration before leaving the Hurricane. He damaged the Dornier, but Unger flew on. Oberleutnant (First Lieutenant) Hermann Magin was lining up a hangar when he was hit and slumped over. The quick reactions of the navigator, 28-year-old Wilhelm-Friedrich Illg, saved the crew. He took control and climbed out of the defensive fire before ordering the crew to abandon the aircraft. As the bombers worked over the airfield, Aircraftman D. Roberts waited for them on the northern boundary with his parachute-and-cable launchers. Three Do 17s were heading towards him, climbing slowly. When they were in range he fired the cables. Nine rockets flew upwards. Wilhelm Raab saw the rockets go up. Although he did not understand what they were, he banked the Do 17 to avoid the lines of smoke that may or may not have concealed something. Because the Dornier banked, one of the cables that hit his bomber slid off the wing before the lower parachute had time to deploy. Pilot Petersen's Dornier was not that lucky. Already on fire it ran into the cable which dragged it out of the sky. The Do 17 crashed killing all five crewmen. Oberleutnant Rudolf Lamberty (carrying Joachim Roth) also managed to avoid a collision, but before he could do so ground fire hit his Dornier destroying the fuel tanks. The bomber caught fire and he was barely able to keep control. Eventually it crash-landed at Leaves Green in Kent after being shot down by No. 111 Squadron Hurricanes. Roth was killed, but Lamberty survived with burns. Of the bombers that evaded the defences and No. 111 Squadron, two ditched into the sea and two more crash-landed in France. The German crew was picked up by Kriegsmarine ships. All of the nine Do 17s were damaged, of which four were lost, and two damaged in crash landings. Wilhelm-Friedrich Illg was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for helping the wounded pilot Hermann Magin guide his Do 17 back home. Magin died of wounds soon after. For their efforts, 9 Staffel destroyed at least three hangars, hit several other buildings and destroyed eight Hurricanes on the ground. According to other sources, 10 hangars were destroyed, six damaged, the operations room put out of action, and many buildings were destroyed. It would have been worse had the bombs been released higher. A lot of bombs landed horizontally and did not explode on impact. To achieve this level of damage, KG 76 dropped nine tons of bombs. At the end of the day just one hangar was left operational at Kenley. The low-level raid put the airfield out of commission for two hours. In combat, two Hurricanes were shot down by the Dorniers' return fire. In return 9 Staffel lost four Do 17s, three slightly damaged and two seriously damaged. Low-level attacks were abandoned after The Hardest Day. ### KG 1 and KG 76 hit Kenley, Biggin Hill and West Malling Nos. 610, 615 and 32 Squadrons were guarding the air space near Biggin Hill. Operating at about 25,000 feet they were waiting for the high-altitude force to reach the area. Unfortunately, the German escort fighters had climbed much higher and they were taken by surprise. JG 3's Bf 109s had been flying extended cover for the 12 Ju 88s and 27 Do 17s of KG 76. They spotted No. 615 below them and bounced the RAF fighters. Oberleutnant Lothar Keller and Leutnants Helmut Meckel and Helmut Landry each destroyed a Hurricane. While 615 had taken grievous losses, it had served an important purpose by keeping the escorting German fighters busy. While they engaged JG 3, Squadron Leader Michael Crossley led No. 32 Squadron against I. and III./KG 76 bombers without having to worry about enemy fighter aircraft. ZG 26's Bf 110s were flying near the formation, and tried to offer JG 3 support by intercepting Crossley's fighters but failed. Crossley led a head-on attack and downed one Do 17 while his squadron damaged several others. So close had the RAF fighters pressed home their attacks that the bombers had to move and jink to avoid their fire, putting the bomb-aimers off their aim. The Dorniers were already too close to their targets and the pilots could not realign before the formation was over and past the aiming point. Having been thwarted from bombing their official targets they aimed for rail tracks to the north and east of the airfield. Some of the unit targeted RAF Croydon, three miles north-west of Biggin Hill. Others turned around without releasing their bombs. The crews that bombed the rail lines found they were a difficult target to hit at 15,000 feet. Some released their bombs at intervals in the hope of hitting their targets, however some bombs fell on residential property. Crossley attempted a second pass on the bombers soon after. This time, the Bf 110s succeeded in getting in between the bombers and 32 Squadron. One Bf 110 was damaged while their gunners shot down and wounded Flight Lieutenant 'Humph' Russell. Seconds later, No. 64 Squadron's eight Spitfires turned up, led by Squadron Leader Donald MacDonell. They dived on the Dorniers from high-altitude. Some of the Squadron, including Squadron Leader MacDonell, attacked the Bf 110s, believing them to be Dorniers. MacDonell damaged a Bf 110 flown by Ruediger. Proske crash-landed and was taken prisoner. Several confusing dogfights broke out and lasted for some time. The Ju 88s arrived over the target at Kenley to find a smoke pall hanging over the target. It was impossible to begin dive-bombing attacks under those conditions. Given the amount of damage to Kenley, it also seemed unnecessary to the bomber crews. As they were deciding what action to take, they were attacked. The Bf 109s led by Hannes Trautloft had a difficult job of defending the Ju 88s. After passing Biggin Hill on their way to RAF West Malling British AAA fire began targeting the formation. One Ju 88 was hit, and Trautloft gave it special protection. As he manoeuvred himself into position, the formation was jumped by Spitfires and Hurricanes. One Ju 88 was lost to 32 Squadron's Pilot Officer Bolesław Własnowolski. As the attack began, the Ju 88s turned to West Malling, and began dive-bombing attacks as an alternate target. KG 1, meanwhile, had a clear run to its target. The battles with KG 76 had drawn in four of the five RAF Squadrons. Still, the British sent No. 615 Squadron and its 15 Spitfires to deal with KG 1. They were confronted with a large number of Bf 109s from JG 54, escorting the He 111s. The German fighters successfully defended their charges and the RAF fighters could not break through to the bombers, which were flying in stepped-up waves from 12 to 15,000 feet. Most of the German bomber crews noted the absence of fighter opposition and speculated that the RAF might be at the end of its tether. Most of the personnel at Biggin Hill had time to take cover before the bombers arrived. KG 1 lost only one He 111 and one another damaged but failed to damage Biggin Hill. It is likely the losses sustained by KG 1 were inflicted by Spitfires from No. 65 Squadron RAF which stumbled across their He 111s while 615 and JG 54 were locked in combat. Thus far, the German fighters had performed well, but now it came to the most difficult part of the operation: withdrawing under attack. The German fighters were low on fuel and could only do so much to protect the bombers. Damaged stragglers lagged behind the main bomber streams and were easy prey for RAF fighters if they could be found. The four German raiding formations were all heading in different directions by 13:30: 9 Staffel were well clear to the south, heading back over Beachy Head; KG 1 were completing their bomb run while the Spitfires of 610 were being held at arm's length by JG 54 Bf 109s; the Ju 88s of KG 76 had attacked West Malling and their escorts were battling Nos. 32, 64, 501 and 615 Squadrons. The Dorniers were heading home under attack by elements of 32, 64 and 615 Squadrons. However, further to the east, Nos. 1, 17, 54, 56 and 266 Squadrons totalling 23 Spitfires and 36 Hurricanes were moving in to meet the main formations during their withdrawal. RAF controllers faced difficulties of their own. Thickening haze made it impossible for the Observer Corps to plot the route of German formations. A concentrated force of RAF fighters, should it be able to engage the main formations, might be able to inflict serious damage. However, the haze might enable the Germans to slip by and leave the concentrated force of RAF fighters near Canterbury striking at thin air. Instead of adopting an "all or nothing" approach, Park ordered the fighters to spread out and engage singly if needed. Park's plan paid dividends. Bf 110s from ZG 26 were soon discovered by No. 56 Squadron and quickly found themselves under attack. In the short and sharp engagement, ZG 26 lost five Bf 110s and another damaged to No. 56 Squadron. Worse was to follow when No. 54 and 501 engaged the Messerschmitts. ZG 26 lost a further two shot down and two damaged to No. 54 Squadron. None of the RAF Squadrons reported any losses in these engagements. The Geschwader lost other machines to No. 151 and No. 46 Squadrons who arrived to join the battle. According to one source, the total losses of ZG 26 amounted to 12 destroyed and seven damaged throughout the entire day. Another source gives a list of 15 Bf 110s written off: 13 destroyed, two written off and six damaged on 18 August 1940. Whatever the actual losses, The Hardest Day marked the start of a decline in Bf 110 operations. Production was not keeping pace with losses, and there simply were not enough aircraft to go around. No. 266 Squadron was the last unit to trade shots with German formations. During the battles five Bf 109s were destroyed; two from JG 26 and three from JG 3. A further three Bf 109s were 60, 70 and 80 percent damaged. Four German pilots were killed, one wounded, one captured and one missing. One made it back to base where the crippled fighter crash-landed. One JG 3 and one JG 26 Bf 109 fell to Spitfires of 266 Squadron. Three fell to Spitfires of No. 54 Squadron. Bomber losses amounted to eight destroyed and ten damaged; including five Do 17s and two Ju 88s destroyed from KG 76 and two KG 1 He 111 lost. The British suffered casualties as well. No. 17 Squadron lost one Hurricane and one pilot killed. No. 32 Squadron suffered the loss of one Hurricane destroyed; No. 65 Squadron lost one Hurricane shot down and one pilot missing. No. 111 Squadron lost one Hurricane destroyed on the ground and one damaged on the ground and three shot down in aerial combat, but all pilots survived. No. 501 Squadron suffered heavy losses amounting to five Hurricanes destroyed, two pilots killed, one seriously wounded. No. 601 lost two Hurricanes and both pilots killed while No. 602 Squadron lost three Spitfires and one damaged with one pilot wounded. No. 615 Squadron also took crippling casualties. It lost three Hurricanes with one pilot killed and another wounded. However, a further six of their Hurricanes were destroyed in the Kenley raid by 9 Staffel./KG 76. The casualties of 615 have been challenged by another source which indicates 615 Squadron lost only three on the ground at Kenley (P3158, P3487, R4186). The main battle was over, but more combat took place as Kesselring sent in even more Bf 109s to support the withdrawing bombers. Jagdgeschwader 2 (JG 2) and Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27) engaged RAF fighters near the Isle of Wight as the bombers left British air space. II./JG 2 lost one Bf 109 destroyed and another damaged in battle with Hurricanes from No. 601 Squadron, suffering one pilot missing and the other wounded. JG 27 lost six Bf 109s (three each from I. and II./JG 27) in action against No. 85 Squadron RAF. Three pilots were killed, two were posted missing presumed dead and the other was picked up in the Channel by a Heinkel He 59 air-sea rescue aircraft. ## Ju 87 operations ### German build up Hugo Sperrle, the commander of Luftflotte 3 gave orders for dive bomber units to attack radar stations and airfields on the southern coast of England. The targets on the afternoon of 18 August were RAF Ford, RAF Thorney Island and Gosport, all belonging to the Fleet Air Arm or Coastal Command. Included in the target selection was the radar station at Poling, West Sussex, near Littlehampton. Reconnaissance by Junkers Ju 86 aircraft produced only high altitude and poor resolution photographs from which the aircraft on the ground could not be identified properly; the Germans mistakenly believed the facilities to be fighter airfields. Gosport housed a torpedo development unit, Thorney Island housed No. 59 Squadron RAF and No. 235 Squadron RAF with Bristol Blenheims assigned to RAF Coastal Command. Ford was a naval air station and housed No. 829 Squadron Fleet Air Arm which was working up with Fairey Albacore aircraft at the time. These targets were given to Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (StG 77 or Dive Bombing Wing 77). The Geschwader committed 109 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive-bombers to the raid. It was the largest concentration of Ju 87s to operate over Britain to date. I./StG 77 were to strike at Thorney Island with 28 Ju 87s; 28 II./StG 77 were assigned to Ford and 31 III./StG 77 Ju 87s were to destroy Poling radar station. A fourth unit, Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 (StG 3 or Dive Bombing Wing 3), sent 22 Ju 87s to attack Gosport. The dive-bombers were supported by 157 Bf 109s, 70 from JG 27, 32 from JG 53 acting as close escort and 55 from JG 2 which was to sweep the Portsmouth area in advance of the main raid independently. The Ju 87s were based around Caen, too far away for the attacks and in the morning the Stukas were moved into closer airfields around Cherbourg, on the Channel coast. The bombers were re-fuelled, bombs loaded and crews given a final briefing. At 13:29 the first Ju 87s took off and by 13:45 all were in formation and beginning the 85 mi (137 km) trip. Major Helmut Bode led III./StG 77 to Poling. He knew nothing of the technicalities of his target. Behind him was Hauptmann Alfons Orthofer's II./StG 77 bound for Ford. After them, Hauptmann Herbert Meisel's III Gruppe was heading on the left of the formation for Thorney Island. Hauptmann Walter Sigel's I./StG 3 headed for Gosport on the extreme left. Each Ju 87 was loaded with 550-lb bombs under the main fuselage and four 11-lb bombs; two under each wing. The Bf 109s would not take off for some time. The long trip and low speed of the Ju 87s meant there was plenty of time to catch up without burning fuel keeping close contact with the Stukas. ### British scramble At 13:59, Poling radar station picked up the German formations and reported them as 80 strong. Smaller forces ranging from 9 to 20-plus represented the German fighters moving up behind it. The British estimated the Luftwaffe attack force to be 150 aircraft strong. It was an underestimation by half. No. 10 Group RAF and No. 11 Group alerted their units from their operations rooms at Uxbridge and Box in Wiltshire. No. 10 and 11 Groups dispatched more Squadrons to support the already airborne 11 Hurricanes from No. 601 Squadron. 10 Group dispatched one Squadron each from RAF Middle Wallop, RAF Exeter and RAF Warmwell, and one each from No. 11's RAF Tangmere and RAF Westhampnett. The RAF order of battle included; nine Hurricanes of No. 43 Squadron RAF, led by Squadron Leader Frank Reginald Carey patrolling Thorney Island; No. 602 Squadron RAF protected Westhampnett with 12 Spitfires; No. 152 Squadron RAF and 11 Spitfires patrolled Portsmouth air space; No. 234 Squadron RAF with 11 Spitfires over the Isle of Wight to engage the attackers; No. 213 Squadron RAF with 12 Hurricanes which were to move 80 miles eastward from Exeter and patrol St. Catherine's Point. Finally, No. 609 Squadron RAF and 12 Spitfires remained in reserve around Middle Wallop to meet any unexpected German moves. Having lost all of its Bristol Blenheim night fighters in the raid of 16 August, Tangmere dispatched two Hurricanes from the Fighter Interception Unit (FIU) fitted with FIU airborne radar to test the device in action. RAF Coastal Command also joined in, and committed No. 235 Squadron RAF and its Bristol Blenheims. The defence was reliant on the 68 Spitfires and Hurricanes. The British faced a ratio of one RAF fighter to every four German aircraft, and one to every two German fighters. Even had the fighter controllers realised the strength of the raid, there was little that could be done. Other fighters were refuelling and re-arming after the attacks on Kenley and Biggin Hill, and were not available. During the British scramble, Bf 109s from JG 52 which were part of a pre-raid sweep, chanced upon RAF fighters out in the open at RAF Manston. Twelve Bf 109s from 2 Staffel II./JG 52, led by Hauptmann Wolfgang Ewald attacked while the British fighters were refuelling. After two passes, the Germans claimed 10 fighters and three Blenheims destroyed. In fact, just two No. 266 Squadron RAF Spitfires were destroyed with another six Hurricanes damaged but repairable. A single Hurricane was also destroyed. ### Ju 87s attack unopposed As the Ju 87s reached the coast, the respective groups split off and headed for their assigned targets. By this time, some 15 miles off the Isle of Wight, the Bf 109s had caught up and were now zigzagging around the dive-bombers. Bode led III./StG 77 to attack from the northwest, dead into wind in order to bomb accurately. Usually the Ju 87s attacked in line astern, but Bode chose to attack in groups of three to split the anti-aircraft fire. To keep the enemy's heads down, he fired his machine guns in an 80-degree dive. He soon left an altitude of 13,000 feet, releasing his bombs and pulling out at 2,275 feet. The rest of his unit followed. Poling took severe punishment from very accurate bombing. Since Ventnor radar station had been knocked out already, this attack demonstrated that an attack on Fighter Command's command, communication and control system was possible. Emergency equipment had been installed on the site in case of a breakdown, but the information and reading of the radar was significantly less reliable. In fact, Poling was so badly damaged it was out of action for the rest of August. Fortunately, the CH chain had a mobile radar station on the Isle of Wight to fill in for it. Another was due to be set up near Poling anyway, so the chain remained unaffected. The damage done to Kenley and Poling were no more than inconveniences to Park and Dowding. Only one WAAF member, Avis Hearn, was studying the plots at Poling up until the attack. She was awarded the Military Medal for her actions on 5 September 1940. As Bode was in action at Poling, Alfons Orthofer's unit attacked Ford. There were only six Lewis machine guns manned at Ford and the Ju 87s were able to attack with complete confidence. Bombs rained down on huts, hangars, building and amongst aircraft drawn up together for maintenance. Early on bombs struck the field's oil tanks and storage compounds causing an enormous blaze which contributed to the crippling damage on the airfield. Gosport also came under attack soon after. Siegel's Ju 87s, with no air opposition, swooped onto their targets causing large-scale damage. As the Ju 87s began their attack, Spitfires from No. 234 Squadron engaged the 25-strong Bf 109 escort commanded by Hauptmann Karl-Wolfgang Redlich. I./JG 27s commander, Gruppenkommandeur (Group Commander) Eduard Neumann heard the battle developing, but communications were poor and he decided to let Redlich, one of his most experienced Staffelkapitän (Squadron Leaders) fight alone. In the resulting combat, three Bf 109s were shot down. ### Disaster for StG 77 While three of the four Ju 87 groups reached and bombed their targets without interception, the 28 Stukas of I./StG 77 were attacked by Nos. 43 and 601 Squadron sporting a force of 18 Hurricanes. The escorting Bf 109s from II./JG 27 were flying too far away and could not stop the Hurricanes making an attack before the Ju 87s made their dives. Three Ju 87s were shot down in exchange for a damaged Hurricane, hit by return fire. The Bf 109s soon came under attack themselves and could not assist the dive-bombers effectively. Still, some Ju 87s made attacks. While they were doing so, some of the German crews saw Blenheims of 235 Squadron taking off to defend their base. Some hangars were hit by the Ju 87s and much damage done. As the Bf 109 escorts turned to meet the two engaging RAF Squadrons, around 300 aircraft filled a patch of sky 25 miles long, from Gosport to Bognor Regis. Nos. 152, 235 Squadrons engaged the Germans over Thorney Island. No. 602 engaged the Ju 87s that attacked Ford but III./JG 27 bounced No. 602 Squadron, claiming four Spitfires destroyed. Spitfires from No. 234 and Hurricanes from 213 Squadron each destroyed one Bf 109. The running air battles had cost the Ju 87 units heavily. The lack of protection for I./StG 77 had cost it 10 Ju 87s with one damaged beyond repair. Total manpower losses for the unit amounted to 17 killed or mortally wounded, six wounded and five captured out of 56 men. II./StG 77 lost three Ju 87s to fighter attack and one damaged beyond repair, five crewmen dead and one captured. III./StG 77 also lost two Ju 87s and two damaged with four men killed. StG 77s casualties amounted to 26 killed, six taken prisoner, and six wounded. The battles brought the number of Ju 87s lost thus far in the campaign to 59 with a further 33 damaged. The price was too high and with the exception of sporadic attacks on convoys later in the year, the Ju 87 played no further part in the Battle of Britain. Among the dead was Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann Herbert Meisel. The Bf 109s of JG 27 lost six fighters. Two pilots were saved. Another source gives eight Bf 109s destroyed. JG 27 claimed 14 victories, but it is likely this was an exaggeration. Only seven were allowed to stand by the Luftwaffe. RAF casualties in the air battles amounted to five fighters destroyed and four damaged. No. 43 Squadron suffered one damaged Hurricane; 152 Squadron two damaged Spitfires; No. 601 Squadron lost two Hurricanes; No. 602 Squadron lost three Spitfires and one damaged. ### Aftermath The damage done to Ford was great. The local fire brigades helped put out the numerous fires and clear up the dead in and around the station. Mostly foam was used as the main water pipe had burst. Other fire units used water from static water tanks and a ditch which had filled from the fractured pipe. Ford had received less warning than the other targets and suffered heavier casualties: 28 killed and 75 wounded. Some 14 aircraft were destroyed: five Blackburn Sharks, five Fairey Swordfish, and two Fairey Albacore. A further 26 aircraft were damaged but repairable. As well as petrol and oil installations, two hangars, the motor transport hangar, two stores buildings, the ratings' and petty officers' canteens and numerous accommodation buildings were destroyed. At Gosport, five aircraft were lost and five damaged. Several buildings were wrecked and two hangars damaged. But there were no casualties. The Ju 87 attack had been accurate, and no bombs fell outside the military compounds. In the Gosport area, 10 barrage balloons were shot down and two damaged. The attacks of 43 and 601 Squadrons disrupted the raid against Thorney Island and damage was not concentrated. Two hangars and two buildings were wrecked. Three aircraft were destroyed: a Bristol Blenheim, an Avro Anson and a Miles Magister. One Vickers Wellington was also damaged. The only casualties were five civilian workers, injured when a 110-lb bomb landed on their shelter. The loss of the long-range radar station at Poling caused few problems. The Chain Home Low radar there was working and could see almost as far out to sea. Along the surrounding coastline, for 70 miles, another six radar stations gave interlocking stations which provided cover, so there was no hole in the system. Within a few days, mobile units were moved into wooded areas nearby to provide cover until Poling was repaired. ## Weather intervention ### RAF over France After the second attack there followed several hours of quiet as Nos. 10 and 11 Groups and Luftflotte 2 and 3 recovered. On both sides of the Channel, unit commanders now phoned round to establish whether missing crews and aircraft had landed safely elsewhere. Meanwhile, two Bristol Blenheims of No. 114 Squadron RAF made an attack on Fécamp and Dieppe, dropping bombs from high altitude. The Germans recorded no damage at Fécamp, and the attack on Dieppe seems to have gone unnoticed. As the bombers headed home, they passed two Spitfires of the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU). These high-speed aircraft had been stripped of non-essential weight such as armament and radios and were fitted with cameras and extra fuel tanks. They photographed ports and airfields and then returned. ### Fresh German operations By 17:00, the Luftwaffe was ready to strike again. Radar stations were now plotting more German formations off the Kent coast and over the Pas-de-Calais area. Having attacked Biggin Hill and Kenley, Luftflotte 2 was now going after the Sector Station RAF North Weald and RAF Hornchurch. Some 58 Do 17s of KG 2 were sent to bomb Hornchurch and 51 He 111s of KG 53 were directed to attack North Weald. The two raiding formations were to pass over the coast at the same time; so the He 111s attacking North Weald, with further to go, left 15 minutes earlier. The He 111s were to cross over at Foulness, the Dorniers at Deal. Fighter escort was provided by 140 Bf 109s and Bf 110s from JG 3, JG 26, JG 51, JG 54 and ZG 26. The British correctly estimated the German strength as 250 aircraft. To meet the threat the Fighter Controllers at 11 Group's Uxbridge centre scrambled 13 Squadrons; No. 12 Group at Watnall passed on orders to four more. Soon, a combined total of 47 Spitfires and 97 Hurricanes were in the air. Ten of the RAF fighters in the air (nine Spitfires from No. 19 Squadron and one Hurricane from No. 151 Squadron) were armed with 20 mm cannon. No. 11 Group moved No. 32, 54, 56, and 501 Squadrons, totalling 11 Spitfires and 33 Hurricanes, to the Margate-Canterbury line to engage the enemy formations first. The remaining units were to climb to altitude and wait over or near the threatened fighter airfields, until a clearer picture emerged of enemy intentions. ### KG 53 raid KG 53 approached North Weald from the east between Maldon, Essex and Rochford. No. 56 Squadron with 12 Hurricanes engaged the bombers, and No. 54 Squadron with 11 Spitfires engaged the escorting Bf 109s and Bf 110s. In the engagement, at least one Bf 110 was shot down. The line of advance was now clear to the British ground controllers. Five Squadrons: No. 46, 85, 151, 257, and 310 with 61 Hurricanes, were scrambled to intercept the bombers in front of, or over the target. By 17:00 the airfield was covered in 5/10ths stratocumulus at 5,000 feet. Within thirty minutes the cloud base fell to just 3,500 feet. The German formation leaders soon realised that there was no hope of hitting a target from 12,000 feet where they could not see it. At 17:40, KG 53 turned away and headed for base. They had lost a single bomber to 56 Squadron. Things were about to change. As they turned around, 28 Hurricanes from Nos. 46, 85, and 151 Squadron prepared for a head-on attack. Meanwhile, 12 Hurricanes from 256 Squadron closed on the Germans from behind. No. 151's Pilot Officer Richard Milne shot down Gruppenkommandeur of II./KG 53, Major Reinhold Tamm. The He 111 blew up, killing all aboard. The escorting Bf 109s counter-attacked, shooting down two No. 151 Squadron Hurricanes, killing one pilot and wounding the other. No. 257 Squadron also engaged and lost one pilot killed in a crash landing after combat with Bf 110s. No. 46 Squadron—the only 12 Group unit to take part—also engaged. Shortly thereafter, the 13 Hurricanes from No. 85 Squadron, led by Peter Townsend, struck at the bombers but were blocked by ZG 26 Bf 110s. Bf 109s were also present and inconclusive engagements began. It was likely the Bf 109s belonged to III./JG 51 providing top cover. There was intense combat around the bombers. No. 1 Squadron's leader, David Pemperton, accounted for one JG 3 Bf 109. No. 85 Squadron accounted for one He 111, but lost a Hurricane to the Bf 110s, the pilot, Pilot Officer Paddy Hemmingway, bailed out into the Channel and survived. Another pilot, Flight Lieutenant Dick Lee, a veteran of the Battle of France and a flying ace with nine victories was reported missing in action. He was last seen chasing three Bf 109s out to sea. His body was never found. Among the few British squadrons left in the fight (owing to fuel and ammunition running low) was No. 54 Squadron. Its commander, Colin Falkland Gray, destroyed a Bf 110. As KG 53 retreated out to sea, the German bombers dumped their bombs. Around 32 German bombs fell on the town of Shoeburyness. Two houses were destroyed and 20 damaged. One bomb landed on an Anderson Air Raid Shelter, killing a man and his wife. Another landed on the railway signal box, killing the signalman. Several bombs fell on a War Department gunnery range, causing no damage. Some 200 German bombs fell on the mud flats and sandbanks off Shoeburyness. Many were delayed-action bombs, and went off at irregular intervals. KG 53 had lost only four He 111s destroyed and one damaged. Its personnel losses amounted to 12 dead, two wounded and four prisoners of war. A further five were rescued by British ships, bringing the total number captured to nine. The low losses of the group in the face of fighter attacks were down to the determination of ZG 26. It cost the unit seven Bf 110s and a further six damaged. ### KG 2 raid Squadron Leader Michael Crossley was back in action with No. 32 Squadron. With No. 501, Crossley's units attempted to engage KG 2 while over Herne Bay. The 15-strong Hurricanes were blocked by escorting Bf 109s. No. 501 came under attack from II./JG 51. One was shot down and its pilot, George E.B. Stoney was killed. His victor was Hauptmann Josef Foezoe, an Austrian pilot. No. 501 quickly counter-attacked, destroying two Bf 109s. One of them was flown by Horst Tietzen, an ace with 20 victories and the fourth highest claimant in the Luftwaffe at that time. The other victim was Hans-Otto Lessing. Both German pilots were killed. Another Bf 109 fell to Peter Brothers. The Bf 109's 22-year-old pilot, Gerhard Mueller was killed. Meanwhile, Crossley, Karol Pniak and Alan Ackford shared in the destruction of another Bf 109. The pilot, Walter Blume was severely injured and taken prisoner. Within a short time, the Germans turned the tables, and three Hurricanes (Crossley, Pilot Officer de Grunne and Pilot Officer Pearce) were shot down. All three survived, though Pearce and de Grunne suffered burns. But while the RAF fighters were kept busy by the escort, the Dorniers continued without interception. As the Dorniers passed Sheerness, the anti-aircraft defences opened fire to protect the naval yard at Chatham, Kent. Along the south bank of the Thames Estuary 15 gun positions fired six 4.5in of 3.7in heavy shells. The German bombers opened up a little, to spread out. The cloud over the target ruined the German bomb run, and some bombers began the return trip with their loads still on board. While crossing the coast over Deal, Kent, three attacked the Royal Marines barracks there. They continued back across the Channel, having made no contact with enemy fighters. ## Night raids ### German At 18:18 night began to fall. The Luftwaffe sent bombers from KG 1, 2, 3, 27 and 53 to bomb targets at Sheffield, Leeds, Hull, Colchester, Canvey Island, Manningtree and Sealand. British records mentioned damage only at Sealand. Most bombs were scattered over rural districts. In one incident, a KG 27 He 111, shortly before midnight, attacked the flying and training school at Windrush, in Gloucestershire, where night flying was in progress. The bomber, piloted by Alfred Dreher, crashed into an Avro Anson piloted by Sergeant Bruce Hancock. Both aircraft crashed, killing all five men involved. ### British While the Luftwaffe was attacking Britain, 36 Bristol Blenheims from RAF Bomber Command took off in ones and twos to attack a score of German airfields in the Netherlands and France. Its sole success was at Vlissingen, Netherlands, where it damaged two Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54) Bf 109s. At the same time four Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys were attacking the Fiat works in Turin, Italy and 20 more were heading for the aluminium works at Rheinfelden in southern Germany. 18 August 1940 ended before either force reached its target. ## Aftermath ### Overclaiming and propaganda Over-claiming of aerial victories was common, and for the 18 August action, British propaganda claimed 144 German aircraft destroyed, which was over twice the true figure. The Germans claimed they had only lost 36 aircraft, half the actual figure (69 to 71). German propaganda claimed to have destroyed 147 British aircraft, which was over twice the actual figure. Again, the British admitted to losing only 23, when the actual figure was around 68. Other sources between them put RAF losses at 27–34 fighters destroyed and 29 aircraft destroyed on the ground, including only eight fighters. German fighter pilot Siegfried Bethke said that German aircraft that crashed into the Channel were not counted in the official figures and that one aircraft in his unit that was damaged by 88 hits was broken up and taken back to Germany and not added to the loss record. ### Sorties and losses During 18 August 1940, Luftwaffe units flew a total of 970 sorties over Britain: some 495 by medium bombers, 460 by fighters and 15 by reconnaissance units. Of this total, about 170 of the bomber sorties were flown on the night of 17/18 August; the remainder were flown during the daylight hours on 18 August. Less than half of the available (or serviceable) aircraft on the Luftflotte 2 and Luftflotte 3 order of battle were involved in the action that day, so it was clear that the Luftwaffe was not greatly extended in providing forces for the offensive. Luftflotte 5 did not take any part in the fighting, although its reconnaissance aircraft were active over England and Scotland. Altogether, the Luftwaffe lost between 69 and 71 aircraft destroyed or damaged beyond repair as a result of its operations over Britain on 18 August 1940. Of this total, 59 were lost to certain or probable action by fighters while two fell to ground fire, four to a combination of both and one collided with a British training aircraft. The remaining three crashed in German-held territory owing to technical failures. Altogether, the losses represented seven per cent of the force committed. Around 29 aircraft crashed in England. Personnel losses were 94 German crewmen killed, 40 captured and 25 returned with wounds. Some 27 to 31 German aircraft returned with damage. The gross underestimation of Fighter Command's strength issued to Luftwaffe units meant the British reaction was much stronger than expected. During the 24-hour period, Fighter Command flew 927 sorties, slightly fewer than the Germans. Only 41 of these sorties were flown by night, 28 on 17/18 August and 13 on 18/19 August. The remaining 886 sorties were flown by day, a number almost exactly equal to the 861 serviceable Spitfire, Hurricane, Defiant and Gladiator day fighters available to squadrons. The average operational sortie rate of one per serviceable fighter was not spread evenly throughout the command, however. Nos 12 and 13 Groups in the Midlands and north of Britain, with a third of the serviceable fighters between them, put up 129 (or only 15 per cent) of the day sorties, and of these only three made contact with the enemy. No. 11 Group put up one-third of the serviceable fighters in 600 sorties, or more than two-thirds of the total; on average. Each of the serviceable Spitfires and Hurricanes flew 1.7 operational sorties. No. 43 squadron flew the most sorties: 63 operations including five each from the 13 serviceable at the beginning of the day. Only 403 (45 percent) of the total number of sorties flown by Fighter Command were directed at the three major German raids. A further 56 (or just over 6 per cent) were standing patrols to protect shipping off the coast. Most of the remaining 427 sorties (nearly 50 per cent) were made to engage the reconnaissance aircraft. Usually several half-squadrons were committed. This was not excessive. By sending more units to counter the flights, German aircraft were forced to fly higher and were denied the opportunity to drop to low altitude to take higher resolution photographs. This contributed to a lack of German intelligence which often failed to distinguish fighter, bomber and naval airfields from each other. Much of the time their strength was directed at non-fighter airfields on this date. Of the 403 sorties put up by Fighter Command to meet the major German attacks, 320 of those made contact with the enemy, meaning 80 percent of the fighters sent to intercept the bombers did so. The percentage would have been higher, had the bombers on the afternoon raid not turned around short of their targets. Between 27 and 34 RAF fighters were destroyed. A specialist source of the battle indicated the figure to be 31 destroyed or beyond repair. Of these, 25 fell to German fighters, two to return fire from the bombers. One was shot down by British ground fire in error and the loss of the remainder cannot be established. Some 26 of the fighters lost were Hurricanes, and five were Spitfires. Personnel losses for the RAF amounted to 10 British fighter pilots killed on the day, and another who died of wounds. Around 19 pilots were wounded, 11 so seriously that they did not take part in the rest of the battle. Losses on the ground amounted to eight fighters (two Spitfires). Around 28 aircraft of other types were destroyed on the ground. The total destroyed or damaged beyond repair amounted to 68 aircraft, although 17 of these were trainers or non-operational types. ### Göring, Mölders and Galland Göring spent The Hardest Day at Karinhall with two of his top fighter pilots, Werner Mölders and Adolf Galland. He was decorating them with the Combined Pilots-Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds after they had achieved much success in recent weeks. However, Göring took the opportunity to berate them over bomber losses and in particular, what he saw, as a lack of aggression in the Jagdwaffe. This criticism was not well received. Göring quickly moved to reconcile with them by ordering their promotion to Geschwaderkommodore (Wing Commander) in command of their respective Geschwader (Wings). Göring felt a younger generation of combat leaders would help motivate the force. On 19 August, Göring read the reports on the losses of 18 August, and unhappy with the extent of the losses, recalled both pilots. Hitler's Directive 17 had ordered the Luftwaffe to achieve air superiority, but remain strong enough for when, or rather if, Sea Lion was launched. Moreover, Göring recognised that the Luftwaffe was his power base. A failure would be damaging, but a severe weakening of the Luftwaffe would be far worse. He emphasised to his commanders the need to preserve the Luftwaffe's strength. Essentially, the core theme of the conference was fighter protection. The fighter leaders advocated sweeps to clear the skies in advance of attacks. Other commanders present thought a combination of sweeps and close escort would be more effective in reducing losses. Göring agreed and listed a number of forms that the sweeps could take. The most important tactical change he made was instituting a wholesale purge of older Geschwaderkommodore in favour of younger men. From now on, leaders were to be drawn from the ranks, given responsibility based on skill and experience rather than rank, while allowing them to have a free rein in tactical engagements (a form of aerial Auftragstaktik). Göring also placed emphasis on correct rendezvous with the bombers, which had been lacking in recent operations (see Adlertag). The longer-range bombers were ordered directly to fighter airfields to pick up their escorts on the way to the target. He determined that as many fighters as possible should remain on sweeps while a smaller number maintained close contact with the bombers. For now, this would be the main tactical arrangement of fighter-bomber cooperation. ### Outcome German target selection was sound on The Hardest Day. There were three means open to the Luftwaffe for destroying Fighter Command: bombing airfields; destroying the command and control system and radar stations; and attacking aircraft factories producing fighter aircraft. Luftflotte 2 was well used in this way. Operations against Kenley, Biggin Hill, North Weald and Hornchurch had the potential to destroy 11 Group's major sector stations and impair its defences. It would also draw the defending fighters into battle. The attempt to attack Kenley, however, failed and 9 Staffel KG 76 paid a high price. The weather prevented any chance of the raids on Hornchurch and North Weald being successful. On the other hand, Luftflotte 3 had poor intelligence, and its raids on the radar stations were ineffective. Radar elimination would enable the Luftwaffe to destroy the command and control system of Fighter Command, but despite the severe damage done to the Poling station, the existence of other stations nearby gave the system plenty of cover. The airfields the Air Fleet attacked at Ford, Gosport and Thorney Island had nothing to do with the main battle as they belonged to Coastal Command and the FAA. Sperrle and his command remained unaware of their errors in intelligence. The tactical handling of Luftflotte 3 was not good either. The escorting fighters of StG 77 were stretched too far across a 30-mile front. By chance half of the defending fighters went into action against one of the attacking Ju 87 groups with disastrous results for the group concerned. The German fighters, which outnumbered the RAF units by 2:1, were unable to protect the Stuka units. Had the targets been closer together, the concentration of fighters would have allowed the Germans to destroy more RAF fighters in the air, while protecting their charges. Attacking and destroying the radar chain was difficult. The stations were indeed vulnerable to dive bombers and low flying aircraft, however the British had mobile units which could be moved around to cover any gaps. Rapid repair services were also quick. Rarely were radar stations out of action for more than a few days. Considering the weight of attack against airfields, hardly any fighters were destroyed on the ground. Figures indicated just two Spitfires and six Hurricanes were lost in this manner. The main reason for this was the high state of readiness of RAF units during daylight. The command depended on radar and the Observer Corps warning them in advance, giving them plenty of time to get airborne. The successful strafing attack by Bf 109s of JG 52 on Manston depended on a combination of circumstances and chance which did not occur often during the battle. The attacks on airfields, on this day and throughout the battle, did not cause any real danger to RAF Fighter Command. Biggin Hill was never out of service during the Battle of Britain, and Kenley was out of action for only two hours on 18 August. German medium bombers, usually sent in waves of 50, could carry between 60 and 85 tons of bombs. But this was not enough to destroy an airfield. If the airfield's hangars and buildings were destroyed, work on aircraft could be done in the open in summer periods. Should the craters become too troublesome, RAF units could move to another field, not necessarily an airfield, and operate fighters on it, provided it was 700 yards long and 100 yards wide to allow for operations. The vulnerable operations buildings on some airfields were hidden underground. One flaw was the vulnerability of operations rooms. At Kenley and Biggin the sector operations buildings were above ground, but they were difficult to hit even had the Luftwaffe known their location. Vital communications (telephone cables) were buried underground, making them vulnerable only to an accidental direct hit. A last option was to attack fighter factories, which was not attempted on 18 August. Only the Spitfire factory at Southampton and the Hawker factory in Surrey were within range of escorted bombers. Without the Bf 109s, the bombers would suffer heavy casualties attempting to attack factories further north in daylight. Still, the attacks on the southern factories would require large concentrations of bombers and fighters which would be powerful enough to destroy them without sustaining heavy losses. Overall, each side suffered more losses on this date than on any other day during the Battle of Britain. In terms of the outcome, the battle does not appear to have been strategically favourable to either side. The loss rates were in the British favour, but both air forces had sustained a level of attrition they could not support for long. Historian Alfred Price: > The laurels for the day’s action went to the defenders. The aim of the Luftwaffe was to wear down the Fighter Command without suffering excessive losses in the process, and in this it had failed. It cost the attackers five aircrew killed, wounded, or taken prisoner, for each British pilot casualty. In terms of aircraft, it had cost the Luftwaffe five bombers and fighters for every three Spitfires and Hurricanes destroyed in the air or on the ground. If the battle continued at this rate the Luftwaffe would wreck Fighter Command, but it would come close to wrecking itself in the process.

Manhattan Municipal Building

Office skyscraper in Manhattan, New York

The David N. Dinkins Municipal Building (originally the Municipal Building and later known as the Manhattan Municipal Building) is a 40-story, 580-foot (180 m) building at 1 Centre Street, east of Chambers Street, in the Civic Center neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The structure was built to accommodate increased governmental space demands after the 1898 consolidation of the city's five boroughs. Construction began in 1909 and continued through 1914 at a total cost of \$12 million (). Designed by McKim, Mead & White, the Manhattan Municipal Building was among the last buildings erected as part of the City Beautiful movement in New York. Its architectural style has been characterized as Roman Imperial, Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance, or Beaux-Arts. The Municipal Building is one of the largest governmental buildings in the world, with about 1 million square feet (93,000 m²) of office space. The base incorporates a subway station, while the top includes the gilded Civic Fame statue. The Municipal Building was erected after three previous competitions to build a single municipal building for New York City's government had failed. In 1907, the city's Commissioner of Bridges held a competition to design the building in conjunction with a subway and trolley terminal at the Brooklyn Bridge, of which McKim, Mead & White's plan was selected. The first offices in the Municipal Building were occupied by 1913. In later years, it received several renovations, including elevator replacements in the 1930s and restorations in the mid-1970s and the late 1980s. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building a landmark in 1966, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. ## Site The Manhattan Municipal Building is located on the eastern side of Centre Street, in the Civic Center of Manhattan in New York City. It occupies the length of two city blocks, between Duane Street to the north and the Brooklyn Bridge ramps to the south. The west–east Chambers Street has its eastern terminus at Centre Street, at the center of the building's base. The site had a frontage of approximately 448 feet (137 m) on Centre Street to the west, 361 ft (110 m) on Park Row to the southeast, 339 ft (103 m) on Duane Street to the northeast, and 71 ft (22 m) on Tryon Row to the east; except for Centre Street, all of these streets have been relocated or removed. Near the Municipal Building are the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse and St. Andrew Church to the northeast; 1 Police Plaza and the Metropolitan Correctional Center to the east; Surrogate's Courthouse and Tweed Courthouse to the west; and New York City Hall to the southwest. Prior to the Municipal Building's construction, several streets passed through the building site, which had been located at the south end of the Five Points neighborhood. New Chambers Street continued east through the center of the building, while the west-east Reade Street continued eastward through what is now the building's northern edge. City Hall Place (now Cardinal Hayes Place) originated at the intersection of Chambers and Centre Streets, crossing southwest–northeast through the building site. The area to the south of the Municipal Building was once known as Tryon Row, a one-block east–west street between Centre Street and Park Row. The Municipal Building's site was occupied by buildings including the old headquarters of the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung. Immediately to the south were two elevated railway stations: the Park Row Terminal of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (closed 1944) and the City Hall station of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (closed 1953). After the Municipal Building was finished, New Chambers Street ran through the building's central archway. Park Row bounded the building to the southeast and Duane Street abutted it to the northeast. Park Row was rerouted in the mid-20th century, and New Chambers and Duane Streets were closed in 1971 as part of the construction of 1 Police Plaza. These streets subsequently became part of a pedestrian plaza surrounding the Municipal Building and 1 Police Plaza. ## Architecture William M. Kendall of the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White designed the Municipal Building. Two of the firm's other partners, Burt L. Fenner and Teunis J. van der Bent, were tasked with leading construction, while the city's Department of Bridges supervised the project. Alexander Johnson was chief engineer, Purdy and Henderson were consulting engineers, and the Thompson–Starrett Company was the general contractor. The Mount Waldo Construction Company provided the granite, while Robert Wetherill & Co. installed the original elevators. The foundations were dug by the Foundation Company. Enormously influential in the civic construction of other American cities, the building's architectural style has been "variously described as Roman Imperial, Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance, or Beaux-Arts." Its construction marked the end of the City Beautiful movement in New York. The Municipal Building is one of the largest governmental buildings in the world, with about 1 million square feet (93,000 m²) of interior space and 2,000 employees. Of this, about 600,000 square feet (56,000 m²) is used for offices. The Municipal Building was the first in New York City to incorporate a subway station, the Chambers Street station, below its base. The approved building plans in 1909 also called for three basement levels within the volume not occupied by the subway station. The building features various types of sculpture and relief. These include the large gilded Civic Fame statue at the top of the building; smaller sculptural groups; and plaques and coats-of-arms representing the various governments that have ruled Manhattan. ### Form The building is shaped like a ten-sided "C", although the lot that it occupies is an irregular hexagon. The main facade, along Centre Street to the west, is 381 feet (116 m) long, while the eastern facade is 168 feet (51 m) long. The building has a width of 168.5 feet (51.4 m), measured from west to east. The northeastern and southeastern sides accommodated the diagonal paths of Duane Street and Park Row, respectively. The floors' north–south axes are longer than their west–east axes; the wings of the "C" face west. This floor plan ensured that all of the building's windows would be able to receive direct sunlight and eliminated the need for an interior light court. The Manhattan Municipal Building is 34 stories tall; the main structure consists of 26 stories, and a tower rises eight stories above the center of the structure. The top of the main structure is about 349 feet (106 m) or 349 feet (106 m) above ground level. The tower rises to around 560 feet (170 m) above ground level; including the Civic Fame statue, the building stands at around 580 feet (180 m) tall. Atop the northern and southern wings of the "C" are pavilion roofs, which are connected to the central tower with roof decks and a stone cornice. The central tower is composed of a two-story square section. Atop this is a circular section flanked by four circular turrets, one above each corner of the square. The circular section of the central tower is composed of two layers: an enclosed space surrounded by columns, atop which is a smaller peristyle. #### Civic Fame On the Municipal Building's roof is Civic Fame, a 25-foot-tall (7.6 m) statue installed in March 1913. The statue is a gilded copper figure, made from about 500 pieces of hammered copper executed by the Manhattan firm of Broschart & Braun. The statue is variously reported to be supported on an iron skeleton and made over a steel frame. Civic Fame has been variously described as the largest or second-largest statue in Manhattan, depending on whether the larger Statue of Liberty is considered as being in Manhattan. It is similar in style to the Statue of Liberty. The statue was designed by Adolph Alexander Weinman (1870–1952). It was commissioned by the New York City government at a cost of \$9,000 () to celebrate the consolidation of the five boroughs into the City of New York. The figure is barefoot and balances upon a globe. She carries various symbolic items: a shield bearing the New York City coat of arms, a branch of leaves, and a mural crown, which she holds aloft. The mural crown has five crenellations or turrets, which evoke city walls and represent the five boroughs. The crown also includes dolphins as a symbol of "New York's maritime setting". Audrey Munson posed for the figure; she had also posed for a very large number of other important allegorical Beaux-Arts sculptures in New York, including those at the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, New York Public Library Main Branch, Manhattan Bridge Colonnade, and USS Maine National Monument at Columbus Circle. The left arm was repaired in 1928 after cracks were detected on that side. After Civic Fame's 150-pound (68 kg) left arm broke off, fell through a skylight, and landed on the 26th-floor cafeteria in February 1935, the statue was renovated, with metal rods being used to hold up the left arm. The sculpture was refurbished and re-gilded starting in July 1974 at a cost of \$294,500, as part of the interior renovations of the Municipal Building; the restoration was completed by the end of the year. In early 1991, while the facade was undergoing renovations, Civic Fame was removed for six months and re-gilded by New Jersey metalwork shop Les Metalliers Champenois. After the restoration was completed at a cost of \$900,000, Civic Fame was reinstalled on the roof in October 1991 using a helicopter. ### Facade The building is divided vertically into 25 bays on its western elevation; 25 bays combined across the northeastern, southeastern, and eastern elevations; and three bays on its northern and southern elevations. Each bay contains either one or two windows on each story. The facade is made of ashlar granite, except for the details above the 23rd floor, which are made of terracotta. A three-story colonnade of Corinthian columns runs across the base along Centre Street, with the rest of the building set back behind the colonnade. The colonnade averages 66 feet (20 m) tall, including pedestals, and is topped by a carved entablature. The central portion of the colonnade is freestanding and is flanked by 16 three-quarter columns, each measuring about 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 52 feet (16 m) tall. There is also a false colonnade on the facade above the 22nd floor. Weinman sculpted the rectangular allegorical bas-relief panels at the base of the building, which are located above the side arches. Civic Duty, above the smaller arch to the right (south) of the center arch, shows a female representation of the city alongside a child holding the city seal. Civic Pride, above the smaller arch to the left (north), depicted the city as a woman "receiving tribute from her citizens". These are respectively topped by medallions representing Progress, a nude kneeling man with a torch in one hand and a winged sphere in the other, and Prudence, a half-nude kneeling woman holding a mirror while a serpent is curled around her right arm. The medallions each measure about 9 feet (2.7 m) wide and are placed immediately below the colonnade's architrave. There are heroic-scaled winged figures in the spandrels above the main arch: Guidance, a depiction of a female in the left spandrel, and Executive Power, a depiction of a male in the right spandrel. The colonnade is topped by a frieze averaging 64 feet (20 m) high. The word "Manhattan" is inscribed on the frieze immediately above the three arches; it is flanked by inscriptions reading "New Amsterdam" and "New York". Shields relating to Manhattan's historical and current governance were also placed above the lower-story colonnade and 22nd-floor false colonnade. The shields represent the historical colony of New Amsterdam and the Province of New York, as well as the present-day county, city, and state of New York (the county of New York being coextensive with the borough of Manhattan). The shields on the lower colonnade correspond with the tops of the columns. On the facade itself, the second-story windows are flanked by six pairs of figures in relief, representing the building's original occupants. ### Features #### Base A large, arched vaulted corridor is located at the center of the building's base, at the eastern end of Chambers Street, and is flanked by two smaller arched vaults. The arch measures about 50 feet (15 m) tall and 35 feet (11 m) wide. It is designed in the neoclassical style like the Arch of Constantine. The vault was large enough to accommodate New Chambers Street, which was closed in 1971 to make way for a pedestrian plaza in front of One Police Plaza and the Manhattan Municipal Building. The terracotta vault was modeled on the entrance of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, and was also called the "Gate of the City" after William Jean Beauley painted an image of the scene. The vault separates the lobby into two sections, each with its own set of elevator banks. The second through fifth stories are also divided into two portions by the vault. When the Municipal Building opened, the vault created a wind tunnel effect, leading employees to nickname it the "Cave of the Winds". As constructed, the first floor was devoted entirely to public space, with two open loggias and the two portions of the lobby. Underneath each loggia were two massive staircases leading to the mezzanine of the Chambers Street station. The staircase under the south loggia measured 64 feet (20 m) wide and could accommodate 1,280 passengers per minute, while that under the north loggia was 43 feet (13 m) wide and could accommodate 800 passengers per minute. The loggia under the southern wing still exists, with staircases leading to the subway from both the north and south. It is supported by a set of columns and has a ceiling of white Guastavino tiles. The loggia under the northern wing is no longer extant, having been enclosed. The Chambers Street subway station, served by the , consists of two levels below the building: the mezzanine (shared with the Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall station, served by the ) and the platform level. The station opened in 1913 and was intended as the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company's main subway terminal in Manhattan, but fell into disrepair after businesses moved uptown in the 1930s. When the Municipal Building was completed, there were also supposed to be new station buildings for the adjacent elevated IRT and BRT stations, designed in the same architectural style. The tracks from the Chambers Street station would have also connected directly to the elevated tracks on the Brooklyn Bridge, but the connection was never opened. #### Structural features While the layer of bedrock under the Municipal Building was quite close to the surface underneath the southern part of the building, the bedrock dropped to a depth of about 180 feet (55 m) under the northern portion of the site, where it would be extremely difficult to dig caissons. A layer of sand was present to a depth of 130 feet (40 m), while the average depth of the bedrock under the building was about 144 feet (44 m). The contract for the foundations was the largest to be awarded for a single building in the United States, with 140,000 cubic yards (110,000 m³) being excavated at a cost of \$1.5 million. The foundations incorporated 50,000 cubic yards (38,000 m³) of concrete for the piers, as well as 70,000 barrels of cement. The foundations also include 106 caissons; the southern two-thirds of the site contain 68 caissons extend to the bedrock, while the northern third contains 38 caissons that only extend to the quicksand. The caissons range in size from 6.5 feet (2.0 m) in diameter to 26 by 31 feet (7.9 by 9.4 m) across, extending to an average depth of 130 feet (40 m). The maximum depth of the caissons was 145 feet (44 m) below grade; for the northern part of the site, the Foundation Company built larger caissons resting on sand at a depth of 74 feet (23 m). While the caissons under the southern two-thirds of the building carry 15 short tons per square foot (150 t/m²), the larger caissons under the northern third of the building carry only 6 short tons per square foot (59 t/m²). Each caisson was positioned so that the columns above did not interfere with the subway station. The Municipal Building's frame had 26,000 short tons (23,000 long tons; 24,000 t) of steel, which required 20 derricks to erect. The superstructure weighed a total of 180,000 short tons (160,000 long tons; 160,000 t). The above-ground walls, and half of the beams in the superstructure, were carried by steel-plate girders at the first floor, spanning the subway station. The girders were connected to other steel beams, which distributed the building's entire weight to the caissons. Each of the first-floor girders were about 10 feet (3.0 m) deep and grouped in sets of two or three. The Municipal Building's largest girders, supporting the Chambers Street arch, were 36 feet (11 m) long and up to 11 feet (3.4 m) deep; these girders weighed as much as 50 short tons (45 long tons; 45 t). Above the girders and caissons are 167 columns that rise through the upper stories. The largest column in the superstructure measured 34 feet (10 m) long and weighed 34 short tons (30 long tons; 31 t). #### Interior Except for the fourth story, all of the upper floors were devoted to offices. The elevator banks and stairs were on the eastern side of the building, while the offices were concentrated along the western side and on the north and south wings. There were four staircase shafts that extended the height of the building. In addition, 33 elevators were provided in the initial construction, though this number was later expanded to 37. Of the original elevators, 32 were accessible from the lobby; they were grouped in two banks of 16 cabs each. Most of the elevators from the lobby traveled only to the 25th story, where a separate elevator connected the 25th through 37th floors. During the 1934 elevator replacements, eight of the elevator shafts were shortened to make way for office space. Because the basement is mostly taken up by the subway station, most of the mechanical equipment is located on the fourth floor. As such, the fourth floor has a much lower ceiling than the other stories. The basement contains some space for boilers, while the elevators are controlled by a dispatching room on the 26th floor. There are also four emergency-exit staircases. Each story was constructed with either 27,000 square feet (2,500 m²) or 31,000 square feet (2,900 m²) of rentable office space. The materials in the Municipal Building included 400,000 square feet (37,000 m²) of hollow-tile partitions, 500,000 square feet (46,000 m²) of cement flooring, 60,000 square feet (5,600 m²) of asphalt flooring in the vaults, 340,000 square feet (32,000 m²) of plastering, and 160,000 square feet (15,000 m²) of Yule marble. Other types of marble, such as Tennessee marble, were used for decorative elements such as the baseboards of the rooms. Steel was painted to resemble wood, while wooden elements were only used for door and window frames. Most of the floors are made of cement, but the fifth floor, originally used for public hearings and the municipal reference library, had 34,000 square feet (3,200 m²) of cork flooring to reduce noise. In later years, the hallways and offices were re-clad in plasterboard and sectioned into small cubicles, but the building retained such elements as its ornate marble bathrooms. ## History ### Previous plans By the late 19th century, New York City governmental functions had outgrown New York City Hall. At the time, the city government's agencies rented space in various buildings from Downtown Manhattan up to Midtown Manhattan, with the number of such arrangements increasing by the year. In the 1884 annual report of the City of New York, mayor Franklin Edson declared that more space was urgently needed for governmental functions. He also noted that City Hall's "style of architecture was such that without marring its present symmetry, it couldn't be enlarged to the required extent." Edson suggested buying 280 Broadway, at the corner with Chambers Street, for use by the city government. The government, desiring to cut down the amount of rent paid to private landlords, ultimately held four design competitions for a new, massive building that would be suitable to house many agencies under one roof. As early as 1885, a commission was empowered to look for plots of land where such a structure could be built, and by 1887, authorities were considering erecting a structure adjacent to City Hall itself, in City Hall Park. Mayor Abram Hewitt appointed a commission to study suitable plans and plots of land in 1888, although Hewitt opposed putting such a building anywhere except City Hall Park. The commissioners of the Sinking Fund initially approved a municipal building east of the Tweed Courthouse, at the park's northeastern corner. An architectural design competition was commenced for this new building, and seven architects submitted plans. Charles B. Atwood's winning proposal called for a pair of seven-story pavilions flanking City Hall. The public generally opposed the idea of development in the park, and the plan was voted down by the New York State Senate in February 1890. The law authorizing the new building was modified in 1890 so that the new structure would be able to house other city agencies as well. Mayor Hugh J. Grant proposed a large municipal office building in early 1890, and that July, a committee of the city government was created to look for alternate sites. The committee published a report in October 1890, outlining three possible sites on Chambers Street. The first option was southwest of Chambers Street and Broadway; the second, northwest of Chambers and Centre Streets; and the third, northeast of Chambers and Centre Streets (at the current building's location). The committee recommended the third option, which would be the cheapest and offer the most floor area, as well as provide an opportunity for redevelopment at that location. However, the city government decided in March 1893 that the municipal building would instead replace City Hall, with two wings extending north to flank the Tweed Courthouse, despite the committee's recommendation and public objections to a City Hall site. The committee ultimately received 134 plans for such a new building, with six of these being selected as finalists. In response to opposition to City Hall's demolition, the New York governor signed a law in 1894 that once again prohibited the municipal building's construction. The six finalist submissions were supposed to receive monetary prizes, but ran into difficulty even collecting their awards, since the city had never formally accepted the committee's report on the finalists. In 1899, architect George B. Post proposed a municipal office tower to be built at the northeast corner of Chambers and Centre Streets, while preserving City Hall, as part of a greater plan to rearrange Lower Manhattan's streets. The next March, state senator Patrick H. McCarren proposed a bill that would construct the municipal building on the blocks bounded by Broadway and Reade, Centre, and Chambers Streets, north of the Tweed Courthouse and west of the current building's site. The structure would replace 280 Broadway and the old Emigrant Industrial Savings Bank Building, incorporate the then-under-construction Hall of Records, and would also entail destroying the Tweed Courthouse. Several architects submitted proposals, the most elaborate of which was by McKim, Mead & White. Additionally, in 1903, the city's bridge commissioner Gustav Lindenthal hired George Post and Henry Hornbostel l as architects for a planned trolley hub at the foot of the Brooklyn Bridge, just east of City Hall. This plan also involved constructing a 45-story municipal office tower with a campanile at Chambers and Centre Streets. The municipal building and trolley hub plans were deferred by the administration of mayor Seth Low when he left office at the end of 1903. ### Planning and construction #### Architectural design competition By early 1907, the Hall of Records had been completed, but there was still not enough space for the city's important files; further, the city was paying large amounts for rent in private buildings. Officials pointed out that the cramped quarters of the city government's departments posed a fire hazard, and legislation had been proposed for a new municipal building. In July 1907, Lindenthal—who had already secured a new plot of land for the Brooklyn Bridge trolley hub—was authorized by the state legislature to host a fourth and final design competition for the municipal building. The Brooklyn loop line, a four-track subway line, was planned to be built under the site as well, passing through a large five-platform station at Chambers Street. Thirteen architects were invited to compete. They would in turn elect a jury of three architects, whose names would not be published in advance. The Commissioner of Bridges would make a final decision based on the jury's recommendation. The building had to be at least 20 stories; the superstructure could not block train tracks, stairways, or platforms; the route of Chambers Street under the building had to be preserved; and the first floor, to be used for transit and building entrances, had to be completely covered, with a ceiling of at least 20 feet (6.1 m). The commissioner also recommended that the first story of each level be at ground level, and that an above-ground level be provided for mechanical equipment and building systems. The contestants were otherwise given "considerable freedom" for the building's design. By December 1907, several architects had submitted plans. Twelve architectural firms ultimately entered the competition, while Cass Gilbert withdrew. The jury selected McKim, Mead & White's proposal in April 1908. The firm's design had been chosen because it provided the most space for the city government, even though it was less elaborate than some of the other submissions, such as the runner-up proposal by Howells & Stokes, inspired by 90 West Street. McKim, Mead & White had entered the contest under the encouragement of mayor George B. McClellan Jr. The firm's senior partners had been noncommittal about participating in the competition, though they named junior partner William Mitchell Kendall as the principal architect of the submission. The firm submitted plans for a 559-foot-tall (170 m) building to the New York City Department of Buildings in October 1908. The city had initially intended to erect the Manhattan Municipal Building on a plot immediately to the south of the current site, bounded by Park Row, the Brooklyn Bridge, and North William Street. The final plan called for the building to be located between Park Row, Centre Street, and Duane Street, with Chambers Street running under the Municipal Building's center. The city government planned to occupy 11 of the building's 23 stories. #### Construction By late 1908, the site was being cleared. Bids for foundation work were opened in December 1908, and the contract was awarded to the J. H. Gray Company. The original building plans were rejected by the city's buildings superintendent the same month because he felt that the underlying layer of soil and sand was not strong enough to carry the building. This resulted in delays in the construction of the proposed Brooklyn loop line under the building. Ultimately, the Foundation Company was contracted to dig the foundation with caissons under a very high air pressure of 47 pounds per square inch (320 kPa). Work was done in 20 shifts of five men working for forty minutes each day; only two workers developed decompression sickness and neither of them died. In a January 1909 speech, McClellan praised the project as "one of the most important projects the City has ever undertaken". At the time, he predicted that the building would cost \$8 million. Work on the Municipal Building officially started on July 17, 1909. One observer predicted that the building's construction would result in an increase in real-estate values, similar to what the Flatiron Building had done for the Flatiron District. Foundation work was completed in October 1909, when the New York City Art Commission approved the plans. The Board of Estimate approved a revised building plan that November. Bids for the construction of the superstructure were opened on December 21, but an injunction against the awarding of the contract was placed less than an hour after the bidding process started, after a lawsuit was filed over the fireproofing material that was supposed to be used in the building. Furthermore, the presence of the sand posed issues for the superstructure, though McClellan said that he believed it was safe to build on sand. McClellan laid the building's 4-short-ton (3.6-long-ton; 3.6 t) cornerstone on December 28; unlike at other municipal projects, the ceremony was private, and the cornerstone only had the year "1907" inscribed in Roman numerals. The injunction was reversed when the cornerstone was laid. The Pennsylvania Steel Company was contracted in early 1910 to manufacture 25,000 short tons (22,000 long tons; 23,000 t) of structural steel for the Municipal Building. Construction was interrupted by various incidents. Three workers were buried in June 1910 when temporary bracing in the foundation collapsed, though all survived; another cave-in occurred on Park Row in September 1910. A fire broke out on the 25th floor in 1911, which at the time was the highest fire the New York City Fire Department had fought. Steel frame construction took place between June 1910 and July 1911, followed by the installation of exterior walls between March 1911 and November 1912. There were delays in installing the granite facade because the original materials were found to be inferior. By 1913, the superstructure was topped out with the unveiling of Civic Pride at the top of the Municipal Building's tower. ### Use #### 1910s and 1920s The first sections of the Municipal Building were occupied in mid-1913. The building had not been ready at the beginning of the year, forcing some city departments to renew the leases at their existing quarters. The building had cost \$12 million (), which was not repaid with interest until 1964; the interest was more than twice the original cost. The land alone had cost \$6 million. Nevertheless, the structure was expected to save the city from paying \$800,000 a year in rent. Upon opening, the Municipal Building housed 4,200 city employees. It was patrolled by a private police force, which monitored the building 24 hours a day, as well as a cleaning crew of 135 people. There were also telephone switchboards for inter-departmental communication, which at the time of completion were described as state-of-the-art. When the building opened, it employed 500 women and 3,700 men. The structure was supposed to house most city agencies except the Police, Health, and Parks departments, the Aqueduct Commission, and courts. However, the Parks Department moved to the Municipal Building shortly after the structure was completed; by 1916, the building also had a court that only heard cases in which the city government was involved. Mayor John Purroy Mitchel, after taking office in 1914, criticized the usage of space in the Municipal Building as "wasteful". Some of the city departments that were scheduled to move into the building had found space elsewhere, and other city departments had been allotted less space in the building than in their previous quarters; as such, only 28 percent of the space was originally occupied. By 1915, the building was fully occupied. The New York City Board of Estimate commenced an investigation into office vacancies at the Municipal Building in 1916 after the New York Public Service Commission leased floors in other buildings. A nonprofit organization established a cafeteria on the 26th floor in 1918; although the city provided no subsidies to the cafeteria, the cafeteria also did not have to pay rent. Radio station WNYC (AM) started broadcasting from the 24th floor in 1924, remaining there for 85 years, and a small hospital was established on the third floor in 1929. The Municipal Building's size notwithstanding, various entities had proposed to build an even larger municipal skyscraper to the west by the 1930s, but with no success. #### 1930s to 1960s By 1931, Manhattan borough president Samuel Levy had requested \$2 million to replace the building's elevators, which were so unreliable that some employees used the emergency stairs instead of the elevators. All of the elevators needed twice-daily inspections, and, since their manufacturer was no longer in business, the city had to make its own replacement parts for the elevators, which were described as "old and wheezy", and acting like "Coney Island roller coasters". After fourteen of the elevators were taken out of service in late 1934, architect Mitchell Bernstein filed plans in January 1935 for a \$160,000 renovation of the building's elevators and offices. Work began that June and was funded partially with a \$1.8 million grant from the Works Progress Administration. While the elevators were being replaced, city employees worked in three staggered shifts. Some of the shafts above the 14th floor were removed to make way for office space. The first group of seven new elevators was installed in April 1936, and the elevator-replacement project was completed at the end of 1937. The city government conducted other renovations during the 1930s, cleaning the facade for the first time in 1936. Civic Fame at the top of the Municipal Building was refurbished during the 1930s, and green mercury vapor bulbs were installed in the north lobby. Several Civil Works Administration artists also created paintings for some of the offices. A bronze plaque, memorializing 316 firefighters who died on duty, was dedicated at the building in 1937. The city also planned to add three stories atop the building for \$2.037 million; to fund this project, it received a \$916,650 grant from the Public Works Administration in 1938. By the next year, the building could no longer accommodate all of the city government's agencies, several of which were located in alternate quarters surrounding Foley Square to the north. The offices in the Municipal Building included radio station WNYC on the 25th floor, the Municipal Reference Library on the 22nd floor, and the Marriage Chapel on the 2nd floor. In 1949, the city's commissioner of public works announced that four floors would be renovated and modernized in the first phase of a planned multi-stage overhaul. The next year, the city began installing a dial-telephone system at the Municipal Building, replacing the fourteen old telephone switchboards. At the time, the 20 city agencies in the building had a collective 1,264 telephones. The new switchboards were activated in 1951, and every line in the Municipal Building was given the same 10-digit phone number with 1,426 four-digit extensions; the number was changed in 1963 when the city government consolidated about 7,000 phone extensions in Lower Manhattan. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building as an official city landmark in 1966, and the facade was again cleaned the next year for \$400,000. #### 1970s to present The Municipal Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The section of Chambers Street under the building was closed to vehicular traffic around the same time, with the construction of One Police Plaza. In 1974, Wank Adams Slavin was hired to undertake a \$24 million renovation of the building's interior. As part of the renovation, corridors were to be narrowed, and partitions between offices would be removed, to create more office space; vinyl floor tiles and recessed lighting were to be installed; and the outdated plumbing system was to be replaced. The project was to increase the building's capacity to 6,500 employees. During this time, Civic Fame was also renovated. The building had been cleaned by 1975 at a cost of \$300,000; although the interior had not been renovated yet, more funds for the project had also been appropriated. The building still had 5,000 employees by the late 1970s, but Newsday wrote that the building had "peeling walls, musty windows and old filing cabinets". Because the air conditioning rarely worked, many employees typically left the building an hour early during the summer. A piece of granite fell from the Municipal Building in 1987, landing on a ramp on the Brooklyn Bridge, although no one was injured. A subsequent investigation found other loose rocks on the facade, and netting was placed on the facade as a result. In 1988, workers surrounded the building with scaffolding in preparation for the first large-scale restoration of the facade, which was to begin the next year. The renovation was expected to cost \$58 million and required 39 miles (63 km) of steel tubes to support the massive scaffolds. By then, the building housed 6,000 employees and contained 11 percent of all the office space owned by the city government. The Municipal Building had become so overcrowded that several agencies, like the Department of Buildings, had been forced to relocate. The facade restoration was undertaken by the architects Wank Adams Slavin. Another restoration of Civic Fame took place during this time, for which Wank Adams Slavin received a preservation award from the city government. The 23rd and 24th stories were renovated in the early 1990s. The building was renamed after David N. Dinkins, New York City's first African-American mayor, upon his 88th birthday in October 2015. ## Agencies The following New York City public offices are located in the Manhattan Municipal Building: - New York City Department of Citywide Administrative Services - New York City Department of Finance - New York Public Service Commission - Manhattan Borough President - New York City Public Advocate - New York City Comptroller - New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission - New York City Office of Payroll Administration - New York City Tax Commission - New York City Department of Veterans' Services - Field offices of the Office of the Mayor, New York City Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications (DoITT), New York City Department of Buildings, New York State Office of the Inspector General, and New York City Department of Environmental Protection. The Office of the City Clerk was formerly housed in the Municipal Building; about 16,000 weddings were performed annually at the former Manhattan Marriage Bureau in the Municipal Building, in civil ceremonies lasting about four minutes. The City Clerk's Office relocated to nearby 141 Worth Street in 2009. ## Incidents Numerous accidents have occurred at the Municipal Building. In 1921, an elevator overturned, killing its two occupants. A pile of coal stored in bunkers underneath the building caught fire in 1942, and a 2005 fire slightly injured six firefighters. Additionally, a flood on the fourth floor in 1959 destroyed brand-new machinery that processed the pay checks for the building's workers. ## Impact ### Critical reception and influence Lionel Moses, appraising McKim, Mead & White's work in 1922, said that "we have a building of 580 feet to the top of the figure, of superbly monumental character and classic beauty, every part of which attests the architectural knowledge of its designers". In particular, Moses praised the fact that the firm cold create a large office building on "a comparatively small plot of irregular shape", which could still accommodate a subway station, a public street, and mechanical equipment. The 1939 WPA Guide to New York City stated that the facade "gains dignity through the bold treatment of the intermediate stories, despite the poorly related tower and the disturbing character of the Corinthian colonnade at the base". In their 2004 book New York Artwalks, Marina Harrison and Lucy D. Rosenfeld described the Civic Fame statue as "a graceful and unusually charming sculpture in the allegorical style of municipal-building decorations". The building was also noted for its symbolism. A reporter for Newsday wrote in 1987: "It is the city not just as a metaphor—although it is certainly that, from Civic Fame (the name of the statue at the very top) right down to the stressful rumble underneath (six subway tracks where the basement would be). The Municipal Building is where the money is." The Municipal Building was the first of several ornately-designed civic office buildings, influencing other structures such as the Terminal Tower in Cleveland, the Fisher Building in Detroit, the Wrigley Building in Chicago, and the New York Central Building in Midtown Manhattan. In particular, the base of the Municipal Building above Chambers Street was likened to the base of the New York Central Building, which spanned Park Avenue. The base also inspired the General Motors Building in Detroit, while the tower stories influenced the "Tower of Jewels", designed by Carrère and Hastings for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. The arches of the Moscow State University's main building and of 550 Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan were also inspired by that of the Municipal Building. ### In popular culture The Manhattan Municipal Building appears in several films, such as a key scene of the 1996 film One Fine Day, in which Jack Taylor (George Clooney) spots Manny Feldstein (Joe Grifasi) and chases him to the roof. In "Crocodile" Dundee (1986), muggers inside the Municipal Building entrance to the subway station pull a knife on the title character (Paul Hogan) and his girlfriend Sue (Linda Kozlowski). In Ghostbusters (1984), the team leaves to confront Gozer from the building. In The Professional (1994), antagonist Stansfield, played by actor Gary Oldman, works for the DEA at the building, in office 4602. Newsday wrote in 1987 that the structure was often used for film shoots where characters jumped off the building's roof. Additionally, the music video for the song Not Afraid, rapper Eminem is depicted standing on the edge of the building's roof in multiple shots. ## See also - Early skyscrapers - List of New York City borough halls and municipal buildings - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street - National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street

Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben, BWV 248 IV

Christmas cantata of Johann Sebastian Bach

Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben (Fall with thanks, fall with praise), BWV 248^IV (also written as BWV 248 IV), is a Christmas cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach, composed in 1734 as Part IV of his six-part Christmas Oratorio. Each part of the oratorio is a cantata, written for performance on one of the feast days of the Christmas period. Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben is meant for the New Year's Day feast of the circumcision and naming of Jesus. Based on a libretto by an unknown author, it tells the naming of Jesus from the Nativity of Jesus, according to the Gospel of Luke. Bach structured the cantata in seven movements, and scored it for three vocal soloists, a four-part choir, and a festive Baroque orchestra with horns, oboes and strings. The opening chorus and the two arias are based on his earlier secular cantata Laßt uns sorgen, laßt uns wachen, BWV 213, composed for the 11th birthday of the crown prince of Saxony on 5 September 1733. The tenor soloist, in the role of the Evangelist, narrates the Biblical verse in recitative style. The choir sings the elaborate opening movement and the closing chorale, a four-part setting of a stanza from Johann Rist's "Hilf, Herr Jesu, laß gelingen". Four solo movements reflect the name of Jesus, and life for him. Bach led the first performances at the two main churches of Leipzig in a morning service and a vespers service on 1 January 1735. ## Background and text Bach composed Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben in 1734, eleven years after he became Thomaskantor in Leipzig, director of music in major churches in the town in the Electorate of Saxony. The cantata forms Part IV of his Christmas Oratorio which was performed on six occasions of Christmastide, beginning with Part I on Christmas Day: - Part I, Jauchzet, frohlocket!, for Christmas Day (25 December): Nativity of Jesus - Part II for the Second Day of Christmas (26 December): Annunciation to the shepherds, Glory to God, peace on earth - Part III for the Third Day of Christmas (27 December): Adoration of the shepherds - Part IV, Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben, for New Year's Day (1 January): Naming of Jesus - Part V for the Sunday after New Year's Day: Biblical Magi - Part VI for Epiphany (6 January): Adoration of the Magi The prescribed readings for the feast day were "by faith we inherit" from the Epistle to the Galatians (), and from the Gospel of Luke, the ritual circumcision and naming of Jesus eight days after his birth (). The librettist of the text is unknown; scholars debate whether he was Picander, who had collaborated with Bach before. After an opening chorus, the Evangelist narrates the short gospel about the naming of Jesus from the Gospel of Luke. It is reflected in the following movements, recitative and arias. Bach structured the work in nine movements, and scored it for four vocal parts and a festive Baroque orchestra with two natural horns, oboes and strings. Several movements rely on music which he had composed earlier, from the secular cantata Laßt uns sorgen, laßt uns wachen, BWV 213 (Let us take care, let us watch over), a dramma per musica describing the story of "Hercules at the Crossroads", written for 11th birthday of Crown Prince Friedrich Christian of Saxony and first performed on 5 September 1733. The tenor soloist narrates the verse from Martin Luther's translation of the Bible in recitative as the Evangelist (). Bach incorporates two chorales, two stanzas from "Jesu, du mein liebstes Leben" by Johann Rist for a soprano complement to bass recitatives, and the 15th stanza of the same hymnist's "Hilf, Herr Jesu, laß gelingen" which the choir sings in a four-part setting with independent orchestra. Bach led the first performance at the Nikolaikirche with the Thomanerchor in a morning service on New Year's Day 1735, repeated in a vespers service at the Thomaskirche the same day. ## Music ### Scoring and structure The cantata is structured in seven movements: it opens with an extended choral movement that expresses the call to fall down with thanks and praise, followed by a brief recitative that provides the account from the Luther Bible of the naming of Jesus on the day of his circumcision. Four movements then reflect on the name of Jesus in meditation and prayer, and the composition is closed with an affirming chorale. The work features three vocal soloists, a four-part choir (SATB) and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two natural horns (Co), two oboes (Ob), two violins (Vl), viola (Va) and basso continuo. Other sections of the Christmas Oratorio (such as Jauchzet, frohlocket, the opening chorus of Part I, and in Part VI both the opening chorus, Herr, wenn die stolzen Feinde schnauben, and the closing chorale fantasia, Nun seid ihr wohl gerochen) have a brighter feel than Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben. Its music, in F major, is dominated by two horns and has a more intimate character than the sections with bright trumpets which precede and follow it. Alfred Dürr gives the duration as 27 minutes. In the following table, the movement numbers of the Christmas Oratorio are added in brackets. The scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe (New Bach Edition). The keys and time signatures are from Dürr, and use the symbol for common time. No key is shown for the recitatives, because they modulate. The continuo, played throughout, is also not shown. ### Movements #### 1 The opening chorus, "Fallt mit Danken, fallt mit Loben vor des Höchsten Gnadenthron!" (With gratitude, with praise, fall before the Almighty's throne of grace!), is a complex long form (ABA'). The instrumental ritornello is dominated by two natural horns. The voices enter in unison. In the middle section, the vocal lines are also mostly homophonic. The last section uses the material from the first section, but differently. #### 2 The tenor sings in a secco recitative the verse from the Biblical Christmas story, "Und da acht Tage um waren, dass das Kind beschnitten würde" (And when eight days had passed, when the child would be circumcised), after Luke 2:21. #### 3 In a combination of recitative and chorale, the bass recitative, "Wer will die Liebe recht erhöhn" (Who can rightly exalt this love), is balanced with line-by-line commentary by the chorus. The commentary is the first stanza from Rist's hymn "Jesu, du mein liebstes Leben" (Jesus, o my dearest life). The voices are supported by strings. #### 4 In the central soprano da capo aria, "Flößt, mein Heiland, flößt dein Namen auch den allerkleinsten Samen jenes strengen Schreckens ein?" (O my Savior, does your name instill even the very tiniest seed of that powerful terror?), the singer asks Jesus three questions and imagines the answers as "no", "no" and "yes", illustrated in the form of an echo-aria. An oboe is the obbligato instrument. #### 5 In symmetry to the third movement, another bass recitative, "Wohlan, dein Name soll allein in meinem Herzen sein!" (Well then, Your name alone shall be in my heart!), is commented on by another stanza, "Jesu, meine Freud und Wonne" (Jesus, my joy and delight) from the same hymn. The voices are again supported by strings. #### 6 The tenor aria, "Ich will nur dir zu Ehren leben" (I will live only for Your honor), expresses a vow to revere Jesus. It is a fugal trio composition with two solo violins. #### 7 The cantata is closed with the chorale "Jesus richte mein Beginnen" (May Jesus order my beginning), the 15th stanza of Rist's hymn "Hilf, Herr Jesu, laß gelingen". All instruments play interludes which recall the opening movement. ## Cited sources Bach Digital Books Online sources

Our Children, Ourselves

"Our Children, Ourselves" is the 12th episode of the second season of the American television comedy series, Modern Family and the 36th overall episode of the series. Executive producers Dan O'Shannon & Bill Wrubel wrote the episode, and Adam Shankman directed it. The episode originally aired on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on January 12, 2011. It featured guest star Mary Lynn Rajskub as Mitchell's ex-girlfriend. In this episode, the dedication of Alex to learning makes Phil and Claire question themselves. Gloria tries to meet new friends. Mitchell runs into an ex-girlfriend while out with his current boyfriend, Cameron. "Our Children, Ourselves" received generally positive reviews from television critics with many praising the "twist ending" to Mitchell and Cameron's storyline. According to the Nielsen Media Research, the episode was viewed by 11.12 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 4.2 rating/10 percent share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic and became the second highest-rated ABC program of the original week it aired after Grey's Anatomy. Sarah Hyland does not appear in the episode. ## Plot At the Dunphy house, Phil (Ty Burrell) and Claire (Julie Bowen) become worried that Alex (Ariel Winter) is studying too much. The two attempt to get her to take a break and eventually have to force her to do so. Alex eventually gets the second-highest grade in the class, behind a classmate named Sanjay Patel. Alex believes this is due to the fact that Sanjay has a doctor and a professor for parents, while she must do her best with what she was given. This statement offends Phil and Claire, with Claire starting to think they are holding their children back. Later when they go to the movies, they run into Sanjay's parents who are there to see a French movie. Phil and Claire decide to follow them to encourage their kids. Midway through the movie Phil leaves to watch Croctopus 3D, the film they originally intended to see, since they both are fans of cheesy horror films involving monsters. Phil has fun at his movie while Claire falls asleep at the highly acclaimed French one. After waking her up, Phil tells her that Alex still had one of the highest grades in the class, and dumb parents do not have kids that smart. Claire is reassured and they leave for home after seeing that the "bright Dr. Patel" cannot validate his parking ticket. Mitchell (Jesse Tyler Ferguson) and Cameron (Eric Stonestreet) bump into Mitchell's ex-girlfriend, Tracy (Mary Lynn Rajskub) at a mall. Mitchell suggest hanging out, but she decides against it. Later, they see Tracy with what appears to be an eight-year-old red-headed child (seen only from behind), whose approximate age would match the last time Tracy and Mitchell saw each other (and the only time Mitchell had sex with a woman). Mitchell tells this to Cameron at dinner, making him anxious. He eventually agrees with Mitchell that they should meet the child, who they are sure is his son. However, they then realize that he actually is a little person (Mark Povinelli) and Tracy's husband. The situation becomes more awkward when he opens his present from Mitchell and Cameron, a "Little Slugger" baseball glove. Meanwhile, the Hoffmans, a couple that Gloria (Sofía Vergara) and Jay (Ed O'Neill) Pritchett met on a vacation, come to visit them much to Jay's openly (and Gloria's more discreet) chagrin. He eventually tells them his true feelings not knowing that they were spending the night at their house. The couple decides to leave in a cab, as Gloria comes down to apologize they give her a copy of Gabriel García Márquez's "One Hundred Years of Solitude" that they had signed by the author specially for her, so she convinces them to stay by telling them that Jay's "mind is going away". In the morning, Jay decides to apologize to the Hoffmans; however, during his apology he drinks from a prank glass that Manny gave him, ending in him being covered in orange juice. The Hoffmans leave believing that Jay is growing senile and admiring Gloria for enduring such a situation. ## Production "Our Children, Ourselves" was written by executive producers, Dan O'Shannon and Bill Wrubel. The episode was also directed by Adam Shankman. This episode was the second script collaboration by O'Shannon and Wrubel, who co-wrote the episode "Airport 2010". "Our Children, Ourselves" was filmed on October 13, and October 15, 2010. In October 2010, TV Guide reported that Mary Lynn Rajskub had been cast as Mitchell's ex-girlfriend. She filmed her appearance on October 13, 2010. Rajskub later said in an interview on Lopez Tonight that she had gone through the same experience: "I had this guy, I think I was in 7th or 8th grade... we had this make out session [...] he pulled away abruptly and I never saw him again. Then 20 years later he facebooked me. Totally gay". The episode aired on ABC in the United States on January 12, 2011. When the episode aired, the airtime was pushed 20 minutes later than its usual time slot due to Barack Obama's speech about the 2011 Tucson shooting. ## Reception ### Ratings In its original American broadcast, "Our Children, Ourselves" was seen by an estimated 11.12 million households and received a 4.2 rating/10% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 4.2% of all 18- to 49-year-olds, and 10% of all 18- to 49-year-olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This made it the highest-rated program on Wednesday, according to the Nielsen Media Research. The episode received a drop from the previous episode, "Slow Down Your Neighbors", possibly because of the 20-minute delay in its starting time. Despite this, the episode became the second highest-rated ABC show after Grey's Anatomy and the finished seventh in the ratings the week it premiered. ### Reviews The episode received mostly positive reviews, with many praising the ending to Mitchell and Cameron's storyline. TV Squad writer Joel Keller gave the episode a positive review, writing that it had "funny moments", but pointed out that "all of them left me wanting some more information to round things out." John Teti of The A.V. Club called it "not a very good episode" and mainly criticized the Delgado–Pritchett storyline, comparing it to "every episode of Three’s Company ever." Teti ultimately gave the episode a C+. Rachael Maddux of New York praised the episode for letting the characters "out of their primly landscaped domiciles to interact with the other batty folks of the world". Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote that the episode's story lines were "all winners". Joyce Eng and KMate Stanhope, also from TV Guide, later named the conclusion to Mitchell and Cameron's storyline the best moment of the week, January 6 to January 13, 2011. Entertainment Weekly writer Lesley Savage commented that while the episode wasn't a good follow up to "Slow Down Your Neighbors", the ending to the Pritchett-Tucker storyline was "pretty darn funny, and possibly a little un-PC". James Poniewozik of Time wrote that while the plot came "straight out of the Wacky Misunderstanding School of Sitcomedy" it was still a satisfying episode calling Phil and Claire's storyline "the most amusing storyline".

Judgment (video game)

2018 video game

Judgment is an action-adventure video game developed by Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio and published by Sega. A spin-off to the Like a Dragon series, it was released for the PlayStation 4 in December 2018 in Japan and June 2019, worldwide. A remastered version of the game, with the subtitle Remastered in Japan and Asia, was released for the PlayStation 5, Stadia, and Xbox Series X and Series S in April 2021. A port for Amazon Luna was made available on December 16, 2021. A Windows port was released on 14 September 2022 through Steam. Judgment follows lawyer-turned-detective Takayuki Yagami and his allies as they explore a case involving corpses whose eyes have been removed. The player controls Yagami in the fictional Tokyo district of Kamurocho, where he fights thugs and yakuza while carrying out missions involving chasing, stealth, and searching for clues. The game began its initial development in 2015 under the codename Project Judge. The game originated from Sega's desire to create a new IP with Toshihiro Nagoshi serving as the writer. Nagoshi wanted to write a new type of story with a detective working on a case that contrasted with Nagoshi's previous work in Yakuza. As a result, the developers designed the game to be accessible to detective-game newcomers. Singer and actor Takuya Kimura, who provided both facial features and Japanese voice acting, was cast to play Yagami. Due to popular demand, the game includes an English voice-over dub as well as subtitles in several additional languages. The Japanese rock band Alexandros produced two songs for the game. Judgment was withdrawn from the Japanese market in March 2019 following the arrest of Pierre Taki, one of the game's actors, for suspected cocaine use. While localizing the game for international markets, Taki's likeness was removed and his voice acting performance was replaced. Judgment received a generally positive response from critics. Many praised the game's plot, side content and combat but criticized the simplicity of its investigation mechanics. Judgment was a commercial success, topping one million and earned recognition as one of the best video games released in 2019. The remaster was praised for improving the game's frame rate and visuals. A sequel, Lost Judgment released on September 24, 2021. ## Gameplay Judgment is an action-adventure game with a third-person perspective. It follows private detective Takayuki Yagami as he investigates a serial murder case in Kamurocho, a fictional district of Tokyo, Japan, previously featured in the Yakuza franchise. When asked about similarities between Judgment and other Yakuza titles, series creator Toshihiro Nagoshi said that "the location and assets might be the same, but the gameplay and story here are drastically different". Yagami can buy items to restore his health in stores based on real-life counterparts, similar to the Yakuza games. However, Yagami can suffer from Mortal Wounds, which permanently decreases Yagami's maximum health. The only way to recover is to visit an underground doctor for treatment or purchase a medical kit, which are relatively expensive. Judgment features a similar combat system to that of Yakuza 0, where players can change between two different fighting styles: crane-style, which focuses on fighting groups of enemies, and tiger-style, which focuses on fighting individuals. Yagami also incorporates parkour elements, like wall-running and leapfrogging, in his fighting style. Similar to the previous games in the Yakuza series, Yagami can perform brutal takedowns of enemies through "EX Actions" (a fundamentally identical system to Like a Dragon's Heat Actions), enter an enhanced state where he becomes stronger in battle, labelled "EX Boost" in Judgment, and can team up with allies to perform powerful combination attacks. Accomplishing sidequests or achievements in the main narrative rewards the player with points that can be used to enhance Yagami's skills and teach him new techniques. The game also features an investigation mode, where the player must search a scene for clues and evidence of a crime. Players must infiltrate areas by lock picking and use disguises to gather information or find objects of interest. The game has sections where the player pursues a suspect. These take the form of tailing sequences, where players must follow a suspect while avoiding being seen, and chase sequences, where players must avoid oncoming obstacles while running to catch a fleeing suspect. Yagami can take on several side cases in addition to the main storyline, similar to the "substories" in other Yakuza games. He can undertake them by looking at the noticeboard in his office, asking at the Genda Law Office or Bar Tender, or by walking the streets of Kamurocho. Certain meetings trigger a Friendship level that can evolve across the game through interacting with a character. Some of these meetings involve finishing sidequests, while other scenarios are inspired by dating sim games. Like other Yakuza titles, the player can find minigames and side activities scattered around Kamurocho, which include drone racing, a virtual reality board game, and fully playable versions of Space Harrier, Fantasy Zone, Fighting Vipers, Motor Raid, Virtua Fighter 5: Final Showdown, and Puyo Puyo. ## Synopsis ### Setting and characters Judgment takes place in 2018, and stars Takayuki Yagami (Takuya Kimura/Greg Chun), a former attorney-turned-private investigator residing in the Kamurochō district. The story of Judgment involves Yagami investigating several yakuza murder cases committed by an unidentified serial killer, dubbed "the Mole", which eventually leads to him uncovering a massive conspiracy linked to his last case from his attorney days. Yagami's supporting cast includes: Masaharu Kaito (Shinshū Fuji/Crispin Freeman), a former member of the Tojo Clan's Matsugane Family who is Yagami's detective partner; Ryuzo Genda (Akira Nakao/Brian McNamara), director of Genda Law Office and Yagami's former mentor who is also one of his father figures; Mitsugu Matsugane (Tomomichi Nishimura/JB Blanc), patriarch of the Matsugane Family who raised Yagami after the latter's parents were murdered; Saori Shirosaki (Yūko Kaida/Aimée Castle), Issei Hoshino (Yū Hayashi/Joe Zieja), and Masamichi Shintani (Takuya Kirimoto/Keythe Farley), defense attorneys working at Genda Law Office; Mafuyu Fujii (Risa Shimizu/Cherami Leigh), a public prosecutor and close friend of Yagami and Shirosaki; Makoto Tsukumo (Jun Miyamoto/River Kanoff), a recluse and technology expert who often assists Yagami in his investigation; Toru Higashi (Yoshihisa Kawahara/Steve Blum), a Matsugane Family member who looks up to Kaito; Fumiya Sugiura (Junta Terashima/Mark Whitten), a masked thief who offers to help Yagami's investigation with unknown motivations; and Kazuya Ayabe (Kenichi Takitō/Matthew Yang King), a corrupt police officer who sells top-secret information for his own gains. Yagami's investigation of the Mole brings him into conflict with several characters: Kyohei Hamura (Miō Tanaka/Fred Tatasciore), captain of the Matsugane family who has ties to the murder cases; Mitsuru Kuroiwa (Shosuke Tanihara/Matthew Mercer), a detective working for the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department's organized crime division; Yoji Shono (Makoto Nagai/Michael Gough), a researcher at the Advanced Drug Development Center (ADDC); Ryusuke Kido (Hiroshi Shirokuma/Andrew Morgado), the director of the ADDC; and Kaoru Ichinose (Takaya Hashi/Kirk Thorton), the Vice Minister of Health who oversees the ADDC's activities. Other characters featured in the main story include: Shinpei Okubo (Shinji Kawada/Yuri Lowenthal), a former ADDC janitor who was acquitted from a murder charge by Yagami, only to be arrested for allegedly murdering his girlfriend, Emi Terasawa (Eri Goda/Amy Walker); Shigeru Kajihira (Haruhiko Jō/Ed O'Ross), chairman of the Kajihira Group and secret financial backer of the Kyorei Clan, a Kyoto-based yakuza organization; Satoshi Shioya (Masaki Terasoma/Keith Silverstein), captain of the Kyorei Clan; and Kunihiko Morita (Junpei Morita/Jamieson Price), chief prosecutor and Fujii's superior. ### Plot In 2015, attorney Takayuki Yagami investigates the Advanced Drug Development Center (ADDC) for the death of patient Koichi Waku, successfully clearing accused worker Shinpei Okubo of the murder charge. However, Okubo is arrested shortly thereafter for allegedly murdering his girlfriend, Emi Terasawa. Guilt-ridden, Yagami resigns from his law firm. Three years later, Yagami has become a private detective in Tokyo's Kamurocho district and accepts investigation requests with his partner, ex-Tojo clan member Masaharu Kaito. A serial killer has recently been murdering yakuza members in Kamurocho and removing their eyes. Yagami accepts a murder case concerning Matsugane Family captain Kyohei Hamura, who is suspected of killing a Kyorei clan member using the same methods. Yagami investigates and proves Hamura's innocence, though he suspects that Hamura is working with the killer, whom Yagami dubs the Mole. Yagami investigates a brothel where one of the victims was last seen and encounters Hamura, who orders him to stop investigating the Mole. Yagami returns to his office to find that the Mole has killed Masamichi Shintani, his former colleague, and teacher. Yagami finds a recent call on Shintani's phone for Dr. Yoji Shono of the ADDC. He questions ADDC director Ryusuke Kido about Shintani's phone call, to no avail. After further investigation, with help from masked thief Fumiya Sugiura, Yagami meets construction mogul Shigeru Kajihira at a Kyorei Clan hideout. Kajihira reveals a failed plan to seize land around the ADDC for redevelopment, which was foiled when researchers claimed to have discovered AD-9, a potential cure for Alzheimer's disease. Kajihira asks Yagami to investigate the death of former ADDC vice-director Toru Hashiki. Yagami is brought to the public prosecutor's office for interrogation and is informed that Kazuya Ayabe, a crooked cop who was Yagami's informant, has been arrested on suspicion of being the Mole; Yagami, however, is unconvinced. He and Kaito find Hamura hiding out in an underground illegal gambling den and question him about his connection to the Mole and other possible suspects. Yagami concludes that Dr. Shono may be organizing the murders before Hamura is rescued by Matsugane Family members. He theorizes that the Mole's killings are actually human experiments to test the effectiveness of AD-9, and Waku, Hashiki, and Shintani's deaths were failed experiments. Yagami also theorizes that Okubo did not kill Terasawa; she was killed by Dr. Shono so that he could frame Okubo as an unrepentant serial murderer. Kaito is taken hostage by Hamura, forcing Yagami to storm a Matsugane hideout. Yagami finds Hamura and Kaito, defeating and capturing Hamura with the help of his patriarch, Mitsugu Matsugane. Yagami and Matsugane transport Hamura to a Kyorei clan hideout and interrogate him, learning that Hamura worked as a human trafficker for the ADDC and helped frame Ayabe for Shintani's murder. The Mole appears and shoots at Hamura, but Matsugane shields him and is killed. Hamura reveals that the Mole is Mitsuru Kuroiwa, a detective in the Metropolitan organized crime division, and later gives Yagami definitive evidence that the ADDC participated in Shintani's murder. During Ayabe's trial, Japanese Vice-minister of Health Kaoru Ichinose covertly arranges a hit on Kuroiwa. Kuroiwa kills his assailants and storms the ADDC. Yagami, aided by his friends, finds Kuroiwa taking Shono hostage, intending to force him to finish developing AD-9. Yagami defeats Kuroiwa, and the police surround them, killing Kuroiwa when he tries to kill Shono. Shono injects himself with a new version of AD-9 and dies from its side effects after his eyes turn blue. Dr. Kido confirms Shono's human experiments at Ayabe's trial and explains that the victims had their eyes removed to conceal evidence of experimentation. The court acquits Ayabe; Ichinose and chief prosecutor Kunihiko Morita are imprisoned for their involvement; Kajihira is placed under investigation; Okubo is freed after three years on death row and reconciles with Sugiura, who is revealed to be Terasawa's younger brother; and Yagami and Kaito decide to resume being ordinary private detectives. ## Development Ideas for Judgment were conceived after the release of Yakuza 5. Producer Kazuki Hosokawa suggested that Sega produce a new IP instead of focusing solely on the Yakuza series. Senior Executive Manager Daisuke Sato originally believed that Yakuza would only last three games but agreed with Hosokawa about the need to create a new title. Sega hired new employees, who were asked about their preferences to get ideas for the new game. The development of Judgment began in 2015, and was first hinted at in August 2018 during a Sega live stream by the series' director Toshihiro Nagoshi, who called it "something completely different". Hosokawa and Nagoshi refrained from calling Judgment a spin-off from Yakuza, despite its development by the same team, because of its different narrative. Nagoshi said that he enjoyed the finished product. The game uses the Dragon Engine to produce graphics similar to Yakuza 6: The Song of Life. The team enhanced the game engine to improve character design, changing the game's lighting to emphasize its theme of "legal suspense". The team decided to explore the fictional city of Kamurocho (from Yakuza) using a different approach. Similar to Yakuza, real-world shops such as Don Quijote were used to impart realism. A "friendship" system was developed to characterize Yagami's personality as he forms bonds with several non-playable characters, which integrates them into the setting. His traits are balanced in the main story and the sidequests for a balance between seriousness and comedy—his seriousness is explored in the main story, while comedy is featured in the sidequests. Although Hosokawa wanted to provide players with as much content as Yakuza 0, he said that the team refrained from using returning characters from the Yakuza series. Since Yagami is a lawyer, they wanted to give players the option of emulating Yagami's actions by choosing his thoughts. Some segments from the friendship system were made to emulate dating sims. According to Nagoshi, it was tricky to decide how expansive or difficult the detective work should be. The puzzle gameplay and central mystery were made to be challenging yet accessible to a casual player. Action segments were designed for more skilled players, making them carefully plan the abilities to give Yagami. ### Characters According to Nagoshi, Cinema of Korea were Yagami's primary influences. Since the story of Yakuza's protagonist Kazuma Kiryu ended with Yakuza 6: The Song of Life, Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio's game developers wanted to create a distinctive character for Judgment. At the direction of producer Kazuki Hosokawa, the team decided that the character should be a detective. To generate a major contrast between the Yagami and Kiryu, staff wanted to make Yagami a more relatable character based on the troubles that caused him to quit being a lawyer. The details of Yagami's past, as well as his new life as a detective, were elaborated on to attract players to him. Because of the popularity of detective stories, Yagami was written to obtain knowledge throughout the game, along with the player. Yagami's largest influence was the Paul Newman film The Verdict, in which the main character suffers a similar crisis over his career as a lawyer. Nagoshi and Masayoshi Yokoyama, who had worked on Yakuza 0, wrote the narrative to be darker than the studio's previous titles but balanced it with humor. Similar to the Yakuza series, Judgment primarily focuses on its story. Early in Judgment's production, the Sega staff considered using a movie star to develop Yagami and chose Takuya Kimura. Nagoshi remembers being surprised and thrilled when Kimura was selected because of the number of plot twists that he could be used in. Despite this, he was concerned that fans would consider the game to be lighthearted because of the stylish Kimura compared with the team's previous work. Several of the Yagami's elements were produced with Kimura's approval. Since detective dramas are uncommon in gaming, Hosokawa wanted Yagami to stand out, so creating the new character presented a challenge. For Yagami to properly succeed Kiryu, the developers wanted him to be "more grounded to fit the noir vibe". According to Nagoshi: > "[W]hen you're writing a story and there's a really solid character that's been around for a long time, the character dictates what happens next ... In contrast to that, with Yagami, at the start of development we didn't really have anything attached to him at all. It was a challenge, but also an opportunity for a development team that has been working so long on the same series." Real detectives inspired the team's portrayal of Yagami's life and work. The plot's original focus on romance was eliminated because Nagoshi felt that it would affect the game's courtroom-thriller feel. Localization producer Scott Strichart observed that the portrayals of yakuza are faithful to the main series due to multiple characters being involved in the clans. Yagami was noted for standing out among the cast as he has multiple life choices in contrast to the other cast members, who are forced to be yakuza. Multiple actors were chosen based on their experience. Akira Nakao plays attorney Ryuzo Genda, who looked after Yagami when he was a lawyer. Shosuke Tanihara was cast as detective Mitsuru Kuroiwa because of his strong visual appearance, making impressive scenes when he and Kimura appear together. Pierre Taki was cast as Kyohei Hamura because of his history of portraying famous criminals. While Yagami is linked with multiple female characters, none of them were created as a love interest to avoid using romance in the narrative. Other recurring actors include Kenichi Takitō as detective Kazuya Ayabe, Shinshū Fuji as former yakuza Masaharu Kaito, and Risa Shimizu as Mafuyu Fujii. ### Music The studio spent a considerable amount of time choosing the right band for the music. Nagoshi felt that using the Japanese band Alexandros would appeal to the audience, in the same way that Shōnan no Kaze fit Yakuza 0, as he believed that both bands have a similar approach. Alexandros were excited to compose the two theme songs, which were intended to provide musical diversity and describe the drama in the game. Nagoshi gave Alexandros creative freedom, and there were no major issues. He showed the band a demo of the game, enabling them to write a song quickly. Two theme songs were created for the game: "Arpeggio" and "Your Song". The band created these themes for Judgment while they were in the United States, but sent their work to Japan in a video and received a positive response. "Arpeggio" was written on the rooftop of a Brooklyn studio: band member Yoohei took a liking to an arpeggio that another musician happened to be playing on his guitar, so the band wrote the song on acoustic guitars on the roof while on a break during their recording session. A three-CD soundtrack was released in Japan on April 15, 2019. ### Localization Unlike the Yakuza series, the studio decided to give Judgment an English dub, which was conceived following the release of Yakuza 0. Since the games in the Yakuza series were almost always released with only Japanese audio, Sega thought it might not fit the tone to give Yakuza 6 an English dub. So, Sega believed that Judgment would be a better choice as the studio's first English dub localization, as it could attract newcomers to the series. Sega announced that other languages would follow. The dub was released as a response to increased fan demand, hence there was a short timeframe before its release. The staff stated that the game's Western version would be identical to the Japanese version. Scott Strichart, the localization producer for the Yakuza series, ordered the Western release to have two subtitle tracks: one with Japanese audio and English subtitles matching the Japanese translation, and the other with subtitles matching the English dub. There were also localizations with French, German, Italian, and Spanish subtitles designed for the Japanese audio, regardless of the selected voice language. The remastered version has dual audio and nine subtitle languages—the previous five languages, as well as Japanese, Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese, and Korean. The developers believed they had managed to make the dubbed Yagami identical to the Japanese version in terms of characterization, despite having different words in the translation. Following the changes, the staff made revisions to the character's facial animations to fit the lip-syncing. In scripting, Strichart insisted that the English actors keep using Japanese honorifics to retain the Japanese cast's impact. A game demo became available in August 2019 for English-speaking regions. During the game, there is a scene in which players control Saori Shirosaki to infiltrate a hostess club; she receives catcalls from bystanders on the way to the club. Strichart said that "sensitive scenes are tricky to get right" and that the team had to be careful when dubbing this. He added that to bring realism into the narrative, the non-playable characters' responses to Shirosaki would come across as "uncomfortable", as they were denigrating her during this scene. Since the Yakuza series was primarily popular among men, Strichart wanted English-language players to feel "gross" from these bystanders' catcalls and empathize with Shirosaki and women in general for enduring this treatment regularly. Multiple auditions were held to cast the English-language voice actors, aiming to make the English dub as natural as possible. Greg Chun was pleasantly surprised when he was selected to voice Yagami in Judgment since he was familiar with the franchise. Chun said, "I'm super psyched to be a part of this game", adding that he liked what he had seen of the character. He called his work in the game satisfying: "It really did require me to let go of the tricks that you use to push a performance through, and I really did need to fall back on authenticity and genuine groundedness." Although he found the faithfulness to the original Japanese audio challenging, Chun was pleased with his character's balance of seriousness and comedy; however, the game's screaming segments were difficult. Noting that fans tended to choose the original Japanese audio, Chun suggested that they try the English dub to test his voice. He was surprised by Yagami's deep character arc, which involved Yagami's present life as well as dealing with his past life as a lawyer, and said that he would never forget the role. Matthew Mercer enjoyed voicing Kuroiwa but found the character's different tones to be challenging. Crispin Freeman enjoyed his work because he considered Kaito to be likable. Other actors include Brian McNamara as Genda, Matthew Yang King as Ayabe, and Cherami Leigh as Fujii. ## Release Judgment was announced under the Japanese title of Judge Eyes on September 10, 2018, at the PlayStation Lineup Tour shortly before Tokyo Game Show 2018. The announcement was made to market the game for the Japanese holidays; its production had been completed and the team was busy debugging it. Sega scheduled it to be on Japanese store shelves in December 2018, with a planned Western release in 2019. The game's first chapter was first released as a demo on November 29, 2018, on the Japanese PlayStation Network. Sega released the game in Japan on December 13, 2018. They halted Japanese sales of the game on March 13, 2019, after Pierre Taki, a Japanese actor whose voice and likeness had been used for the character of Kyohei Hamura, was arrested for cocaine possession and use by officers of the Narcotics Control Department (NCD) of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Sega did not comment on whether Taki's arrest would affect Judgment's Western release. According to the NCD, Taki had been under investigation since 2018 following tips from unnamed sources and was asked to submit a urine sample. After Taki's arrest, Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio producer Daisuke Sato tweeted that he would not allow Taki's arrest to interrupt the game's success or allow the actor's contribution to the game to be deleted. CyberConnect2 president Hiroshi Matsuyama criticized companies that stopped marketing their products due to the arrest of a person connected to their work. Sega later said that Taki's voice and likeness would be replaced, but the game's planned release date in the West on June 25, 2019, would remain unchanged. The character's new design was not based on any actor. Sega issued a new release in Japan on July 18, 2019, with Miō Tanaka replacing Taki in the role of Hamura. A remastered version of the game was released for the PlayStation 5, Stadia, and Xbox Series X/S on April 23, 2021. The remaster features faster loading times, runs at 60 FPS, as well as all of the downloadable content from the original PlayStation 4 release. The game was also released for Amazon Luna on December 16, 2021. It was reported in July 2021 that a PC release of Judgment and its sequel would likely not happen due to Sega and Johnny & Associates (the talent agency which represents Kimura) being unable to come to an agreement concerning the use of Kimura's likeness in a PC release of the existing Judgment games or any future titles. However, both Judgment games were released on Steam on September 14, 2022, implying that this issue had been resolved. ## Reception ### Critical response Judgment received "generally favourable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Due to Kimura's popularity, Japanese fans have often nicknamed the game Kimutaku ga Gotoku (キムタクが如く, lit. "Like KimuTaku") with "Kimutaku" being short for Takuya Kimura, while "Gotoku" ("Like a") was a reference to the original Japanese title of the Yakuza franchise. Although its gameplay was praised, critics had mixed opinions regarding its case-solving elements. Hobby Consolas praised the game for relying on multiple types of gameplay, giving it more variety. According to a VideoGamer.com reviewer, players attracted to the Yakuza series would enjoy Judgment because of its similarities in action. He noted that the fighting system was superior to Yakuza 6: The Song of Life and would attract fans, while the varied side missions gave players far more playing time. Although a Game Informer reviewer liked the action, they found the tailing missions frustrating and criticized the investigation areas for penalizing players who failed them. USgamer said that the tailing missions might drag, but the new chasing missions were more entertaining. Destructoid agreed with the USgamer review and said that the action scenes were not difficult. Tristan Ogilvie of IGN praised the game's combat system and diversified side content but criticized its shallow investigation mechanics, saying, "There's surprisingly little room given to make your own decisions." Edmond Tran of GameSpot described the game's tailing and chasing sections as "dull, slow and arduous", and called the investigation sections "incredibly straightforward". Nevertheless, he enjoyed the melee combat for the options it gives to the player. GamesRadar+ writer Bradley Russell criticized the core gameplay as "lacking in its execution" and over-relying on combat rather than investigation. On the other hand, Hardcore Gamer enjoyed the balance between the different styles of gameplay. RPGamer.com also praised the action elements but felt that the developers needed to fix the detective sections. The plot was generally well-received. Because it introduced a new cast instead of reusing characters, Game Informer found the story "refreshing" and described Yagami's investigations as intriguing. USgamer also praised the story for standing on its own and noted that despite Yagami's similarities to Kazuma Kiryu, Yagami had his own way of life. A Destructoid reviewer said that despite the game's similarity to Yakuza—namely its balance of seriousness and comedy—Judgment had a unique narrative, which they felt was on a par with Hollywood films. Russell praised the story, calling it "potentially one of the best in the medium". VideoGamer.com liked the game for using deep moral themes, which would entertain players for many hours. GameSpot praised the storyline, particularly Yagami and Kaito, calling them "genuinely likable characters". A HobbyConsolas reviewer noted that Sega added subtitles for languages other than English for the first time, making Judgment far more accessible, but Yagami was a less appealing character than Kiryu. Hardcore Gamer regarded the storyline as "the closest one can get to an entry point for those anxious about such an overbearing legacy that the Yakuza series presents" and appreciated that the Dragon Engine provided for facial expressions that were important for solving cases. VideoGamer.com's reviewer liked the original Japanese cast's striking performances, despite the reviewer's initial preference for the English dub. The English voice actors' performances were praised; Ogilvie called the game's English voice acting "excellent" but noticed inconsistent English lip-syncing. EGM Now said Chun gave a more striking performance than Kimura, whom the writer did not find suitable for the character. RPGamer praised Sega's decision to add two languages to the audio, praising both Japanese and English versions equally. Several Giant Bomb reviewers listed Judgment as one of their favorite games of 2019, with Chris Tilton listing it at the top. USgamer included it in its list of the twenty best games of 2019. Push Square listed Judgment as the third-best Yakuza game based on its accessibility in terms of the narrative and complexity of the gameplay. #### Remastered The remastered version of the game also received "generally favorable" reviews according to Metacritic. Both David Martínez from HobbyConsolas and Stan Yeung from Gaming Age found that the frame rate was stable even with a large enemy count, while the visuals remained polished. GameSpew felt the loading times had improved noticeably, making the pacing superior. Windows Central stated that thanks to the superior frame rate, Yagami moves faster than previous Yakuza characters. The reviewer added that the graphics update might bother fans due to the new lighting, which changes colors to make the characters look more realistic. RPGFan praised the new style of the remaster's visuals, stating that the changes to the lighting "have given Kamurocho a bluer, cooler appearance, better fitting the noir feel of the game." ### Awards ### Sales Imported sales of Judgment rose in Japan when the game was withdrawn from Japanese store shelves; about 97 percent of its stock was sold and it reached number three on Amazon's sales rankings. Nagoshi stated that although the sudden interest in the game because of the controversy was disappointing, he was "glad in any case". Kazuki Hosokawa considered a Steam port to be possible in April 2019 but was unsure about this, as the team was still working on Yakuza ports. In 2019, Nagoshi said that while Sega claimed there was already work put into a sequel, it was a rumor. According to Media Create, the game had a strong opening in its first week in Japan with sales of 148,246 physical copies. It went on to sell 317,000 physical copies by 2020. Judgment was the most successful release for a new IP for the eighth generation of video game consoles in the country, although this record was later broken by Death Stranding. Producer Daisuke Sato said that Western sales of Judgment had exceeded expectations. Upon its release week, the PlayStation 5 version of the game sold 5,539 physical copies in Japan, while the original version sold 3,192 physical copies. It went to reach 14,479 physical copies for the PlayStation 5 while the original had 24,271. In June 2021, Sega announced that total sales topped one million units. ## Legacy Although producer Kazuki Hosokawa said in April 2019 that the studio planned to port the game to the PC for a greater audience appeal, this was unconfirmed. Rumors of a sequel were reported by publications in March 2021, hinting at the return of both Yagami and Kaito. That April, the official website announced a major tease related to Judgment on May 7, titled "Judgment Day". The official Twitter account of the game also revealed new footage of Yagami, hinting toward a sequel. On May 6, 2021, a day before Judgment Day, the sequel Lost Judgment was leaked by PlayStation Network in Japan. It released worldwide on September 24, 2021.

Sollipulli

Volcanic mountain in Chile

Sollipulli (; lit. 'reddish mountain' in the Mapuche language) is an ice-filled volcanic caldera and volcanic complex, which lies southeast of the small town of Melipeuco in the La Araucanía Region, Chile. It is part of the Southern Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of the four volcanic belts in the Andes chain. The volcano has evolved in close contact with glacial ice. It differs from many calderas in that Sollipulli appears to have collapsed in a non-explosive manner. The age of collapse is not yet known, but it is presently filled with ice to thicknesses of 650 m (2,130 ft). The ice drains through two glaciers in the west and the north of the caldera. Sollipulli has developed on a basement formed by Mesozoic and Cenozoic geological formations. Sollipulli was active in the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. A large Plinian eruption occurred 2,960–2,780 years before present, forming the Alpehué crater and generating a high eruption column and ignimbrite deposits. The last activity occurred 710 ± 60 years before present and formed the Chufquén scoria cone on the northern flank. Sollipulli is among the 118 volcanoes which have been active in recent history. ## Geomorphology and geography Sollipulli lies in the Araucanía Region, Cautín Province, Melipeuco commune. The Sollipulli volcano is in the western part of the Nevados de Sollipulli mountain range, which is bordered to the north, south and east by river valleys. The communes of Curarrehue, Cunco, Panguipulli, Pucón and Villarrica are in the area, Melipeuco lies 20 km (12 mi) northwest. The volcano is also part of the Kütralkura geopark project. ### Regional Sollipulli is part of the Southern Volcanic Zone of the Andes, one of the four belts of volcanoes which are found in the mountain range. The other three are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone (both north of the Southern Volcanic Zone) and the Austral Volcanic Zone (south of the Southern Volcanic Zone). These volcanic zones are separated by gaps where there is no volcanic activity and the subduction of the Pacific Ocean crust is shallower than in the volcanically active areas. About 60 volcanoes have erupted in historical time in the Andes, and 118 additional volcanic systems show evidence of Holocene eruptions. There are 60 volcanoes in the Southern Volcanic Zone; among these are Cerro Azul and Cerro Hudson, which experienced large eruptions in 1932 and 1991 that resulted in the emission of substantial volumes of ash. The volcanoes Llaima and Villarrica have been regularly active during recent history. ### Local Sollipulli is a stratovolcano, which has one 4 km-wide (2.5 mi) caldera on its summit and southwest of it the 1 km-wide (0.62 mi) Alpehué crater. The crater is draped by pyroclastic flow deposits, and its rim reaches a height of 200 m (660 ft). The rims of the caldera rise 150 m (490 ft) above the ice in the caldera; the highest summit of Sollipulli lies on the southern flank of the caldera and reaches an elevation of 2,282 m (7,487 ft) above sea level. On the southern and eastern side the caldera is bordered by several lava domes. The caldera most likely was not formed by a large explosive eruption, considering that no deposits from such an eruption have been found. An older 5 km × 4 km-wide (3.1 mi × 2.5 mi) caldera underlies the summit caldera. The volcano is formed by lava flows, lava domes, scoria, pillow lavas as well as pumice falls, pyroclastics and other material. The edifice has a volume of about 85 km³ (20 cu mi) and covers a surface area of about 250 km² (97 sq mi). Radial valleys extend away from the top. A number of particular landforms on Sollipulli formed under the influence of glacial ice, such as the caldera structure. The Nevados de Sollipulli mountain chain west of the Sollipulli caldera are a chain of volcanoes which is heavily eroded. They are formed by breccia and lava flows; glacial action has left cirques. Closer to the caldera they are better preserved, with individual flows issuing from fissure vents. This chain is one of several east–northeast striking volcano alignments in the Southern Volcanic Zone, the regional tectonics favour magma ascent along such alignments. The flanks of the volcano are covered by lava flows, which gives them irregular contours. Glaciers and streams have cut valleys into the slopes and smoothed the lava flows. Two scoria cones are situated on the northern flank, Chufquén and Redondo, each associated with lava flows; about a dozen such craters dot the flanks of the volcano. #### Glaciers Both the main caldera and the Alpehué crater contain glaciers, which in the caldera reached a thickness of 650 m (2,130 ft) in 1992 and fills it; the total volume was estimated at 6 km³ (1.4 cu mi) in 1992. These glaciers feature typical ice structures such as crevasses and there may be a subglacial lake in the caldera. Three lakes are found in the caldera at its margins, the easterly Sharkfin lake, the southeasterly Dome lake and the southwesterly Alpehué lake. These glaciers drain to the north and northwest; the latter glacier flows from the caldera through the Alpehué crater into the valley of the same name, which is drained by the Rio Alpehué into the Rio Allipén river. Other than the caldera and crater glaciers, the only snow cover on Sollipulli is seasonal. Glaciers have been present on the volcano before the Last Glacial Maximum and have left glacial striations and evidence of subglacial eruptions such as hyaloclastite deposits. The glacier within the caldera of Sollipulli is shrinking; its surface area decreased between 1961 and 2011 and the Alpehuén outlet glacier retreated by 1.3 km (0.81 mi). Some smaller ice fields around Sollipulli either shrank between1986 and 2017 or disappeared altogether. The process of glacier retreat is probably accelerated by ash being deposited on the glacier through eruptions at the neighbouring volcano Puyehue-Cordón Caulle; activity at the other volcanoes Llaima and Villarrica may have the same effect. In 2011, the volume of the glacier was 4.5 ± 0.5 km³ (1.08 ± 0.12 cu mi). Melting of the glacier risks generating lahars and putting water supplies in the region into jeopardy. ## Geology Subduction has been ongoing on the western side of South America since 185 million years ago and has resulted in the formation of the Andes and volcanic activity within the range. About 27 million years ago, the Farallon Plate broke up and the pace of subduction increased, resulting in increased volcanic activity and a temporary change in the tectonic regime of the Southern Andes. Sollipulli volcano developed on a 600-to-1,600-metre-high (2,000–5,200 ft) basement which consists of the Jurassic–Cretaceous Nacientes del Biobío formation and the Pliocene-Pleistocene Nevados de Sollipulli volcanics, with subordinate exposures of the Miocene Curamallín and the Cretaceous-Tertiary Vizcacha-Cumilao complex volcano-sedimentary formations. Miocene granites are intruded into the basement. Two major fault systems, the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone and the Reigolil-Pirihueico fault, pass west and east of Sollipulli, respectively. They are connected by east–west trending faults ### Composition Rocks erupted from Sollipulli range from basalt over basaltic andesite and andesite to dacite. Composition has changed over the evolution of the volcano; sometimes one type of rock is found as inclusion in another. Minerals contained in the rocks include apatite, clinopyroxene, ilmenite, olivine, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and titanomagnetite. Xenoliths are also found, including diorite and granophyre. The petrogenesis of the Alpehué rocks has been explained with the penetration of more primitive magma into a dacitic magma chamber, which was then subject to magma mixing. The primitive magmas sometimes pass through the flanks of the edifice and form parasitic vents in these cases. Obsidian was obtained on Sollipulli and exported over large distances; it has been found as far as Argentina's steppes and northern Chile, and is chemically and in appearance different from obsidian obtained on Chaitén volcano. One source has been identified at a lava dome on the western side of Sollipulli. A route starting south of Melipeuco leads up on the volcano; this route was used for the transport of obsidian in the 1980s. ## Precipitation and vegetation Annual precipitation amounts to 2.1 metres per year (6.9 ft/a) and mostly falls between April and September. The region is forested, with deciduous trees including Nothofagus, with laurel forests around the lakes of the area and woods consisting of Araucaria araucana and Austrocedrus chilensis at altitudes exceeding 800 m (2,600 ft). In addition there are open grasslands called mallines which were used for grazing. ## Eruption history Sollipulli was active during the Pleistocene and Holocene; the Nevados de Sollipulli are less than 1.8 million years old with argon-argon dating having obtained ages of 490,000 ± 30,000 and 312,000 ± 20,000 years ago. Six separate volcanic units form the edifice; from the oldest to the youngest they are the Sharkfin, Northwest, South, Peak, Alpehué and Chufquén units. The first two may be contemporaneous to the formation of the caldera, or they may predate it. The Sharkfin unit was emplaced in a subglacial environment and later disrupted by faulting, later units show substantial evidence of having been altered by glaciers. Radiometric dates have been obtained on the Sharkfin unit (700,000 ± 140,000 and 350,000 ± 90,000 years before present), the Northwest unit (120,000 ± 16,000, 120,000 ± 140,000, 110,000 ± 30,000 and 100,000 ± 30,000 years before present) and the South and Peak units (68,000 ± 14,000, 64,000 ± 15,000 and 26,000 ± 5,000 years before present). The caldera is nested within an older and eroded caldera, and some parasitic cones are heavily eroded whereas others appear to be younger. Pyroclastic flows from Alpehué have been dated to 2,960–2,780 years before present. The Alpehué unit was emplaced during a large Plinian eruption, which generated a 44 km-high (27 mi) eruption column and ejected about 7.5 km³ (1.8 cu mi) of pumice falls. Tephra from this eruption has been found in neighbouring lakes and in sediment cores from the Argentina Pampa; layers of tephra identified in a bog of South Georgia 3,000 km (1,900 mi) away as well as in an ice core at Siple Dome in Antarctica and dated to about 980 BCE may be a product of the Alpehué eruption. Alpehué tephra has been used as a tephrochronology tool. Pyroclastic flows from the eruption melted the caldera ice sheet, forming lahars that propagated northwest away from Sollipulli. Ignimbrites from this eruption cover surfaces of at least 40 km² (15 sq mi) around Sollipulli, their volume has been estimated to be about 0.4 km³ (0.096 cu mi). They are brown to grey in colour and unwelded with the exception of part of the ignimbrite that is emplaced within the Alpehué crater. The eruption reached a level of 5 on the volcanic explosivity index and led to changes in regional plant communities. Radiocarbon dating at Chufquén has yielded an age of 710 ± 60 years before present. This eruption deposited ash onto the caldera ice, while it is absent from the central parts of the Chufquén valley; either it was removed by a later glacier advance or it landed on a glacier which later retreated. The eruption occurred relatively recently, indicating that Sollipulli is still active. Presently, fumaroles and geothermal phenomena occur at the northwestern foot of Sollipulli. The 0.2 km² (0.077 sq mi) Alpehue geothermal field, about 4.5 km (2.8 mi) southwest of Alpehue crater, is unusual among the southern Chilean geothermal fields as it features geysers. It lies within a glacial valley presently traversed by a river that cut a vertical canyon into the volcano. Geothermal features include "spouters", geysers, hot springs and mud pools, as well as geyserite and sinter deposits that form small terrace structures. Geyser columns reach 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) height when they erupt. The geyser field has been active since at least 7,400 years. The deep incision and fractured rocks may facilitate the ascent of geothermal waters. ### Hazards The substantial ice body in the caldera means that there is a significant risk of mudflows or glacier bursts in the case of renewed activity. Conversely, a retreat of the caldera-filling glacier might facilitate the onset of explosive eruptions at Sollipulli. A repeat of the Alpehué eruption would be a regional catastrophe, comparable to the 1991 eruption of Cerro Hudson volcano. The Chilean geological service Sernageomin monitors the volcano and publishes a hazard index for it. The towns of Cunco, Melipeuco and Villa García are close to the volcano. Melipeuco has devised a Volcanic Emergency Plan to deal with future eruptions of Llaima or Sollipulli.

Lucinda Lee Dalton

American mormon suffragist and early feminist

Lucinda Lee Dalton (born Lucinda Lee; February 9, 1847 – November 24, 1925) was a Utah teacher, and suffragist. She shared her views through essays and poems published in the Woman's Exponent, a periodical for Latter-day Saint women. Raised by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and devout to the faith, Dalton was a feminist. As a child, she felt jealous of boys for the freedom and privileges they enjoyed and felt that girls were neglected by the education system. She became a women's rights activist, believing that women should have the right to suffrage, education, property, control over their money, and custody of their children. As a teacher, she advocated for equal educational and recreational opportunities for girls. Dalton supported polygamy, arguing that it allowed more women to marry whom she deemed the few "good men", and bore six children with her husband Charles, who married her as his fourth wife. Her writings have been noted by critics for poetically conveying the role and struggles of Mormon women in her time. ## Early life Dalton was born in Coosa County, Alabama to Eliza Foscue and John Percival Lee. Her parents joined the LDS Church in Texas in 1849, and they made the trek to Utah Territory shortly after their conversion. In 1851, Dalton's family moved to the San Bernardino Valley in California as part of a Mormon expedition led by Amasa Lyman and Charles C. Rich. Seven years later her family moved to Beaver, Utah. Despite her family's poverty, Dalton's parents tried to teach her at home and let her attend school as long as possible. There were many children in her family, and at the time, many teenage girls stayed home to help with childcare and housework, but Dalton's family encouraged her to go to school. Since her family moved between rural areas, her education was scattered and not very methodical. Her teacher in Utah tutored her during lunch and after school and started training her to be a teacher herself. At age 12, her father founded a private school where Dalton helped teach. At age 16, Dalton became a teacher herself for an "infant school." Also around age 16, Dalton's younger brother grew gravely ill. According to her autobiography, she fasted and prayed that her brother's life would be spared, and while she prayed this way he remained alive, although still ill. When Dalton's mother wished that her son's sufferings would end, Dalton stopped praying that his life would be spared and instead prayed that God's will be done. Her little brother died shortly thereafter. ## Marriage to Charles Dalton and family life Lucinda Dalton was the fourth wife of Charles Wakeman Dalton, and they were married in 1868. Lucinda resented the expectation that she be meek and obedient in her marriage. Charles assured her that husbands have obligations to their wives as wives do to their husbands. She came to the conclusion that she should marry Charles because of a spiritual witness they experienced together: "I felt that we were in the presence of the hosts of heaven; and a direct incontrovertible testimony was given me that it was the will of God and not my will that I should accept this man for my yokefellow." She and Charles had six children together. Before her first child Charles's birth, Lucinda had a premonition that her son would not live very long. She told her mother that the dress she sewed for him was like a funeral shroud, and after baby Charles's death at age two, she buried him in it. Lucinda's second child, a daughter named Rosette, also died in infancy. Dalton often references these lost child infants in her poetry. Her third child, Clifford, was born on February 18, 1875. Charles was a joint owner of a store in Beaver and also hauled freight to surrounding areas. However, his income was not sufficient to support his four wives and many children. Dalton taught school in Manti, Beaver, Payson, Ferron, and Ogden. When Lucinda's father remarried, her sister Emma came to stay with her, and Emma married Charles in 1871. In 1876, Emma left Charles and Lucinda, as well as the LDS Church, and moved to Arkansas and then California. After Charles's death, Lucinda Dalton applied to cancel her temple sealing to Charles in 1884: "though I know he had many imperfections ... now the brethren say he is unworthy, (though I know not who appointed them to judge him,) they urge that I stand in a very insecure position, and that for my children's sake, as well as my own, I ought to marry again." Dalton feared that by remaining sealed to Charles, she would forfeit her claim to her children. Perhaps because Charles was a drinker, her "brethren" considered him unworthy of his sealing. Her sealing cancellation was approved in 1887 and then revoked after her death in 1931. ## Feminist views and writings As a child, Dalton felt jealous of boys for the freedom they enjoyed. They could travel alone without worrying about their reputation and were often bribed to attend school, while girls were, in her opinion, educated reluctantly. One of her teachers thought it would be wasteful for her to study algebra, as she already had sufficient education for a housewife. As a young woman, she felt that women lived on a higher moral level than men. She saw polygamy as a way to allow more women to marry the few good men, arguing that it gave more women the opportunity to marry. She also considered it ironic that prostitution was tolerated but polygamy was considered depraved. Dalton argued for girls and boys to have equal recreational and educational opportunities and for women to have fair wages. Dalton advocated exercise for girls, including swimming and shooting. She believed that women had the right to suffrage, education, property, control over their earned money, and custody of their children. She was a strong believer in moral temperance and argued that parental hypocrisy caused many children to imitate their parents' actions. She said that it was a woman's religious duty to educate herself. She urged women to take advantage of public resources like libraries and museums, or if time did not permit, to enlarge their minds at Relief Society meetings. Dalton applied the logic of abolitionism to the cause of women's freedom. She said that just as no one should be made a slave because of their race, women should not have to be subservient because of their gender. She saw the Victorian ideals for women in marriage as part of that slavish subservience. She argued that since a woman loses all her property when she marries, that it would be more advantageous for her to not officially marry so she could still buy and sell land and have legal claim over her own children and her own body. Dalton also argued that new brides should be allowed to decide when they have their first child. Some of her ideas were surprisingly radical for a Mormon woman at the time, and she and Elizabeth Cady Stanton agreed that women needed to protect themselves from unjust laws. Dalton taught for sixty years. She taught her pupils energetically in spite of having crude educational resources. In 1891, Dalton encouraged other women teachers to ask for a raise. The board of education did give the teachers a raise, but considered Dalton responsible for their petitioning and demanded that she pay the difference from her salary. When Dalton refused, they replaced her with a male teacher. Luckily, the city of Payson requested that Dalton teach at their school, and she moved there happily. Later she taught in Ogden and Manti. She served as an officer of the territorial women's suffrage association. Her sister Rose was vice-president of the Utah State Chapter of Women Voters. ## Death and legacy Dalton died on November 24, 1925 in Manti, Utah, survived by two of her children. Her funeral was held at the North Ward Chapel in Manti on November 27; she was buried in the Manti Cemetery. Edward Tullidge, a fellow Latter-day Saint contemporary with Dalton, wrote that she was "a lady in whose writings are manifested the true spirit and independence of the Mormon women", saying that "the vigor and vivacity of her poetic productions are suggestive of a future enviable fame." Another Latter-day Saint, Jill Mulvay, in Sunstone, called her poems "refreshingly imaginative, devoid of maudlin sentiment which marked much of the poetry of her age." A Dialogue review of a book containing her poems considers her position: > Could there be a more 'queer yoking' than the polygamist and the suffragist? In her amazing 'Woman,' Dalton refutes the traditional Christian view of woman's subservient position. She counters the Christian image of woman as the cause of humanity's fall from grace with the more enlightened 'latter-day' view of woman as a divine daughter of God, as one who fell to 'seek knowledge, the God-like prize.' Her play on the notion of latter-day redemption continues to the end of the poem with the last two lines: 'The Word has gone forth that when all is done, / the last shall be first forever' (6). In a thesis on Dalton authored by Sheree Bench: "As an essayist Dalton defends her religion calls for the expansion of women's political and economic opportunities and asserts that the elevation of women is crucial to achieving the potential of both sexes. As a poet she is a compelling writer who reveals in her poems her apprehensions and aspirations her faith and feminism much of her poetry reflects the same commitment to reform that is clear in her essays and she uses both genres do effective political work." Another thesis writer believed that Dalton's poem Winter Winds "demonstrates the consistent opposition between male-identified and female-identified natural elements within LDS women's literature." ## Selected works The items on this list are taken from Sheree Bench's thesis on Dalton unless otherwise noted. In her many contributions to the Woman's Exponent, Dalton is often credited as "L.D.D." ### Essays 1872–3 1874 1880 1894 ### Poems 1873–6 1878–80 1885–93

Davis Theater

Movie theater in Chicago, United States

The Davis Theater, originally known as the Pershing Theater, is a first run movie theater located in the Lincoln Square neighborhood of Chicago. Built in 1918, the theater has operated in different capacities in its history, showing silent films, German-language films, and various forms of stage performance. In 1999, the Davis was planned to be demolished to build residential condos, but the plans were cancelled in part due to a negative response from the community. It is one of the few operating neighborhood movie theaters in Chicago. Its building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016. ## History The Pershing Theater was built in 1918 and was named after First World War General of the Armies, John J. Pershing. It is the only remaining theater of five built in Lincoln Square, and one of the few neighborhood theaters still operating in Chicago. The building was designed by architect Walter W. Ahlschlager, who was also responsible for the design of other famous buildings such as the Uptown Broadway Building in Chicago and the Roxy Theater in New York City. The Pershing opened showing silent films, its first being The Forbidden City and later Pals First. In the 1930s, the Pershing was converted to show talkies at a cost of approximately \$10,000 and was renamed the Davis Theater. The Pershing had some involvement in The Case of the Ragged Stranger, an infamous Chicago murder case of the early 1920s. Carl Wanderer and Ruth Johnson, husband and wife, left the theater shortly before Johnson was murdered. Although the murder was initially pinned on a stranger dressed in ragged clothing, an investigation revealed new evidence that suggested that Wanderer was, in fact, guilty of the murder. Wanderer was ultimately convicted and executed. Starting in the 1952, the theater attempted to appeal to the cultural influences in the neighborhood by showing German-language films in addition to American films. The theater eventually transformed to a German film house, even acting as host for the Chicago International Film Festival in 1972 where they opened with Signs of Life. The Davis continued to show German films through the end of the decade. The theater then transitioned to showing a variety of entertainment including puppet shows, second run films, and revivals through the 1970s. In 1979, a plan to revitalize the theater by modernizing it and concentrating on movie revivals was supported by film critic and Chicago resident Gene Siskel, but it was unsuccessful within months. In June 1980, the Davis hosted the Chicago International Film Festival's Dance Film Festival, which featured a week-long showcase of dance-themed films such as Divine Madness and Non-Stop Astaire, the latter of which was a collection of film dance routines featuring Fred Astaire with other notable dancers such as Judy Garland and Ginger Rogers. In January 2016, the theater was closed for renovation and brought back to life in its current state as a historical landmark and community center for cinema and the arts. The architecture firm for the renovation was Kennedy Mann. In 2018, they were awarded the Award for Rehabilitation by Landmarks Illinois. ## Planned demolition In October 1999, the Davis was put up for sale at an asking price of \$1.6M with the description, "This ornate theater is waiting to be developed into a shopping mall". The realtor, Edward Vanek, showed the property to several interested developers who considered turning the complex into condominiums, a mall, or even a theater with food and liquor services. The Davis was eventually sold to developer Jim Jaeger later that year, who was rumored to be planning its demolition and replacement with residential housing. Soon after, a "Save the Davis" campaign was organized to prevent the theater's demolition, and included a community meeting at the Conrad Sulzer Regional Library, where over 500 people voiced opposition to the demolition of the theater. Participants in the meeting argued that demolishing the building would be a historical loss and expressed frustration that useful small businesses had been lost to the community in order to build more residential units. The campaign was supported by alderman Eugene Schulter, who refused to rezone the property to accommodate the redevelopment plans. The property was bid on in December 1999, and acquired by a non-profit, Davis Theater Preservation Corporation, headed by community resident Mary Edsey. The property was sold to Special Real Estate Services in 2000, and thereafter the theater began to show first run films once again. ## Present operations The Davis Theater is currently operated as a first run theater, containing four screens. It also occasionally shows second runs of older films. It is owned by the Value Theater Corporation, which specializes in maintaining smaller movie theaters in the United States. It was renovated to replace its film projectors with digital film. The Davis participated in the Chicago International Children's Film Festival in 2008.

K Foundation art award

Award given by the K Foundation to the "worst artist of the year"

The 1994 K Foundation award was an award given by the K Foundation (Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty) to the "worst artist of the year". The shortlist for the £40,000 K Foundation award was identical to the shortlist for the well-established but controversial £20,000 Turner Prize for the best British contemporary artist. On the evening of 23 November 1993, Rachel Whiteread was presented with the 1993 Turner Prize inside London's Tate Gallery, and the 1994 K Foundation award on the street outside. Prior to presenting their award, the K Foundation held a private exhibit of a collection of art works entitled Money - A Major Body of Cash. The award, the exhibition and the accompanying extravagant press junket were widely reported by the media. ## Context In June 1993 the newly formed K Foundation began taking out full page national press adverts. Initial advertisements were cryptic, referring to "K Time" and advising readers to "Kick out the clocks". They mentioned five-year journeys which included pop success and deep space travel and that "the sands of time are running in". There was also an advert for the K Foundation's single "K Cera Cera" which was "Available nowhere ... no formats" and which was not planned for release until world peace was established. `There was a change of direction with the fourth advert which appeared on 14 August 1993, reading: "ABANDON ALL ART NOW. Major rethink in progress. Await further announcements." The next ad (28 August 1993) read: "It has come to our attention that you did not abandon all art now. Further direct action is thus necessary. The K Foundation announce the 'mutha of all awards', the 1994 K Foundation award for the worst artist of the year." It then went on to detail how a shortlist of four artists had been chosen, and that they would be exhibited in the Tate Gallery.` One of the first newspaper pieces about the K Foundation appeared in The Guardian the following Monday, correctly pointing out that the shortlist and exhibition were actually for the 1993 Turner Prize, the controversial £20,000 annual award given by the UK art establishment to the best young contemporary artist, but assuming that the K Foundation prize was a hoax. "As for the K Foundation", the newspaper wrote, "it stands unmasked as the current performing face of those cherished old friends of pop pranksterdom, Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty", formerly known as The KLF. In September, the organisers of the Turner Prize responded publicly that "It proves the validity of our prize that somebody would take so much trouble to set up this award". The Foundation's next advert invited the general public to vote for the worst artist, either by going to the exhibition and using their critical faculties or by letting their inherent prejudices come to the fore. The final advert summarised the whole campaign, asked some questions back to the people that had written to them, and explained that the winner of the K Foundation award would be announced in a TV advert during the live Turner Prize coverage on Channel 4 television. On 20 November 1993, The Economist reported on the K Foundation prize and placed it in context. "Every autumn for the past ten years, an increasingly bad-tempered squabble has raged between, on the one hand, many of Britain's art critics and its popular media, and on the other, its avant-garde "establishment," the small coterie of art historians, curators, and dealers who control the Turner prize." Predicting that Rachel Whiteread, creator of the controversial sculpture House, would win both awards, the magazine said that, if it were so, "the vast numbers of people who equate contemporary art with rubbish will, yet again, feel vindicated." The K Foundation's television adverts on the evening of 23 November 1993 explained that the Foundation were currently "amending the history of art" at a secret location. No mention of the alternative award was made in the post-Turner Prize studio discussion. The K Foundation reportedly pre-announced Rachel Whiteread as their winner at some time before the Turner Prize winner was announced; at 9.30pm, live on television, the Turner Prize was awarded to the same artist. Whiteread reluctantly collected her K Foundation winnings at just past 11pm, saying, "sarcastically, 'What an honour.'" Drummond claimed the advertising campaign cost £250,000. The television advertisements cost £20,000, an amount which Scotland on Sunday said was "carefully chosen to match the value of the Turner prize", the newspaper adding that "Copies of the invoices were supplied as evidence." Each press advert cost between £5,000 and £15,000. ## The Amending of Art History 25 witnesses - including art critics, journalists, music industry figures and artists - were invited to participate in the Foundation's "Amending of art history". They were driven in a convoy of white limousines, led by a gold limo, to Heston Service Station where they were handed a press release and £1650 in crisp new £50 notes. The accompanying press release stated that 25 × £1600 collectively made up the £40000 K Foundation prize, and that the extra £50 was for the witness to verify its authenticity by spending it. The witnesses were dressed in fluorescent orange hard hats and safety jackets. The convoy proceeded to a field patrolled by two orange-painted K Foundation Saracen armoured cars, driven by Drummond and Cauty, broadcasting the K Foundation's "K Cera Cera" and ABBA's "Money Money Money". Silver-bearded "Mr Ball", the K Foundation's compere, directed the witnesses to nail their wad of money to a board inside a gilt frame, to assemble the K Foundation's prize. Some of the witnesses pocketed all or some of their wad, and the prize money was, according to Danny Kelly, some £9000 short. Mr Ball also directed the witnesses to "view the art": One million pounds in £50 notes, nailed to a large framed board. This was the K Foundation's first art work, Nailed To The Wall, "the first of a series of K Foundation art installations that will also include one million pounds in a skip, one million pounds on a table and several variants on the theme of Tremendous Amounts Of Folding". Collectively, the K Foundation's money-as-art works were titled Money: A Major Body Of Cash, "seven pieces, all involving various amounts of cash nailed to, tied to or simply standing on inanimate objects". Nailed To The Wall had a reserve price of £500,000, half the face value of the cash used in its construction, which Scotland on Sunday'''s reporter Robert Dawson Scott was "fairly confident... really was £1 million [in cash]". The catalogue entry for the artwork stated: "Over the years the face value will be eroded by inflation, while the artistic value will rise and rise. The precise point at which the artistic value will overtake the face value is unknown. Deconstruct the work now and you double your money. Hang it on a wall and watch the face value erode, the market value fluctuate, and the artistic value soar. The choice is yours." Rachel Whiteread had already been notified of her "victory" but had refused to accept the prize or allow the K Foundation to use her name. The motorcade left the site of the amending of art-history and headed back to London, for a showdown with Whiteread on the steps of the Tate. When she again refused to accept the money, the K Foundation explained that it would be burnt. With the crowd of now very drunk witnesses looking on, a masked K Foundation operative (Gimpo) fumbled with matches and lighter fluid. At the last moment Rachel Whiteread emerged from the Tate and accepted the money, stating that she would give it as grants to needy artists. ## Media and art-world reaction A huge amount of press publicity ensued, with all the major newspapers and press organisations reporting that Whiteread had won both awards. Media reaction to the K Foundation award was mixed. David Mills wrote in The Times that The K Foundation's campaign was "tiresome", and he asked "Doesn't it strike anyone as odd that a group of people who made their money with such artistic endeavours as a disco-version of the Dr Who theme should be suggesting that contemporary art was somehow more fatuous than that?" Rachel Whiteread had an advertisement printed in the British magazine, Art Monthly, in which she outlined her plan to donate £10,000 to Shelter and distribute the remainder in grants to 10 needy artists. In the advertisement Whiteread stated that she "does not agree with the K Foundation's aims or methods"; the advertisement was in a similar style to the K Foundation ads, with stark white text on a black background. Defending Whiteread, Lord Palumbo told The Guardian that: "Talent at the highest level attracts derision. We must let the artist fail." Scottish sculptor David Mach opined to Scotland on Sunday that "They're just a bunch of silly buggers. It's good to see money going from a bunch of silly buggers to an artist who is going to make good use of it. What's that saying about a fool and his money...?" John Bellany, on the other hand, said that "The emotional, artistic side of [his] nature... admire[d] the audacity and imagination, challenging art and the art manipulators. The rational side of me asks, is this the most expensive art publicity stunt this century, and for whom?" Whiteread's agent Karsten Schubert said, "The whole affair was a non-event. They achieved nothing and they were left looking like real prats." Peter Chater, a director of Schubert's agency concurred; he called Drummond and Cauty "cowards". "It was obviously a publicity stunt. What sort of statement they were trying to make I don't know. If it was anything to do with the relationship between art and money it was pretty crass. The KLF made a fortune from a couple of successful singles. Artists aren't in that position. Threatening to set light to £40,000 is pretty obscene." Former Factory Records boss Tony Wilson applauded the group, however. "The K Foundation is a very peculiar avant garde group whose ideas are as valid as anything the Turner people do," he told NME. "Since when has there been laws governing what constitutes art, or an artistic statement? OK, so a lot of people don't understand what Bill and Jimmy are trying to say, but how many people know exactly what Rachel Whiteread's trying to say with her art?" Modern Review art critic John O'Reilly, another of the K Foundation's witnesses, said: "The whole point of the K Foundation is its anonymity. There's no origin, just a Circulation of data and concepts. There is no master plan, no grand narrative." O'Reilly also "[enjoyed the] sense of waste and sacrifice involved". Miranda Sawyer, who attended the presentation, found special interest in a subsidiary incident during the evening of the prize ceremonies: the theft of money by several of the other invited witnesses: "All the feelings of power and powerlessness that money can bring were fairly summarised with these thefts - it must have turned out better than the K Foundation could have hoped if the examination of cash, art and associated feelings was their point." Sawyer named "Britart" figure Carl Freedman as one of those who had taken the money, and reported that "He found the event funny, not offensive (you would too if you walked off with £1,600!), but thought the point had been made before." Writer and "underground art historian" Stewart Home was viciously supportive of the K Foundation. "The avant-garde wasn't to be seen at the Turner Prize gathering, it was to be found among that select band of individuals who'd organised the K Foundation's attack on the smug complacency of the arts establishment.... 'dignitaries' such as Lord Polumbo were revealed as buffoons. While Polumbo ranted about the dunces who attack cultural innovations, his rhetoric showed him to be a complete idiot — several people immediately pointed out that he was unable to correctly name Van Gogh's art dealer brother. Likewise, Polumbo claimed that there are no monuments erected to critics and presented himself as a champion of progressive culture, while ignoring the fact that it was critics who picked the winner of the prize he was awarding. It is the K Foundation, rather than Whiteread, who represent a vital and innovative strand within contemporary culture. Their work is simultaneously a critique and a celebration of 'consumer capitalism'." An NME piece on 20 November 1993 was also highly supportive of the K Foundation. "The nearest parallel to the K Foundation donation would be The Beatles' grandiose plans for Apple Corps", they said. "But where Apple handed out money willy-nilly to little end and failed to achieve anything more than get some hippies stoned and put up some nice posters about war being over if you want it, Drummond and Cauty have found a specific target - the relationship between art, money and the critical establishment- and attacked it. By actually offering £40,000 to the artist who produces the duffest piece of work, they've simultaneously sent up the whole thing and proved their integrity the hard way." The Face magazine's witness, Cliff Jones, wrote that "The accusation that this is a tiresome Situationist gag with a whoopee cushion pay-off belittles the K Foundation's distracted message. They are not mocking any of the artists involved in the Turner or their work so much as the whole tired institution of awards themselves.... By telling us to "use our critical faculties or our innate prejudice" to vote, the Ks are asking: "Who decides who decides?"" The Independent's witness, David Lister, was less impressed. "Last night's highly eccentric mystery tour by the K Foundation probably said more about the wealth that can be accumulated from two number one hit records than it did about any resurgence of Dadaism", he said. The Guardian said that Jimmy Cauty, "[as the artist] responsible for a best-selling Athena poster of the Hobbit ... can justly say he has adorned more walls than any of the Turner nominees"; and added: "A grand deflation of the pretensions of the wealthy art elite is an aim that has drawn approval from sections of the art world and philistines who find 'installations' of knotted rope or beds covered in rice curiously unmoving.... The joke may yet prove to be at the expense of the Turner." In a separate piece, the newspaper implied that the K Foundation had hit their perceived target with some success: > The abiding image of this year's Turner Prize will not be the poignant, graffiti-scarred hulk of Rachel Whiteread's House, marooned in the swirling dereliction of the East End, nor even Vong Phaophanit's gently undulating rice dunes inside the Tate. > > The picture that really grabbed hold of the zeitgeist, and which will stay in the memory long after the dust of demolition settles, was the grim sight of Peter Palumbo, handing Whiteread her cheque at the Tate on Tuesday night. His face white and sweaty, vainly trying to appear martial, he looked for all the world like the late Salvador Allende in his tin helmet, clutching his assault rifle on the steps of the presidential palace as Pinochet's tanks swept him from power.... > > Perhaps the Turner Prize could handle routine local authority philistinism, but the heavy-handed Magic Christian mockery of the KLF, the group of rock biz pranksters who doubled the prize money with an award for what they called the worst artist of the four on the shortlist, seemed to be too much for the Prize's fragile sense of purpose. The equilibrium of its greatest defender had cracked. Whiteread's sculpture, House, was demolished, as had been planned from its inception, on 11 January 1994. ## Later analysis In a piece published in 2006, The Sunday Times quoted author James F. English's description of The K Foundation's Art Award as "hostile philanthropy". Sunday Times writer Bryan Appleyard added that the "K Foundation's witty exploitations of artistic greed ... are essential aspects of the prize itself. They promote the prize, reassure the organisers that, culturally speaking, they are in the thick of it and console the artists with evidence that their work provokes strong reactions. More importantly, for English, such conflicts demonstrate the autonomous nature of the event. These prizes should not be seen as any real or lasting judgment about art, but rather as things in themselves." Some years after the award, Bill Drummond attempted to explain the K Foundation's motives, as he now saw them: > Most of the people who wrote about what we did, and the TV programme that was made about it, made a mistake. I was only able to articulate it to myself afterwards with hindsight. They thought we were using our money to make a statement about art, and really what we were doing was using our art to make a statement about money. Having arrived at that formula, I'm probably manipulating everything we did to fit into the theory, but we were just getting up in the morning and getting on the phone with each other and saying, fucking hell! So at some points we thought we were attacking the art establishment then we were saying, no that's not what this is about. ## Burning The K Foundation's art campaign, Money: A Major Body Of Cash'', failed to attract major gallery interest so, on 23 August 1994, Drummond and Cauty disposed of their one million pounds in an alternate fashion: they burnt it on the Scottish island of Jura. In an interview with Drummond, Cauty and Gimpo, Gimpo admitted to harbouring guilt about the million pounds burning; that if he'd burnt Whiteread's £40,000 the million pounds burning would never have happened. "I should have burnt it. I had petrol all over the £40,000... We were due to wait until eleven o'clock until she came out, but we were told to wait another two minutes... [then] Rachel Whiteread came running out. She just grabbed the money and dragged it over the fence." Carl Freedman also wished they'd burnt Whiteread's money. "It would have been brilliant.... It would have been just totally outrageous. People would have been falling out of their-chairs, saying. 'I can't believe they just burned £40,000'". ## See also - K Foundation Burn a Million Quid - List of European art awards

2nd Army Group (Kingdom of Yugoslavia)

Royal Yugoslav Army formation

The 2nd Army Group was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Milutin Nedić during the German-led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II. It consisted of the 1st and 2nd Armies, comprising four infantry divisions, one horsed cavalry division, two brigade-strength infantry detachments, and one horsed cavalry regiment. It was responsible for the defence of the border with Hungary from Slatina to the Tisza river. The 2nd Army Group was not directly attacked during the first few days of the invasion, but events to the east and west of its deployment area resulted in successive orders to withdraw to the lines of the Drava and Danube then the Sava. On 10 April, the crumbling defences of the 4th Army on the left flank of the 2nd Army Group had been penetrated by the German 8th Panzer Division, which then turned east and drove into the left flank of the 2nd Army Group on the following day. By the end of that day, the Germans had effectively routed the 2nd Army Group. Remnants continued to fight along the line of the Sava until early on 14 April, but mass surrenders began that day with tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers being taken into captivity by the Germans during their drive on Sarajevo in the centre of the country. The Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12:00 on 18 April. ## Background The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created with the merger of Serbia, Montenegro and the South Slav-inhabited areas of Austria-Hungary on 1 December 1918, in the immediate aftermath of World War I. The Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established to defend the new state. It was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army, as well as armed formations raised in regions formerly controlled by Austria-Hungary. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army. From the beginning, much like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom, the army was dominated by ethnic Serbs, who saw it as a means by which to secure Serb political hegemony. The army's development was hampered by the kingdom's poor economy, and this continued during the 1920s. In 1929, King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, at which time the army was renamed the Royal Yugoslav Army (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije, VKJ). The army budget remained tight, and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s, it became difficult to secure weapons and munitions from other countries. Consequently, at the time World War II broke out in September 1939, the VKJ had several serious weaknesses, which included reliance on draught animals for transport, and the large size of its formations. Infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26,000–27,000 men, as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength. These characteristics resulted in slow, unwieldy formations, and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower. Generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was neither equipped nor trained to resist the fast-moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in their invasions of Poland and France. The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy, structure, equipment, mobility and supply were exacerbated by serious ethnic disunity within Yugoslavia, resulting from two decades of Serb hegemony and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government. Attempts to address the disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force. Fifth column activity was also a serious concern, not only from the Croatian fascist Ustaše and the ethnic German minorities but also potentially from the pro-Bulgarian Macedonians and the Albanian population of Kosovo. ## Formation and composition Yugoslav war plans saw the headquarters of the 2nd Army Group being raised at the time of mobilisation. It was to be commanded by Armijski đeneral Milutin Nedić, and was to control the 1st Army, commanded by Armijski đeneral Milan Rađenković, and the 2nd Army, commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković. The 1st Army was organised and mobilised on a geographic basis from the peacetime 1st Army District, headquartered in Novi Sad. On mobilisation it would consist of one infantry division, one horsed cavalry division, and two brigade-strength infantry detachments, and was supported by artillery, anti-aircraft artillery, and air reconnaissance elements of the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Vazduhoplovstvo vojske Kraljevine Jugoslavije, VVKJ). The 2nd Army was organised and mobilised on a geographic basis from the peacetime 2nd Army District, headquartered in Sarajevo. On mobilisation it was to consist of three infantry divisions and one horsed cavalry regiment, supported by artillery, anti-aircraft artillery and border guards, and also had VVKJ air reconnaissance support. The 2nd Army Group did not control any additional support units, and had several units with a significant proportion of Croat soldiers. ## Mobilisation and deployment plan After unrelenting political pressure from Adolf Hitler, Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. On 27 March, a military coup d'état overthrew the government that had signed the pact, and a new government was formed under the commander of the VVKJ, Armijski đeneral Dušan Simović. A general mobilisation was not initiated by the new government until 3 April 1941, not to provoke Germany any further and thus precipitating war. However, on the same day as the coup, Hitler issued Führer Directive 25 which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state, and on 3 April, Führer Directive 26 was issued, detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the German-led Axis invasion, which was to commence on 6 April. The deployment plan for 2nd Army Group saw the 1st Army in the Bačka region between the Danube and the Tisza, with formations centred around the towns of Sombor, Bačka Topola and Senta, with the 3rd Cavalry Division held in depth, south of the Danube in the Fruška Gora region. The 2nd Army deployment plan saw it in the Baranya and Slavonia regions between Slatina and the Danube, with its formations positioned south of the Drava from just east of Slatina to Valpovo, and around the towns of Osijek and Vinkovci. The Yugoslav historian Velimir Terzić notes that the army group headquarters and headquarters of both armies were still at their mobilisation centres on 6 April, and describes the mobilisation of all formations of the 1st Army Group on 6 April as "only partial", with 80 to 90 percent of men having reported for duty and between 50 and 70 percent of its establishment strength in animals. To the right of the 1st Army Group was the 6th Army, an independent formation that was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav Banat region east of the Tisza. The boundary with the 6th Army ran just to the east of the Tisza to the confluence with the Danube, then south across the Sava through Obrenovac. On the left flank of the 2nd Army Group was the 1st Army Group, which was responsible for the defence of northwestern Yugoslavia, along the Yugoslav–Hungarian border west of Slatina, and the Yugoslav–German and Yugoslav–Italian borders. The army group boundary ran from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka. ## Operations The 2nd Army Group faced the Hungarian 3rd Army across the border, and during the first few days after the commencement of the invasion, there were exchanges of fire with Hungarian border guards, but the Yugoslavs faced no direct attacks along the 2nd Army Group sector. Neither the 2nd Army Group nor the Hungarians were ready for full-scale fighting, as they were still mobilising and deploying their forces. While Nedić was located at the projected headquarters in Bijeljina from 6 April, the operations staff of 2nd Army Group didn't arrived there from Sarajevo until 8 April. On 9 April, due to German successes elsewhere in Yugoslavia, the 6th Army on the right flank of the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw south of the Danube and deploy on a line facing east to defend against an attack from the direction of Sofia, Bulgaria. 2nd Army Group also received orders to withdraw south of the line of the Drava and Danube. 1st Army began to withdraw, and on the same day elements were approaching the Danube crossing. The headquarters of the 2nd Army issued orders to evacuate Baranja and reinforce the left flank. The following day, the situation deteriorated significantly when the German XXXXI Motorised Corps of General der Panzertruppe Georg-Hans Reinhardt crossed the Yugoslav–Romanian border into the Yugoslav Banat and struck the 6th Army, halting its withdrawal and disrupting its ability to organise a coherent defence behind the Danube. Also on 10 April, the main thrust of General der Panzertruppe Heinrich von Vietinghoff's XXXXVI Motorised Corps of the 2nd Army, consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division, crossed the Drava at Barcs in the 4th Army sector. Generalmajor Walter Neumann-Silkow's 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers, and meeting almost no resistance and with strong air support, reached the left flank of the 2nd Army at Slatina by evening, despite poor roads and bad weather. Later that day, as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country, Simović, who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff, broadcast the following message: > All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal. Don't wait for direct orders from above, but act on your own and be guided by your judgement, initiative, and conscience. The bulk of the 1st Army were able to cross the Danube and began to prepare defences, and the 2nd Army was able to evacuate Baranja and organise a defence of the left flank of the 2nd Army Group, now threatened by the 8th Panzer Division, but Croat reservists began to desert their units, significantly reducing the combat power of the 2nd Army. By the evening of 10 April, the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw from these positions and form a defensive line behind the Sava from Debrc to the confluence with the Vrbas river, for which one or two days would be needed. On the night of 10/11 April, the whole 2nd Army Group continued its withdrawal, but units of the 2nd Army on the left flank of the 1st Army that included significant numbers of Croats began to dissolve due to the fifth column activities of the Ustaše and their sympathisers. At dawn on 11 April, Hungarian forces, consisting of the Mobile, IV and V Corps of Altábornagy Elemér Gorondy-Novák's 3rd Army, crossed the Yugoslav border north of Osijek and near Subotica, overcame Yugoslav border guards and advanced on Subotica and Palić. The XXXXVI Motorised Corps continued to push east south of the Drava, with the 8th Panzer Division capturing Našice, Osijek on the Drava, and Vukovar on the Danube, followed by Generalmajor Sigfrid Henrici's 16th Motorised Infantry Division which advanced east of Našice, despite bridge demolitions and poor roads. The 8th Panzer Division had effectively routed the 2nd Army Group by 11 April. On the same day, Messerschmitt Bf 110s of I Group of Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26) destroyed several 1st Air Reconnaissance Group Breguet 19s at Ruma. The rest were flown to Bijeljina, but all of the air reconnaissance assets of the 2nd Army Group were destroyed the following day when I/ZG 26 swept over the airfield in one of the most effective attacks of the campaign. On the night of 11/12 April, the 8th Panzer Division captured Sremska Mitrovica on the Sava at 02:30, destroyed a bridge over the Danube at Bogojevo, and advanced on Lazarevac about 32 kilometres (20 mi) south of Belgrade. These advances delayed the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group south of the Sava. By 12 April, the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group was being threatened from the left flank, and by this time, according to the Polish historian Andrzej Krzak, 2nd Army had "no combat importance at all". On the right flank, 6th Army attempted to regroup while being pressed by the 11th Panzer Division as it drove towards Belgrade. West of Belgrade, remnants of the 2nd Army Group tried to establish a line along the Sava, but XXXXVI Motorised Corps had already captured the bridges. When elements of the 8th Panzer Division captured Zemun without a fight, they captured 1st Army's rear area units. On 12 April, the 1st Army's 3rd Cavalry Division counter-attacked at Šabac and pushed the Germans back across the Sava. The Hungarians pursued the 1st Army south, and occupied the area between the Danube and the Tisza meeting virtually no resistance. Serb Chetnik irregulars fought isolated engagements, and the Hungarian General Staff considered irregular resistance forces to be their only significant opposition. The Hungarian 1st Parachute Battalion captured canal bridges at Vrbas and Srbobran. This, the first airborne operation in Hungarian history, was not without incident. The battalion's aircraft consisted of five Italian-made Savoia-Marchetti SM.75 transport aircraft formerly belonging to the civilian airline MALERT, but pressed into service with the Royal Hungarian Air Force (Hungarian: Magyar Királyi Honvéd Légierő, MKHL) at the start of the European war. Shortly after takeoff from the airport at Veszprém-Jutas on the afternoon of 12 April, the command plane, code E-101, crashed with the loss of 20 or 23 lives, including 19 paratroopers. This was the heaviest single loss suffered by the Hungarians during the Yugoslav campaign. Meanwhile, Sombor was captured against determined Chetnik resistance, and Subotica was also captured. On the evening of 12 April, elements of the SS Motorised Infantry Division Reich, under command of XXXXI Motorised Corps, crossed the Danube in pneumatic boats and captured Belgrade without resistance. About the same time, most of the elements of XXXXVI Motorised Corps that were approaching Belgrade from the west were redirected away from the capital, but part of the 8th Panzer Division continued their thrust to capture the Sava bridges to the west of Belgrade, and entered the city during the night. The rest of the 8th Panzer Division turned southeast and drove towards Valjevo to link up with the left flank of the First Panzer Group southwest of Belgrade. The 16th Motorised Infantry Division was redirected south across the Sava, and advanced toward Zvornik. ## Fate On 13 April, the Hungarians occupied Baranja without resistance, and pushed south through Bačka to reach the line of Novi Sad and the Great Bačka Canal. Early on 14 April, the remnants of 2nd Army Group continued to fight against the 8th Panzer Division and 16th Motorised Infantry Division along the Sava. On 14 and 15 April, tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during their drive on Sarajevo in the centre of the country, including 30,000 around Zvornik and 6,000 around Doboj. On 15 April, the 8th and 14th Panzer Divisions entered Sarajevo. After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document, the Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12:00 on 18 April.

Königsberg-class cruiser (1915)

Class of light cruisers of the German Imperial Navy

The Königsberg class of light cruisers was a group of four ships commissioned into Germany's Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) shortly before the end of World War I. The class comprised Königsberg, Karlsruhe, Emden, and Nürnberg, all of which were named after light cruisers lost earlier in the war. The ships were an incremental improvement over the preceding Wiesbaden-class cruisers, and were armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns and had a designed speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). Königsberg and Nürnberg saw action at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight, where Königsberg was hit by a shell from the battlecruiser Repulse. Three of the four ships were to participate in a climactic fleet operation to attack the British Grand Fleet in the final days of the war, but revolts in the fleet forced the cancellation of the plan. Karlsruhe, Emden, and Nürnberg were interned at Scapa Flow after the end of the war, and were scuttled on 21 June 1919, though only Karlsruhe was successfully sunk. The other two ships were beached by British sailors and ceded to the Allies. Königsberg was transferred to the French Navy as a war prize and commissioned as Metz; she served with the French Navy until the 1930s, when she was broken up for scrap. ## Design The design for the Königsbergs was prepared in 1913. The design was an incremental improvement over the previous Wiesbaden class, with a larger hull and greater displacement, but with the same armament, speed, and armor protection. By 1916, thirteen German light cruisers had been lost in the course of World War I; after they were commissioned, the ships of the Königsberg class took the names of four of these lost cruisers. Königsberg was ordered as Ersatz Gazelle and laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1914. She was launched on 18 December 1915 and commissioned eight months later on 12 August 1916. Emden, ordered as Ersatz Nymphe, followed her sister at AG Weser, also in 1914. She was launched on 1 February 1916 and commissioned into the fleet on 16 December 1916. Karlsruhe was ordered as Ersatz Niobe and laid down in 1915 at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Dockyard) in Kiel. Launching ceremonies took place on 31 January 1916, and after fitting-out work was completed, she was commissioned on 15 November 1916. The last ship of the class, Nürnberg, was laid down as Ersatz Thetis at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel in 1915. She was launched on 14 April 1916 and commissioned on 15 February 1917. In addition to providing the basis for the follow-on Cöln-class cruisers, the Königsberg design was also the starting point for the light cruiser Emden built by the Reichsmarine in the 1920s, since blueprints for Karlsruhe were still available. This was a result of personnel shortages in the design staff and the closure of the Navy's Ship Testing Institute, which prevented the development of a new design. ### General characteristics and machinery The ships of the class were 145.80 meters (478 ft 4 in) long at the waterline and 151.40 m (496 ft 9 in) long overall. They had a beam of 14.20 m (46 ft 7 in) and a draft of 5.96 m (19 ft 7 in) forward and 6.32 m (20 ft 9 in) aft. The ships had a designed displacement of 5,440 metric tons (5,350 long tons), and at full combat load, they displaced 7,125 t (7,012 long tons). Their hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames. The hulls were divided into eighteen watertight compartments and incorporated a double bottom that extended for forty-five percent of the length of the keel. The ships had a complement of 17 officers and 458 enlisted men. They carried several smaller vessels, including one picket boat, one barge, one cutter, two yawls, and two dinghies. The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats, having gentle motion. The ships were highly maneuverable and had a tight turning radius, but lost speed going into a turn. In hard turns, they lost up to sixty percent speed. The ships were also stern-heavy. The propulsion systems for Königsberg, Emden, and Nürnberg consisted of two steam turbines, while Karlsruhe was outfitted with two sets of high-pressure geared turbines. The turbines for all four ships were powered by ten coal-fired boilers and two oil-fired double-ended boilers. The turbines drove a pair of three-bladed screws, which were 3.50 m (11 ft 6 in) in diameter. The engines were rated at 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW) for a top speed of 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph). On trials, Königsberg reached 45,900 shp (34,200 kW) and a top speed of 27.8 knots (51.5 km/h; 32.0 mph), while Karlsruhe made 55,700 shp (41,500 kW) and 27.7 knots (51.3 km/h; 31.9 mph). Emden reached 50,216 shp (37,446 kW) and 27.7 kn; Nürnberg's trials figures are not recorded. The trials were conducted in shallow water due to the war; in deep water, the ships would have exceeded 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph). Coal storage was 350 t (340 long tons; 390 short tons) as designed, though up to 1,340 t (1,320 long tons; 1,480 short tons) could be carried. Fuel oil was initially 150 t (150 long tons; 170 short tons), and could be similarly increased to 500 t (490 long tons; 550 short tons). At a cruising speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), the ships could steam for approximately 4,850 nautical miles (8,980 km; 5,580 mi). At a higher speed of 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph), the range fell considerably, to 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi). Electrical power was provided by two turbo generators and one diesel generator, with a total output of 300 kilowatts at 220 volts. Steering was controlled by a single, large rudder. ### Armament and armor The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, four were located amidships, two on either side, and two were arranged in a superfiring pair aft. These guns fired a 45.3-kilogram (100 lb) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second (2,800 ft/s). The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees, which allowed them to engage targets out to 17,600 m (19,200 yd). They were supplied with 1,040 rounds of ammunition, for 130 shells per gun. The ships also carried two 8.8 cm (3.5 in) L/45 anti-aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels. These guns fired a 10 kg (22 lb) shells at a muzzle velocity of 750 to 770 m/s (2,500 to 2,500 ft/s). She was also equipped with four 50 cm (19.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, two in deck-mounted swivel launchers and two submerged in the ships' hulls. The ships were also outfitted to carry up to 200 mines. The Königsberg-class ships were protected by an armored belt composed of Krupp cemented steel. It was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick amidships and 18 mm (0.71 in) forward. The stern was not protected by armor. The armored deck was 20 mm (0.79 in) thick in the stern, 40 mm (1.6 in) thick amidships, and 60 mm thick forward. Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck and belt armor. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides and a 20 mm thick roof. The main battery guns were protected with 50 mm (2 in) thick gun shields. A 20 mm thick deck and 30 mm thick side armor protected the mine hold. ## Service history On 17 November 1917, Königsberg and Nürnberg saw action at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight. Along with two other cruisers from II Scouting Group and the dreadnought battleships Kaiser and Kaiserin, Königsberg and Nürnberg escorted minesweepers clearing paths in minefields laid by the British. During the engagement, the battlecruiser HMS Repulse scored a hit on Königsberg, which did minimal damage but started a serious fire. The British broke off the attack when the German battleships arrived on the scene, after which the Germans also withdrew. All four ships participated in Operation Albion, an amphibious operation against the islands in the Gulf of Riga. Emden served as the flagship for the Leader of Torpedoboats, while the other three ships were assigned to II Scouting Group. In October 1918, three of the ships and the rest of II Scouting Group were to lead a final attack on the British navy. Königsberg Cöln, Dresden, and Pillau were to attack merchant shipping in the Thames estuary while Karlsruhe, Nürnberg, and Graudenz were to bombard targets in Flanders, to draw out the British Grand Fleet. Großadmiral Reinhard Scheer, the commander in chief of the fleet, intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy, in order to secure a better bargaining position for Germany, whatever the cost to the fleet. On the morning of 29 October 1918, the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day. Starting on the night of 29 October, sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied. The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation. When informed of the situation, the Kaiser stated, "I no longer have a navy." Following the Armistice that ended the fighting, Königsberg took Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer to Scapa Flow to negotiate with Admiral David Beatty, the commander of the Grand Fleet, for the place of internment of the German fleet. The accepted arrangement was for the High Seas Fleet to meet the combined Allied fleet in the North Sea and proceed to the Firth of Forth before transferring to Scapa Flow, where they would be interned. Most of the High Seas Fleet's ships, including Karlsruhe, Emden, and Nürnberg, were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow, under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter. Königsberg instead remained in Germany. The unruly crew of Friedrich der Grosse, the fleet flagship, forced Reuter to transfer to Emden, where a Sailors' Council cooperated with the ship's captain to run the ship. The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty. Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919, which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty. Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd, Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity. On the morning of 21 June, the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers, and at 11:20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships. Karlsruhe sank at 15:50; the rights to salvaging the ship were sold in 1962. She has not been raised for scrapping, however. Emden was boarded by British sailors who beached her before she could be completely sunk. After being refloated, she was ceded to France and used as a test ship for explosives before being broken up in 1926. Nürnberg was also beached by British sailors. She was eventually sunk off the Isle of Wight as a gunnery target. Königsberg was meanwhile stricken from the naval register on 20 July 1920 and ceded to France. She was renamed Metz and served with the French Navy until 1933. She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1936.

1968 European Cup final

Football match at Wembley Stadium, London

The 1968 European Cup final was the final match of the 1967–68 European Cup, the premier club football competition in Europe. It was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England, on 29 May 1968 between Benfica of Portugal and Manchester United of England in front of a crowd of 92,225. Both teams had to go through four rounds of two-legged knockout ties to reach the final; it was Benfica's fifth European Cup final, two of which they had won, and Manchester United's first. Both sides went close in a goalless first half, before Manchester United took the lead from Bobby Charlton's header eight minutes into the second; however, Jaime Graça's 79th-minute equaliser meant the match went into extra time. Manchester United then scored three times in seven minutes in the extra period; the first was a solo goal from George Best, followed by a header from Brian Kidd on his 19th birthday. Charlton scored his second in the 99th minute, as Manchester United triumphed 4–1 to become the first English club to win the European Cup. ## Background The European Cup, now known as the UEFA Champions League, is a club football tournament contested by the best teams across Europe. The competition was first played in 1955–56. Neither Benfica nor Manchester United participated in the inaugural tournament, which was by invitation only; although Benfica had won the 1954–55 Primeira Divisão title, Sporting CP had already been invited. In 1968, only the league champion from each country qualified. Benfica reached the European Cup final for the first time in 1961, when they beat Barcelona 3–2. The following year, Benfica defended their title, coming from behind to beat Real Madrid 5–3 in the final. Benfica were losing finalists twice more over the next three years, losing to AC Milan in 1963 and Inter Milan in 1965. Manchester United had never previously reached a European Cup final. They had been losing semi-finalists in both the 1956–57 and 1957–58 competitions. In February 1958, the team were returning from Belgrade having eliminated Red Star Belgrade in the quarter-finals when eight of their players were killed and two more suffered career-ending injuries in the Munich air disaster. Despite not qualifying, they were invited by UEFA to play in the following season's European Cup, but were forced to withdraw by the English Football Association. They returned to the competition in 1965–66, when they faced Benfica for the first time in the quarter-finals. Manchester United won 8–3 on aggregate, but were eliminated in the semi-final. ## Route to the final ### Benfica Benfica entered the tournament as champions of Portugal, having won the 1966–67 Primeira Divisão. They faced Glentoran of Northern Ireland in the first round, travelling to Belfast for the first leg. Glentoran took the lead from a John Colrain penalty in the 10th minute, before Eusébio equalised in the 86th minute, and it finished 1–1. In the second leg, the two sides played out a goalless draw, which resulted in Benfica qualifying for the second round on the away goals rule. In the next round, they were drawn against Saint-Étienne of France. A goal from José Augusto in the 29th minute and a penalty from Eusébio in the 60th helped Benfica to a 2–0 home victory in the first leg. In France, Saint-Étienne won the second leg 1–0 via a 10th-minute goal from Georges Bereta. Despite losing the match, Benfica progressed 2–1 on aggregate. In the quarter-finals, Benfica played out a goalless draw with Hungarian side Vasas in their away leg. Returning to Portugal for the second leg, the first half also remained goalless, before two goals from Eusébio and another from José Torres made it 3–0 to Benfica, and secured their place in the semi-final, where they faced Juventus of Italy. Benfica played the first leg at home, and once again strikes from Eusébio and Torres helped them to victory; each scored during the second half to give their team a 2–0 lead in the tie. In the second leg, The Guardian reported that Benfica were "technically superior, although Juventus maintained aggressive play." A Eusébio goal in 66th minute extended Benfica's advantage in the tie to 3–0, and secured them a place in the final. ### Manchester United Manchester United qualified for the competition as champions of England, having won the 1966–67 Football League First Division. They faced Maltese side Hibernians in the first round and won 4–0 in the home first leg; David Sadler and Denis Law scored two goals each. Despite the wide margin of victory, Brian Crowther of The Guardian described their play as disappointing. In the second leg, United suffered a "sad succession of near misses", according to a correspondent for The Guardian, as they struggled to adapt to the sandy pitch and the match finished as a goalless draw. They were drawn against FK Sarajevo of Yugoslavia in the second round, who were appearing in the competition for the first time. Playing the first leg away from home, Manchester United narrowly avoided going behind in the 27th minute, needing a goal-line save to prevent a shot from Vahidin Musemić going in. Despite playing against 10 men for most of the match after Boško Prodanović had to go off injured, United were not able to score, and it finished 0–0. John Aston gave United an early lead in the second leg, which was extended by George Best in the second half. Despite a late goal for Sarajevo from Salih Delalić, United held on to win 2–1 and progress to the quarter-finals. United played the first leg of their quarter-final against Polish champions Górnik Zabrze at home. In the 60th minute, a shot by Best was deflected into his own net by Górnik defender Stefan Florenski. In the dying minutes of the game, Jimmy Ryan shot into a melee of players in the penalty area, including Brian Kidd, who backheeled the ball into the goal to make it 2–0. Playing on a snow-covered pitch in the second leg, Manchester United were forced to defend for most of the match, but only conceded once, when Włodzimierz Lubański scored in the 72nd minute. Despite losing the match 1–0, Manchester United progressed 2–1 on aggregate. United faced six-time European Cup winners Real Madrid in the semi-final. Despite dominating the first leg at home, a single goal from Best in the 36th minute separated the sides, and they took a 1–0 lead into the second leg. In Madrid, the hosts took the lead in the 32nd minute, with a headed goal from Pirri. In the last few minutes of the first half, three more goals were scored; Francisco Gento made it 2–0 to Madrid, then an own goal from Ignacio Zoco brought the gap back to one goal, before Amancio scored to make it 3–1 at half-time. Sustained pressure from United in the second half brought a goal for Sadler in the 73rd minute, which brought the aggregate score level. Five minutes later, Bill Foulkes added a third for Manchester United. The match finished 3–3; United won the tie 4–3 on aggregate to reach the European Cup final for the first time. ## Pre-match The press rated Manchester United as favourites for the final. In The Guardian, Albert Barham suggested that Benfica were an aging team, and that "the old skills seem to be declining". He rated them as less dangerous than they had been when United beat them two years prior. Hugh McIlvanney of The Observer noted that although he believed United should be rated as favourites, some of their team were "undeniably ordinary players", and they had "an alarming vulnerability in defence" and "an excessive dependence on one or two men in attack." The Lisbon-based newspaper A Bola reported after United's semi-final victory that "a meeting with Manchester is the worst thing that could have happened." Manchester United had fitness concerns regarding Nobby Stiles, who had been suffering from a bruised knee, but he recovered in time to be included in the squad. Law underwent surgery on his knee on the Saturday preceding the final, and remained in hospital for the match. Manchester United stayed in Surrey for two nights before the match, and the day before, United named an unchanged team from their semi-final second leg victory over Real Madrid. Benfica stayed at the Saxon Inn in Harlow, Essex, and also named an unchanged team from their semi-final win over Juventus. The two teams had uneven allocations of tickets; Benfica requested 10,000, compared to the 30,000 for which Manchester United asked. The demand for tickets far outstripped the supply. The Benfica management estimated that a further 1,000 of their fans travelled to London without a ticket, while 10,000 Manchester United fans had bought tickets on general sale before the quarter-finals. On the Monday prior to the match, standing tickets originally priced at 10 shillings were selling on the black market for £7, while seats which had been £2 were £20. ## Match ### Summary The final was played at Wembley Stadium in London on 29 May 1968 and kicked off at 19:45 BST in front of a crowd of 92,225; in addition, there was an estimated European television audience of 250 million. The referee was Concetto Lo Bello of Italy. Manchester United had the best of the play in the first half, but aggressive defence from Benfica prevented them from making a breakthrough. According to Eric Todd of The Guardian, Best was knocked down six times in the first half; three each by Fernando Cruz and Humberto, the latter of whom was cautioned in the 20th minute. In the 28th minute, Kidd passed the ball to Sadler, 10 yards from goal, but he shot wide. Benfica's three best chances on goal in the first half all came from Eusébio; the first was from a free kick, which deflected off the wall and drew a save from United goalkeeper Alex Stepney. Another free kick was struck high over the goal, before he hit the crossbar, having beaten Stepney with what Todd described as "the best shot of the first half". Aston had two shots early in the second half, both saved by the Benfica goalkeeper, José Henrique. Eight minutes into the second half, Tony Dunne passed the ball to Sadler, who lobbed the ball into the Benfica area; Bobby Charlton jumped and headed the ball into the goal to give United a 1–0 lead. In the 79th minute, Augusto and Torres set up a goal for Jaime Graça, levelling the score at 1–1. In the last five minutes of normal time, Eusébio had two chances on goal, drawing saves from Stepney, who was applauded for his efforts by the Portuguese forward. The score remained at 1–1 until the end of normal time, forcing the match into extra time. In the third minute of the additional period, Stepney took a long goal kick, which was headed on by Kidd, and collected by Best; he dribbled the ball past the defence, and then around the goalkeeper, before rolling the ball into an empty net. Two minutes later, a header from Sadler was saved by Henrique, but the rebound came to Kidd, who headed it in to give United a 3–1 lead. United continued to dominate play, and had another shot that hit the bar. Charlton completed the scoring in the ninth minute of extra time, converting a pass from Kidd to make it 4–1. ### Details ## Post-match United's win meant that they became the first English team to win the European Cup, a year after Celtic of Scotland had become the first British team to do so. The win also marked the culmination of Manchester United's 10 years of rebuilding after the Munich air disaster; two of the team, Charlton and Foulkes, were survivors of the crash. As European Cup champions, Manchester United contested the 1968 Intercontinental Cup against Estudiantes, winners of the 1968 Copa Libertadores. Manchester United lost the tie, 2–1 on aggregate. Both Benfica and Manchester United competed in the European Cup again in 1968–69: Benfica were eliminated in the quarter-finals by Ajax, while Manchester United reached the semi-finals, where they were beaten by AC Milan. ## See also - Manchester United F.C. in European football - S.L. Benfica in international football

Białystok

Białystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is the tenth-largest city in Poland, second in terms of population density, and thirteenth in area. Białystok is located in the Białystok Uplands of the Podlachian Plain on the banks of the Biała River, 200 km (124 mi) by road northeast of Warsaw. It has historically attracted migrants from elsewhere in Poland and beyond, particularly from Central and Eastern Europe. This is facilitated by the nearby border with Belarus also being the eastern border of the European Union, as well as the Schengen Area. The city and its adjacent municipalities constitute Metropolitan Białystok. The city has a warm summer continental climate, characterized by warm summers and long frosty winters. Forests are an important part of Białystok's character and occupy around 1,846 ha (4,560 acres) (18% of the administrative area of the city) which places it as the fifth-most forested city in Poland. The first settlers arrived in the 14th century. A town grew up and received its municipal charter in 1692. Białystok has traditionally been one of the leading centers of academic, cultural, and artistic life in Podlachia, and the most important economic center in northeastern Poland. Białystok was once an important center for light industry, which was the reason for the substantial growth of the city's population. The city continues to reshape itself into a modern middle-sized city. Białystok, in 2010, was on the short-list, but ultimately lost the competition, to become a finalist for European Capital of Culture in 2016. ## Etymology Although nowadays "stok" is translated as "slope", the initial name of the settlement came from the river flowing through it. In old Polish, biały stok was a clean, swift river (biały - clean, stok - stream; river that "slides" down the slope). So inconspicuous today, the Biała River (usually called Białka), flowing through the city center, gave it its name. Due to changing borders and demographics over the centuries, the city has been known as Belarusian: Беласток (Byelastok^?, Biełastok^? ), Yiddish: ביאַליסטאָק (Byalistok, Bjalistok), Lithuanian: Balstogė, and Russian: Белосток (Belostok, Byelostok). ## History Archaeological discoveries show that the first settlements in the area of present-day Białystok occurred during the Stone Age. Tombs of ancient settlers can be found in the district of Dojlidy. In the early Iron Age, people settled in the area producing kurgans, the tombs of the chiefs in the area located in the current village of Rostołty. Since then, the Białystok area has been at the crossroads of cultures. Trade routes linking the Baltic to the Black Sea favored the development of settlements with Yotvingia-Ruthenian-Polish cultural characteristics. The city of Białystok has existed for five centuries and during this time the fate of the city has been affected by various political and economic forces. Surviving documents attest that around 1437 a representative of the Raczków family, Jakub Tabutowicz of the coat of arms Łabędź, received from Michael Žygimantaitis son of Sigismund Kęstutaitis, Duke of Lithuania, a wilderness area along the river Biała that marked the beginning of Białystok as a settlement. Białystok administratively was part of the Podlaskie Voivodeship, after 1569 also part of the Lesser Poland Province of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. From 1547, the settlement was owned by the Wiesiołowski family, which founded the first school. The first brick church and a castle were built between 1617 and 1826. The two-floor castle, designed on a rectangular plan in the Gothic-Renaissance style, was the work of Job Bretfus^[pl]. Extension of the castle was continued by Krzysztof Wiesiołowski, starost of Tykocin, Grand Marshal of Lithuania since 1635, and husband of Aleksandra Marianna Sobieska. In 1637 he died childless, and as a result, Białystok came under the management of his widow. After her death in 1645 the Wiesiołowski estate, including Białystok, passed to the Crown to cover the costs of maintaining Tykocin Castle. In the years 1645–1659 Białystok was managed by the starosts of Tykocin. In 1661 it was given to Stefan Czarniecki as a reward for his service in the victory over the Swedes during the Deluge. Four years later, it was given as a dowry of his daughter Aleksandra, who married Marshal of the Crown Court Jan Klemens Branicki, thus passing into the hands of the Branicki family. In 1692, Stefan Mikołaj Branicki [pl], the son of Jan Klemens Branicki, obtained city rights for Białystok from King John III Sobieski. He constructed the Branicki Palace on the foundations of the castle of the Wiesiołowski family. In the first half of the eighteenth century the ownership of the city was inherited by Field Crown Hetman Jan Klemens Branicki. It was he who transformed the palace built by his father into a magnificent residence of a great noble, which was frequently visited by Polish kings and poets. In 1745 the first military technical school in Poland was founded in Białystok, and in 1748, one of the oldest theaters in Poland, the Komedialnia, was founded in the city. New schools were established, including a ballet school in connection with the foundation of the theater. In 1749, King Augustus III of Poland extended the city limits. In 1770, under the auspices of Izabella Poniatowska, a midwifery school was founded, based on which the Institute of Obstetrics was established in 1805. The end of the eighteenth century saw the division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in three steps, among the neighboring states. The Kingdom of Prussia acquired Białystok and the surrounding region during the third partition. The city became the capital of the New East Prussia province in 1795. Prussia lost the territory following Napoleon Bonaparte's victory in the War of the Fourth Coalition as the resultant 1807 Treaties of Tilsit awarded the area to the Russian Empire, which organized the region into the Belostok Oblast, with the city as the regional center. Schooling and higher learning in Białystok, which was intensively developed in the 18th century, was stopped as a result of partitions. Białystok received city rights at the latest from all the cities of Podlasie, but at the end of the 19th century it outgrown all the surrounding cities. The rapid development in the nineteenth century is related to two historical events: the creation of a customs border between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland, and the opening in 1862 of the Warsaw Saint Petersburg railway line, connecting Białystok with Warsaw, Grodno, Wilno and Saint Petersburg. Very convenient communication conditions influenced the development and concentration of Białystok's production plants at that time. Along with the administrative function, Białystok received many economic institutions. In the second half of the 19th century, Białystok grew into a significant center of the textile industry, the largest after Łódź in then-partitioned Poland. After the failed November and January uprisings, Russification policies and anti-Polish repressions intensified, and after 1870 a ban on the use of Polish in public places was introduced. In 1912, a Tsarist prison was built, which also served as a transit prison for Poles deported to Siberia. At the end of the nineteenth century, as a result of the influx due to Russian discriminatory regulations, the majority of the city's population was Jewish. According to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 66,000, Jews constituted 41,900 (so around 63% percent). This heritage can be seen on the Jewish Heritage Trail in Białystok. The Białystok pogrom occurred between 14 and 16 June 1906 in the city. During the pogrom between 81 and 88 Jews were killed by the Russians, and about 80 people were wounded. The first anarchist groups to attract a significant following of Russian workers or peasants were the anarcho-communist Chernoe-Znamia groups, founded in Białystok in 1903. During World War I the Bialystok-Grodno District was the administrative division of German-controlled territory of Ober-Ost. It comprised the city, as the capital, and the surrounding Podlaskie region, roughly corresponding to the territory of the earlier Belostok Oblast. At the end of World War I the city became part of the newly independent Second Polish Republic, as the capital of the Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939). During the 1919–1920 Polish–Soviet War, possession of the city by the Red Army and the Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee occurred during the lead up to the Battle of Warsaw. During the resultant counteroffensive, the city returned to Polish control after the Battle of Białystok. After the wars and the reestablishment of independent Poland, Polish education in Białystok was restored and the textile industry was revived. A municipal public library was established, sports clubs were founded, including Jagiellonia Białystok, and in the 1930s a drama theater was built. With the beginning of World War II, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Initially Białystok was briefly occupied by Germany, and the German Einsatzgruppe IV entered the city on September 20–21, 1939 to commit crimes against the population. Afterwards, the Germans handed the city over to the Soviet Union, as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Under Soviet occupation, it was incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR from 1939 to 1941 as the capital of Belastok Region. Polish people were subject to deportations deep into the USSR (Siberia, Kazakhstan, Far North). Pre-war mayor Seweryn Nowakowski was arrested by the NKVD in October 1939 and probably also deported to the USSR, however his fate remains unknown. The NKVD took over the local prison. The Polish resistance movement was active in the city, which was the seat of one of the six main commands of the Union of Armed Struggle in occupied Poland (alongside Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Toruń and Lwów). Białystok native and future President of Poland in exile Ryszard Kaczorowski was a member of the local Polish resistance and was arrested in the city by the NKVD in 1940. Initially the Soviets sentenced him to death, but eventually he was sentenced to 10 years in forced labor camps and deported to Kolyma, from where he was released in 1942, when he joined the Anders' Army. In the course of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Białystok was occupied by the German Army on 27 June 1941, during the Battle of Białystok–Minsk, and the city became the capital of Bezirk Białystok, a separate region in German occupied Poland, until 1944. The Great Synagogue was burnt down by Germans on June 27, 1941, with an estimated number of 2,000 Jews inside. From the very beginning, the Nazis pursued a ruthless policy of pillage and removal of the non-German population. The Germans operated a Nazi prison in the city, and a forced labour camp for Jewish men. Since 1943, the Sicherheitspolizei carried out deportations of Poles including teenage boys from the local prison to the Stutthof concentration camp. The 56,000 Jewish residents of the town were confined in a ghetto. On August 15, 1943, the Białystok Ghetto Uprising began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the Anti-Fascist Military Organisation (Polish: Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation of the ghetto with deportations to the Treblinka extermination camp. The city fell under the control of the Red Army on 27 July 1944. The Soviets carried out mass arrests of Polish resistance members in the city and region, and imprisoned them in Białystok. On 20 September 1944 the city was transferred back to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s, and the Soviet NKVD and SMERSH continued the persecution of the Polish resistance in the following months. From November 1944 to January 1945, the Russians deported nearly 5,000 Poles from the local prison to the Soviet Union. Later on, the Soviet-appointed communists held political prisoners and other members of the Polish resistance in the local prison, and until 1956, they also carried out burials of executed Polish resistance members there. After the war, the city became capital of the initial Białystok Voivodeship (1945–1975) of the People's Republic of Poland. After the 1975 administrative reorganization, the city was the capital of the smaller Białystok Voivodeship (1975–1998). Since 1999 it has been the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship, Republic of Poland. ## Geography Białystok is situated in the Białystok Uplands (Polish: Wysoczyzna Białostocka) of the Podlaskie Plain (Polish: Nizina Północnopodlaska), part of what is known collectively as the Green Lungs of Poland. It is situated 197 kilometres (122 mi) by road northeast of Warsaw. It is the biggest Polish city close to Belarus and Lithuania. The Biała River, a left tributary of the Supraśl River, passes through the city. The landscape of the Białystok Upland is diverse, with high moraine hills and kame in excess of 200 m (660 ft) above sea level. Vast areas of outwash, a glacial plain formed of sediments deposited by meltwater at the terminus of a glacier, are covered by forests. The highest point of the city lies at a height of 175 m (574 ft) on the Pietrasze Forest. The lowest point lies at a height of 118 m (387 ft) on the river valley of the Biała. Forests are an important part of the city character, they currently occupy approximately 1,846 ha (4,560 acres) (18% of the administrative area of the city) which places it as the fifth most "wooded" city in Poland; behind Katowice (38%), Bydgoszcz (30%), Toruń (22.9%) and Gdańsk (17.6%). Part of Knyszyn Forest is preserved within the city limits by two nature reserves—a total area of 105 ha (260 acres). The Zwierzyniecki Forest Nature Reserve (Polish: Rezerwat przyrody Las Zwierzyniecki), which is contained within the city limits, is a fragment, 33.48 ha (82.7 acres), of the riparian forest with a dominant assemblage of oak and hornbeam. The Antoniuk Nature Reserve (Polish: Rezerwat Przyrody Antoniuk) is a 70.07 ha (173.1 acres) park in the city that preserves the natural state of a forest fragment characteristic of the Białystok Upland, with a dominant mixed forest of hazel and spruce. The 40 ha (99 acres) of forests lying in the vicinity of the Dojlidy Ponds are administered by the Białystok Central Sports and Recreation Center(Polish: Białostocki Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji – BOSiR). The Dojlidy Ponds recreation area includes a public beach, walking trails, birdwatching and fishing. ### Climate The city has a warm-summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Dfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system under the 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm for the average temperature of the coldest month, or an oceanic climate (Cfb) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used. The city would have been classified as being in the Dfb zone regardless of the accepted isotherm for climatological normals as recent as 1981–2010, but as a consequence of climate change, the winters have warmed up so that the climate in the city may be classified as oceanic. Białystok is one of the coldest cities in Poland by annual temperature and one with the climate having the most continental characteristics, as is the case for much of north-eastern Poland, with the mean yearly temperature of 7.7 °C (46 °F) and the length of the growing season amounting to 205 days, shorter than elsewhere in Poland. While winters are rather mild compared to other cities on the similar latitude, such as Samara, Barnaul, or Edmonton, they are colder than in Western Europe (in cities like Bremen and Dublin). Winters usually have little sunshine, with weather patterns changing from those influenced by the low-pressure systems generated by the Icelandic Low (when the weather is often cloudy, cool, damp, rainy and/or snowy) to the occasional intrusions of cold air masses from Siberia or the Arctic (Siberian High), which, due to the city's northeasterly location, are more frequent than in other parts of Poland. Winters thus tend to be several degrees colder than elsewhere in Poland. Freezing conditions below −20 °C (−4 °F) are possible in winter but are rare. Snow cover is present on the ground for more than half of winter. Summers tend to be warm, sunny and pleasant and are occasionally hot, but they are still a little cooler than in most of Poland. More rain falls in summer months than in any other period of the year. The centre of Białystok, as most urban areas, experiences the urban heat island effect, therefore for most of the time, the city is warmer than the surrounding countryside. The temperatures in the city centre are, on average, 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) higher than in the surrounding villages, with greater differences at night and during the warmer half of the year, particularly in spring. ### Urban layout Bialystok is roughly circular, centered around the old city Church Square and Branicki Palace. Originally, the city's territory was about 50 hectares. The communication system serving the entire city was made of streets radiating out from the central market square. An inventory plan made by Becker in 1799 was needed by the Prussian authorities in connection with the negotiations on the acquisition of Białystok for a royal residence. The plan is of fundamental importance as it shows the development of the city in the first period of its creation. The area of the city did not exceed 1.5 km2, and the population was approx. 3.5 thousand. The entire urban area was closed with 6 loose-fitting gates and buildings situated on regular plots. Compact buildings were found only in the market square, the frontages of which were 1- 2-storey buildings with brick front elevations. Choroska and Zamkowa Streets were built up with only brick houses. The city was dominated by the palace complex, which, together with the park, covered an area equal to the city's investment areas. The residence palace was designed on a European scale and created new development opportunities for Białystok. After the First World War, the first attempts were made to organize the city, which had so far developed without plans - between the palace grounds and arable land. At the request of the Association of Polish Cities, in the years 1938-1939 a general urban concept of the city was created by Ignacy Tłoczek. The plan called for the creation of new communication routes, relieve the center, demolish the Chanajki district, create a housing estate and connect with it the unique green areas around the city with new tree plantings. The Second World War prevented the comprehensive implementation of this plan. As a result of war damage, many buildings partially or completely destroyed, especially at the city center. The reconstruction of the town began with the restoration of the activity of textile factories. It was conditioned by the desire to improve the economic situation of the city as quickly as possible. The average height of buildings in the city is not high. The center is dominated by buildings not exceeding 25 meters in height, and the outskirts of the city are mainly occupied by low-rise single-family houses. Taller buildings dominate in two residential districts. They are the districts of Piasta (located to the south of the city center) and the Dziesięciny estate (located to the northwest of the city center). Dominants in Białystok are located mainly in the center and they are also there located two most important city icons: the Church of St. Roch and the Parish Church, which are on one axis. Each of the districts also has its dominant, which is usually a church or an Orthodox church. The most important space in the city is Kościuszko Square - the main square in the shape of a triangle. The space is delimited by two axes, one is part of the axis connecting the two largest churches, and the other runs towards the west of the Center district along Suraska Street and ends at Młynowa Street. An important spatial arrangement in Białystok is the Branicki Palace complex. The baroque layout of the palace complex is symmetrically shaped according to one compositional axis with a coherent garden layout. Throughout the years it expanded to include nearby villages: In the mid-eighteenth century Bojary which was located on the right bank of the Biala River was incorporated to it. On May 10, 1919, in accordance with the decision of the Sejm, Bialostoczek, Horodniany, Zwierzyniec-Letnisko, Starosielce, Słoboda (which was founded at the end of the 17th century, between the current Pogodna and Świerkowa Streets), Ogrodniki, Pieczurki, Wysoki Stoczek were incorporated also, as well as two mill villages Marczuk and Antoniuk. By the onset of World War II the city's territory amounted to 40 km². The reconstruction of the city following the end of World War II and establishment of the People's Republic of Poland saw further expansion: the villages Bacieczki, Bacieczki Kolonia, Korycin and part of the village Klepacze, Krupniki, Fasty, Zaścianki and Zawady were incorporated into the city. The 70s saw another wave of expansion with the villages of Bagnówka, area of Zakłady Silikatowe, areas of state forests, Dojlidy ponds and the orthodox cemetery at Dojlidy. At the onset of the millennium, in 2002, the village Zawady was included in the city's limits and at the last enlargement, in 2006, the villages Dojlidy Górne, Zagórki and Kolonia Halickie were incorporated and the city reached its current territory of 102 km². ## Districts The city of Białystok is divided into 29 administrative units, known in Polish as osiedla. The first 27 of these were created on October 25, 2004. The 28th, Dojlidy Górne, was created by on October 23, 2006, out of three settlements which had been incorporated into the city: Dojlidy Górne, Kolonia Halickie, and Zagórki. A new district called Bagnówka was created at the beginning of 2021. The center of the city, Osiedle Centrum, surrounds Lipowa Street, the main street of the city. Lipowa Street extends from Rynek Kościuszki (the corner of Spółdzielcza Street) to Plac Niepodległości im. Romana Dmowskiego (the corner of Krakowska Street). Over the centuries the name of this street has taken on a number of different names; Choroska, Nowolipie, Lipowa, Józef Piłsudski, Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, once again, to return, after the end of World War II, to its original name – Lipowa Street. The city covers 10,213 ha (25,240 acres) of which 3,210 ha (7,900 acres) is agricultural land, 4,889 ha (12,080 acres) is urbanized areas, 85 ha (210 acres) is surface waters and 65 ha (160 acres) is wasteland. The composition of the districts vary from residential near the city center, with a combination of multi-story apartment buildings and individual houses on small parcels, to industrial and agricultural at the city edges. ## Metropolitan Białystok Metropolitan Białystok was designated by the Voivodeship of the Regulation No. 52/05 of 16 May 2005 to help develop the region economically. In 2006, the metropolitan area population was 450,254 inhabitants. The municipalities adjacent to Białystok are slowly losing their agricultural character, becoming residential suburban neighborhoods with single-family housing and small businesses. ## Demographics In June 2020, the population of the city was 296,958. Among the cities of Poland, Białystok is second in terms of population density, tenth in population, and thirteenth in area. Historically, Białystok has been a destination for internal and foreign immigration, especially from Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to the Polish minority, there was formerly a Jewish majority in Białystok. The Jewish share in the population of Białystok grew from 22.4% (761) in 1765 to 66.6% (6,000) in 1808 and 76% (47,783) in 1895. According to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 66,000, Jews constituted 41,900 (around 63% percent). According to the German census of 1916, Jews comprised about 72% of the inhabitants (no less than 40,000). The demographic situation changed due to the influx of Polish repatriants, intelligentsia and civil servants, the outflow of Jews, and the enlargement of the city after the World War I. According to the 1931 census, the population of Białystok totalled 91,101: 45.5% (41,493) Roman Catholics, 43% (39,165) Jews (by religion), and 8.2% (7,502) Eastern Orthodox believers. In 1936, Białystok had a population of 99,722, of whom: 50.9% (50,758) were Poles, 42.6% (42,482) Jews, 2.1% (2,094) Germans and 0.4% (359) Russians; 46.6% (45,474) adhered to the Catholic religion, 43% (42,880) to Judaism, 8.2% (8,177) to Eastern Orthodoxy and 2.9% (2,892) to Evangelicalism. World War II changed all of this: in 1939, around 107,000 people lived in Białystok, but by 1946, the population had dropped to 56,759, with much less ethnic diversity than it had had previously. Currently the city's population is 97% Polish, 2.5% Belarusian and 0.5% of a number of minorities including Russians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians. Most of the modern-day population growth is based on internal migration within Poland and urbanization of surrounding areas. ## Governance ### City government Białystok, like other major cities in Poland, is a city county (Polish: Miasto na prawach powiatu). The Legislative power in the city is vested in the unicameral Białystok City Council (Polish: Rada Miasta), which has 28 members. Council members are elected directly every four years, one of whom is the mayor, or President of Białystok (Polish: prezydent). Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government. Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor, who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote. The current President of Białystok, elected for his first term in 2006, is Tadeusz Truskolaski won the elections as the Civic Platform's candidate, however, he has no official connection with the party. In the first round of the elections he received 49% of the votes (42,889 votes altogether). In the later runoff he defeated his rival candidate Marek Kozlowski from Law and Justice (Polish: Prawo i Sprawiedliwość), receiving 67% of the votes cast (53,018 votes). For the 2010–2011 fiscal year the city received revenue (taxes levied + investments) of 1,409,565,525 zł, expended 1,676,459,102 zł leaving a budget deficit of 266,893,577 zł. The deficit was covered by short-term borrowing of 166,893,577 zł and the issuance of 100 million zł in municipal bonds. Other levels of governmental representation It is also the seat of government for the Podlaskie Voivodeship. The city is represented by several members of both houses of the Polish Parliament (Sejm and Senat) from the Białystok constituency. Białystok is represented by the Podlaskie and Warmian-Masurian constituency of the European Parliament. ### International relations There are nine consulates in Białystok, a Consulate General of Belarus and Honorary Consulates of Romania, Finland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, Luxembourg and Malta. The City of Białystok is a member of several organizations such as Union of Polish Metropolises (Polish: Unia Metropolii Polskich), Euroregion Niemen, Polish Green Lungs Foundation, and Eurocities. Białystok is twinned with: - Eindhoven, Netherlands - Kaunas, Lithuania - Milwaukee, United States - Dijon, France - Yehud, Israel - Jelgava, Latvia - Mazara del Vallo, Italy - Lusaka, Zambia - Bornova, Turkey - Chongzuo, China - Sliema, Malta - Dobrich, Bulgaria - Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Former twin towns: - Irkutsk, Russia - Kaliningrad, Russia - Pskov, Russia - Tomsk, Russia On 3 March 2022, Białystok ended its partnership with the Russian cities of Irkutsk, Kaliningrad, Pskov and Tomsk, and also with the Belarusian city of Grodno as a reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Eastern Partnership cities: - Lutsk, Ukraine - Gori, Georgia - Bălți, Moldova - Gyumri, Armenia - Sumgait, Azerbaijan Former partnership: - Grodno, Belarus ## Military units The construction of the Saint Petersburg–Warsaw Railway which passed through the city and was the strategic nerve of the Russian Empire, resulted in the rising of the military importance of the city: In 1879, construction of the barracks of the Włodzimierski Infantry Regiment began (currently it is the area of the Voivodeship hospital between Wojskowa, Skłodowskiej-Curie and Wołodyjowskiego Streets). In 1884, barracks of the Kazan Infantry Regiment were established at Traugutta Street in Wygoda. In 1887, barracks of the Mariampole Dragon Regiment were erected at 100 Bema Street. In 1890, the barracks of Kharkov Uhlans Regiment were built at Kawaleryjska Street. Throughout the interwar period and the existence of the Second Polish Republic, the city enjoyed the presence of the 42nd Infantry Regiment (barracks at Wygoda), 10th Lithuanian Uhlan Regiment (Kawaleryjska Street) and the 14th Horse Artillery Squadron (Polish: 14 Dywizjon Artylerii Konnej) (Bema Street), the command of the Podlaska Cavalry Brigade and spare center (Skladowej-Curie Street, then Piwna), units of the Armed Forces of the Second Polish Republic. The 18th Reconnaissance Regiment (Polish: 18 Pułk Rozpoznawczy) of the Polish Land Forces is based in Białystok. The heritage of the unit was the former 18th Territorial Defense Battalion (Polish: 18 Białostocka Brygada Obrony Terytorialnej) and prior to that the former 18th Mechanized Brigade. December 31, 2001, as a result of the restructuring of the Armed Forces, 18th Mechanized Brigade (Polish: 18 Brygada Zmechanizowana) was disbanded and in its place created the 18th Territorial Defense Battalion (Polish: 18 Białostocka Brygada Obrony Terytorialnej). The Cavalry Brigade "Białystok" (BK "Białystok") of the Polish Army Second Republic was formed in February 1929. On April 1, 1937, BK "Białystok" was renamed the Podlaska Cavalry Brigade(Polish: Podlaska Brygada Kawalerii). Its headquarters was located in Białystok and operated as part of Independent Operational Group Narew. It was formed from the Cavalry Brigade "Białystok", which existed between February 1929, and March 30, 1937. After the Soviet invasion of Poland, remnants of the Brigade fought both Wehrmacht and Red Army troops, capitulating on October 6, 1939. During December 1993 an order of the Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces created the 18th Mechanized Brigade (Polish: 18 Brygada Zmechanizowana) at the garrison in Białystok. The unit was formed from the 3rd Mechanized Regiment (Polish: 3 Pułk Zmechanizowany) and was subordinated to the commander of the 1st Warsaw Mechanized Division (Polish: 1 Warszawskiej Dywizji Zmechanizowanej im. Tadeusza Kościuszki). On December 31, 2001, as a result of the restructuring of the Armed Forces, the 18th Mechanized Brigade was disbanded and in its place was created the 18th Territorial Defense Battalion. ## Economy In the nineteenth century, Białystok was an important center for light industry, which was the reason for the substantial growth of the city's population. The tradition continued with many garment factories established in the twentieth century, such as Fasty in the district of Bacieczki. However, after the fall of communism in 1989 many of these factories faced severe problems and subsequently closed down. The unemployment rate for November 2020 in Białystok was 6.8%. The 2009 average household had a monthly per capita income of 1018.77 zł and monthly per capita expenses of 823.56 zł The city has a number of nearby border crossings. The border with Belarus is only 50 km (31 mi) away, the nearest border crossings are located in; Bobrowniki (road crossing located about 50 km (31 mi) from the city limits), Kuźnica Białostocka (road and rail crossing located 60 km (37 mi) from the city limits), Siemianówka (railway – freight traffic), Połowce (road) and Czeremcha (railway). Since the border with Belarus is also the eastern border of the European Union, as well as the Schengen Area the city is a center for trade in mainly from the east. The leading industries in the city's economy are food processing (production of meat products, fruit and vegetable products, the production of spirits, the production of frozen food, grain processing), electrical engineering (production tools and equipment for machine tools, production of electric heaters, manufacture and production mixers household appliances). There is also a developed machine industry (electronics, machinery and metal), plastic processing (production of household appliances), textiles (textiles and upholstery, manufacture of underwear, clothing accessories, footwear and backpacks), Wood (production plywood and furniture) building materials. Some major employers who are based in Białystok include: - Dojlidy Brewery in the district of Dojlidy produces the second most popular beer in Poland, Żubr. - Polmos Białystok, the biggest vodka manufacturer in Poland, is located in the city district of Starosielce. The company produces Absolwent and Żubrówka (bison grass vodka) – both major exports abroad. - Standard Motor Products Poland Ltd. headquartered in Białystok began manufacturing ignition coils for original equipment manufacturers 30 years ago. - "Supon" Białystok is the leading Polish producer of fire fighting equipment. - SavaPol, Sp.z o.o. is a manufacturer of stationary and mobile concrete mixing equipment based in Białystok. - Biazet S.A. is a large manufacture of household appliances, including vacuum cleaners, coffee makers, and LED lighting located in Białystok. - Agnella, a major Polish producer of carpets and similar products is in Białystok, located in the district of Białostoczek. - Rosti Poland Sp. z o.o., has provided for more than 60 years precision injection molded products for some of the world's leading brands. - Biaglass Huta Szkla Białystok Sp. z o.o., established in 1929, produces mouth blown glass lampshades and related products. Biaglass belongs to elite group of Glass Works in Europe, where 100% of the lighting glass is mouth-blown. - Chłodnia Białystok S.A (Cold Store Białystok S.A.), established in 1952, is one of the largest Polish producers of frozen vegetables, fruits and ready-to-heat meals. - Podlaskie Zakłady Zbożowe S.A. was established on 1 July 2000 as a result of privatizing The Regional Establishment of Corn and Milling Industry 'PZZ' in Białystok. It is one of the leading firms in Podlaskie region in the department of preservation and processing of grain with elevators in Białystok, Grajewo and Suwałki. ### Innovations In order to increase the attractiveness of the city of Białystok for investments based on modern technologies, the Bialystok Science and Technology Park was opened in 2014, which is to initiate the development of infrastructure conducive to increasing innovation among local and regional enterprises. Amongst companies based in the Park are the Institute of Innovative Technologies EMAG, the Department of Prevention of Metabolic Diseases Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and a biometric photographs company PhotoAid. ## Culture and tourism Białystok is one of the largest cultural centers in the Podlaskie Voivodeship. The attractions include performing arts groups, art museums, historical museums, walking tours of architectural/cultural aspects and a wide variety of parks and green spaces. Białystok in 2010 was on the short-list, but ultimately lost the competition, to become a finalist for European Capital of Culture in 2016. ### Performing arts The city has a number of performing arts facilities including: The Białystok Puppet Theatre (Polish: Bialostocki Teatr Lalek), established in 1953, is one of the oldest Polish puppet theaters. The facility is located at Kalinowskiego 1 in Białystok. The repertoire includes performances for both children and puppet adaptations of world literature for adults. Because of the high artistic level of productions, the theater has been recognized as one of the best puppetry arts centers in Poland. The Aleksandra Węgierki Drama Theatre, housed in a building designed by Jarosław Girina, was built in the years 1933–1938. The Podlasie Opera and Philharmonic – European Art Centre in Białystok is the largest institute of arts in Northeastern Poland and the most modern cultural center in this region of Europe. In its amphitheatre every year at the end of June Halfway Festival takes place. ### Museums There are a number of museums in the city including: The Historical Museum in Białystok (Polish: Muzeum Historyczne w Białymstoku) is part of the Podlaskie Museum. The facility has a rich collection of archival materials and iconography illustrating the history of Białystok and Podlasie, and a number of middle-class cultural relics, especially in the field of craft utility. There are also the Numismatic Cabinet of the collection of 16 000 coins, medals and securities. The museum is in possession of the only collections in the country memorabilia connected with the Tatar settlement in the Polish–Lithuanian–Belarusian region. The Army Museum in Białystok (Polish: Muzeum Wojska w Białymstoku) was established in September 1968 as a branch of the Podlaskie Museum to house the research and collections of many people connected with the military history of north-eastern Poland. The Ludwik Zamenhof Centre (Polish: Centrum im. Ludwika Zamenhofa w Białymstoku) has a permanent exhibition, "Bialystok of Young Ludwik Zamenhof", and various temporary exhibitions, concerts, film projections, and theatre performances. The Centre has a branch of Lukasz Gornicki's Podlaska Library dedicated to the Esperanto language. The Sybir Memorial Museum (Polish: Muzeum Pamięci Sybiru) is a historical museum opened in 2021 and dedicated to the memory of Poles as well as people from other nationalities who were the victims of forced deportations to Siberia perpetrated by Russia and the Soviet Union. The Alfons Karny Sculpture Museum contains a collection of sculptures by Białystok native Alfons Karny. ### Parks and green spaces Around 32% of the city is occupied by parks, squares and forest preserves which creates a unique and healthy climate. The green spaces include: Branicki Palace (Polish: Pałac Branickich) is a historical edifice and 9.7 ha (24 acres) park in Białystok. It was developed on the site of an earlier building in the first half of the eighteenth century by Jan Klemens Branicki, wealthy Polish Crown Hetman (highest military leader of Poland), into a residence suitable for a man whose ambition was to be elected king of Poland. The palace complex with gardens, pavillons, sculptures, outbuildings and other structures and the city with churches, city hall and monastery, all built almost at the same time according to French models was the reason why the city was known in the eighteenth century as Versailles of Podlaskie (Polish: wersal podlaski). Planty is a 14.94 ha (36.9 acres) park created between 1930 and 1938, under the auspices of the then voivode Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski in the areas adjacent to Branicki Palace. The modernist composition of the park was designed by Stanislav Gralla. ### Architecture The various historically driven changes have had a very significant influence on the architectural space of the city. Most other Polish cities have suffered similarly, but the processes in Białystok, have had a particularly intense course. Numerous historic works of architecture no longer exist, while many others have been rebuilt to their original configuration. Very few historic buildings of the city have been preserved – the sights are merely an echo of the old historical shape of Białystok. Main sights include: - Palaces: Branicki Palace, Branicki Guest Palace, Lubomirski Palace, Hasbach Palace, Nowik Palace - Townhall - Catholic Cathedral - St. Roch Church - St. Adalbert Church - Orthodox Cathedral - Daughters of Charity Monastery - Former Arsenal - Former Masonic Lodge ## Sports The city has both professional and amateur sports teams, and a number of venues where they are based. Jagiellonia Białystok is a Polish football club, based in Białystok, in the Ekstraklasa (Poland's top division) that plays at the Białystok City Stadium. Jagiellonia Białystok won the Polish Cup and Super Cup in 2010. A new 22,500-seat stadium was completed at the beginning of 2015. There is also a futsal team Słoneczny Stok Jagiellonia Białystok, which plays in the Futsal Ekstraklasa, Poland's top division (as of 2022–23). Podlasie Białystok [pl] is one of the top athletics clubs in Poland, multiple times Polish Team Champions, most recently in 2022. Lowlanders Białystok is an American football club, that plays in the Polish American Football League (Polish: Polska Liga Futbolu Amerykańskiego) PLFA I Conference. The Lowlanders were the champions of the PLFA II Conference in 2010 with a perfect season (8 wins in eight meetings). Because of the win, they were advanced to the upper conference (PLFA I) in 2011. Other notable clubs include men's football team Hetman Białystok (with additional boxing and contract bridge sections), basketball club Żubry Białystok [pl], and football club Włókniarz Białystok with both men's and women's sections, however, all of the aforementioned teams play in the lower leagues as of 2022–23. ## Media Białystok has a wide variety of media outlets serving the city and surrounding region. There are two locally published daily newspapers, Gazeta Współczesna (36.3% market share) and Kurier Poranny (20.3% market share). In addition two national papers have local bureaus. There are a number of national and locally produced television and radio channels available both over-the-air from the nearby RTCN Białystok (Krynice) Mast, the seventh highest structure in Poland, in addition to transmitter sites within the city. TVP Białystok is one of the locally produced, regional branches of the TVP, Poland's public television broadcaster. There is also a cable television system available within the city. The city has two campus radio stations; Radiosupeł at the Medical University of Białystok and Radio Akadera at Białystok Technical University. ## Religion In the early 1900s, Białystok was reputed to have the largest concentration of Jews of all the cities in the world. In 1931, 40,000 Jews lived in the city, nearly half the city's inhabitants. The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Białystok. Pope John Paul II on 5 June 1991, during a visit to Białystok, announced the establishment of the Archdiocese of Białystok which ended the period of the temporary church administration of the portion of the Archdiocese of Vilnius that had, after World War II, remained within the Polish borders. The city is also the seat of the Białystok-Gdansk Diocese of the Autocephalous Polish Orthodox Church. Białystok is the largest concentration of Orthodox believers in Poland. In Białystok, the following Protestant churches exist: a Lutheran parish, two Pentecostal churches, Baptist church, a congregation of the Church of God in Christ and a Seventh Day Adventist church. Białystok is home to more than two thousand Muslims (mainly Tatars). There is an Islamic Centre, a House of Prayer, and various organisations. There is a magazine issued – "Pamięć i trwanie" ("Memory and persistence"). The city is the site of the Divine Mercy Sanctuary with the main relics of Michał Sopoćko. ## Transport The city is and has been for centuries, the main hub of transportation for the Podlaskie Voivodeship and the entire northeastern section of Poland. It is a major city on the European Union roadways (Via Baltica) and railways (Rail Baltica) to the Baltic Republics and Finland. It is also a main gateway of trade with Belarus due to its proximity to the border and its current and longstanding relationship with Grodno, Belarus. A traffic management system has been operating in Białystok since 2015. At 120 intersections, traffic lights are coordinated in such a way that cars and buses covered the route as quickly as possible. Special cameras record traffic, travel time. Drivers receive this information on 19 boards set among others at the intersections on Wasilkowska Street, Antoniuk-Fabryczny Street and Kleeberga Street. ### Railways Passenger trains connect from Suwałki, Grodno and Lithuania to Warsaw and the rest of the European passenger network. Passenger services are provided by two rail service providers, PKP Intercity that provides intercity passengers trains (express, intercity, eurocity, hotel and TLK) and Przewozy Regionalne that operates only regional passenger trains financed by the voivodeship. Passenger trains are mostly run using electrical multiple units (on electrified lines) or rail buses. ### Buses There is an extensive bus network that covers the entire city by three bus services, but no tram or subway exists. The three bus operators (KPKM, KPK and KZK) are owned by the city and each shares approximately a third of the lines and the bus fleet. ### Roads and highways The National Roads (Polish: Droga krajowa) running through Białystok: - DK 8 / E67: Budzisko (Lithuania–Poland border) – Białystok – Warsaw – Wrocław – Kudowa-Zdrój (Czech–Polish border) - DK 19: Rzeszów – Lublin – Bielsk Podlaski – Białystok – Kuźnica (Belarus–Poland border) - DK 65: Gołdap (Poland–Russia border)-Ełk-Białystok-Bobrowniki (Belarus–Poland border) The expressways (Polish: Droga ekspresowa) near Białystok: - S 8 / E67: Białystok – Warsaw – Wrocław - S 19 (projected): Rzeszów – Lublin – Bielsk Podlaski – Białystok – Kuźnica (Belarus–Polish border) The Voivodeship roads (Polish: Droga wojewódzka) running through Białystok:: - DW 669: Trasa Niepodległości (Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych Street, Niepodległości Avenue, Padarewskiego Avenue) - DW 675: Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego Avenue (Polish: aleja Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego) - DW 676: Porosły - Białystok - Supraśl - Krynki - DW 678: Białystok - Wysokie Mazowieckie In Białystok Country (Polish: powiat białostocki) there are also Poviat roads (Polish: Droga powiatowa) which connect Białystok with other towns in the area: ### Bicycle By 2020, there were already over 158 km of bicycle paths in Bialystok. The municipal bicycle renting system is called BiKeR and was opened in 2014. The system initially based on 30 stations equipped with 300 bikes. The city has four public bicycle repair stations, in which one can fix their private bikes. The stations are located in places where the highest traffic of city bikes was observed. ### Airports A civil airport, Białystok-Krywlany Airport, lies within the city limits, but does not provide regularly scheduled service, being currently the largest city in the European Union without an operating commercial airport. There were plans in 2011 to build a new regional airport, Białystok-Saniki Airport, that would have provided flights within Europe. ## Education Higher education in the city can be traced back to the second half of the eighteenth century when the ownership of the city was inherited by Field Crown Hetman Jan Klemens Branicki. As a patron of the arts and sciences, Branicki encouraged numerous artists and scientists to settle in Białystok to take advantage of Branicki's patronage. In 1745 Branicki established Poland's first military college, the School of Civil and Military Engineering, in the city. Since the fall of communism many privately funded institutions of higher educations have been founded and their number is still increasing. Currently Białystok is home to one principal public university (University of Białystok) and two other public specialist universities (Białystok Technical University and Medical University of Białystok). Some institutions, such as Musical Academy in Białystok, are branches of their parent institutions in other cities, usually in Warsaw. ## Notable residents Over the centuries, a number of people from Białystok have been prominent in the fields of science, language, politics, religion, sports, visual arts and performing arts. This environment was created in the mid-eighteenth century by the patronage of Jan Klemens Branicki for the arts and sciences. These include Ryszard Kaczorowski, last émigré President of the Republic of Poland, L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, Albert Sabin, co-developer of the polio vaccine, Izabella Scorupco, actress, Max Weber, painter. Tomasz Bagiński illustrator, animator and director Oscar nominee in 2002 for The Cathedral.

Carl and the Passions – "So Tough"

1972 album by the Beach Boys

Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" is the 18th studio album by American rock band the Beach Boys, released May 15, 1972 on Brother/Reprise. The album is a significant musical departure for the band and is the first to feature the Flames' Blondie Chaplin and Ricky Fataar as additions to their official line-up. It sold poorly and was met with lukewarm reviews, but later gained stature as a cult favorite among fans. The album peaked at number 50 in the U.S. and number 25 in the UK. It produced two singles, "You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone" and "Marcella", both of which failed to chart in the U.S. Initial American pressings of the album included the band's 1966 release Pet Sounds as a bonus record. Bruce Johnston left the group at the end of the album's recording. In 2022, an expanded version of the album was packaged within the compilation Sail On Sailor – 1972. ## Background In June 1969, Carl Wilson attended a nightclub performance by the South African band the Flames in London. Impressed by what he saw, he later invited the group to the United States to sign with the Beach Boys' record label, Brother Records. From 1970 to 1971, the Flames were the Beach Boys' supporting act. Carl also produced the group's first album, The Flame, released in March 1971 as the only non-Beach Boys album ever issued by Brother. After Dennis Wilson injured his hand, leaving him unable to play drums for a period, he was substituted onstage by the Flames' Ricky Fataar (and briefly touring musician Mike Kowalski). The Beach Boys' second album on Reprise, Surf's Up, was released in August 1971 to critical acclaim and reached the U.S. and UK top 40. In late 1971, some reports stated that Dennis had left the group to work on his first solo album. According to biographer David Leaf, "Dennis was [at that time] constantly quitting [the band] or getting fired and then rejoining." By then, Fataar and the Flames' guitarist Blondie Chaplin were participating in the Beach Boys' recording sessions, and at Carl's and manager Jack Rieley's behest, soon became official members. Writing in The Beach Boys Diary, music historian Keith Badman states, > Carl now suggests that fresh blood is needed to invigorate The Beach Boys, both musically and personally. In truth, the group is barely holding together. They travel to and from every concert separately: Carl and Dennis in one car with some of the musicians; Mike [Love] and Al [Jardine] in their vehicle. At some shows, members are seen arriving on stage from different entrances, just to avoid being with each other. It seems that only their music and business interests are keeping them together. On February 29, 1972, the group held a press conference in London, where they announced the new additions in their line-up, as well as the imminent release of the album Smile, which had been shelved since 1967. Smile was never delivered; Leaf writes that the purpose of the latter announcement may have been to mislead Reprise into allowing the group more time to prepare the album that became Carl and the Passions. Bruce Johnston, who had joined the group in 1965, left the Beach Boys in April 1972 due to creative differences between him and his bandmates. ## Production Sessions for the Beach Boys' third Reprise album lasted from December 4, 1971 to April 13, 1972, and were held largely at the band's private studio. Most of the basic tracks were recorded in December 1971, with the remainder of the album finished during the following April. The members worked in three separate factions: Carl, Fataar, and Chaplin; Love and Jardine; and Dennis with touring musician Daryl Dragon. Fataar stated, "It was just all done very piecemeal. Somebody would be cutting a track over at Village Recorders and somebody else would be recording at Sunset [...] It was an 'in between touring' kind of an album. [...] We kept changing studios all the time. Perhaps that's why it sounds so bad." During this time, Brian Wilson, who had reduced his contributions to the group, was largely preoccupied with hanging out with Tandyn Almer. Wilson was absent for most of the sessions, and was more involved with producing the 1972 self-titled debut album by Spring, a collaboration with David Sandler. Chaplin stated, "We recorded some tracks in the studio at Brian's home. But most of the time he was up in his bedroom while we were working downstairs." In an interview held shortly after the release of Carl and the Passions, Johnston said: "I spoke to Brian a couple of weeks ago and he told me that he really didn't have too much to do with this album. [...] I don't hear his voice very much on this album." Wilson's participation on the album's songs was limited to the three that he had co-written. ## Songs and outtakes Brian's three song contributions were "You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone" (co-written with Rieley and co-produced with Carl), "Marcella" (co-written with Rieley and Almer), and "He Come Down" (co-written with Al Jardine and Love). "Marcella" was written about a masseuse from the Circus Maximus, a Santa Monica Boulevard massage parlor that Brian had frequented. "You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone" was originally written with Almer as "Beatrice from Baltimore" before the lyrics were revised by Rieley. "He Comes Down" was influenced by gospel and features Brian on keyboards and backing vocals. Love said, "On that one we're singing like a whole black church choir and it's a lot of fun. Basically it underscores the teachings of Jesus and Krishna and the Maharishi." Dennis's two song contributions – "Make it Good" and "Cuddle Up" (originally titled "Old Movie") – were written with Daryl Dragon and originally intended for a cancelled solo album. Both of the songs are in a heavy orchestral style that is unlike any of the other songs on the largely R&B-based record. "All This Is That" (written by Carl, Jardine, and Love) was inspired by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation teachings and the Robert Frost poem "The Road Not Taken". The Fataar–Chaplin team contributed two rock songs, "Here She Comes" and "Hold On Dear Brother". Biographer Mark Dillon writes, "The piano on their groovy cut 'Here She Comes' sounds like Traffic and the harmonies are in the Crosby, Stills and Nash vein. [...] Blondie sings the lead, as he does on [...] 'Hold On Dear Brother,' to which Ricky adds haunting steel guitar." Unused tracks include "Oh Sweet Something", "Out in the County", "Spark in the Dark", "Rooftop Harry", "Body Talk (Grease Job)" and a medley of "Gimme Some Lovin'" / "I Need Your Love", all of which were released on the 2022 compilation Sail On Sailor – 1972. "Rooftop Harry" is an instrumental that features Brian playing piano, electric bass, toy piano, and a calliope. Bruce Johnston recorded a discarded track, "10 Years Harmony" [sic], that later evolved into "Endless Harmony" from Keepin' the Summer Alive (1980). Still-unreleased material that was recorded during the album's sessions include "Funky Fever" and a cover version of Stephen Stills' "Change Partners". ## Packaging and bonus disc Rieley recalled, "The original concept was to do an album called Landlocked, but they were under pressure to tour. There wasn't time to develop the depth that album would have required." Instead, the band went with the title Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" as a nod toward Carl's increased leading role in the Beach Boys. Some reports, including from the Wilsons' mother, state that "Carl and the Passions" had been a high school band formed by Brian, Mike Love, Carl, and another friend. Brian said that he had named the early band "Carl and the Passions" as a way to entice his unwilling brother into the group. However, Carl himself denied that such a group ever existed. The inner sleeve included a group portrait featuring all the members together, including Brian. However, owing to his absence during the album's recording, his visage had to be doctored into the photo. In the U.S., Carl and the Passions was originally packaged as a two-disc set, paired with Pet Sounds (1966), at no additional cost to consumers. Mike Love explained that the group had recently bought the rights to five of their out-of-print Capitol albums for seven years. Love said, "The thing we want to do is a combination of bringing everyone up to date and giving everyone a chance to get an old collectors' item that has been discontinued by the record company. Americans have to write to England if they want copies of albums like Smiley Smile." He credited the idea to Warner/Reprise. Music journalist Peter Doggett states that the bonus record was originally planned to have been Smile. "That threat brought Brian Wilson down from his bedroom, and Pet Sounds was reissued instead." ## Release Released on May 15, 1972, Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" reached number 50 in the U.S. The release was accompanied by lead single "You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone", which failed to chart. A second single, "Marcella", released on June 26, also failed to chart. According to music historian Keith Badman, the Pet Sounds pairing provoked "an unfavourable comparison with the landmark 1966 LP and contribute[d] to the album stalling [...] in the US charts." It became the band's worst-selling on Reprise. In the UK, where Carl and the Passions was issued as a standalone disc, the album reached number 25. From May 5 to June 3, the group toured Europe and the UK. The core members were supported onstage by guitarists Ed Carter and Billy Hinsche, keyboardists Daryl Dragon and Toni Tennille, as well as a horn section and two additional percussionists. Their set list included "Here She Comes" and "You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone". They appeared on The Old Grey Whistle Test on May 16 and Top of the Pops on May 31 (aired June 8). Elton John and Keith Moon joined them onstage at a concert in London. At the end of the tour, the band reconvened at their new headquarters in Holland and recorded what became the Holland album. ## Critical reception Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" failed to impress most critics. According to Leaf, the Pet Sounds pairing in America "helped make So Tough seem like the Beach Boys' worst album ever. Long-time Beach Boys fans were incensed that two of the eight cuts were by 'outsiders' (Blondie and Ricky), and nobody was particularly stimulated by the preachy tone of the TM tunes." General consensus holds "Marcella" to be the LP's finest song. Robert Christgau of The Village Voice called the album "[f]airly pleasant, but even the highlights aren't all that hot." Rolling Stone's Stephen Davis felt that only four tracks were "acceptable", and that Brian's lack of genuine involvement hurt the album. NME's Josh Ingham called it "probably the least successful of the Beach Boys' albums." Conversely, in his review for The San Diego Door, Cameron Crowe wrote, "So Tough finds some excellent music with no trace of anything left over from the Pet Sounds days. I coulda sworn 'Hold On Dear Brother' was the Band." Retrospectively, AllMusic's John Bush wrote, "The songwriting was neither as solid as 1970's Sunflower nor as idiosyncratic as 1971's Surf's Up though, and the few fans left from the '60s were undoubtedly turned off -- if not by the weak songs, then certainly by the muddy sound. Still, there are a few moments of beauty". Doggett opined, "There were sublime moments [...] But unlike Sunflower and Surf's Up it sounded nothing like the work of a coherent band." He noted that Dennis' contributions were "magnificent epics, explorations of the heart in sound" that showed "his vision was way out of kilter the rest of the band" Among biographers, John Tobler decreed in 1978 that Carl and the Passions was "generally accepted as being the lamest Beach Boy album since the fragmented 20/20 [and] bears the mark of a project with too little thought behind it." Peter Ames Carlin found the album to be "a schizophrenic affair" and "stylistically meandering". Jon Stebbins writes that apart from "Marcella", "Cuddle Up", and "Make It Good", the album "is forgettable". In his 2016 memoir, Good Vibrations: My Life as a Beach Boy, Mike Love referred to Carl and the Passions as "a disjointed rush job, hastily assembled between live gigs, that even Carl admitted was weak overall [...] More than anything, the album emphasized how confused we were about our brand." ## Influence and legacy Carl and the Passions has since become a "cult favorite" among some fans. Elton John penned liner notes for the 2000 CD reissue, writing: 'This is an album which I have loved for a long time... Carl and the Passions: So Tough has moments of breathtaking genius and experimentation. When this record was released, I remember how different and fresh it sounded. It still does'. In 1993, the band Saint Etienne titled their album So Tough as an homage to the Beach Boys. Likewise, they also named their compilation of the same year, You Need a Mess of Help to Stand Alone, after the Beach Boys song. ## Track listing Track notes per 2000 liner notes. ## Personnel Credits from Craig Slowinski, John Brode, Will Crerar and Joshilyn Hoisington. Track numbering refers to CD and digital releases of the album. The Beach Boys - Blondie Chaplin - lead (2, 5), harmony (2, 5), and backing vocals (3, 5, 8); bass (3, 5, 7), electric (2), and acoustic guitars (2, 5), electric slide guitar (2); handclaps (3), finger snaps (3) - Ricky Fataar - lead (2), harmony (2, 5), and backing vocals (5); drums (all tracks except 6 and 8), tambourine (1), cabasa (2, 7), castanets (4); Hammond organ (2) - Alan Jardine - lead (7), harmony (7), and backing vocals (1, 3-4); handclaps (3), finger snaps (3) - Bruce Johnston - backing vocals (4) - Mike Love - lead (3-4), harmony (7), and backing vocals (1, 3-4, 7); handclaps (3), finger snaps (3) - Brian Wilson - backing (1, 3-4) and response vocals (3); tack piano (1), Hammond organ (1, 3-4), grand piano (3-4), Wurlitzer electric piano (4), Moog synthesizer (4); handclaps (3), finger snaps (3); vibraphone (4) - Carl Wilson - lead (1, 4, 7), harmony (5, 7), backing (1, 3-5, 7), and response vocals (3); electric (1, 3-4), acoustic (4-5, 8), and bass guitars (2); Wurlitzer electric piano (7), Rocksichord (7), upright piano (7); handclaps (3), finger snaps (3) - Dennis Wilson - lead (6, 8) and backing vocals (4, 6, 8), grand piano (6), Hammond organ (8), Moog synthesizer (6) Touring members - Daryl Dragon - grand piano (8); orchestral arrangements (6, 8) - Billy Hinsche - backing vocals; electric (1) and acoustic guitars (5) - Toni Tennille - backing vocals (8) Guests - Tandyn Almer - bass guitar (1), autoharps (4) - Jack Rieley - backing vocals (4) Additional session musicians - Norman Botnick - viola (6, 8) - David Burk - viola (6, 8) - Frank Capp - timpani (6, 8) - Barbara Carlson - French horn (6) - Vincent DeRosa - French horn (6) - Douglas Dillard - banjo (1) - Bonnie Douglas - violin (6, 8) - Assa Drori - violin (6, 8) - David Duke - French horn (6) - Chuck Findley - trumpet (6) - Irving Geller - violin (6, 8) - Nathan Gershman - cello (6, 8) - James D. Hughart - arco double bass (6, 8) - Dick “Slyde” Hyde - bass trombone (6) - George Hyde - French horn (6) - JoAnn Johannsen - cello (6, 8) - Jan Kelley - cello (6, 8) - Richard F. Kelley Sr. - arco double bass (6, 8) - Stephens LaFever - bass guitar (6, 8) - Alfred Lustgarten - violin (6, 8) - Leonard Malarsky - violin (6, 8) - Gordon Marron - electric violin w/ ring modulator (1) - Tony Martin Jr. - pedal steel guitars (4) - Lew McCreary - trombone (6) - Ollie Mitchell - trumpet (6) - Joseph Reilich - viola (6, 8) - Orville “Red” Rhodes - pedal steel guitar (5) - Jay Rosen - violin (6, 8) - Nathan Ross - violin (6, 8) - Meyer Rubin - arco double bass (6, 8) - Sheldon Sanov - violin (6, 8) - Victor Sazer - cello (6, 8) - David Schwartz - viola (6, 8) - Leonard Selic - violin (6, 8) - Spiro Stamos - violin (6, 8) - Dorothy Wade - violin (6, 8) - Shari Zippert - violin (6, 8) - Alex Del Zoppo - upright piano (2, 5) - Unknown - sleigh bells (4), cabasa (4), bongos (4); 2 trumpets (4), trombone (4), bass trombone (4) Technical - The Beach Boys – producers - Steve Moffitt – engineer - Ed Thrasher – art direction - Dave Willardson – cover art ## Charts

Rhinogradentia

Fictitious order of mammals

Rhinogradentia is a fictitious order of extinct shrew-like mammals invented by German zoologist Gerolf Steiner. Members of the order, known as rhinogrades or snouters, are characterized by a nose-like feature called a "nasorium", which evolved to fulfill a wide variety of functions in different species. Steiner also created a fictional persona, naturalist Harald Stümpke, who is credited as author of the 1961 book Bau und Leben der Rhinogradentia (translated into English in 1967 as The Snouters: Form and Life of the Rhinogrades). According to Steiner, it is the only remaining record of the animals, which were wiped out, along with all the world's Rhinogradentia researchers, when the small Pacific archipelago they inhabited sank into the ocean due to nearby atomic bomb testing. Successfully mimicking a genuine scientific work, Rhinogradentia has appeared in several publications without any note of its fictitious nature, sometimes in connection with April Fools' Day. ## Background Rhinogradentia, their island home of Hy-yi-yi, zoologist Harald Stümpke, and a host of other people, places, and documents are fictional creations of Gerolf Steiner (1908–2009), a German zoologist. Steiner is best known for his fictional work as Stümpke, but he was an accomplished zoologist in his own right. He held a professorship at the University of Heidelberg and later the Technical University of Karlsruhe, where he occupied the department chair from 1962 to 1973. Steiner was also interested in illustration, and in 1945 drew a picture for one of his students as thanks for some food. He took inspiration from a short nonsense poem by Christian Morgenstern, The Nasobame (Das Nasobēm) about an animal that walked using its nose. He took to the drawing, made a copy for himself, and later incorporated the creatures into his teaching. According to Bud Webster, Steiner's motivation for writing a book about them was instructional, to illustrate "how animals evolve in isolation", but Joe Cain speculates that the success of the joke may have led to a teaching and writing career based on that rather than the other way around. ## Harald Stümpke's account Steiner's fictional author, credited as "quondam curator of the Museum of the Darwin Institute of Hy-yi-yi, Mairuwili", provides a very detailed account of the order and individual species, written in a dry, scholarly tone. Michael Ohl wrote that the book is written "in truly amusing attention to detail and using what is immediately recognizable as a practiced scientific patois". The evidently expert voice of the author, his competent writing, and apparent familiarity with conventions of academic literature set the work apart as a rare example at the intersection of fiction and scholarship. Steiner credits himself by name as illustrator of the book, and explains how that role led him to possess the only remaining record of Rhinogradentia. ### Discovery and study at Hy-yi-yi According to Stümpke, Rhinogradentia were native to Hy-yi-yi, a small Pacific archipelago comprising eighteen islands: Annoorussawubbissy, Awkoavussa, Hiddudify, Koavussa, Lowlukha, Lownunnoia, Mara, Miroovilly, Mittuddinna, Naty, Nawissy, Noorubbissy, Osovitissy, Ownavussa, Owsuddowsa, Shanelukha, Towteng-Awko, and Vinsy. The islands occupied 1,690 km² (650 sq mi) and the archipelago's highest peak, 2,230 m (7,320 ft), was on its main island, Hiddudify (Hy-dud-dye-fee). The first description of Hy-yi-yi published in Europe was that of Einar Pettersson-Skämtkvist, a Swedish explorer who arrived in Hiddudify by chance in 1941, after escaping from a Japanese prisoner-of-war camp. Each of the islands was home to distinctive fauna, dominated by Rhinogradentia, the only mammals other than humans and one species of shrew. In the time after the war, a number of scientists took interest in the rhinogrades and began formal research into their physiology, morphology, behaviors, and evolution. In the late 1950s, nearby nuclear weapons testing by the United States military accidentally caused all of the islands of Hy-yi-yi to sink into the ocean, destroying all traces of the rhinogrades and their unique ecosystem. Also killed were all the world's Rhinogradentia researchers, who were attending a conference on Hy-yi-yi at the time. The book's epilogue, credited to Steiner in his capacity as the book's illustrator, explains that Stümpke had sent the book's materials to Steiner to serve as the basis for illustrations in preparation for publication. Following the disaster, it is the only remaining record of the subjects it describes. ### Biological characteristics and behavior Rhinogrades are mammals characterized by a nose-like feature called a "nasorium", the form and function of which vary significantly between species. According to Stümpke, the order's remarkable variety was the natural outcome of evolution acting over millions of years in the remote Hy-yi-yi islands. All the 14 families and 189 known snouter species descended from a small shrew-like animal, which gradually evolved and diversified to fill most of the ecological niches in the archipelago — from tiny worm-like beings to large herbivores and predators. Many rhinogrades used their nose for locomotion, for example the "snout leapers" like Hopsorrhinus aureus, whose nasorium was used for jumping, or the "earwings" like Otopteryx, which flew backwards by flapping its ears and used its nose as a rudder. Some species used their nasorium for catching food, for example by using it to fish or to attract and trap insects. Other species included the fierce Tyrannonasus imperator and the shaggy Mammontops. Pettersson-Skämtkvist's early descriptions of the animals he encountered on Hy-yi-yi led zoologists to name them after the title creature in Christian Morgenstern's The Nasobame. In the poem, which exists outside of this fictional universe and also served as an inspiration for Steiner, the Nasobame is seen "striding on its noses" (auf seinen Nasen schreitet). ### Genera Stümpke's book classifies 138 species of rhinograde in the following fictitious genera: The names generally refer to particular forms or functions of the nasorium of animals in that genus, typically providing vernacular names for clarity. ## Publication history Steiner's books as Stümpke have been translated into other languages, sometimes crediting other names based on the country of publication. Harald Stümpke, Massimo Pandolfi, Hararuto Shutyunpuke, and Karl D. S. Geeste are pseudonyms, while translator names are authentic. - Stümpke, Harald (1957). Bau und Leben der Rhinogradentia. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. . . - Stümpke, Harald (1962). Anatomie et Biologie des Rhinogrades — Un Nouvel Ordre de Mammifères (Trans. Robert Weill). Paris: Masson. . . - Stümpke, Harald (1967). The Snouters: Form and Life of the Rhinogrades (Trans. Leigh Chadwick). Garden City, NY: The Natural History Press. . - Pandolfi, Massimo (1992). I Rinogradi di Harald Stümpke e la zoologia fantastica (Trans. Achaz von Hardenberg). Padua: Franco Muzzio. . . - Shutyunpuke, Hararuto (1997). Bikōri: atarashiku-hakken-sareta-honyūrui-no-kōzō-to-seikatsu. Tokyo: Hakuhinsha. . . - Geeste, Karl D. S. (1988). Stümpke's Rhinogradentia: Versuch einer Analyse. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. . . ## Legacy Rhinogradentia is considered one of the best known biological hoaxes and scientific jokes and Steiner's pseudonymous works on the subject continue to be reprinted and translated. The first edition did not explicitly state that it was a hoax. Following the publication of the French translation, George Gaylord Simpson wrote a seemingly serious review which extended the hoax in a 1963 issue of the journal Science, taking issue with the way Stümpke named the animals as "criminal violations of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature". Simpson also noted that Stümpke neglected to include an unrelated mathematical concept, a "rotated matrix". Since the book's original publication several scientists and publishers have written about Rhinogradentia as though Steiner's account were true, though it is unclear how many of those who continued and popularized the joke did so intentionally. Wulf Ankle wrote that the order "is not a poetic invention, but has really lived". Rolf Siewing's Zoology Primer lists them as an order of mammal, noting that their existence is doubted. Erich von Holst celebrated the discovery of "a completely new animal world". Timothy E. Lawlor's widely read textbook Handbook to the Orders and Families of Living Mammals includes an entry for Rhinogradentia that does not acknowledge its fictional nature. The East German Liberal Democratic Newspaper took note of the nuclear demise of the rhinogrades, writing that they would still be alive "had we, the peaceable powers, managed in time to implement widespread disarmament and prohibit the production and testing of nuclear weapons." Prior to the publication of Leigh Chadwick's English translation, an abbreviated version ran in the April 1967 edition of Natural History, a magazine published by the American Museum of Natural History. It comprised material from the book's introduction, first chapter, selected descriptions of genera, and the epilogue, and was presented as the lead story, without qualification, by the normally serious publication. The following month, The New York Times ran a story about the snouters on the front page, based on the Natural History article. According to the magazine's editorial director, they had "received more than 100 letters and telegraphs about the snouters, most of them from people who forgot that the article was published on April Fool's Day." Natural History printed several letters to the editor in its June–July issue, and conveyed to the Times the content of several more, ranging from skeptical to fascinated and continuations of the joke. One reader, entomologist Alice Gray, expressed thanks for the article, which enabled her family to identify an animal-shaped metal bracelet from the South Pacific as having been modeled after a "Hoop Snouter", and included a drawing to preserve the record because, she said, it had been melted down with some toy soldiers and a spoon by a young cousin with a new casting set. Decades later, papers are still published purporting to continue Stümpke's research or otherwise paying homage to Steiner's hoax. In a 2004 paper in the Russian Journal of Marine Biology, authors Kashkina & Bukashkina claim to have discovered two new marine genera: Dendronasus and an as yet unnamed parasitic taxon. The Max Planck Institute for Limnology announced a new species discovered in Großer Plöner See. On April Fools' Day in 2012, the National Museum of Natural History in France announced the discovery of a wood-eating termite-like genus, Nasoperferator, with a rotating nose resembling a drill. Rhinogradentia has been included in a number of museum exhibitions and collections. The National Museum of Natural History's Nasoperferator announcement was accompanied by a two-month exhibit honoring the animals, featuring purported stuffed specimens in its gallery of extinct species. Mock taxidermies of rhinogrades have also been included in an exhibit at the Musée d'ethnographie de Neuchâtel, and in the permanent collections of the Musée zoologique de la ville de Strasbourg and the Salzburg Haus der Natur. Three real species have been named after Steiner and Stümpke: Rhinogradentia steineri, a snout moth, Hyorhinomys stuempkei, a shrew rat also known as the Sulawesi snouter, and Tateomys rhinogradoides, the Tate's shrew rat. ## See also - Caminalcules, another fictional group of animals introduced as a tool for understanding phylogenetics - Codex Seraphinianus - Eoörnis pterovelox gobiensis – an older biological hoax, a fictional bird - Fictitious entry - Lists of fictional species - Pacific Northwest tree octopus

Tomb Raider: Underworld

2008 video game

Tomb Raider: Underworld is an action-adventure video game developed by Crystal Dynamics and published by Eidos Interactive for Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii and Nintendo DS in November 2008. Later versions were released for mobile in December 2008, PlayStation 2 in 2009, and OS X in 2012. Various companies ported or developed the different versions. The ninth overall entry in the Tomb Raider series and third in the Legend trilogy, Underworld follows archaeologist-adventurer Lara Croft as she searches for Mjolnir, an artefact key to entering the realm of Helheim, while confronting adversaries from her past. Gameplay features Lara navigating levels set across the world through platforming, fighting enemies and solving puzzles to progress. Production of Underworld began in 2006 following the release of Tomb Raider: Legend, and was developed in parallel with Anniversary (2007). The scenario was co-written by director Eric Lindstrom and series co-creator Toby Gard; Gard left Crystal Dynamics the following year. The gameplay was redesigned around a principle of Lara's abilities, with her actions created using motion capture for the first time. A new game engine was created for the project, with the team having troubles transitioning onto next-generation hardware and staff shortages due to production of Anniversary. Announced in January 2008 for next-generation hardware, it was delayed into November and also announced for then-current generation hardware. 360-exclusive downloadable content was released in 2009. The game' received mostly positive reviews from critics, with praise for the environments, story, puzzles, exploration, graphics and the less linear style of gameplay, although criticism was directed at its camera and combat system. It sold below expectations, though ultimately went on to sell over three million copies worldwide. It was the final Tomb Raider published by Eidos Interactive prior to its 2009 acquisition and rebranding by Square Enix. Following Underworld, Crystal Dynamics rebooted the series a second time, with the subsequent game releasing in 2013. ## Gameplay Tomb Raider: Underworld is a single-player action-adventure game where the player controls the protagonist, Lara Croft, from a third-person perspective, through a variety of locations around the world. Lara can jump, climb and shimmy along ledges and vertical poles or ladders, crawl through small spaces, and swing on ropes and horizontal poles. Some areas have climbable surfaces she can scale, and some ledges allow her to stand on them and shimmey along. Other abilities include wall jumping between two adjascent surfaces, interacting with objects and switches, using a grappling hook to latch onto special rings for both puzzle solving and environmental traversal, and swim and dive underwater for a limited time. Different button combinations can create more moves such as a roll and swan dive. Puzzles revolve around Lara finding keys to mechanisms in the environment, or manipulating different mechanisms to trigger larger elements within and around the environment. There are also traps which need to be avoided, some of them involved in the puzzle design. During some levels, Lara has access to an all-terrain bike which is used in both navigation and puzzle solving. During combat, Lara automatically locks on to enemies and fires with her equipped gun, with the player able to switch to another target within range and move freely to avoid enemy attacks. When using two weapons, she is able to target up to two enemies at once. Through most of the game Lara has access to seven weapons, selectable from the main menu; her default twin pistols with infinite ammunition, and a shotgun, submachine guns, assault rifle, speargun, tranquillizer gun, and sticky grenades all with limited ammunition. During the last two levels, Lara also has access to the magical artefact Mjolnir, which instantly kills most enemies. Lara's health is represented by a coloured figure, with the game resetting to a checkpoint if she dies; medipacks and artefact collectables heal her, and hard-to-reach relics collected through the game raise her health cap. The difficulty setting can be tailored, with puzzle, combat and platforming difficulties each having sliders influencing their respective challenge in-game. There is also an option on Lara's PDA to receive tips about navigation or solving puzzles. A sonar map is accessible through the PDA, showing a generated 3D representation of Lara's environment. The PlayStation 2 and Wii versions are generally similar to other versions, but with smaller environments and puzzle structure due to hardware limitations; the Wii version also incorporates dedicated combat controls and puzzles revoling around the motion controls. The Nintendo DS (DS) is a two-dimensional (2D) side-scrolling platformer, with Lara navigating self-contained areas while progressing through each level. There are two mobile versions with differing gameplay styles; one is a 2D side-scrolling platformer similar to earlier mobile Tomb Raider games, while the other uses 3D graphics and incorporates platforming and combat elements similar to the home console versions though Lara is restricted to moving forward or backward and some movements are automatic triggered using button prompts. ## Plot The story begins in medias res; Lara Croft navigates her home Croft Manor after an explosion, then is shot at by her tech assistant Zip. One week earlier, Lara is investigating a sunken island in the Mediterranean Sea as part of her search for Avalon, hoping it will lead her to an explanation for the disappearance of her mother Amelia and salvage her father Richard's academic reputation despite the scepticism of Zip and her research assistant Alistair. The island houses ruins dubbed "Niflheim", one of the many Norse underworlds, and Lara discovers one of the gauntlets attributed to the god Thor to wield Mjolnir. While ambushed by mercenaries sent by rival Amanda Evert, Lara recovers the gauntlet, which has shaped itself to her hand. On Amanda's ship she also meets an imprisoned Jacqueline Natla, former ruler of Atlantis presumed dead after their last encounter. Natla reveals that Amelia was sent to "Helhiem"−another name for Avalon−and directs Lara to ruins in Thailand, hinting that her father also searched for Mjolnir before she is taken by Amanda as the ship sinks due to an explosion caused by the mercenary leader who ambushed Lara. In Thailand, Lara navigates the ruins of "Bhogavati" and finds more ancient ruins that housed a gauntlet; Richard was sent there by Natla, but removed the gauntlet and destroyed a map showing the location of Thor's relics. From the use of his initials referencing her grandfather, Lara deduces that Richard hid the gauntlet in Croft Manor. Finding Richard's study in Croft Manor's catacombs, Lara finds the gauntlet and a tape-recorded message from Richard, revealing Helheim contained a powerful weapon and that he destroyed the map after recording it to prevent its use. She also encounters a pair of Thralls, undead guardians of Thor's relics created from eitr. Croft Manor is bombed, and Lara learns from Zip that the bomber, who looked identical to her, stole the magical stone Amanda used during Legend. Lara then encounters a Doppelgänger—a being modelled to look like Lara—who shoots Alistair and flees; despite Zip's protests, Lara continues her quest so she can use Mjolnir to kill Natla. In the ruins of "Xibalba" in Mexico, Lara finds both Thor's belt−which powers the gauntlets and is protected by more Thralls−and ancient carvings detailing the myth of Jörmungandr, who will flood the world before fighting Thor, with both dying. In the ruin of "Valhalla" on Jan Mayen, Lara recovers Mjolnir, then confronts Natla. Natla provides Lara with the coordinates of Helheim, but points out that only she knows the ritual to prepare its gates, so Lara reluctantly strikes a bargain and frees her from her cell. Amanda attempts to stop her, but the Doppelgänger attacks and apparently kills Amanda. Lara dives to the ruins of Helheim under the Arctic Sea, and with Natla's preparation opens its entrance with Mjolnir. Lara then discovers Amelia is turned into a Thrall and is forced to shoot her. Natla appears and reveals that she killed Richard after his betrayal in Thailand, then sets the Doppelgänger on Lara before leaving to awaken Jörmungandr, revealed as a metaphor for the Earth's faultlines; Natla intends to activate an ancient device above the faultlines' weakpoint and trigger apocalyptic volcanic activity. Amanda appears and apparently throws the Doppelgänger to its death, allying with Lara to stop Natla's plan. Lara finds the device and destabilises it, then throws Mjolnir at Natla, knocking her into a lake of eitr. Lara and Amanda then use the chamber's dais travel device, escaping to the Nepalese monastery where Amelia first disappeared. Amanda tries to restart their fight, but backs down and leaves when Lara refuses; before she leaves, Lara bids goodbye to her mother. The downloadable content episodes "Beneath the Ashes" and "Lara's Shadow" are set after these events. The Doppelgänger, revealed to have survived, finds a disfigured Natla and is compelled through the magical command "Okh Eshivar" to take her to the Doppelgänger's birthplace in an ancient ruin. After the Doppelgänger restores the ruin's healing technology, Natla orders the Doppelgänger to kill Lara then itself. At Croft Manor, Lara finds notes on a Thrall-creating stone carved with the "Okh Eshivar" command. After a Thrall attacks from a cavern, she descends deeper into the catacombs and finds the stone. The Doppelgänger and attacks, and Lara says "Okh Eshivar" bringing the Doppelgänger under her control. After Lara questions the Doppelgänger's nature and the Doppelgänger states that they are both driven by something beyond their control−compulsion for the Doppelgänger and obsession for Lara−Lara frees the Doppelgänger from all commands and sends it back to Natla as a means of avenging Alistair. Back at the ruin, the Doppelgänger destroys the device, then watches as a trapped Natla is drowned in a rising pool of eitr. ## Development Planning for Underworld began during the final production stages of Legend in 2006, with the team feeling they had a strong-enough fan response and set of gameplay concepts to begin planning ahead. There were also features that could not be included in Legend which were envisioned as being possible in a sequel. Eric Lindstrom, who had previously worked as a scenario writer on Legend, acted as creative director. Alex Jones, later acting as a co-producer for DmC: Devil May Cry (2013), acted as the project's senior producer. The other staff included Harley White-Wiedow as lead designer, lead programmer Rob Pavey, and Patrick Sirk acted as art director. Production lasted roughly two and a half years. Development was troubled by multiple factors. Production of Underworld ran parallel to Anniversary, with Anniversary developed by a separate time based on the Legend game engine. Due to this, Underworld suffered due to staff shortages. For Underworld, a new engine was created that was later dubbed the CDC engine. They had trouble adapting to the new technology, as the engine had to be built from stratch rather than carrying over the earlier code from Legend. Other troubles included the original lead level designer dying in the middle of production, and another core staff member needing to leave to have her baby. The ship escape Lara experiences in the opening level, intended to feel like an action movie, was almost cut from the game several times due to its technical challenges. Lindstrom later called the game's successful development "a miracle" due to the difficulties of transitioning onto next-generation hardware and the staff limitations. While proud of their achievement, he regretted not being able to have a more polished product by release, attributing this failing mainly to over-ambition from himself and other team members. The gameplay was built around the question "What could Lara do?": while carrying over the established platforming and action, the team wanted to remove as many arbitrary barriers as possible, allowing Lara to traverse the environment in a more natural manner. They also wanted to steer away from the corridor-style levels of their earlier games and have an open area with some freedom of choice for players, and better incorporate Lara's toolset such as the grappling line into puzzles. Some gameplay elements planned for Underworld were first shown off in Anniversary, with Lindstrom working with that game's director Jason Botta to test them out on the fan base before Underworld released. The separated elements of its difficulty settings were implemented to give players more control over their gameplay experience. For the enemy artificial intelligence (AI), Crystal Dynamics licensed the NavPower middleware from BabelFlux, allowing for more variety in its AI behaviour. Adrenaline Moments were designed as an alternative to the previously used quick time events which were falling out of fashion in the gaming world. Adrenaline Moments allowed the team to create similar cinematic moments without removing player interaction. Designing the feature, which had slow motion elements, presented a challenge as the team did not want it compared to the bullet time used in other media. After hand-animation was used for Legend and Anniversary, for Underworld Lara's animations were created using motion capture, chosen by the team to allow for a more fluid and natural style of movement compared to her earlier games. Her motion capture animations were then blended together using hand animation to create smooth transitions between different gameplay stances. Keeley Hawes returned from Legend and Anniversary to voice Lara. Her motion capture was performed by Olympic gymnast Heidi Moneymaker and stuntwoman Helena Barrett. To portray her at trade shows, Eidos hired model Alison Carroll. Carroll was the last live model for Lara. ### Scenario and world design Underworld forms part of a trilogy together with Legend and Anniversary. The scenario was co-written by Lindstrom and Lara's credited co-creator Toby Gard; the script was written by Lindstrom. Gard was credited on the game as cinematic director. Additional writing work was done by the Freeman Group, led by screenwriter David Freeman. Underworld was Gard's last project at Crystal Dynamics before leaving in 2009, and is his last Tomb Raider game to date. In an interview that year, he felt his influence on Lara had growing less since Legend due to the increasing size of the team and the input of the director and publisher, feeling it was the right time to leave Lara behind for other game projects. The story delivery was intended to balance the dialogue-heavy approach of Legend and more solitary atmosphere of Anniversary, in addition to the atmosphere being darker and having environmental weather and effects tying into the story. This was partly in response to negative feedback from players of Legend about Alistair and Zip talking too much during gameplay. The game's title "Underworld" had multiple meanings; she was visiting multiple underworld locations across different cultures as part of her adventure, reaching a darker part of her "internal journey", and the tone of the adventure and locations was more sombre than earlier games. The storyline of Underworld was made "epic" and dramatic, with the team wanting to raise the stakes. While a single location with multiple ruins to explore was considered, the team wanted a world-spanning adventure that would take in multiple ruins themed around underworld legends worldwide, informing the game and story design from that point on. Norse mythology was chosen as the unifying thread for the story, with additional mythologies building on that. Lindstrom made the initial decision of which mythology the game would use during pre-production talks with Gard, with the two then making the story as brief and entertaining as possible. The story also referenced similar myths appearing worldwide, something that had fascinated Gard for years. A central theme of the narrative was Lara's determination to uncover the truth behind Mjolnir, despite the risks of unleashing something of world-destroying power, calling into question the reasons behind and justification for her adventuring. While there was a trend for series to darken their tones to sometimes mixed reactions, Gard explained the tonal shift as a natural progression of the Legend trilogy. The storyline originally featured a colleague of Lara's father and his niece, who would be possessed by an artefact dubbed the Eye of Odin. The characters and artefact were cut from the game as it made the narrative too complicated, with the team wanting to focus on Natla's plan and associated roles of Amanda and the Doppelgänger. Speaking about Lara's historically exaggerated figure, Lindstrom noted that they focused on making both Lara and the environments "larger than life", focusing on spectacle and making the character "credible" over being realistic. The enemies were split into three categories; normal wildlife that could be found in each region she visits, cryptids that were undiscovered and potentially influenced by the magic of the ruins such as the Nāga in Thailand and giant spiders in Mexico, and purely magical beings like the Thralls. The Thralls drew on two aspects of Thor's folklore, his human servants Þjálfi and Röskva, and his goats Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr which would resurrect after being butchered and eaten if their bones were left intact. When creating the environments, team members went on research trips to Mexico, Belize and Cambodia, taking thousands of reference photographs. Thailand, which was featured prominently in the game's marketing, was based direction on ruins from Cambodia and the team included plant life native to the area to create a realistic feel to the level. Thailand was always envisioned as the game's "deep, lush exotic jungle experience", with the amount of vegetation and detail causing problems with the frame rate when it was turned into in-game assets. Croft Manor was built using the versions from Legend as a reference, lessening work for the team and providing an easy tutorial area, though it needed the largest memory allocation of any environment. For the Southern Mexico area, which was described as the testbed scenario for the game as a whole, the team based it on a number of areas including Uxmal with the aim of featuring a grounded scenario of Lara exploring a lost Mayan temple complex. The area around Jan Mayan and Helheim was trimmed down from the initial concept, which would have included navigating an ice labyrinth with the all-terrain bike. Crystal Dynamics licensed Turtle, a middleware lighting software, from Illuminate Labs. Sirk stated that its use allowed for greater dynamic lighting for both the in-game environments and their concept art. An important factor in showing off the locals was the in-game camera, which at key points was designed to focus on specific areas and angles to evoke a sense of scale and wonder. ### Music The music was principally composed by Colin O'Malley, with Legend and Anniversary composer Troels Brun Folmann creating the main theme and supervising the soundtrack. O'Malley and Folmann had met on an earlier project creating a sample library, which they used when creating the soundtrack. The music for Underworld was purely orchestral and ambient in style, with some pieces that only played once to accompany specific sequences rather than looping, a style emulating Tomb Raider titles from the Core Design era. This direction was influenced by Lindstrom's vision for the overall style, with Folmann bringing in O'Malley based on these requirements due to his ability to work on emotional and orchestral tracks. ## Release An entry designed for next-generation consoles was confirmed by Ian Livingston of Eidos Interactive in 2006 after the release of Legend. The "Underworld" subtitle was trademarked in November 2007. The game was officially revealed and previewed to the press in January, initially confirmed for PlayStation 3 (PS3), Xbox 360 and Windows personal computers (PC). Prior to any official release date being announced, Eidos parent company SCi Games announced a delay alongside versions for PlayStation 2 (PS2), Wii and Nintendo DS. Its official title was revealed in February with a planned release "later" in 2008. During marketing in mid-2008, Eidos hired Luton Hoo and turned some interiors into a version of Croft Manor. A game demo was released for PC on 31 October through the game's website. Underworld was the last entry to be published by Eidos, who were bought and absorbed by Square Enix the following year. Crystal Dynamics decided to create a second series reboot, released in 2013 under the title Tomb Raider, additionally working on the spin-off title Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light. While sharing the same story, many different versions of Underworld were developed for different platforms. Crystal Dynamics handled development for the 360 version. Nixxes Software, in addition to providing general development tools, handled the PC and PS3 versions. Buzz Monkey Software provided programming and animation support for the 360 and PS3 versions, and handled the ports to PS2 and Wii. Development of the Wii version was influenced by reviews and feedback of the Wii port of Anniversary, with the more positively received touch-based puzzles increasing in number. The gameplay was expanded in some areas with new zones, while the shooting controls were carried over from Anniversary. The DS version was developed by Santa Cruz Games. The DS version was built around the platform's limitations; most levels were presented as a 2D plain, and while Lara's model used 3D graphics much of the environment was built using 2D art. The side-scrolling genre was chosen to best fit Tomb Raider gameplay onto the platform. Lara's model used hand animation rather than motion capture and the levels were broken into small sections to allow for quick play sessions on the move, but the lighting used similar technology to the other versions. In both Nintendo hardware versions, care was taken to carry over as much of the established gameplay as possible. A version of the game was also developed for mobile devices, licensed out by Eidos to EA Mobile and developed by Distinctive Developments. The music and sound design was handled by High Score Studio. Feral Interactive created a port of the game for OS X. The PS3, 360, PC and DS versions were released in North America on 18 November, in Europe on 21 November, and in Australia on 4 December. A notable part of the European release was Eidos requesting that reviews scoring the game lower than an 8 or similar should not be released for a few days. In Australia, the game was distributed by the local branch of Atari. The PC version was released under the Games for Windows brand. The Wii version notably shipped with a bug where a key puzzle element which opened the path forward in the second level failed to appear, prompting Eidos to give advice on avoiding it to players and seek a solution for future printings. The mobile versions were released on 3 December 2008 by Electronic Arts. The PS2 version was released worldwide in 2009; in Europe on 23 January, 12 February in Australia, and 3 March in North America. A Japanese release through Spike was confirmed for 2009, initially for PS3, 360, Wii, PS2 and DS. It was released for PS3 and 360 on 29 January, and for PS2 and Wii on 23 April. The DS version went unreleased in the region. The OS X port was released digitally on 12 June 2012 by Feral Interactive. Exclusive to EB Games in Australia and New Zealand was the Tomb Raider: Underworld Ultimate Fan Pack, which was available on 360, PS3 and PC. The pack contained the retail version of the game, a Lara Croft calendar, a Lara Croft figurine, a Tomb Raider T-shirt, a trucker cap and a messenger bag. Exclusive to Game in the United Kingdom was the limited edition of Tomb Raider: Underworld, which was available on 360, PS3 and PC. The edition included a bonus disc, which contained behind-the-scenes documentary, promotional artwork, an exclusive soundtrack, videos and trailers. Themed merchandise was created based on the game, including figurines and books containing artwork from the games up to that point. The PS3 version of Underworld was bundled with ports of Legend and Anniversary in a collection dubbed The Tomb Raider Trilogy. The collection was published worldwide in March 2011. ### Downloadable content Prior to release, Crystal Dynamics and Eidos were approached by Microsoft to create exclusive DLC for the Xbox 360, with Lindstom describing the content as being entirely new rather than material held back from the main game. According to a later statement, Lindstrom said that some features were cut from the main game due to time constraints and were incorporated into the DLC, which he was pleased about. The design goal for "Beneath the Ashes" was to expand upon the gameplay concepts of the main game in a new environment, while "Lara's Shadow" gave the team an opportunity to create new gameplay mechanics for the Doppleganger. While the narratives built on established plot points, they were intended as standalone experiences that would not fit into the main campaign. For the DLC, Eidos collaborated with fashion designers in Quebec to create outfits for Lara, one of them voted on by fans. Originally planned for release on 24 February 2009, the first episode "Beneath the Ashes" was delayed due to an unspecified technical issue. "Beneath the Ashes" was released on 24 February, while "Lara's Shadow" was released on 10 March. ## Reception Tomb Raider: Underworld received generally positive reviews from critics. The Xbox 360, PC and PlayStation 3 versions of the game were generally highly praised, with many critics comparing Underworld to older titles in the series, such as GamesRadar and The Guardian. In reviews, the environments have been widely praised, many reviewers also praised Lara's motion captured movements and the much less linear style of gameplay, while some criticisms aimed at its "haywire" camera angles and "dodgy" combat system. IGN described the game as enjoyable for the puzzles, exploration and graphics. They went on to praise that quick time events were replaced with adrenaline moments and noted improvements in combat, such as the ability to aim at two enemies at once and new sticky bombs. Similarly, Edge described Underworld as a "rare game that manages to provide a real adventure to go along with its action", praising its frenetic pace and Lara's new abilities. However, GamesRadar marked the game down for "dodgy combat", but the exploration was highly praised. Nintendo Power and GamesRadar also praised the game's platforming elements. Despite mentions of camera issues and weaker combat, critics described it as "as good as Tomb Raider has ever been" and "the Tomb Raider we've been waiting for!" The Wii and PlayStation 2 versions received mostly mixed to negative reviews. IGN commented the Wii version "is not a bad game" but they were critical of its puzzles, minimal combat and the game's length. GameSpot called Underworld as an enjoyable adventure, but was critical of bugs, camera issues, and the extras for Wii version. The PlayStation 2 version was called "an embarrassment to the franchise" by IGN. They went on to say that the version was such a poor conversion that it shouldn't have been released, criticising the game's bugs, linear gameplay and minimal combat. Tomb Raider: Underworld received a BAFTA nomination in 2009. For Underworld'''s story, Lindstrom and Gard received a nomination for the WGAW's Videogame Writing Award. ### Sales In early 2009, Eidos said that Tomb Raider: Underworld sales failed to meet expectations, selling 1.5 million copies worldwide as of 31 December 2008. They later announced in February that the game had sold around 2.6 million copies worldwide. Also, on 8 May, Ian Livingstone, President of Eidos Interactive, said that Underworld has met their target expectations. The same month, Tomb Raider: Underworld was released as part of both the Xbox Classics and PS3 Platinum Range. In December 2011, Tomb Raider: Underworld'' was given away for free to subscribers of the PlayStation Plus service. As of September 2021, the game has sold an estimated 3.8 million copies.

Signaling of the New York City Subway

Most trains on the New York City Subway are manually operated. As of 2022, the system currently uses Automatic Block Signaling, with fixed wayside signals and automatic train stops. Many portions of the signaling system were installed between the 1930s and 1960s. Because of the age of the subway system, many replacement parts are unavailable from signaling suppliers and must be custom-built for the New York City Transit Authority, which operates the subway. Additionally, some subway lines have reached their train capacity limits and cannot operate extra trains in the current system. There have been two different schemes of signaling in the system. The current scheme is used on all A Division and B Division lines, originally built to the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) and Independent Subway System (IND)'s specifications. An older system was previously used on all of the A Division, but with the conversion of the IRT Dyre Avenue Line signals to the B Division scheme in September 2017, this system is no longer in use. As part of the modernization of the New York City Subway, the MTA plans to upgrade and automate much of the system with communications-based train control (CBTC) technology, which will automatically start and stop trains. The CBTC system is mostly automated and uses a moving block system—which reduces headways between trains, increases train frequencies and capacities, and relays the trains' positions to a control room—rather than a fixed block system. The implementation of CBTC requires new rolling stock to be built for the subway routes using the technology, as only newer trains use CBTC. ## Block signaling The New York City Subway system has, for the most part, used block signaling since its 1904 opening. As of May 2014, the system consists of about 14,850 signal blocks, 3,538 mainline switches, 183 major track junctions, 10,104 automatic train stops, and 339,191 signal relays. Trains used to be controlled by signal towers at interlockings, but this was eventually phased out in favor of master towers. Eventually, these master towers were replaced by a single rail control center: the New York City Transit Power Control Center in Midtown Manhattan. These signals work by preventing trains from entering a "block" occupied by another train. Typically, the blocks are 1,000 feet (300 m) long, although some highly used lines, such as the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, use shorter blocks. Insulators divide the track segments into blocks. The two traveling rails form a track circuit, as they conduct electric current. If the track circuit is open and electricity cannot travel between the rails, the signal will light up as green, as it is unoccupied by a train. When a train enters the block, the metal wheels close the circuit on the rails, and the signal turns red, marking the block as occupied. The train's maximum speed will depend on how many blocks are open in front of it. However, the signals do not register the trains' speed, nor do they register where in the block the train is located. If a train passes a red signal, the train stop automatically engages and activates the brakes. The New York City Subway generally distinguishes its current signals between automatic signals, which are solely controlled by train movements; approach signals, which can be forced to display a stop aspect by the interlocking tower; home signals, whose route is set by the interlocking tower; and additional signals (such as call-on, dwarf, marker, sign, repeater and time signals). Common automatic and approach signals consist of one signal head showing one of the following signal aspects: - stop (one red light); with special rules for call-on and timer signals - clear, next signal at clear or caution (one green light) - proceed with caution, be prepared to stop at next signal (one yellow light) Where different directions are possible, the subway uses both speed and route signaling. The upper signal head indicates the speed while the lower signal head is used for routes, with the main route shown in green and the diverging route shown in yellow. The old signals break down more easily, since some signals have outlasted their 50-year service life by up to 30 years, and signal problems accounted for 13% of all subway delays in 2016. Additionally, some subway services have reached their train capacity limits and cannot operate extra trains with the current Automatic Block Signaling system. ### Types of block signals #### Standard block signals The following indications are used for blocks where there are no track divergences (i.e. junctions) in the block immediately ahead. Older signals on the former IRT lines may use different indications, which are not shown. The lights on the older IRT signals, from top to bottom, were green, red, and yellow. The lights on current signals, from top to bottom, are green, yellow, and red. #### Key-by signals The system also has automatic and manual "key-by" red signals where the conductor can insert a physical key into the wayside block signal, changing the signal indication from red to yellow. The signals involve the operation of an automatic stop with an automatic or manual release, then to procede with caution, with preparations to stop in case of debris or other obstructions on the track. Until 1970, when a train paused at a red block signal the train operator was allowed to pass the red signal by keying-by. That is, the train operator pauses at the red signal and then gets out of the cab, descends to the tracks' level, and cranks down the track trip with a key-like device. After a series of accidents in which train operators keyed by and crashed into trains in front, including a crash north of the Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets station in 1970, the procedure was banned unless permission was granted by the train dispatchers. #### Time signals Speed control on the subway is ensured by "time signals". A timer, counting up, is started as soon as the train passes a certain point and will clear the signal ahead as soon as the predefined time elapsed. The minimum time is calculated from the speed limit and the distance between start of timer and signal. "time signals" are distinguished into "grade timers" for speed supervision at grades, curves or in front of buffer stops, and "station timers" to allow one train to enter a station just as another is leaving, as long as these trains are going at a reduced speed. There are two types of grade-time signals. The first type, "two-shot timers", are generally used on down grades where the train must be under a set speed for a longer length of track. They are so named because a train operator would have two chances, or "shots", to pass the signal within the posted speed limit. "One-shot timers", on the other hand, are found at sharp curves, and are named because the operator only has one chance to pass the signal within the speed limit. #### Repeater signals "Repeater signals" are also used to maintain safe train operation around curves. These signals repeat the indication of a signal up ahead around a curve, and are located on the opposite side of the track from the signals they repeat. #### Wheel detectors Another addition to the system's transit signals are "Wheel Detectors". These are sensors that can determine how fast a train is moving based on how quickly the axles of a given car are moving. First introduced in 1996 at interlockings, they further enforce the speed at which a train is traveling through an interlocking, and they are only active when a switch is set to the divergent route. Wheel detectors prevent train operators from running slowly at the beginning of a grade timing segment and then increasing the speed beyond the allowable limit without being tripped. When the indication is flashing, the train is too fast and is about to be tripped. #### Gap filler signals "Gap filler signals" are used at the 14th Street–Union Square station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line. They were formerly used at the Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the South Ferry Loop station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line, and the Times Square–42nd Street station on the 42nd Street Shuttle. These stations are part of the A Division, which consists of lines built by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT). At these stops, gap fillers extend out from the platforms to bridge the space between the platform and the car body and door at the curved stations. The signal consists of a single red lamp and a "GF" indicator underneath. When the signal is red, the gap fillers are extended, and when the red light is no longer lit up, the gap fillers have been retracted, and the train operator can increase the speed of the train and leave the station. ### Types of interlocking signals Interlockings consist of two or more tracks that are connected by railroad switches; routes typically may conflict at these locations. They are arranged in a specific way, with switches and signals that prevent conflicting movements once one route is set up. Interlocking signals are fixed signals within an interlocking, containing two separate green-yellow-red signal heads and often other indications. A home signal is defined as an interlocking signal at the entrance to a route or block to control trains entering that route or block. Most interlockings only have one controlled signal on each track. Some home signals contain a third, yellow aspect, on the bottom, and are known as "call-on" signals. These signals allow the train operator to press a lever near the signal to lower the trip arm, allowing the train to pass the signal at slow speed even if the signal is displaying a red light. Similar signals can be found in yards. The three aspects on these signals, when all displaying yellow, allow the train operator to go past the signal at a slow speed without stopping the train. Interlocking signals are controlled by human operators in a signal tower near the switches, not by the trains themselves. A train operator must use a punch box, which is located besides the cab window in the station closest to the interlocking, to notify the switch operator of which track the train needs to go to. The switch operator has a switchboard in their tower that allows them to change the switches. Interlocking signals also tell train operators which way switches on the subway are set. The top part of an interlocking signal indicates the condition of the block ahead, while the lower part indicates the route selected. The following interlocking signals are used on the New York City Subway: #### Variants Until the DeKalb Avenue junction's reconstruction in 1958, there was a three-way switch at that junction, the only one in the system. A special blue signal was used for the third option. Another signal type is a "dwarf signal", which is often used at switches to allow for occasional movements against the usual direction of train traffic. Controlled manually from a tower, they are not part of ordinary operations, and they generally do not include trip arms. ### Modifications to signals On June 8, 1927, the New York State Transit Commission (NYSTC) ordered the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) to install automatic signals and automatic tripping devices on the remaining 142 miles (229 km) of unsignalled local tracks. The NYSTC ordered the Interborough Rapid Transit Company to install automatic signals and automatic tripping devices on all 183 miles (295 km) of unsignalled local tracks on June 29, 1927. The work was to estimated to cost \$9,345,800 on the BMT, and \$13,328,400 on the IRT. On March 16, 1931, the installation of signaling on the local tracks of the BMT Jamaica Line from 168th Street to Broadway Junction was complete. Work to install signaling on the IRT White Plains Road Line from Wakefield–241st Street to Gun Hill Road was completed on June 7, 1931, while the work on the elevated portion of the IRT Pelham Line was completed on August 5, 1931. The signal installation on the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line from Broadway to Metropolitan Avenue was completed on October 4, 1931. The signaling of the BMT Brighton Line was completed on December 16, 1931. After a collision between two trains on the Williamsburg Bridge in 1995, in which a train operator was killed after speeding his train into the back of another, the MTA modified both signals and trains to lower their average speeds. Trains' maximum speeds were reduced from 55 miles per hour (89 km/h) to 40 miles per hour (64 km/h), and the MTA installed grade-time signals around the system to ensure that a train could only travel under a certain maximum speed before it was allowed to proceed. Some of these time signals malfunctioned: they prevented trains from passing even if the operator had slowed down the train to the speed that was indicated, and so some operators slowed trains further in case a time signal forced trains to wait for longer than was indicated. This resulted in overcrowded trains, since fewer trains per hour were able to proceed on certain sections of track. By 2012, over 1,200 signals had been modified, and of these, 1.1% (13 signals) caused passengers to spend 2,851 more hours on trains per weekday, compared to before the modifications. By mid-2018, the number of modified signals had grown to 1,800, before going up to 2,000 at years' end. As of 2017, some of the oldest block signals in the system were 80 years old, and they broke down frequently, causing more delays and prompting the MTA to declare a state of emergency for the subway in 2017. An MTA investigation found that between December 2017 and January 2018, broken signals caused 11,555 train delays. In summer 2018, New York City Transit started evaluating twenty places where signal timers affect service the most. Speed limits have remained relatively unchanged even as improvements in track geometry and car design allow trains to operate at higher speeds. Where possible, the agency has sought to increase speed limits. In summer 2018, New York City Transit president Andy Byford created the SPEED Unit to reduce delays by modifying operating and service practices. Soon after, the MTA began testing timers as part of the first systemwide review of timers to determine whether they are allowing trains to run at the posted maximum speed. The MTA eventually identified 267 faulty timer signals that disallowed trains from proceeding at the speed limit, and thus, forced trains to run significantly slower than intended. Train operators that pass the signals at or near their posted speeds have gotten punished due to the agency's strict discipline culture even though the signals are malfunctioning. Byford stated that "I don't think that safety and speed are incompatible." By December 2018, the SPEED Unit had found 130 locations where the speed limit could be increased, some of which were in the process of being fixed. It was also announced that speed limits would be doubled in some parts of the system, and that average speeds would generally be increased from 10–20 mph (16–32 km/h) to 40 mph (64 km/h). In January 2019, it was announced that 95% of timers had been tested, and that the 320 faulty timers discovered were in the process of being fixed. In addition, 68 locations had been approved for increases in speed limits. The following month, the MTA hired subway-signal expert Pete Tomlin. As of March 2021, the MTA had increased speed limits at 64 locations since the preceding year. ### Chaining To precisely specify locations along the New York City Subway lines, a chainage system is used. It measures distances from a fixed point, called chaining zero, following the path of the track, so that the distance described is understood to be the "railroad distance," not the distance by the most direct route ("as the crow flies"). This chaining system differs from the milepost or mileage system. The New York City Subway system differs from other railroad chaining systems in that it uses the engineer's chain of 100 feet (30.48 m) rather than the surveyor's chain of 66 feet (20.12 m). Chaining is used in the New York City Subway system in conjunction with train radios, in order to ascertain a train's location on a given line. ## Automatic Train Supervision The New York City Subway uses a system known as Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) for dispatching and train routing on the A Division. The IRT Flushing Line, and the trains used on the , do not have ATS for two reasons: they are isolated from the main-line A Division, and they were already planned to get communications-based train control (CBTC) before the ATS on the A Division, or ATS-A project, had started. ATS allows dispatchers in the Operations Control Center (OCC) to see where trains are in real time, and whether each individual train is running early or late. Dispatchers can hold trains for connections, re-route trains, or short-turn trains to provide better service when a disruption causes delays. ATS is used to facilitate the installation of train arrival displays, which count down the number of minutes until a train arrives, on the A Division and on the BMT Canarsie Line. ATS was first proposed for the BMT Canarsie Line and the A Division in 1992, after a 1991 derailment killed five people on a 4 train that derailed near the 14th Street–Union Square station. CBTC for the Canarsie Line was proposed two years later. The deployment of ATS-A involved upgrading signals to be compatible for future CBTC retrofitting, as well as consolidating operations from 23 different master towers into the Rail Control Center. Parsons Corporation helped the MTA install the system on the 175 miles (282 km) of A Division track, as well as doing some preliminary planning for ATS on the B Division. The project ended up costing \$200 million. Its completion was delayed by five years, and it ultimately took 14 years to implement ATS-A. However, ATS-A's deployment was delayed due to several issues. The unique specifications of New York City Subway's equipment, the MTA's choice to use its own workers rather than outside contractors, and the inadequate training of contractors all contributed to delays. In addition, the MTA kept missing deadlines for testing ATS. The single biggest issue during the project, though, was the fact that MTA and the contractors did not cooperate well, which was attributed mostly to poor communication. In 2006, 2008, and 2010, the MTA considered upgrading the B Division to ATS, but dismissed the proposal because it was too complex and would take too long. However, the MTA stated that due to high customer demand for train arrival displays, it would use a combination of CBTC and a new system, named the "Integrated Service Information and Management" (abbreviated ISIM-B). The simpler ISIM-B system, started in 2011, would essentially combine all of the data from track circuits and unify them into digital databases; the only upgrades that were needed were to be performed on signal towers. At the time, although the entire A Division had ATS, only seven lines of the B Division had a modernized control system (the IND Concourse Line, 63rd Street Lines, BMT Astoria Line, BMT Brighton Line, BMT Franklin Avenue Line, BMT Sea Beach Line, and BMT West End Line, as well as part of the IND Culver Line and the tracks around Queens Plaza). Originally slated to be completed by 2017, ISIM-B was later delayed to 2020. In 2015, the MTA awarded Siemens a contract to install a CBTC-compatible ATS system on most of the B division at a cost of \$156,172,932. The contract excluded the Canarsie Line (which already had CBTC) and the IND Queens Boulevard Line and approaches (which was set to receive CBTC by 2021). The Queens Boulevard Line routes are served by the , but since the N, Q and W routes also share tracks with the R train in Manhattan, they will also have ATS installed. The cost of the ATS contract for the B division was later increased by \$8.75 million. ## Automation Trains using CBTC locate themselves based on measuring their distance in relation to fixed transponders installed between the rails. Trains equipped with CBTC have a transponder interrogator antenna beneath each carriage, which communicates with the fixed trackside transponders and report the trains' location to a wayside Zone Controller via radio. Then, the Controller issues Movement Authority to the trains. This technology upgrade will allow trains to be operated at closer distances, slightly increasing capacity; will allow the MTA to keep track of trains in real time and provide more information to the public regarding train arrivals and delays; and will eliminate the need for complex interlocking towers. The trains are also equipped with computers inside the cab so that the conductor can monitor the train's speed and relative location. The wayside controllers themselves are located in enclosed boxes that can withstand floods and natural disasters. The traditional block systems will remain on these lines despite the installation of CBTC. The block system handles all control and supervision of routes through interlockings including switch (point) control and switch status, for broken rail protection, and tracking of trains that are operating without CBTC. Lines equipped with CBTC are fully track-circuited with power frequency, single-rail track circuits. However, broken-rail protection is only guaranteed on one of the two rails of a track. Equipment aboard every train identifies the location of the train using wayside transponders as a basis. Once the Zone Controller has determined, based on track circuit information and train localization, that the CBTC train is a single discrete train, they use this information to grant movement authorities based on conditions ahead. The CBTC Zone Controller functions then as an overlay which only provides safe separation of trains and cannot do so without interaction from the Wayside (Legacy) Signaling system. Trains, with CBTC, can then operate closer together, although as before, platform dwell times and train performance are the true limiting factors in terms of headway performance. With the new system, signals and interlockings are still required, their job being done better by relay interlockings or Solid State Interlocking controllers. The ATS system at the Control Center is not a vital system and serves only to automate the routing of trains based on the overall timetable. The location of the train is also used to inform passengers of arrival times. The MTA's form of CBTC uses a reduced form of the old fixed-block signaling system, requiring that both be maintained at high cost. Only newer-generation rolling stock that were first delivered in the early 2000s are designed for CBTC operation. These rolling stock include the R143s, R188s, and R160s. Initially, only 64 R160As (fleet numbers 8313–8376) were equipped with CBTC, but the remainder of the fleet was retrofitted with CBTC for Queens Boulevard automation. Future car orders are also designed to be CBTC-compatible, such as the R179. All R211s will have CBTC. After the retirement of the R68 and R68A cars, all revenue cars, except those on the G, J, M, and Z trains as well as the shuttles, will be equipped with CBTC. The BMT Canarsie Line was the first line to implement the automated technology, using Siemens's Trainguard MT CBTC system. Most subway services cannot significantly increase their frequencies during rush hours, except for the , G, J/Z, L, and M trains (the L service already is automated with CBTC). Therefore, transit planners are viewing the installation of CBTC as a way to free up track capacity for more trains to run, and have shorter headways between trains. However, installing CBTC in the New York City Subway is harder than in other systems due to the subway's complexity. The MTA hopes to install 16 miles (26 km) of CBTC-equipped tracks per year, while the Regional Plan Association wants the MTA to install CBTC signals on 21 miles (34 km) of tracks per year. However, even without CBTC, the system is currently retrofitted to operate at frequencies of up to 60 trains per hour (tph) on the IND Queens Boulevard Line (30 tph on each of the local and express pairs of tracks made possible by the Jamaica–179th Street terminal, which has four sidings past the terminal for each set of tracks) and 33 tph on the IRT Flushing Line. The BMT Canarsie Line is limited to a 26 tph frequency due to the bumper blocks at both of its terminals and power constraints; however, the IRT Lexington Avenue Line operates at frequencies of 27 tph without CBTC. By contrast, lines on the Moscow Metro can operate at frequencies of up to 40 tph, since lines in the Moscow Metro, unlike most of the New York City Subway (but like the Jamaica–179th Street station), typically have four sidings past the terminals instead of bumper blocks or one or two sidings. ### 42nd Street Shuttle automation The 42nd Street Shuttle, which runs from Grand Central to Times Square, was briefly automated from 1959 to 1964. The chairman of the Board of Transportation, Sidney H. Bingham, in 1954, first proposed a conveyor belt-like system for the shuttle line, but the plan was canceled due to its high cost. Subsequently, in 1958, the newly formed New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) started studying the feasibility of automatically operated trains which did not have motormen. The NYCTA conducted the study in conjunction with the General Railway Signal Company; the Union Switch and Signal division of the Westinghouse Air Brake Company; General Electric; and Western Electric. The next year, NYCTA president Charles Patterson made a speech about the results of the automated mass transit study. It was estimated that on the 42nd Street Shuttle alone, full automation could result in a \$150,000 annual savings. #### Sea Beach Line test track Starting in December 1959, the fully automatic train was tested on the BMT Sea Beach Line express tracks between the 18th Avenue and New Utrecht Avenue stations. The idea of automation at that time relied on commands that were sent to the train while the train is at a station, to keep its doors open. The train was equipped with a telephone system to keep voice communication with human dispatchers at the two shuttle terminals. At each station there was a cabinet that housed 24 relay systems that made up electronic dispatchers. The relays controlled the train's starting, acceleration, braking, and stopping, as well as the opening and closing of the car doors. When the commands cease, the doors would promptly close. A new series of commands would start the train and gradually accelerate it to 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), its full speed, slowing to 5.5 miles per hour (8.9 km/h) when coming into the two stations. When entering stations, the train passed through a series of detectors, which caused a series of tripper arms at trackside to go into the open position if the train was going at the correct speed. If the train was going too quickly, the tripper arms would stay upright and the train's brakes would automatically be set. The equipment was built and installed by General Railway Signal and Union Switch and Signal. The NYCTA contributed between \$20,000 to \$30,000 on the project and supplied the three R22 subway cars to be automated. The bulk of the money, between \$250,000 and \$300,000, was contributed by the two companies, which paid for installation, maintenance and technological oversight of the automation process, including signaling. The automation of the shuttle was opposed by the president of the Transport Workers Union, Michael J. Quill, who pledged to fight the project and called the device "insane." The R22s were fitted with different types of brake shoes, to see which one would negotiate the rail joints better. It was eventually found that the automated trip took 10 seconds longer than manual operation (about 95 seconds, compared to 85 seconds). As the tests on the Sea Beach Line progressed, grade time stops were added to ensure safety on the line, and on the 42nd Street Shuttle. The train was dubbed SAM, and was to operate on Track 4 of the shuttle line. #### Implementation and demise In the afternoon of January 4, 1962, the three-car automated train began service, with a ceremony. The trains carried a stand-by motorman during the six-month trial period. The train had scheduled to begin service on December 15, 1961, but Quill threatened a walkout at all of the city's municipal and privately-owned transit if the train ran. Under the new contract with the TWU, the NYCTA agreed to put a motorman in the train during the experimental period. While in its experimental period, the automated train was only operating during rush hours. In July, the test was extended for three more months, and in October the test was extended for six additional months. The chairman of the NYCTA, Charles Patterson, was disappointed by the automated shuttle train, doubting that the train could be operated without any transit personnel on board. Initially, the automation of the shuttle was expected to save \$150,000 a year in labor costs; however, with one employee still required on the train, there would essentially be no savings. If the test succeeded, it was planned to automate the IRT Flushing Line, the BMT Canarsie Line, the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Culver Shuttle. These lines were chosen because the train services on all five lines, as well as the 42nd Street Shuttle, did not regularly share tracks with any other services. At the time, the NYCTA did not have plans to automate the whole system. The rest of the system included a myriad of instances where several different services merged and shared tracks, and automating the rest of the system would have been logistically difficult. The Canarsie and Myrtle Avenue Lines were later cut from the plans, but it was expected that the other three lines would be automated if the test was successful. A severe fire at the Grand Central station on April 21, 1964, destroyed the demonstration train. The fire began under a shuttle train on track 3, and it became larger, feeding on the wooden platform. The train on Track 1 was saved when the motorman saw smoke, and reversed the train. The basements of nearby buildings were damaged. Tracks 1 and 4 returned to service on April 23, 1964, while Track 3 returned to service on June 1, 1964. The reinstallation of Track 3 was delayed because of the need to replace 60 beams that were damaged in the fire. Reconstruction of the line continued through 1967. In 1978, senior NYCTA executive John de Roos said that the authority would consider running automated trains following the completion of the 63rd Street lines, which were then scheduled to be opened in 1984 or 1985. Automated rapid transit technology was later installed in the San Francisco Bay Area's BART system and the Philadelphia metropolitan area's PATCO Speedline. After the fire that destroyed the automated shuttle subway cars, ideas for New York City Subway automation lay dormant for years, until an intoxicated motorman caused a train crash at Union Square station that killed 5 people and injured 215. The collision was a catalyst to a 1994 business case outlining arguments for automatic train operation (ATO) and CBTC, which led to the automation of the BMT Canarsie Line starting in the early 2000s. In 1997, the year the Canarsie Line project started, the whole subway was to be automated by 2017, but by 2005, the completion date had been pushed back to 2045. ### CBTC test cases The first two lines, totaling 50 miles (80 km) of track miles, received CBTC from 2000 to 2018. The two lines with the initial installations of CBTC were both chosen because their respective tracks are relatively isolated from the rest of the subway system, and they have fewer junctions along the route. #### Canarsie Line CBTC The Canarsie Line, on which the L service runs, was chosen for CBTC pilot testing because it is a self-contained line that does not operate in conjunction with other subway lines in the New York City subway system. The 10-mile length of the Canarsie Line is also shorter than the majority of other subway lines. As a result, the signaling requirements and complexity of implementing CBTC are easier to install and test than the more complicated subway lines that have junctions and share trackage with other lines. Siemens Transportation Systems built the CBTC system on the Canarsie line. The CBTC project was first proposed in 1994 and approved by the MTA in 1997. Installation of the signal system was begun in 2000. Initial testing began in 2004, and installation was mostly completed by December 2006, with all CBTC-equipped R143 subway cars in service by that date. Due to an unexpected ridership increase on the Canarsie Line, the MTA ordered more R160 cars and these were put into service in 2010. This enabled the agency to operate up to 20 trains per hour up from the May 2007 service level of 15 trains per hour, an achievement that would not be possible without the CBTC technology or a redesign of the previous automatic block signal system. The R143s and R160s both use Trainguard MT CBTC, supplied by Siemens. In the 2015–2019 Capital Program, funding was provided for three more electrical substations for the line so service could be increased from 20 to 22 trains per hour. Also included in the Capital Program is the installation of automatic signals on the line to facilitate the movement of work trains between interlockings. #### Flushing Line CBTC The next line to have CBTC installed was the pre-existing IRT Flushing Line and its western extension opened in 2015 (served by the ). The Flushing Line was chosen for the second implementation of CBTC because it is also a self-contained line with no direct connections to other subway lines currently in use, aside from the merging of express and local services. The 2010–2014 MTA Capital Program provided funding for CBTC installation on the Flushing Line, with scheduled installation completion in 2016. The R188 cars were ordered in 2010 to equip the line with compatible rolling stock. This order consists of new cars and retrofits of existing R142A cars for CBTC. In late winter 2008, the MTA embarked on a 5-week renovation and upgrade project on the between Flushing–Main Street and 61st Street–Woodside to upgrade signaling and tracks for CBTC. On February 27, 2008, the MTA issued an Accelerated Capital Program to continue funding the completion of CBTC for the and to begin on the IND Queens Boulevard Line (). The installation is being done by Thales Group, which was awarded the contract for the project on June 16, 2010. CBTC, as well as the new track configuration added in the line's 2015 extension, allowed the to run 2 more tph during peak hours, increasing service from 27 to 29 tph. The first train of R188 cars began operating in passenger service on November 9, 2013. Test runs of R188s in automated mode started in late 2014. However, the CBTC retrofit date was later pushed back to 2017 and then to 2018 after a series of problems that workers encountered during installation, including problems with the R188s. The project also went over budget, costing \$405 million for a plan originally marked at \$265.6 million. In February 2017, the MTA started overnight testing of CBTC on the Flushing Line from Main Street to 74th Street, with CBTC being used in regular passenger service by August and full implementation in October. By February 2018, the rest of the line from 74th Street to 34th Street–Hudson Yards was projected to begin operating in CBTC service in fall 2018. CBTC was activated on the segment between 74th Street and the Steinway Tunnel over eight weekends in mid-2018. The remaining segment of the Flushing Line, between the Steinway Tunnel and 34th Street–Hudson Yards, began operating in CBTC service on November 26, 2018. However, the MTA also stated that several more weeks of maintenance work would be needed before the system was fully operational. The project was substantially completed on March 7, 2019, and full automatic train operation began in May 2019, allowing for the increase in service to 29 tph. The MTA's Independent Engineering Consultant noted that CBTC can support the operation of additional service, and recommended that NYCT use a simulation of the line to identify line constraints and bottlenecks, and undertake projects to increase the capacity of the line. ### Wider installation of CBTC As part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program, there will be 73.2 miles (117.8 km) of lines that will get CBTC, at a cost of \$2.152 billion (part of a \$2.766 billion automation/signaling project that is being funded in the Capital Program). Another \$337 million is to be spent on extra power substations for CBTC. This installation of CBTC would require Siemens and Thales to cooperate on the installation process for all of the lines; they had worked separately in installing the Canarsie Line's and Flushing Line's CBTC systems, respectively. #### Culver Line Funding was allocated for the installation of CBTC equipment on one of the IND Culver Line express tracks between Fourth Avenue and Church Avenue. The total cost was \$99.6 million, with \$15 million coming from the 2005–2009 capital budget and \$84.6 million from the 2010–2014 capital budget. The installation was a joint venture between Siemens and Thales Group. The test track project was completed in December 2015. This installation was intended to be permanent. Should Culver Line express service be implemented, the express service would not use CBTC, and testing of CBTC on the express track would be limited to off-peak hours. Test trains on the track were able to successfully operate using the interoperable Siemens/Thales CBTC system. That system became the standard for all future CBTC installations on New York City Transit tracks as of 2015. A third supplier, Mitsubishi Electric Power Products Inc., was given permission to demonstrate that its technology could be interoperable with the Siemens/Thales technology. The \$1.2 million Mitsubishi contract was approved in July 2015. As part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program, the section of the line between Church Avenue and West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium would receive CBTC. Three interlockings between Church Avenue and West Eighth Street—at Ditmas Avenue, Kings Highway, and Avenue X—would be upgraded. A contract for CBTC overlay, as well as modernization of the Ditmas Avenue and Avenue X interlockings, was awarded in February 2019, with substantial completion expected in June 2023. Tutor Perini was the primary contractor and installer. The timeline was delayed because of difficulties in installing new longer-lasting ties on the tracks. #### Queens Boulevard Line ##### QBL West In the 2010s, the MTA implemented CBTC on the western portion of the IND Queens Boulevard Line (QBL West). CBTC was be installed on this line in five phases, with phase one (50th Street/8th Avenue and 47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center to Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike) being included in the 2010–2014 capital budget. The 63rd Street Connection to 21st Street–Queensbridge would also be retrofitted with CBTC. The total cost for eventually automating the entire Queens Boulevard Line is estimated at over \$900 million, The automation of the Queens Boulevard Line means that the will be able to run 3 more trains during peak hours (it currently runs 29 tph). This will also increase capacity on the local tracks of the IND Queens Boulevard Line. However, as the line hosts several services, installation of CBTC on the line can be much harder than on the Flushing and Canarsie lines. On December 15, 2014, a contract to provide consulting services to support the installation of CBTC was awarded to Systra Engineering. Following the success of the Culver Line CBTC test track, the MTA awarded a \$205.8 million contract for the installment of phase one to Siemens on August 24, 2015 and Thales on August 31, 2015. These two suppliers were the only MTA-qualified suppliers that could install CBTC on New York City Transit tracks. Seven of eight interlockings in the first-phase section of the line would be upgraded under this contract. In conjunction with the project, 309 four- or five-car sets of R160s will receive Trainguard MT CBTC, the same CBTC system installed on trains assigned to the BMT Canarsie Line, which will be compatible with the SelTrac CBTC system installed on the tracks. Of the 309 units set to be converted for CBTC-compatibility, 305 will receive new onboard equipment, which NYCT contractors will install in 301 of these 305 units. As of June 2019, 155 units had been retrofitted. As of April 2022, the number of R160 sets with CBTC had been increased to 335, of which 310 units were already equipped. Planning for phase one started in 2015 and was complete by February 2016, with major engineering work following in November 2016. On December 22, 2016, as part of the second phase of CBTC installation on the Queens Boulevard Line, L.K. Comstock & Company Inc. was awarded the \$223.3-million contract to upgrade existing signals and install communications, fiber-optic, and CBTC infrastructure for the new signal system. The core of phase one was originally supposed to be completed by 2020 or 2021. However, by April 2018, the MTA projected that most of the infrastructure from 50th Street to Union Turnpike would be substantially completed by mid-2022. The testing of the integrated Siemens/Thales system began in August 2018 and was completed by May 2019, followed by the start of train-operator training simulations in June 2019. As of November 2018, phase one was to be substantially completed by March 2021, followed by phase two in July 2022. On March 26, 2019, Systra's contract to provide consulting services was extended by 23 months to support the extension of CBTC from Union Turnpike to 179th Street on the Queens Boulevard Line and to Jamaica Center on the IND Archer Avenue Line (QBL East). By November 2020, various difficulties and delays had pushed back the substantial completion date to the third or fourth quarter of 2021. A consultant for the MTA predicted that the CBTC system could not be activated as planned in March 2021 because of a lack of immediate funding and a shortage of CBTC-equipped trains. The forecast was then pushed back to the fourth quarter of 2021. The final section was activated in February 2022. ##### QBL East The 2015–2019 Capital Program was revised in April 2018 to fund to the design for the expedited installation of CBTC on the Lexington Avenue Line, the IND Archer Avenue Line and the Queens Boulevard Line east of Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike, known as QBL East. The draft 2020–2024 Capital Program calls for CBTC installation on the remainder of the IND Queens Boulevard Line to Jamaica–179th Street station, as well as the IND Archer Avenue Line. On December 15, 2021, the MTA Board approved the first of three contracts to install CBTC on the eastern portion of the Queens Boulevard Line. Under the project, interlockings at Briarwood, Parsons Boulevard, 169th Street, and 179th Street would be modernized. The 169th Street interlocking would be separated from the 179th Street interlocking. In addition, the north end of Union Turnpike Interlocking will receive CBTC functionality. Following the Eighth Avenue Line CBTC project, track circuits will be replaced with axle counters. EJ Electric is the installer and Mitsubishi is the CBTC supplier. The cost of the project will be \$539.5 million, and completion is forecasted for the second quarter of 2026. In December 2021, the contract for the installation of the project was awarded to EJ Electric while the contract for the supplying of CBTC equipment was awarded to Mitsubishi. In April 2022, the MTA was still negotiating with Siemens for the data communications system equipment contract. This will be Mitsubishi's first CBTC contract with the MTA, expanding the interoperability demonstration to three suppliers from two. #### Eighth Avenue Line Funding for the design of CBTC on the IND Eighth Avenue Line from 59th Street–Columbus Circle to High Street is also provided in the 2015–2019 Capital Program, along with the modernization of interlockings at 30th Street and north of 42nd Street, and the removal of an unused interlocking south of 42nd Street. The design of the Eighth Avenue Line CBTC project will be done concurrently with the Queens Boulevard Line West and East automation, allowing the E route to be semi-automated when the project is done. It will get two new electrical substations to support CBTC upgrades. Additionally, the R179 and R211 fleets will be made compatible with CBTC. Construction was originally scheduled to begin in October 2018, but a contract for CBTC installation was later pushed back to the first quarter of 2019. On January 13, 2020, the MTA announced that it had awarded the contract to L. K. Comstock & Company, Inc. for \$245.8 million. The signaling for the contract will be provided by Siemens. This will be the first CBTC project in the system to use axle-counters instead of insulated joints and track circuits. Axle counters are more resilient to debris and water, making them more reliable, and have been used for decades in systems around the world, and will reduce the time it takes to complete CBTC projects, the cost of completing work, and maintenance and life-cycle costs. Axle counters also allow CBTC testing before cutovers, reducing the time it takes to complete cutovers and any risks associated with them. As of November 2020, the entire project is budgeted at \$733.6 million. The project will be completed by January 2025. Work was 57 percent complete in April 2022. Due to delays in the completion of the R211 rolling stock contract, an alternative cutover plan was developed to allow CBTC on the local tracks to be placed into use before the express tracks. #### Crosstown Line The MTA planned to put the contract to install CBTC on the Crosstown Line to Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets station and modify the three interlockings on the line up for bid in 2022. The cost of the project is estimated to be \$556.4 million. On May 16, 2022, the MTA put out the RFP for the design-build contract to install CBTC on the Crosstown Line. Court Square Interlocking will be modified to interface with CBTC while mechanical interlockings at Nostrand Avenue and Nassau Avenue will be replaced. Relay rooms and towers at Nostrand Avenue and Nassau Avenue will be decommissioned as part of the project. Following the Eighth Avenue and QBL East projects, this project will include the use of axle counters instead of track circuits. Work on the project is expected to take four years. In December 2022, the MTA announced that it would award a \$368 million design–build contract to Crosstown Partners, a joint venture between Thales Group and TC Electric LLC. The contract includes not only the Crosstown Line between Court Square and Bergen Street, but also the Culver Line between Bergen Street and Church Avenue. #### Fulton Street Line On November 9, 2022, the MTA put out the RFP for the design-build contract to install CBTC on the Fulton Street Line between High Street and Euclid Avenue, on the Sixth Avenue Line from York Street to Jay Street–MetroTech, the Culver Line from Jay Street to both the upper and lower levels of Bergen Street, and on the Crosstown Line from Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets to Bergen Street. This project will also use axle counters, and is expected to take six years. #### Other lines In a 2014 report, the MTA projected that 355 miles of track would receive CBTC signals by 2029, including most of the IND, as well as the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and the BMT Broadway Line. The MTA was also planning to install CBTC equipment on the IND Crosstown Line, the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and the BMT Brighton Line before 2025. On the other hand, Regional Plan Association prioritized the Lexington Avenue, Crosstown, Eighth Avenue, Fulton Street, Manhattan Bridge, Queens Boulevard, Rockaway, and Sixth Avenue subway lines as those in need of CBTC between 2015–2024. As part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program, the 34th Street and West Fourth Street interlockings on the IND Sixth Avenue Line were completed at a cost of \$356.5 million. The interlocking upgrades would support CBTC installation on the Queens Boulevard, Culver, and Eighth Avenue lines. In March 2018, New York City Transit Authority president Andy Byford announced that he had created a new plan for resignaling the subway with CBTC, which would only take 10 to 15 years, compared to the previous estimate of 40 years. However, this would be very expensive, as it would cost \$8 to \$15 billion. Byford subsequently announced his \$19 billion subway modernization plan at a MTA board meeting in May 2018. The plan involved upgrading signals on the system's five most heavily used physical lines, as well as accelerating the deployment of ISIM-B to all subway lines that did not already have either automatic train supervision or CBTC. By 2023, CBTC projects on the entire Crosstown, Lexington Avenue, Archer Avenue IND, and Queens Boulevard lines were planned to be underway. In addition, CBTC work already underway on the Eighth Avenue Line south of 59th Street and on the Culver Line from Church Avenue to West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium would be completed. Moreover, under Byford's plan, the MTA would start retrofitting the entire Broadway Line from Queensboro Plaza to DeKalb Avenue, via both the Montague Street Tunnel and the Manhattan Bridge, the entire Fulton Street and Rockaway Lines, the IND 63rd Street Line, the IND Sixth Avenue Line from 59th Street–Columbus Circle to Jay Street–MetroTech and DeKalb Avenue via the Manhattan Bridge, the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line south of 96th Street, the Lenox Avenue Line, and a portion of the IRT White Plains Road Line to Jackson Avenue by 2028 at the latest. This would require nightly and weekend closures of up to two and a half years for every line that would be affected, although weekday service would be maintained. As part of the plan, all subway cars would be CBTC-equipped by 2028. The 2015–2019 Capital Program was revised in April 2018 to fund the upgrade of negatively-polarized direct current cables and the replacement of segments of contact rail with low resistance contact rail along Lexington Avenue to improve power distribution and increase capacity and to upgrade negative cables along Queens Boulevard. The draft 2020–2024 Capital Program calls for adding CBTC to several more lines, namely the entire Lexington Avenue Line from 149th Street—Grand Concourse to Nevins Street, the entire Crosstown, the Astoria Line to 57th Street, and the IND 63rd Street line; the IND Fulton Street Line west of Euclid Avenue station; the remainder of the IND Queens Boulevard Line; and the IND Archer Avenue Line. The implementation of CBTC on the 63rd Street Line from 21st Street–Queensbridge to 57th Street and on the Fulton Street Line from Jay Street to Ozone Park had been slated for the 2025–2029 Capital Program. The Astoria Line was not one of the lines originally planned for CBTC installation in the Fast Forward plan. In December 2021, it was announced that the Sixth Avenue Line between Broadway–Lafayette Street and Jay Street–MetroTech would receive CBTC; funding for this section is not provided in the 2020—2024 Capital Program. In March 2022, the MTA announced that it would install CBTC on the Sixth Avenue Line between Jay Street and 21st Street—Queensbridge. On June 9, 2022, the MTA release an RFP for a program management and project management consulting services for the MTA's CBTC program. The base contract included these services for CBTC design-build projects on the Crosstown Line and the Fulton Street Line between High Street and Hoyt—Schermerhorn Streets, while the first three options were for three separate projects to install CBTC on the 63rd Street Line and Sixth Avenue Line between 21st Street—Queensbridge and Jay Street, the fourth consisted of a single project to install CBTC on the entirety of the 63rd Street and Sixth Avenue Lines, while the five consisted of a project to equip two Track Geometry Cars with carborne CBTC equipment. The contract would be for 86 months. In June 2022, the MTA announced it planned to solicit a contract on switch replacement and interlocking work as part of the Sixth Avenue CBTC project in 2023. On July 25, 2022, it was announced that the MTA Board would vote on July 27 on an amendment to the 2020–2024 Capital Program. The amendment would postpone the Lexington Avenue Line and Astoria Line CBTC projects to the 2025–2029 Capital Program and use those funds to install CBTC on the Sixth Avenue Line. MTA officials said that lower peak ridership meant installing CBTC on the Lexington Avenue and Astoria Lines, which was aimed at increasing capacity, was less of a priority as those lines had newer signaling than on the Sixth Avenue Line, which has 80-year old signaling. Another factor in the delay has been delays by subway car manufacturers. Lexington Avenue Line CBTC is reliant on the proposed R262 subway car order, while Sixth Avenue Line CBTC could make use of existing trains and the under-construction R211 trains. With the postponement of the Lexington Avenue Line CBTC project, fewer R262 trains will be ordered. As part of the Sixth Avenue CBTC project, the Jay Street Interlocking will be reconstructed. As part of the construction of Phase 2 of the Second Avenue Subway, signaling on Phase 1 would be upgraded to CBTC. ### Ultra-wideband signaling and other proposals In 2017, the MTA started testing ultra-wideband radio-enabled train signaling on the IND Culver Line and the 42nd Street Shuttle. The ultra-wideband train signals would be able to transmit more data wirelessly in a manner similar to CBTC, but can be installed faster than CBTC systems. The ultra-wideband signals would have the added benefit of allowing passengers to use cellphones while between stations, instead of the current setup where passengers could only get cellphone signals within the stations themselves. The same year, it was reported that full implementation of CBTC systemwide might take 40 to 50 years. Following the subway system's state of emergency that year, MTA Chairman Joe Lhota described the timeline of CBTC installation as "simply too long," instead proposing ways to speed up the work and hosting the Genius Transit Challenge to find quicker ways to upgrade the signals. Some of the proposals included a wireless signaling system, a completely new concept that had never been tested in any other railroad or subway network. In March 2018, the MTA announced that four entities had submitted two winning proposals to the challenge. One of the proposals used ultra-wideband signaling technology. The other proposal entailed installing sensors and cameras on trains, with minimal installations on tracks. New York City Transit (NYCT) Chairman Andy Byford stated that he wanted to test ultra-wideband technology at the same time that more established systems, like CBTC, are being installed. In March 2019, contracts for UWB installation on the Canarsie and Flushing Lines were awarded. Four trains on each line were equipped with UWB. The MTA then tested the equipment for nine months, and in a January 2020 press release, announced that the test had been "successful". At the May 2020 Capital Program Oversight Committee meeting, it was announced that the two UWB pilot programs, done with different technology and companies, were largely completed, with data collection set to be completed in June 2020. The MTA found that UWB was effective in determining the location of trains, and that it was looking at using it on future projects to replace the transponder-based train localization systems used on existing CBTC projects. UWB would provide more accurate information on the positioning of trains, and allow for simpler carborne installation. In the short term, the MTA was advancing interoperability standards for the new technology. During the pilot program, the MTA investigated the potential use of RADAR, HD cameras and LIDAR alongside UWB. In June 2021, the MTA Board approved the modification of two UWB proof of concept contracts with Thales and Siemens to establish interoperability between the two systems. The MTA deemed that since both systems were found to be acceptable, to encourage competition between the subcontractors for the two companies (Humatics for Siemens and Piper for Thales) and maintain resiliency in the UWB system, it made sense for Humatics to redesign its UWB system to allow its system to communicate and be used with Piper's system. As of March 2023, the interoperability has not yet been demonstrated. On April 7, 2022, the MTA put out a Request for Information (RFI) looking for information on technology that would allow work trains to efficiently and safely operate on subway lines equipped with CBTC and enable to reduction or elimination of Auxiliary Wayside Signaling (AWS) trip-stops and other standard wayside signaling infrastructure. Currently, work trains, which are not equipped with carborne CBTC equipment, have to make use of the AWS system, consisting of conventional AWS signals, track circuits or axle counters. NYCT conducted a study on equipping work trains with CBTC in 2018. Another RFI, put out on May 20, 2022, called for proposals to update the existing S733 Signal Standard Specification so it could be simplified for use in CBTC, with a major reduction or elimination of AWS-related work in future CBTC installations. Currently, CBTC is treated under the S733 standard as an overlay of the AWS, and installing the AWS requires a major amount of work. Finally, on June 1, 2022, the MTA put out an RFI seeking proposals on how to simplify wayside signaling infrastructure to reduce costs for the layout, construction, and design of relay rooms and reduce the need to have track outages to test the completed signaling system before placing it into service. Currently, the MTA equips each relay room with local control panels, programmable logic controllers, a relay-based interlocking system or a solid state interlocking, and zone controllers with related power distribution and network connections. The RFI specified that respondents should consider looking at ways to eliminate as much wayside infrastructure, such as train-stops and line-side signals, including related boxes, relay room-based equipment and lineside cabling, as possible, replace programmable logic controllers and interfaces with logic resting in the Zone Controller or ATS system, eliminate or combine local control panels and related interfaces and equipment, and replace them with remote terminals, reduce or eliminate the number of relays through the use of direct-drive input and output signals, and eliminate or combine other specific room-based equipment. ## See also - Autopilot - Application of railway signals - Institution of Railway Signal Engineers - Railroad chronometer - Railway signal - Railway signalling - Railroad switch - Railway semaphore signal - Railway slide fence - Toronto subway and RT signals - Traffic control - Train speed optimization - Wrong-side failure

Republic of Loose

Irish funk rock band

Republic of Loose were an Irish funk rock band from Dublin. Formed in 2001, the band formerly consisted of lead vocalist Mick Pyro, bass guitarist and vocalist Benjamin Loose, keyboardist Deco, guitarists and vocalists Dave Pyro and Brez and drummer and percussionist Coz Noelen. With a self-described musical style of "the stuff your dad likes", the band signed to Big Cat Records in 2003, recording their debut album This is the Tomb of the Juice which was released in 2004. They were named "Hope for 2004" at the 2004 Meteor Awards. In 2005, the singles "Comeback Girl" and "You Know It" received significant airplay on Irish radio. Republic of Loose's second album Aaagh!, released in April 2006, reached number two in the Irish Albums Chart, achieving platinum sales and a Choice Music Prize nomination in the process. It spawned several more successful singles, including "Break" which achieved notoriety in South Africa where a radio station banned it following complaints regarding its allegedly explicit lyrics. Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil, Republic of Loose's third album, was released in 2008. That album produced their highest chart performer to date, "The Steady Song", which peaked at number twelve and stayed in the Irish Singles Chart for thirteen weeks. Bounce at the Devil, the band's fourth album, was released in 2010. Having earned the admiration of several musicians, including members of Snow Patrol and U2, as well as Sinéad O'Connor—with whom they recorded, released and performed a duet at the 2008 Meteor Awards—the band have had their music played on radio stations in Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. The Irish Times placed them at number thirty-seven in a list of "The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now" published in April 2009, referring to them as "one of Ireland's most original bands" led by "the gruff singer with the extraordinary soul voice [...] simultaneously channelling the spirits of James Brown and James Joyce in one fell swoop." Aside from U2 and Bell X1, they are the Irish band with the most airplay in their native country. In August 2014, vocalist Mick Pyro confirmed that the band had split. ## History ### Formation Mick Pyro performed with self-described "rubbish rock bands" for several years before the formation of The Republic of Loose. During this time, he was, according to himself, "depressed out of my brains" and listened to artists such as Manic Street Preachers. Experiencing what he termed "a huge metaphysical overturning of my value system", Pyro had developed a fascination with musicians such as James Brown and The Rolling Stones, or "the stuff your Dad likes". This change of musical interest prompted him to create Johnny Pyro, an alter-ego, who, according to Pyro, "disassociated himself from the normal lifestyle of an Irish bourgeois kid". This alter-ego would later develop into Johnny Pyro And The Rock Coma (Mick Pyro, Dave Pyro, Coz Noleon, Mark Dennehy and Emmet Cole). The band recorded an EP, which featured four of the songs that later appeared on the Republic of Loose's first album, 'This Is The Tomb Of The Juice.' Following the departure of guitarist Emmet Cole (who wrote the song "Black Bread") and bassist Mark Dennehey "To Texas and Ringsend," respectively, Johnny Pyro and Rock Coma split. About a year later the Republic of Loose was formed. Benjamin Loose studied theology in Trinity College Dublin before performing in a country band with Mick Pyro. Dave Pyro used to play guitar with Brez and Deco joined them to play keys. The name Republic of Loose was settled upon in 2001 when Dave and Mick, combined with Brez, Deco, Coz Noleon, who had been Mick's schoolfriend, and Benjamin Loose. ### This is the Tomb of the Juice The band's break, according to Mick Pyro, came as a result of ten days recording time they won in "some competition or something, some fucking battle of the bands". In 2003, Republic of Loose signed to Big Cat Records. The single "Girl I'm Gonna Fuck You Up", released in late 2003, was largely ignored by daytime radio in Ireland, with Mick Pyro commenting in an early Hot Press interview: "We were never going to be the type of band that Larry Gogan or Ian Dempsey would play anyway, regardless of the lyric". The band's debut album, This is the Tomb of the Juice, was partially recorded in the ten days studio time they had won in the aforementioned competition. This is the Tomb of the Juice was recorded in 2003 then released in 2004. 2004 was also the year in which Republic of Loose débuted at Oxegen (on the New Band Stage), a festival at which they have since regularly performed. Singles "Comeback Girl" and "You Know It" were released in July and October 2005 respectively, both achieving significant airplay on Irish radio and entering the top thirty of the Irish Singles Chart. By 2006 the band had toured Ireland, the United Kingdom, where they performed at festivals such as Glastonbury and T in the Park, and France, where they performed at Furia Sound Festival, Nice Jazz Festival and Les Transmusicales. They also performed alongside veteran rock band Lir at Vicar Street in January 2006. ### Aaagh! At a cost of €70,000 to make, the band's second album, Aaagh! was released in 2006. Sunday Tribune journalist Una Mullally called it "one of the most original and progressive Irish albums ever made". Aaagh! reached number two in the Irish Albums Chart, going platinum in the process, received regular airplay on Irish radio and produced five singles, including "The Idiots", a song about Mick Pyro's former girlfriend which also features her on vocals. "Break", a top ten single in Ireland and top forty single in South Africa, was temporarily banned by South African radio station 5fm when a female DJ declared on air that it promoted anal sex without contraception, a comment which led to several complaints from listeners. The band's 2006 summer tour included a performance where fans danced outside despite "the lashing rain" at Oxegen 2006, with the Irish Independent's Larissa Nolan saying "their scheduling on the main stage was a testament to just how big their army of fans is", and Castlepalooza. In 2007, Republic of Loose performed at several festivals in Ireland and the United Kingdom, including Reading and Leeds Festivals, Cois Fharraige and a headline slot at Indie-pendence. Aaagh! was released in the United Kingdom on 15 October 2007. In January 2008, Republic of Loose were one of the acts who recorded "The Ballad of Ronnie Drew" at Dublin's Windmill Lane Studios; the sessions led to a meeting with Sinéad O'Connor, with whom the band recorded and released a duet which was then performed live at the 2008 Meteor Awards the following month. ### Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil On 27 March 2008, Republic of Loose announced the track list and title for their third album. Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil was released in May 2008, featuring contributions from Sinéad O'Connor, rapper Styles P and hip hoppers Millionaire Boyz. In the run-up to the release, the band uploaded free downloadable songs to their MySpace profile, including b-sides, live tracks and songs from Aaagh!. Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil spent more than three months in the top thirty of the Irish Albums Chart, spawning the successful singles, "I Like Music" and "The Steady Song", the latter their highest chart performer to date, having peaked at number twelve and stayed in the charts for thirteen weeks. Mick Pyro has described Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil as the first album the band feel proud of. In support of the album's release, the band embarked on a small national tour and received an invitation to perform a sell-out month-long residency at The Dublin Academy for four consecutive Fridays, thus ending their habit of playing Dublin only once per year. This involved two-hour sets featuring new material and duets with Sinéad O'Connor—on her song "Nothing Compares 2 U"—and Damien Dempsey—on the Thin Lizzy song "Dancing in the Moonlight". The Academy residency led to a Meteor Award nomination for Best Irish Live Performance the following year and they would return for another performance at the same venue that September. A couple were engaged as part of a BBC television series prior to the Sunday evening appearance of Republic of Loose on the O2 Stage at Oxegen 2008— a performance which also featured collaborator Styles P— whilst the band also performed for several journalists backstage. They performed a DJ set at Castlepalooza before headlining Solas Festival on 17 August 2008. Republic of Loose featured on Today FM's The Ray D'Arcy Show's charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing released in December 2008, finishing off the year with three shows in Cork. Republic of Loose were one of several acts to perform cover versions at a show in The Academy titled "Inspirations", held in honour of the actor Paul Newman's Irish charity in February 2009. In June 2009, the band were part of a collaboration of musicians calling themselves The Troublemakers who recorded a cover version of the Horslips song "Trouble with a Capital T" for charity. The recording session was part of The Raw Sessions and the song was performed by The Troublemakers on The Late Late Show. The band performed on the Heineken Green Spheres Stage at Oxegen 2009 before supporting U2 during one of their U2 360° Tour concert dates at Croke Park in July 2009. Republic of Loose participated in the international celebration of the 250th birthday of Guinness—known as Arthur's Day— which took place on 24 September 2009. ### Bounce at the Devil In 2009 Brez and Deco left the band and were replaced by Da'Rock and Da'ragh. July 2010, Republic of Loose returned to Oxegen. Their fourth album, Bounce at the Devil, was released later that year and led to an appearance on The Late Late Show. The album, recorded in Baltimore, "blends a myriad of influences -- from plastic soul to the sort of 'big hair' rock of the 80s", according to Irish Independent reviewer John Meagher. Entertainment.ie's Jenny Mulligan describes it as good craic but occasionally bordering on obnoxious. ## Influences, praise and style Republic of Loose's genre has been defined by various sources as blues, funk, metal, R'n'B, pop, rock and soul. They are influenced by acts such as Bobby Brown, James Brown, Al Green, Howlin' Wolf, Michael Jackson, Prince and The Rolling Stones. They perform as a six-piece band complete with backing singers. The chant, "Loose! Loose Loose!", is commonly heard from the crowd during their performances. Republic of Loose have earned the admiration of several musicians. Damien Dempsey called them the "best band in Ireland" after performing alongside them. Sinéad O'Connor, in an e-mail to the Irish Independent, asked to become a member of what she described as "simply the best Irish band ever". Bono has described them as "sophisticated soul bootboys", "trailblazers" and proclaimed that "the Celtic Twilight turned into Celtic soul with Van Morrison, then Republic of Loose grabbed the Celtic Tiger by the tail, swung it around their heads and threw it out the window into the cosmos". Snow Patrol's Gary Lightbody, who called them "the best band in the country this year [2007] and for many years to come". Snow Patrol have also remixed "Comeback Girl". Praise has come from other musicians too, including Jake Shears of Scissor Sisters. Marcus Russell, manager of Oasis, is reported as having called Republic of Loose the "most exciting new band" since Oasis. Novelist Irvine Welsh has referred to "Comeback Girl" as "one of the greatest songs ever recorded". Actress Mischa Barton is also a fan. Paul Lester, writing in British newspaper The Guardian in July 2007, described Republic of Loose as an "Irish OutKast" to be filed next to Danny Wilson, Hall & Oates and N.E.R.D and least likely to be compared to The Pogues. John Meagher, writing in the Irish Independent in April 2008, said the band were "out of step entirely with prevailing trends [...] almost like they stopped listening to music after hearing the young Prince and early Dexys Midnight Runners". Vocalist Mick Pyro has commented that there are very few musicians performing "authentic modern soul" and that the band's aim is to "combine the energy of the New York Dolls with the funk and soul qualities of The Roots". When writing a piece on The Script in August 2008, Brian Boyd of The Irish Times claimed that they were "as un-Irish sounding as The Republic of Loose [sic]". Internationally, they have established fan bases in London and New York City and have achieved regular airplay on Los Angeles radio in the United States, as well as France, Indonesia and the Philippines. Bunim/Murray Productions has licensed their music for use on American television. They have, however, refused several indie contracts in the United States. ## Discography ### Albums ### Singles From "This Is The Tomb of the Juice" - Girl I'm Gonna Fuck You Up - Hold Up - Tell More Lies From "Aaagh!" - Comeback Girl (IRE \#19) - You Know It (IRE \#22) - Shame (IRE \#20) - Break / The Translation (IRE \#29) - The Idiots From "Vol IV: Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil" - I Like Music (IRE \#41) - The Steady Song (IRE \#12) - The Ritual - Awful Cold From "Bounce At the Devil" - The Man - 99 (feat. Bo Starks) - The Blah Bounce Non-album singles - They Pay For Love (2012) - Thinking of You (2013) IRE \#16 - The Punishment (2013) ## Awards ### Choice Music Prize Republic of Loose's second album Aaagh! was nominated for the Choice Music Prize, an award won by The Divine Comedy for the album Victory for the Comic Muse. The band performed at the award ceremony in Vicar Street on 28 February 2007. Surprise was expressed within the industry when they were not nominated again for the 2009 award. \|- \| 2007 \|\| Aaagh! \|\| Irish Album of the Year 2006 \|\| \|- ### Meteor Music Awards Republic of Loose won the Hope for 2004 award at the 2004 Meteor Awards. They were nominated in the Best Irish Band category at 2007 Meteor Awards. Republic of Loose were nominated in the Best Irish Band and Best Irish Live Performance categories at the 2009 Meteor Awards. They lost to The Script and The Blizzards in those respective categories. In addition to this, they have performed at both the 2006 and 2008 awards ceremonies, the latter of which involved a duet with Sinéad O'Connor on the Curtis Mayfield song "We People Who Are Darker Than Blue". \|- \| 2004 \|\| Republic of Loose \|\| Hope for 2004 \|\| \|- \| 2007 \|\| Republic of Loose \|\| Best Irish Band \|\| \|- \| 2009 \|\| Republic of Loose \|\| Best Irish Band \|\| \|- \| 2009 \|\| The Academy \|\| Best Irish Live Performance \|\| \|-

Kangchu system

Socio-economic system developed by Chinese agricultural settlers in Johor

The Kangchu system was a socio-economic system of organisation and administration developed by Chinese agricultural settlers in Johor during the 19th century. The settlers organised themselves into informal associations (similar to the Kongsi organisations found in other Chinese communities), and chose a leader from among themselves. In Chinese, "Kangchu" (Chinese: 港主; Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Káng-chú; Teochew Pe̍h-ūe-jī: Káng-tsú) literally means ‘master of the riverbank’, and was the title given to the Chinese headmen of these river settlements. The "Kangchu" leaders are also called "Kapitan". The Kangchu system traces its origins from the 18th century when Chinese coolies settled in Penang and Riau and set up gambier and pepper plantations there. The sovereign rulers of Johor, Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim and his son and successor, Sultan Abu Bakar, took up the Kangchu system during the first half of the 19th century to provide a more organised form of administration as Chinese immigrants began to settle in the state in great numbers and developed the state's agricultural economy. The term "Kangchu" became widely used during the 19th century, as Chinese immigrants began to settle in and around Johor state and set up gambier and pepper plantations. The social and economic welfare of the early Chinese settlers came under the charge of local Chinese leaders, who were responsible for running these agricultural plantations, which were situated along the river banks. In 1917, the British colonial government in Johor implemented an act which abolished the Kangchu system in the state, and the value for gambier declined during the early 20th century. Variants of the Kangchu system thrived in other parts of Maritime Southeast Asia, where gambier and pepper were cultivated and where there were significant Chinese populations. The Kangchu and coolies who worked in the gambier and pepper plantations were mainly of Teochew origin, and were generally first- or second-generation Chinese immigrants. ## History ### Early years The origins of the Kangchu system dates back to the mid-18th century, when early Chinese settlers in Penang experimented in cash crop plantations with various types of crops, including pepper, gambier, betelnut and clove. The plantations were abandoned by the late 18th-century, as Penang experienced wars from Buginese seafarers that resulted in many gambier plantations being destroyed; contributing to the decline in plantations was the growing popularity of the spice trade that reaped much greater profits. At the beginning of the 19th century, these Chinese settlers began to look south to Malacca and Singapore, where gambier and pepper plantations had also been established. In the late 1820s, Chinese settlers from Singapore also began to look towards Johor for gambier and pepper cultivation at the encouragement of Temenggong Abdul Rahman and his successor, Daeng Ibrahim. As more Chinese settlers established gambier and pepper plantations in Johor during the 1840s, Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim formed a bureaucracy made up of Malay officials to oversee administrative affairs upon the Kangchu. He began issuing official permits, known as Surat Sungai (transliterated as "river documents") in Malay, to the Kangchu (leaders of the settlers) which permitted them to establish these plantations along the river banks. In turn, the Kangchu were required to pay taxes from the profits generated by the gambier and pepper farms and the Surat Sungai, which had to be renewed after a specified period of time. ### Mid to late-19th century The first gambier and pepper plantations appeared in Southern Johor, notably Skudai. Lau Lib Keng, a Chinese settler based in Skudai, was the first person to receive a Surat Sungai, whereby the river banks of Skudai were leased to Lau for the cultivation of gambier and pepper. More Chinese settlers came to Johor from the 1850s onwards, and forested areas in Southern Johor such as Tebrau, Plentong and Stulang were cleared for the cultivation of gambier and pepper. By the time Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim's son, Abu Bakar took office from his father in 1862, at least 37 Surat Sungai have been issued to various Kangchu, all of whom were collectively responsible for the operations of the 1,200 gambier and pepper farms in the state. Most of these Chinese leaders were also members of secret societies, and communal warfare often broke out in Singapore between different dialect groups as a result of conflicting economic interests. From the late 1850s onwards, the Kangchu began to exert political influence in the state affairs by establishing close ties with Temenggong Abu Bakar. In 1865, Abu Bakar granted official recognition to the Teochew-dominated Johor branch of the Ngee Heng Kongsi after a Kangchu, Tan Kee Soon, raised a small army to subdue Sultan Ali's forces, from whom Abu Bakar was facing considerable dissent but was unable to raise an organised army. Abu Bakar nevertheless called for the Ngee Heng Kongsi to accept Chinese settlers of other dialect groups to prevent possible communal warfare as a result of conflicting economic interests. The crop produce from these plantations were generally exported to other countries from Singapore with the assistance of Chinese merchants based in that city. From the 1860s onwards, many of these Kangchu chalked up debts and began to sell their property rights to these merchants or to larger business magnates (Kongsi in Teochew) based in Singapore, who were known to the locals as Tuan Sungai (literally Masters of the River). The Kangchu then were often hired as supervisors or managers by the merchants to keep watch on the day-to-day operations of the gambier and pepper plantations. Temenggong Abu Bakar began to issue contract-style letters of recognition to these Kangchu; the letters were known by their Malay name Surat Tauliah. As the gambier and pepper plantations expanded in the 1870s, the more established Kangchu were entrusted with larger blocks of farms and made contracts with Chinese merchants from Singapore. The profits generated from harvests of these plantations formed the bulk of Johor's economy, and financed the development of Johor's infrastructure. Abu Bakar's relationship with the Chinese leaders was excellent, and he appointed many of them to political positions in the state. Of particular note, Abu Bakar appointed two Chinese leaders to the Johor State Council: a Kangchu from Chaozhou, Tan Hiok Nee, and a contractor from Taishan, Wong Ah Fook, who also owned gambier and pepper farms in Mersing in the 1880s. As the land along the river banks in Southern Johor was already taken by the earlier waves of Chinese settlers, newer Chinese settlers began migrating northwards in the 1870s and established new gambier and pepper plantations further north; new plantations were established in Yong Peng, Batu Pahat, Benut, Endau and Kota Tinggi. In particular, Abu Bakar actively encouraged Chinese settlers to establish plantations in Muar, shortly after the British Colonial Government ruled in favour of Abu Bakar over Tengku Alam Shah (Sultan Ali's eldest son) and his family, and granted Abu Bakar control of Muar. ### Decline At the end of the 19th century, Johor's economy began to diversify from gambier and pepper plantations to other agricultural crops. Starting with coffee in 1881, crops such as tapioca, tea, pineapple and rubber were introduced into the state. Coffee and tapioca was quickly abandoned in the 1890s when the value of these crops experienced a drop, while rubber was introduced and quickly established a strong foothold in Johor, as the world demand for rubber increased greatly around 1910. Prices for gambier plunged between 1905 and 1906, and many Kangchu abandoned gambier in favour of rubber. Further decline in the number of gambier and pepper plantations was fuelled by the colonial government's suppression of traditional farming methods employed by the Kangchu for planting gambier and pepper; these method led to soil exhaustion and a depletion of forests which was used as firewood in small factories. A few years before the Kangchu system was abolished, exports for both gambier and pepper plunged by a further 60% between 1912 and 1917. The British had long frowned upon the Kangchu because of their links with secret societies in Singapore as well as their indulgence in social vices such as gambling and opium smoking, activities which the British had been actively suppressing in Singapore and the Federated Malay States. As early as 1890, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Cecil Clementi Smith had lobbied Abu Bakar to adopt the Societies Ordinance and ban the Ngee Heng Kongsi, but was promptly turned down. Shortly after the British appointed an adviser to Johor, the British began attributing the high crime rates in the state to Chinese settlers loyal to the Kangchu. In 1915, the Johor state government, now effectively under the control of the British Colonial Government, passed the Societies Enactment which prompted the dissolution of the Ngee Heng Kongsi the following year. The Kangchu system was officially abolished December 1917 in an enactment passed by the Johor state government, which was by then effectively administered by the British colonial government. ## Role of the Kangchu The Temenggong of Johor (later Sultan of Johor) conferred upon the Kangchu with a large degree of administrative autonomy within the plot of land which each was granted. These included the right to collect taxes on behalf for the Temenggong, as well as for the welfare needs among the Chinese coolies living within the plot of land. The Kangchu generally granted tax exemption for the basic consumption by workers within the settlement. Some coolies took on new jobs such as shopkeepers and traders to serve the needs of other coolies within the settlement, and the Kangchu granted tax exemptions to these shopkeepers and traders on the sale of pork, opium and alcohol as well. The Kangchu reserved a portion of the land for the construction of a settlement for the coolies, from which small towns were formed and became the administrative centre of the Kangchu. These administrative centres were generally established within the coolie settlements located at the foot of the river, and were known as Kangkar (literally "Foot of the river", Chinese: 港脚, Pinyin: Gáng Jiǎo, Teochew: Kaang6 Caar8). The Kangchu acted as the middleman in the bulk purchase of the settlement's commodities through suppliers based in Singapore. In particular, opium was highly popular among the coolies, although frowned upon by the British who took strong measures to suppress its distribution. The Kangchu formed illegal opium syndicates which had links to Chinese leaders from Singapore and other Malay states in the north, particularly Selangor. British contempt for the Kangchu was also fuelled by the coolies' preference for gambling and prostitution, both of which were seen as social vices by the British colonial government. The Kangchu maintained friendly relations with the Temenggong (later Sultan), and worked closely with the Ngee Heng Kongsi in administrative matters. In particular, the state government attempted to forge close relations with the Kangchu by the appointment of a Malay official who was conversant in Teochew and literate in Chinese characters, Mohamed Salleh bin Perang, as the liaison officer between the Temenggong and the Kangchu. Several years later, in the early 1870s, the state government worked closely with the Ngee Heng Kongsi to draft the Kanun Kangchu which had legal clauses that defined the powers of the Kangchu in Johor. The Kanun Kangchu contained 81 clauses in total, and was implemented in 1873. ## Variants outside Johor ### Singapore Chinese settlers began migrating from the Riau Islands to Singapore in the 19th century shortly before the founding of Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819. The native Malays joined the Chinese in growing gambier, although they cultivated it for subsistence rather than for commercial purposes. The number of gambier and pepper farms expanded greatly between 1819 and 1840, fuelled by the increasing demand for gambier by Chinese traders from China as well as pepper by European traders. As land nearer to the town in the south was quickly used up in the 1820s, the Kangchu began to establish farms near the northern parts of Singapore, particularly stretches of land across the Straits of Johor from Jurong, to the west of Punggol in the northeast. By 1851, there were about 800 gambier and pepper farms which covered 75% of Singapore's land surface, of which 24,220 acres (98.0 km²) was dedicated to gambier while 2,614 was dedicated to pepper. In the 1850s and 1860s, many Kangchu abandoned their plantations in Singapore as gambier produce declined due to over farming of the soil, and began to establish new gambier and pepper plantations in neighbouring Johor. Nevertheless, many of these Kangchu settled down as merchants in Singapore and managed the gambier and pepper farms by proxy, mainly through the liaison body of the Ngee Heng Kongsi which had members in Singapore and Johor. Some of these merchants purchased the property rights of gambier and pepper farms from the Kangchu in Johor, who would then assume managerial tasks to ensure the smooth operation of the plantation and the settlement. Unlike its counterpart in Johor, the Ngee Heng Kongsi (also called "Ghi Hin Kongsi" in Hokkien) was recognised as an illegal society in Singapore and its activities were actively suppressed by the colonial government. Factionalism appeared within the Ngee Heng Kongsi in Singapore by the 1850s, as business leaders from various dialect groups were unable to agree upon key issues. In particular, relations between the Teochews and Hokkiens were hostile, partly because some Hokkien merchants competed with the Teochew merchants in the gambier and pepper trade, most of whom had established their bases in the Boat Quay area along the Singapore River. The existence of the Kangchu was not recognised by the British colonial government, even though they exercised a similar degree of autonomy as their counterparts in Johor. Nevertheless, the Kangchu in Singapore had easy access to forested land in Singapore compared to their counterparts in Johor, as the British colonial government adopted a laissez-faire attitude to the Kangchu and imposed very little regulation on their agricultural activities. However, the British were wary of the fact that many Kangchu in Singapore were members of the Ngee Heng Kongsi, which was illegal in Singapore and enjoyed monopoly rights over the regional opium trade. The British appointed a Chinese official among the Kangchu to oversee the social and economic affairs of the gambier and pepper plantations in Singapore and to act as the intermediary. ### Riau Islands The first gambier and pepper plantations appeared in the Riau Islands in the 1730s, after the Buginese warrior and second Yamtuan Muda of Riau, Daing Chelak, brought Chinese coolies from Malaya to Riau for the purpose of gambier cultivation, which was then widely used for medication among the locals. Another exodus of Chinese migrated to Riau in 1740 following unrest which erupted in Batavia, during which many Chinese were massacred. Chinese settlement in Riau continued into the 18th century, the majority of them coming from the Chaoshan area in Guangdong province, along with a sizeable minority from the southern parts of Fujian province. Gambier and pepper farming were mainly confined to the Bintan (formerly spelled as Bentan) and Galang Islands. Similar to the Kangchu system in Johor, gambier and pepper plantations were established on grants of land by the Yamtuan Muda of Riau, who would issue land permits (Surat Sungai) to the Kangchu who would direct the operations of the plantation and workers within the settlement. In the early and middle 19th century, many Chinese settlers and merchants from Riau relocated their businesses to Singapore, and established trading links between Riau and Singapore. These settlers and merchants still maintained trading links with Riau, as the Kangchu from Riau often shipped their produce to Singapore for free trade to evade taxes imposed by the Dutch colonial government. Like Singapore, competition for the gambier and pepper trade between the Teochews and Hokkiens in Riau led to communal tensions and sporadic violence in Riau during the 1840s and 1850s. In the early 20th century, the Chinese abandoned gambier and pepper plantations in favour of other agricultural practices, as the worldwide prices for gambier experienced a drastic drop in value and many pepper plants fell prey to a disease plaguing the archipelago. ### Sarawak The first Chinese immigrants settled along the coastal regions of Sarawak in significant numbers from the 18th century onwards and were engaged in the metal mining industry, mainly for gold and bauxite. As the supply of gold became exhausted from the 1820s onwards, the Chinese miners gradually turned to trade and agriculture. The Chinese of Teochew and Hakka heritage established gambier and pepper plantations in the 1870s and 1880s, and the White Rajah of Sarawak began to organise an administrative system for these plantations similar to the Kangchu system in Johor. The Kangchu of each plantation was appointed by the Charles Brooke, the then-White Rajah. Each Kangchu was given responsibilities to oversee the operations of the plantations under his jurisdiction and the welfare of the coolies living there. In 1875, the British promulgated a set of laws which defined the roles and responsibilities of the Kangchu; they were modelled very closely to the Kanun Kangchu that was introduced by Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor in 1873. Charles Brooke encouraged the immigration of the Chinese coolies, beginning in the 1860s, to expand the state's gambier and pepper industry. Chinese settlers in neighbouring Sabah and Pontianak also established gambier and pepper plantations, although they existed as independent fiefdoms. These plantations rose to become one of the state's major industries as worldwide prices for gambier went up during the 1880s and 1890s. In the 20th century, as worldwide gambier prices took a dive, the Kangchu channelled their efforts into pepper and opium cultivation in the state. Sarawak's Kangchu system fell into obscurity in the 1920s, as the opium trade with Hong Kong steadily declined during the course of the decade. ## Legacy The Kangchu system facilitated the growth of the gambier and pepper plantations and developed Johor's and Singapore's economies in the 19th century. The development of Johor's inland towns were attributed to the efforts by the various Kangchu, who were responsible for drawing the settlement plan for the coolies living within the plantation they were working on, from which new towns were formed. The Chinese immigrant population in Johor and Singapore grew in size during this period; Riau also experienced a similar growth during the 18th century. As a result of mass immigration by the Chinese into Johor, the Chinese quickly outnumbered the Malays in the state, although many Chinese coolies relocated to Singapore or other parts of Malaya as the gambier and pepper industry declined in the 20th century. Several towns and other places in Johor and Singapore, built upon sites of former gambier and pepper plantations, are named after former features of the Kangchu system, and are largely populated by ethnic Chinese. The Teochew dialect became the lingua franca among the Chinese in many parts of Johor and Riau, as the majority of the Chinese from these areas were of Teochew origin, many of whom were descended from the Chinese coolies who had worked in the gambier and pepper plantations. The Teochews form the second-largest dialect group among Chinese Singaporeans, and many families can trace their family ancestry to immigrants who were Kangchu or coolies in these plantations. ## See also - Muar History section. - Sultan Abu Bakar - Dato' Bentara Luar Muhamad Salleh bin Perang - Kapitan Cina - List of place names of Kangchu system origin - Kongsi federations

Alisia Dragoon

1992 video game

is a 1992 platform game developed by Game Arts for the Sega Genesis. The player controls Alisia, a young woman who is on a quest to avenge her father and save the world. She can fire lightning from her hands and summon four faithful beasts to aid her. Alisia Dragoon was published outside of Japan by Sega. Despite the acclaim the game received, it was not a commercial success. The game was later included on the Sega Genesis Mini and Nintendo Switch Online. ## Gameplay In Alisia Dragoon, the player controls the protagonist, Alisia, in her quest to save the world by defeating the evil forces that killed her father. The game consists of eight levels of side-scrolling environments; Alisia has to jump across gaps and kill the enemies that stand in her way. Each stage is completed by defeating the boss at the end. Alisia attacks by shooting streaks of lightning from her hands. The attack automatically targets enemies in range but gets weaker with each volley as Alisia's power is depleted. Her power recharges when she stops attacking; when fully charged, it allows her to unleash a multi-target attack, hitting every enemy on the screen. The energy system introduces an element of strategy, encouraging the player to manage Alisia's power to have her able to defend herself at critical moments. Helping Alisia in her quest are her pet monsters. These creatures fly around the heroine on their own, attacking her foes, and blocking enemy attacks from hitting her. There are four pets, each with its own type of attack. The Dragon Frye spits fireballs, and the Boomerang Lizard hurls boomerangs. The Thunder Raven emits a thunder blast that affects enemies across the screen, and the Ball O' Fire burns enemies on contact. Only one pet can fight alongside Alisia in her quest, but the player can select any of the four (or none) as the active companion at any time. Over the course of the game, Alisia and her monsters can improve their abilities by collecting power-ups. These enhancement items are placed throughout the first seven stages, mostly in hidden locations. The various power-ups can heal Alisia and her monsters, increase their maximum life bars, improve their attacks, or grant invulnerability for a certain time. Life bars are lost by taking damage from enemy attacks and traps. When Alisia's pets lose all their life bars, they are removed from play and cannot be brought back until a "Revive" power-up is collected. If Alisia loses all her life bars, she can restart the level by expending a continue. The game ends if all the continues have been used. Alisia Dragoon has no features for saving the player's progress. After the game is completed, a screen is shown, charting the overall performance of the player based on the number of kills, the power level of Alisia's attack, and the frequency the pet monsters are used. ## Plot Similar to most action games on the Sega Genesis, the plot in Alisia Dragoon is simple and short. The game goes straight into the action, tasking Alisia to demolish everything in sight. After defeating the final boss, the player is treated to a cinematic cutscene of Alisia's triumphant return to her home. Much of the backstory is described in the manual. Alisia is the daughter of a sorcerer who attempted to stop the prince of all things evil, Baldour. As a child, her father was tortured to death in front of her eyes by Baldour. Although the world has not fully recovered from the devastating effects of Baldour's last visit, Baldour's aide Ornah manages to transport his dormant cocoon back to Earth. Now a woman with magical ability rivaling that of her father, Alisia sets out to destroy Baldour's cocoon before he can awaken. ## Development In 1992, Japanese animation studio Gainax was in a collaboration with Game Arts, the makers of the Lunar role-playing games, to produce an action video game. Gainax's video game product line tended to target a niche crowd who generally preferred dating simulations and anime-based adventure games. Alisia Dragoon is a departure from this tradition. The animation studio handled the artistic end of the production, writing the story and creating the artwork that would be used for the design of the game's environments and characters. Several of its founders had worked on Hayao Miyazaki's animated films, and the influences of Miyazaki's 1984 science fiction animated film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind were evident in certain levels of the game. Similarly, due to the predominance of mixing science fiction with fantasy themes in the Japanese animation circles at that time, Alisia Dragoon featured high-tech spaceships and robots alongside mythical zombies and dragons. The composition of the soundtrack was delegated to Mecano Associates, who had produced the music for other works from Game Arts, such as the action games Fire Hawk: Thexder 2 and Silpheed. Game Arts, however, did most of the work in producing Alisia Dragoon, adapting the artwork into environments and creatures that can be rendered by the console hardware and writing them as lines of software code. ## Reception Alisia Dragoon sold few copies on its release in Japan. The game was published earlier by Sega for North America. However, it was a subdued release; Sega did not place major advertisements for the game in the media. To localize the contents for the Western market, the video game publisher made several cosmetic changes to Alisia Dragoon. Instead of a big-eyed heroine drawn in typical anime styling, Alisia was portrayed as a golden bikini-wearing barbarianess on the box covers outside Japan. The Western depiction of Alisia was likened to the scantily clad females in artist Boris Vallejo's work. Westerners were more enthusiastic toward the game than were the Japanese, although there were a few negative appraisals. GamePro magazine opined Alisia Dragoon's responsive controls, coupled with the hectic action and handsome graphics, made the game highly desirable for owners of the Genesis console. The Lessers of Dragon magazine were equally impressed with the gameplay, praising Alisia Dragoon for its "solid arcade action" that satisfied their "need for fast reflexes". Mean Machines's Julian Rignall praised the game for its pet monsters design, calling the management of the pets in the game an encouragement toward tactics. His fellow reviewer, Richard Leadbetter, wrote the game was visually attractive with "beautiful sprites" and "amazing backdrops". He found the gameplay challenging, being forced to conserve energy as the game "[threw] everything but the kitchen sink at [him]". Rignall agreed with Leadbetter on the game's difficulty, which along with the secret rooms and power-ups to be discovered made Alisia Dragoon an excellent action platform game that had long-lasting appeal. Of the hundreds of Genesis games, Mega magazine rated Alisia Dragoon among the top 100 games, calling it "[probably] the best dragon-based platform game around." Despite the positive sentiments, sales of the game outside Japan were weak. Sixteen years after the game's release, Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network reviewed Alisia Dragoon and repeated much of the same sentiments as the Mean Machines reviewers. Noting Gainax's catalog of games, he noted that Alisia Dragoon was very different from the rest; instead of targeting hardcore fans of anime and focusing on exploitive themes, the game's appeal was for everyone. In light of this, Ciolek called Alisia Dragoon "the best video game Gainax ever touched" and "a spectacular ride in its own right".

German cruiser Lützow (1939)

Admiral Hipper-class cruiser

Lützow was a heavy cruiser of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine, the fifth and final member of the Admiral Hipper class, but was never completed. The ship was laid down in August 1937 and launched in July 1939, after which the Soviet Union requested to purchase the ship. The Kriegsmarine agreed to the sale in February 1940, and the transfer was completed on 15 April. The vessel was still incomplete when sold to the Soviet Union, with only half of her main battery of eight 20.3 cm (8 in) guns installed and much of the superstructure missing. Renamed Petropavlovsk in September 1940, work on the ship was delayed by poor German-Soviet co-operation in crew training and provision of technical literature to enable completion of the ship, which was being carried out in the Leningrad shipyards. Still unfinished when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the ship briefly took part in the defense of Leningrad by providing artillery support to the Soviet defenders. She was heavily damaged by German artillery in September 1941, sunk in April 1942, and raised in September 1942. After repairs were effected, the ship was renamed Tallinn and used in the Soviet counter-offensive that relieved Leningrad in 1944. After the end of the war, the ship was used as a stationary training platform and as a floating barracks before being broken up for scrap sometime between 1953 and 1961. ## Design The Admiral Hipper class of heavy cruisers was ordered in the context of German naval rearmament after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and repudiated the disarmament clauses of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935, Germany signed the Anglo–German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which provided a legal basis for German naval rearmament; the treaty specified that Germany would be able to build five 10,000-long-ton (10,160 t) "treaty cruisers". The Admiral Hippers were nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, though they significantly exceeded the figure. Lützow was 210 meters (690 ft) long overall and had a beam of 21.80 m (71.5 ft) and a maximum draft of 7.90 m (25.9 ft). The ship had a design displacement of 17,600 t (17,300 long tons; 19,400 short tons) and a full load displacement of 20,100 t (19,800 long tons; 22,200 short tons). Lützow was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines, which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra-high pressure oil-fired boilers. The ship's top speed was 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph), at 132,000 shaft horsepower (98,000 kW). As designed, her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1,340 enlisted men. Lützow's primary armament was eight 20.3 cm (8 in) SK L/60 guns mounted in four twin gun turrets, placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft. Her anti-aircraft battery was to have consisted of twelve 10.5 cm (4.1 in) L/65 guns, twelve 3.7 cm (1.5 in) guns, and eight 2 cm (0.79 in) guns. The ship also would have carried a pair of triple 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure. The ship was to have been equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult. Lützow's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm (2.8 to 3.1 in) thick; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm (0.47 to 1.18 in) thick while the main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm (0.79 to 1.97 in) thick. The main battery turrets had 105 mm (4.1 in) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides. ## Service history Lützow was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Deschimag shipyard in Bremen. Lützow was originally designed as a light cruiser version of the Admiral Hipper-class heavy cruisers, armed with twelve 15 cm (5.9 in) guns instead of the Admiral Hipper's eight 20.3 cm guns. The Kriegsmarine decided, however, to complete the ship identically to Admiral Hipper on 14 November 1936. Her keel was laid on 2 August 1937, under construction number 941. The ship was launched on 1 July 1939, but was not completed. In October 1939, the Soviet Union approached Germany with a request to purchase the then unfinished Admiral Hipper-class cruisers Lützow, Seydlitz, and Prinz Eugen, along with plans for German capital ships, naval artillery, and other naval technology. The Kriegsmarine denied the request for Seydlitz and Prinz Eugen, but agreed to sell Lützow, as well as 38 cm (15 in) gun turrets and other weaponry. The price for the heavy cruiser was set at 150 million Reichsmarks, nearly double the original cost of the vessel, which was 83,590,000 Reichsmarks. Complete technical specifications, the results of engine trials, and spare parts were included in the sale. Eighty percent of the material was to be provided within twelve months of the transfer, with the remainder to be provided within fifteen months. Lützow was renamed "L", her original contract name, for the transfer to the Soviet Union. In February 1940, when the agreement was concluded, Lützow was fitting-out in Bremen. Her main battery guns had been transferred to the German army and placed on railway mountings; they had to be dismantled and returned to Bremen. The ship was then towed to Leningrad on 15 April by a private German towing company. The two navies agreed that Germany would be responsible for naval escort, which included destroyers and smaller vessels. Rear Admiral Otto Feige was placed in command of the operation. Feige then led an advisory commission assigned to assist the Soviet effort to complete the ship. ### Soviet service At the time the ship arrived in Leningrad, only the two forward gun turrets had been installed and the bridge superstructure was incomplete. The only secondary guns installed were the 3.7 cm anti-aircraft guns. The Soviet Navy renamed the ship Petropavlovsk on 25 September 1940, and designated the construction effort to complete the ship Project 83. The vessel inspired the specifications for a planned heavy cruiser design, designated Project 82, although work was put on hold by the German invasion in 1941, before being restarted in 1943 to a much larger design. Training for the Soviet crew of the ship proved to be contentious; the Soviets wanted their personnel trained in Germany, while the Germans preferred sending instructors to the Soviet Union. Language barriers and inexperience with international training missions also hampered the training effort. Sea trials for Petropavlovsk were scheduled to begin some time in late 1941, and according to the training program, the Soviet crew would not begin training until a month before the trials. It was decided that Soviet officers would train at German naval schools in the fall of 1941, and that five officers would train aboard Seydlitz when the ship was commissioned for trials. German instructors would also be sent to Leningrad to train engine-room personnel. At the time of the commissioning of Petropavlovsk, the relevant German training and technical manuals would be sent to the Soviet Navy, albeit in German only. By the time Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Petropavlovsk was still only 70% complete. She was nevertheless used as a floating battery in the defense of Leningrad in August of that year. Several other ships, including the cruiser Maxim Gorky, joined Petropavlovsk in shelling the advancing Germans. On 7 September, the ship fired on German forces encircling the city; she fired forty salvos from her forward main battery turrets—the only two operational—expending some 700 rounds of ammunition during the attack. On 17 September 1941, the ship was disabled by German heavy artillery; after being hit 53 times, the ship was forced to beach herself to avoid sinking. On 4 April 1942, aircraft from I Fliegerkorps launched a major attack on the Soviet naval forces in Leningrad: 62 Ju 87s, 33 Ju 88s, and 37 He 111s struck the ships in the harbor. Petropavlovsk was hit once (credited by Hans-Ulrich Rudel), suffering serious damage, and sunk. The Soviet Navy raised the ship on 17 September 1942 and towed her to the Neva where she was repaired. Renamed Tallinn in 1943, the ship returned to service to support the Soviet counter-offensive to relieve the Siege of Leningrad in 1944. An inspection at the end of the war found that most machinery and equipment had been damaged beyond repair. Despite a proposal to complete her using parts of the captured Seydlitz and with Soviet weaponry, the ship was ultimately never completed, and was used as a stationary training ship after the end of the war. She was later used as a floating barracks in the Neva, and renamed Dniepr in 1953. The date of her disposal is uncertain; Erich Gröner reports the ship survived until being broken up for scrap in 1960. Przemysław Budzbon initially stated in Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships that the vessel was scrapped in 1958–1959, but later in Warships of the Soviet Fleets that she was scrapped in 1959-1961. Tobias Philbin reports that the ship was broken up in 1953.

The French Lieutenant's Woman

1969 novel by John Fowles

The French Lieutenant's Woman is a 1969 postmodern historical fiction novel by John Fowles. The plot explores the fraught relationship of gentleman and amateur naturalist Charles Smithson and Sarah Woodruff, the former governess and independent woman with whom he falls in love. The novel builds on Fowles' authority in Victorian literature, both following and critiquing many of the conventions of period novels. The book was the author's third, after The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965). American Libraries magazine counted the novel among the "Notable Books of 1969". Subsequent to its initial popularity, publishers produced numerous editions and translated the novel into many languages; soon after the initial publication, the novel was also treated extensively by scholars. The novel remains popular, figuring in both public and academic conversations. In 2005 Time chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels since the magazine began publication in 1923. Part of the novel's reputation concerns its postmodern literary qualities, with expressions of metafiction, historiography, metahistory, Marxist criticism, and feminism. Stylistically and thematically, the novel has been described as historiographic metafiction. The contrast between the independent Sarah Woodruff and the more stereotypical male characters often earns the novel attention for its treatment of gender issues. The novel was adapted into a film of the same name in 1981, with script by the playwright Harold Pinter, directed by Karel Reisz, starring Meryl Streep and Jeremy Irons. The film received considerable critical acclaim, including several BAFTA and Golden Globe awards. ## Background Before Fowles published The French Lieutenant's Woman in 1969, he had already established his literary reputation with his novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965). While writing The French Lieutenant's Woman, he was working on the screenplay for the film adaptation of The Magus (1968). Moreover, The Collector (1965) had already been adapted in a film which had gained Fowles further popular attention. Fowles described his main inspiration for The French Lieutenant's Woman to be a persistent image of a "Victorian Woman", who later developed into the novel's titular character Sarah Woodruff. In a 1969 essay entitled "Notes on an Unfinished Novel", Fowles reflects on his writing process. He said he had an image during the autumn of 1966 of: "A woman [who] stands at the end of a deserted quay and stares out to sea." He determined that she belonged to a "Victorian Age" and had "mysterious" and "vaguely romantic" qualities. He made a note at the time about the function of the novel: > "You are not trying to write something one of the Victorian novelists forgot to write; but perhaps something one of them failed to write. And: Remember the etymology of the word. A novel is something new. It must have relevance to the writer's now - so don't ever pretend you live in 1867; or make sure the reader knows it's a pretence." In an appended comment, dated "October 27, 1967", he writes that he finished the first draft of the novel at about 140,000 words. Throughout the essay, Fowles describes multiple influences and issues important to the novel's development, including his debt to other authors such as Thomas Hardy. In the essay, he describes surprise that the female character Sarah had taken the primary role in the novel. Later, Fowles described other influences shaping the characters’ development, noting that the characters and story of The French Lieutenant's Woman were loosely derived from the Claire de Duras novel Ourika (1823), which features a tragic affair between an African woman and French military man. Fowles later published a 1977 translation of Ourika into English. ## Plot summary Set in the mid-nineteenth century, the narrator identifies the novel's protagonist as Sarah Woodruff, the Woman of the title, also known as "Tragedy" and as "The French Lieutenant's Whore". She lives in the coastal town of Lyme Regis as a disgraced woman, supposedly abandoned by a French ship's officer named Varguennes who had returned to France and married. Employed as a servant in the household of the very pious Mrs. Poulteney, she spends some of her limited free time on The Cobb, a stone jetty where she stares out to sea. One day, Charles Smithson, an orphaned gentleman, and Ernestina Freeman, his fiancée and a daughter of a wealthy tradesman, see Sarah walking along the cliffside. Ernestina tells Charles something of Sarah's story, and he becomes curious about her. Though continuing to court Ernestina, Charles has several more encounters with Sarah, meeting her clandestinely three times. During these meetings, Sarah tells Charles of her history, and asks for his emotional and social support. During the same period, he learns of the possible loss of his place as heir to his elderly uncle, who has become engaged to a woman young enough to bear a child. Meanwhile, Charles's servant Sam falls in love with Mary, the maid of Ernestina's aunt. In fact, Charles has fallen in love with Sarah and advises her to leave Lyme for Exeter. Returning from a journey to warn Ernestina's father about his uncertain inheritance, Charles stops in Exeter as if to visit Sarah. From there, the narrator, who intervenes throughout the novel and later becomes a character in it, offers three different ways in which the novel could end: - First ending: Charles does not visit Sarah, but immediately returns to Lyme to reaffirm his love for Ernestina. They marry, though the marriage never becomes particularly happy, and Charles enters trade under Ernestina's father, Mr. Freeman. The narrator pointedly notes the lack of knowledge about Sarah's fate. Charles tells Ernestina about an encounter which he implies is with the "French Lieutenant's Whore", but elides the sordid details, and the matter is ended. The narrator dismisses this ending as a daydream by Charles, before the alternative events of the subsequent meeting with Ernestina are described. Critic Michelle Phillips Buchberger describes this first ending as "a semblance of verisimilitude in the traditional 'happy ending'" found in actual Victorian novels. Before the second and third endings, the narrator appears as a character sharing a railway compartment with Charles. He tosses a coin to determine the order in which he will portray the other two possible endings, emphasising their equal plausibility. They are as follows: - Second ending: Charles and Sarah have a rash sexual encounter in which Charles realises that Sarah was a virgin. Reflecting on his emotions during this, Charles ends his engagement to Ernestina, and proposes to Sarah through a letter. Charles's servant Sam fails to deliver the letter and, after Charles breaks his engagement, Ernestina's father disgraces him. His uncle marries and his wife bears an heir, ensuring the loss of the expected inheritance. To escape the social suicide and depression caused by his broken engagement, Charles goes abroad to Europe and America. Ignorant of Charles' proposal, Sarah flees to London without telling her lover. During Charles' trips abroad, his lawyer searches for Sarah, finding her two years later living in the Chelsea house of the painter and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti, where she enjoys an artistic, creative life. Sarah shows Charles the child of their affair, leaving him in hope that the three may be reunited. - Third ending: The narrator re-appears outside the house at 16 Cheyne Walk and turns back his pocket watch by fifteen minutes. Events are the same as in the second-ending version until Charles meets Sarah, when their reunion is sour. The new ending does not make clear the parentage of the child and Sarah expresses no interest in reviving the relationship. Charles leaves the house, intending to return to the United States, wondering whether Sarah is a manipulative, lying woman who exploited him. ## Characters - The Narrator – as in other works of metafiction, the narrator's voice frequently intervenes in the story with a personality of its own. Though the voice appears to be that of Fowles, Magali Cornier Michael notes that chapter 13, which discusses the role of author and narrator within fiction, distinguishes between the author's role in the text and the narrator's. Alice Ferrebe describes the narrator as both a lens for critiquing traditional gender roles and a perpetuation of the perspectives on gendered identity perpetuated by the male gaze. - Sarah Woodruff – the main protagonist according to the narrator. Formerly a governess, she becomes disgraced after an illicit, but unconsummated, liaison with an injured French naval lieutenant, who washed ashore. The feminist critic Magali Cornier Michael argues that she is more a plot device, not interpretable as a main character because her thoughts and motivations are only interpreted from the perspective of outside male characters. Sarah offers a representation of myth or symbol within a male perspective on women. - Charles Smithson – the main male character. Though born into a family with close ties to nobility, Smithson does not possess a title but has a sizable income and considerable education. Early in the novel he is described both as a casual naturalist and a Darwinist. Though trying to become an enlightened and forward-thinking individual, the narrator often emphasises, through commentary on Smithson's actions and situation, that his identity is strongly rooted in the traditional social system. Moreover, conflicting identification with social forces, such as science and religion, lead Smithson to an existential crisis. - Ernestina Freeman – Smithson's fiancée and daughter to a London-based owner of department stores. Unlike Sarah, Ernestina's temperament is much less complex, and much more simple-minded. - Sam Farrow – Charles's Hackney servant with aspirations to become a haberdasher. Throughout the novel, Sam becomes the narrator's model for the working class peoples of Victorian Britain, comparing Sam's identity with Charles's ignorance of that culture. According to critic David Landrum, the tension between Sam and Charles Smithson importantly demonstrates Marxist class struggle, though this aspect of the novel is often overlooked by criticism emphasizing Charles's relationship to Sarah. - Dr Grogan – an Irish doctor in the town of Lyme Regis who both advises the various upper-class families in the town, and becomes an adviser to Charles. His education and interest in Darwin and other education make him a good companion for Charles. - Mr Freeman – the father of Ernestina, he earned his wealth as an owner of a drapery and clothes sales chain of stores. He "represents the rising entrepreneurial class in England" which stands in stark contrast to the old money which Smithson comes from. - Mrs Tranter – a prominent member of Lyme Regis society who is friends with Grogan and, as her maternal aunt, hosts Ernestina during her stay. - Mrs Poulteney – a wealthy widow and, at the beginning of the novel, the employer of Sarah Woodruff. Hypocritical, and hypersensitive, her character fulfills the archetype of high-society villainess. - Mary – stereotypical lower-class servant to Mrs Tranter and future wife to Sam Farrow. - Montague - Charles Smithson's family lawyer of a firm which has been around since the eighteenth century. 2–3 years older than Charles, he helps his client in search of Sarah towards the end of the novel. ## Style and structure Like many other postmodern novels, Fowles uses multiple different stylistic and structural techniques to highlight his thematic interests in The French Lieutenant's Woman. When discussing these stylistic concerns, many literary critics comment on the importance of the narrator and the narration, the intertextual references to other literary works, and the multiple endings. ### Narration Throughout the novel, the omniscient narrative voice, alongside a series of footnotes, reflect with an objective tone on a number of plot devices: the author's difficulty controlling the characters; the conventions that are expected of a "Victorian novel"; and analyses of differences in 19th-century customs and class. The narrator often returns to topics of interest to literature and scholarship from the period, like the theories of Charles Darwin and Charles Lyell, the radical politics of Karl Marx, and the works of Matthew Arnold, Alfred Tennyson and Thomas Hardy. Through a metafictional and metahistorical voice, the contemporary, postmodern narrator questions the role of the author and the historian in thinking about the past. In her article discussing the use of paratext, or the contextualizing text printed in the book such as the footnotes and epigraphs, Deborah Bowen argues that the novel's paratext forces the reader, as in other postmodern works, to rethink the importance of such peripheral material that in other contexts will get overlooked in light of preference for the main text. Instead of nicely complementing the main plot and adding meaning, these paratextual elements can distract from the effectiveness of the novel and challenge the authority of the narrative voice. ### Intertextuality Beyond the narrator intervening and emphasizing particular interpretations of the text, the book's metafictional approach often relies on intertextual references to provide further commentary. In the epigraphs for each chapter, the book gestures towards a number of important 19th-century texts and ideas. Partially, references to other texts act in "ironic play", parodied by how the novel emulates other Victorian conventions throughout the text. Linda Hutcheon describes the works of William Thackery, George Eliot, Charles Dickens, Froude, and Thomas Hardy as direct inspirations for this parody. In his discussion of science and religion in the novel, John Glendening notes that both character commentary on Darwin's publications along with the epigraphs mentioning those works as direct contributors to the novel's emphasis on science superseding religion. Similarly, by quoting Marx with the first epigraph, along with multiple subsequent epigraphs, the novel directs thematic attention towards the socio-economics issues within the novel. Deborah Bowen describes literary critics struggling to find readings of the epigraphs that explore the themes of the novel, and argues that the poor relationship between the epigraphs and the text "disperses the authority of the narrative voice, thus destroying his power to speak as a moralist." For Bowen, the epigraphs support the satire of Victorian fiction conventions in the novel. ### Multiple endings Often critics will comment on the novel's multiple endings. Each offers a possible ending for Charles's pursuit of Sarah: the first ends with Charles married to Ernestina, the second with a successful reestablishment of a relationship with Sarah, and the third with Charles cast back into the world without a partner. Michelle Phillips Buchberger discusses these endings as a demonstration of "Fowles's rejection of a narrow mimesis" of reality; rather Fowles presents this multiplicity of endings to highlight the role of the author in plot choices. It is not enough to suggest that the novel with its multiple endings is a mere experiment with the narrative form. "There is something more in it," as Mandal puts it, "an impasse that resists any straight forward resolution to the story." After all, the form of a narrative is determined by its content. It is Sarah Woodruff "the content of whose character produces multiple and contradictory possibilities" for the narrative. ## Themes Though a bestseller, the novel has also received significant scrutiny by literary critics. Especially during the 1960s and 70s, a novel with great popularity and significant academic scrutiny is unusual; in literary study, the canon and its academic defenders often focused on "high literary" works that didn't have large popular followings. In her study of postmodernism, Linda Hutcheon described The French Lieutenant's Woman'''s binary of popular and academic interest as a paradox similar to the postmodern thematic binaries produced within the novel's content. Because of its prominence since publication, the novel has received a variety of different academic re-examinations in light of numerous critical and thematic approaches. Some of the most popular concerns for the novel are its discussion of gender, especially questioning claims by Fowles that it is a feminist novel, its engagement with metafictional and metahistorical concepts, and its treatment of science and religion. ### Gender The novel creates a number of binaries between men and women. Michelle Phillips Buchberger argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, along with Fowles two earlier novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965), portrays a fundamental binary between the male and female characters: the female characters act as an elite set of "creators" or "educated, visionary, and predominantly female" characters who provide the facilitation for evolution "in existential terms" of the male "'collectors', whose traits are present in all of Fowles's flawed male protagonists." Though acknowledging such binaries in the role of the characters, critic Alice Ferrebe does not treat these binaries as necessary thematic elements. Rather, the binaries demonstrate what she calls a gendered "scopic politics", or a politics created by a gaze (not dissimilar from the "male gaze" noticed in cinema studies), that constructs an artificial gender binary within Fowle's early novels (as opposed to a multiplicity of socially constructed genders). For Ferrebe, this binary creates a tension, especially with Sarah, who becomes a violently fetishised and objectified "other", differentiated from the male characters like Charles. #### Feminist novel A number of critics have treated the work as a feminist novel, while others have debated whether it offers a sufficiently transformative perspective on women. The novel's narrator demonstrates and proclaims a feminist approach to women: Sarah is presented as a more liberated and independently willed woman as compared to the other model female characters, such as Ernestina and her aunt. In a 1985 interview by Jan Relf, Fowles declared himself a "feminist". Magali Cornier Michael criticises this reading of the text, saying that the novel's overwhelming reliance on male perspectives on women and feminism prevents the novel from meeting feminist objectives. Similarly, Michelle Phillips Buchberger argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, along with Fowles' two earlier novels The Collector (1963) and The Magus (1965), proclaimed a "pseudo-feminism" while advocating some feminist ideas; but, she says, they are permeated by a "fetishism [of women that] perpetuates the idea of woman as 'other'". Alice Ferrebe also notes that, despite Fowles' attempts to critique masculine values, his novels remain male fantasies demonstrative of the "compromises and contradictions" created by the gendered situation in which he was writing. Other literary critics, such as William Palmer, Peter Conradi, Bruce Woodcock and Pamela Cooper, have also critiqued Fowles' claims to a feminist perspective and representation. Fowles's presentation of Sarah, one of the most enigmatic female characters in literary history, is also psychoanalytically informed. Fowles himself was interested in the psychology of men and women. The enigma of femininity, myth of masculinity, and impossibility of man-woman relationship are some of the crucial themes. Through Sarah's deliberate spreading of lies about herself and her relationship with Charles, Fowles brilliantly brings about the various aspects of femininity that has the potential to authenticate, threaten, and expose the vanity of the male subjects. ### Metafiction, historiography and metahistory In her important study of postmodernity and its poetics in literature, Linda Hucheon describes this novel as definitive of a genre she calls "historiographic metafiction". She defines this postmodern genre as "well-known and popular novels which are both intensely self-reflexive yet paradoxically also lay claim to historical events and personages." Typically postmodern, this genre of fiction blends the creation of imagined narratives with critique on the various modes in which we create knowledge, such as history and literature. Important to her discussion of the genre's post-modern style, The French Lieutenant's Woman's self-reflexive narration bridges different discourses that usually remain separated, such as academic history, literary criticism, philosophy and literature. The text's representations of the past introduce anachronistic perspectives on the time and the characters. For example, in her queer studies-based article, "Historical Romance, Gender and Heterosexuality", Lisa Fletcher argues that The French Lieutenant's Woman, by relying on a "good love story" as the central means of representing the past, projects a contemporary hetero-normative sexuality on the history of Victorian England. For Fletcher, Fowles' paradoxical treatment of Sarah as both a Victorian character and as a desirable "modern woman," through feminist gestures and sexual tension between Charles and Sarah, confines the historical set characters and their experience to stereotypical heterosexual romance. Fletcher believes that overall the text creates a stereotypical and limited perspective on the past, essentially "heterosexualising the passage of (and relationship to) history". ### Science and religion Emphasis on a conflicted relationship between science and religion frequently occurs in both historical studies of Victorian history and Neo-Victorian novels. In his chapter on The French Lieutenant's Woman in his book, Evolution and the Uncrucified Jesus, John Glendening argues that Fowles' novel is one of the first neo-Victorian novels to handle the dynamic created between science and religion in Victorian identity. Glendening notes that more generally "Christian ideas and conventions become appropriated in the service of a secularist and extensional version of truth." Glendening says that Fowles uses commentary on Darwinism "to comment on characters and their experience and to forward a view of natural and human reality opposed to Christian doctrine, and, within limits amenable to existentialist philosophy. " In general, Glendening sees ideas of science and religion as central to the personal and social identities that develop within the novel, but creating symbolically conflictual binaries. He suggests that Fowles manoeuvres these conflictual forces to favour an existential self-revelation exhibited through the main character of Smithson, leading to a conclusion that "the freedom implicit in accepting alienation should be exercised in overcoming it." ## Contemporary reception The novel received mixed critical attention at its initial publication. Critics focused both praise and critique on its style, plot and approach to metafiction and metahistory. The following samples those responses: The New York Times November 1969 review by Christopher Lehmann-Haupt warned readers to "be certain there's only one log on the fire. If, unhappily, you lack the fireplace by which this book should be read, set an alarm clock." Lehmann-Haupt found the book to begin as "irresistibly novelistic that he has disguised it as a Victorian romance," yet the metafictional construction by the end positively "explodes all the assumptions of our Victorian sensibilities." Time magazine's November 1969 review described the novel as "resourceful and penetrating talent at work on that archaic form." In March 1970, the magazine American Libraries named the novel as one of the "Notable Books of 1969," calling it "A successful blending of two worlds as the author writes in modern terminology of the Victorian era." Not all of the reviews were positive; for example, Roger Sale in The Hudson Review largely criticized the novel, saying, "At times it seems that the commentary is not so bad and the novel awful, but at others Fowles makes the novel almost work and the comments are embarrassingly vulgar." Ultimately, the reviewer concluded that the novel was "stumbling and gauche and much much too long, but curiously attractive too." ## Publication history The novel has been reprinted in numerous editions and translated into many languages: Taiwanese, Danish, Dutch, Arabic, Finnish, Hungarian, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Chinese, German, Russian, Polish, and Spanish. The novel was originally published in 1969 by Little Brown and Company in both Boston and Toronto. The novel has also been published in a number of English editions from different publishers, represented in the following list (with publication date in parenthesis): - Associated Reprinting Co. (1969) - Cape (June 1969) - International Collectors Library (1969) - Jonathan Cape (1969) - New American Library of Canada (1969) - Penguin (1969) - Triad Granada (1969) - Trinity Press (1969) - New American Library (1970) - Penguin (December 1970) - London World Books (1971) - Panther (1971) - Triad Granada (1977) - Franklin Library (Privately Printed, 1979) - NAL/Dutton (Oct. 1981) - New York American Library (1981) - Penguin (Oct. 1981) - Pan Books in association with Jonathan Cape (1987) - New American Library (1989) - Soho Press, Inc. (1990) - William A. Thomas Braille Bookstore (1990) - Hodder & Stoughton Educational (1991) - Picador (1992) - Buccaneer Books, Inc. (1994) - Vintage (1996) - Back Bay Books (1998) ## Legacy The general popularity of The French Lieutenant's Woman has inspired several responses to the novel, most notably other authors' work and adaptation into film and theatre. ### Literary response The most prominent response to the novel is A. S. Byatt's 1990 Booker Prize-winning novel Possession. She describes her novel as deliberately responding to the model of postmodern metafiction that critics highlight in The French Lieutenant's Woman. Byatt described her motivation for responding in her essays in On Histories and Stories, saying: > Fowles has said that the nineteenth-century narrator was assuming the omniscience of a god. I think rather the opposite is the case—this kind of fictive narrator can creep closer to the feelings and inner life of characters—as well as providing a Greek chorus—than any first-person mimicry. In 'Possession' I used this kind of narrator deliberately three times in the historical narrative—always to tell what the historians and biographers of my fiction never discovered, always to heighten the reader's imaginative entry into the world of the text. ### Adaptation The novel was adapted as a 1981 film, written by playwright Harold Pinter and directed by Karel Reisz. The production staff included composer Carl Davis and the cinematographer Freddie Francis. The film starred Meryl Streep and Jeremy Irons with Hilton McRae, Jean Faulds, Peter Vaughan, Colin Jeavons, Liz Smith, Patience Collier, Richard Griffiths, David Warner, Alun Armstrong, Penelope Wilton and Leo McKern. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards: Streep was nominated for Academy Award for Best Actress and the film was nominated for Academy Award for Best Writing, but both lost to On Golden Pond''. Streep won a BAFTA and a Golden Globe for best actress. The film's music and sound both won BAFTAs, despite not winning the Oscar. Pinter was nominated for a Golden Globe for best script and the work as a whole in the category Best Motion Picture – Drama. During 2006, a stage version by Mark Healy toured the UK. Also in 2006, BBC Radio 4 produced an adaptation of two one-hour episodes, starring John Hurt as the narrator.

Wong Kar-wai

Hong Kong film director (born 1958)

Wong Kar-wai BBS (born 17 July 1958) is a Hong Kong film director, screenwriter, and producer. His films are characterised by nonlinear narratives, atmospheric music, and vivid cinematography involving bold, saturated colours. A pivotal figure of Hong Kong cinema, Wong is considered a contemporary auteur, and ranks third on Sight & Sound's 2002 poll of the greatest filmmakers of the previous 25 years. His films frequently appear on best-of lists domestically and internationally. Born in Shanghai, Wong emigrated to British Hong Kong as a child with his family. He began a career as a screenwriter for soap operas before transitioning to directing with his debut, the crime drama As Tears Go By (1988). While As Tears Go By was fairly successful in Hong Kong, Wong moved away from the contemporary trend of crime and action movies to embark on more personal filmmaking styles. Days of Being Wild (1990), his first venture in such a direction, did not perform well at the box office. It however received critical acclaim, and won Best Film and Best Director at the 1991 Hong Kong Film Awards. His next film, Ashes of Time (1994), met with a mixed reception because of its vague plot and atypical take on the wuxia genre. Exhausted by the time-consuming filming and post-production of Ashes of Time, Wong directed Chungking Express (1994), a smaller film that he hoped would rekindle his love of cinema. The film, expressing a more lighthearted atmosphere, catapulted Wong to international prominence, and won Best Film and Best Director at the 1995 Hong Kong Film Awards. Wong followed up with the crime thriller Fallen Angels in 1995. Although it was initially tepidly received by critics, Fallen Angels has since come to be considered a cult classic of the Golden Age of Hong Kong cinema, being especially representative of Wong's style. Wong would go on to consolidate his worldwide reputation with the 1997 drama Happy Together, for which he won Best Director at the Cannes Film Festival. The 2000 drama In the Mood for Love, revered for its lush visuals and subtle storytelling, concretely established Wong's trademark filmmaking styles. Among his other work are 2046 (2004) and The Grandmaster (2013), both of which received awards and nominations worldwide. ## Early life Wong Kar-wai was born on 17 July 1958 in Shanghai, the youngest of three siblings. His father was a sailor and his mother was a housewife. By the time Wong was five years old, the seeds of the Cultural Revolution were beginning to take effect in China and his parents decided to relocate to British-ruled Hong Kong. The two older children were meant to join them later, but the borders closed before they had a chance and Wong did not see his brother or sister again for ten years. In Hong Kong, the family settled in Tsim Sha Tsui, and his father got work managing a night club. Being an only child in a new city, Wong has said he felt isolated during his childhood; he struggled to learn Cantonese and English, only becoming fluent in these new languages when he was a teenager. As a youth, Wong was frequently taken to the cinema by his mother and exposed to a variety of films. He later said: "The only hobby I had as a child was watching movies". At school he was interested in graphic design, and earned a diploma in the subject from Hong Kong Polytechnic in 1980. After graduating, Wong was accepted onto a training course with the TVB television network, where he learned the processes of media production. ## Career ### Beginnings (1980–1989) He soon began a screenwriting career, firstly with TV series and soap operas, such as Don't Look Now (1981), before progressing to film scripts. He worked as part of a team, contributing to a variety of genres including romance, comedy, thriller, and crime. Wong had little enthusiasm for these early projects, described by the film scholar Gary Bettinson as "occasionally diverting and mostly disposable", but continued to write throughout the 1980s on films including Just for Fun (1983), Rosa (1986), and The Haunted Cop Shop of Horrors (1987). He is credited with ten screenplays between 1982 and 1987, but claims to have worked on about fifty more without official credit. Wong spent two years writing the screenplay for Patrick Tam's action film Final Victory (1987), for which he was nominated at the 7th Hong Kong Film Awards. By 1987 the Hong Kong film industry was at a peak, enjoying a considerable level of prosperity and productivity. New directors were needed to maintain this success, and – through his links in the industry – Wong was invited to become a partner on a new independent company, In-Gear, and given the opportunity to direct his own picture. Gangster films were popular at the time, in the wake of John Woo's highly-successful A Better Tomorrow (1986), and Wong decided to follow suit. Specifically, unlike Hong Kong's other crime films, he chose to focus on young gangsters. The film, named As Tears Go By, tells the story of a conflicted youth who has to watch over his hot-headed friend. Because he was well acquainted with the producer, Alan Tang, Wong was given considerable freedom in the making of As Tears Go By. His cast included what he considered some of "the hottest young idols in Hong Kong": singer Andy Lau, Maggie Cheung, and Jacky Cheung. As Tears Go By was released in June 1988 and was popular with audiences. Several journalists named Wong among the "Hong Kong New Wave". While it was a conventional crime film, critic David Bordwell said that Wong "[stood] out from his peers by abandoning the kinetics of comedies and action movies in favour of more liquid atmospherics." As Tears Go By received no attention from Western critics upon its initial release, but it was selected to be screened during the Directors' Fortnight of the 1989 Cannes Film Festival. ### Developing style (1990–1994) For his next film, Wong decided to move away from the crime trend in Hong Kong cinema, to which he felt indifferent. He was eager to make something unique, and the financial success of As Tears Go By made this possible. Developing a more personal project than his previous film, Wong picked the 1960s as a setting – evoking an era that he remembered well and had a "special feeling" for. Days of Being Wild focuses on a disillusioned young adult named Yuddy and those around him. There is no straightforward plot or obvious genre, but Stephen Teo sees it as a film about the "longing for love". Andy Lau, Maggie Cheung, and Jacky Cheung rejoined Wong for his second film, while Leslie Cheung was cast in the central role. Hired as cinematographer was Christopher Doyle, who became one of Wong's most important collaborators, photographing his next six films. With its popular stars, Days of Being Wild was expected to be a mainstream picture; instead it was a character piece, more concerned with mood and atmosphere than narrative. Released in December 1990, the film earned little at the box office and divided critics. Despite this, it won five Hong Kong Film Awards, and received some attention internationally. With its experimental narrative, expressive camerawork, and themes of lost time and love, Days of Being Wild is described by film critic Peter Brunette as the first typical "Wong Kar-wai film". It has since gained a reputation as one of Hong Kong's finest releases. Its initial failure was disheartening for the director, and he could not gain funding for his next project – a planned sequel. Struggling to get support for his work, Wong formed his own production company, Jet Tone Films, with Jeff Lau in 1992. In need of further backing, Wong accepted a studio's offer that he make a wuxia (ancient martial arts) film based on the popular novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes by Jin Yong. Wong was enthusiastic about the idea, claiming he had long wanted to make a costume drama. He eventually took little from the book other than three characters, and in 1992 began experimenting with several different narrative structures to weave what he called "a very complex tapestry". Filming began with another all-star cast: Leslie, Maggie, and Jacky Cheung returned alongside Brigitte Lin, Carina Lau, Charlie Young, and Tony Leung Chiu-wai − the latter of which became one of Wong's key collaborators. Set during the Song dynasty, Ashes of Time concerns a desert-exiled assassin who is called upon by several different characters while nursing a broken heart. It was a difficult production and the project was not completed for two years, at a cost of HK\$47 million. Upon release in September 1994, audiences were confused by the film's vague plotting and atypical take on wuxia. The film scholar Martha P. Nochimson has called it "the most unusual martial arts film ever made", as fast-paced action scenes are replaced with character ruminations, and story becomes secondary to the use of colour, landscape, and imagery. As such, Ashes of Time was a commercial failure, but critics were generally appreciative of Wong's "refusal to be loyal to [the wuxia] genre". The film won several local awards, and competed at the Venice Film Festival where Doyle won Best Cinematography. In 2008, Wong reworked the film and re-released it as Ashes of Time Redux. ### Breakthrough (1994–1995) During the long production of Ashes of Time, Wong faced a two-month break as he waited for equipment to re-record sound for some scenes. He was in a negative state, feeling heavy pressure from his backers and worrying about another failure, and so decided to start a new project: "I thought I should do something to make myself feel comfortable about making films again. So I made Chungking Express, which I made like a student film." Conceived and completed within only six weeks, the new project ended up being released two months before Ashes of Time. Chungking Express is split into two distinct parts – both set in contemporary Hong Kong and focusing on lonely policemen (Takeshi Kaneshiro and Tony Leung Chiu-wai) who each fall for a woman (Brigitte Lin and Faye Wong). Wong was keen to experiment with "two crisscrossing stories in one movie" and worked spontaneously, filming at night what he had written that day. Peter Brunette notes that Chungking is considerably more fun and lighthearted than the director's previous efforts, but deals with the same themes. At the 1995 Hong Kong Film Awards it was named Best Picture, and Wong received Best Director. Miramax acquired the film for American distribution, which, according to Brunette, "catapulted Wong to international attention". Stephen Schneider includes it in his book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die with the summary: "While other films by Wong may pack more emotional resonance, Chungking Express gets off on sheer innocence, exuberance, and cinematic freedom, a striking triumph of style over substance". Wong continued to work without break, expanding his ideas from Chungking Express into another film about alienated young adults in contemporary Hong Kong. Chungking Express had originally been conceived as three stories, but when time ran out, Wong developed the third as a new project, Fallen Angels, with new characters. Wong conceived both films as complementary studies of Hong Kong: "To me Chungking Express and Fallen Angels are one film that should be three hours long." Fallen Angels is broadly considered a crime thriller, and contains scenes of extreme violence, but is atypical of the genre and heavily infused with Wong's fragmented, experimental style. The loose plot again involves two distinct, subtly overlapping narratives, and is dominated by frantic visuals. The film mostly occurs at night and explores the dark side of Hong Kong, which Wong planned intentionally to balance the sweetness of Chungking: "It's fair to show both sides of a coin". Takeshi Kaneshiro and Charlie Young were cast again, but new to Wong's films were Leon Lai, Michelle Reis and Karen Mok. Upon release in September 1995, several critics felt that the film was too similar to Chungking Express and some complained that Wong had become self-indulgent. However, as time went on, critics would go on to have a significant re-appraisal of the film, and it has amassed a large cult following, becoming one of Wong's most popular and iconic films. Fallen Angels has often been stated as one of the director's most stylish films, and it has also been received with praise for its non-conventional, fragmented plot. Film historians Zhang Yingjin and Xiao Zhiwei commented: "While not as groundbreaking as its predecessors, the film is still different and innovative enough to confirm [Wong's] presence on the international scene." ### Widespread recognition (1996–2000) While his reputation grew steadily throughout the early 1990s, Wong's international standing was "thoroughly consolidated" with the 1997 romantic drama Happy Together (1997). Its development was influenced by the handover of Hong Kong from Britain to China, which occurred that year. Wong was widely expected to address the event in his next film; instead, he avoided the pressure by choosing to shoot in Argentina. The issues of the handover were nevertheless important: knowing that homosexuals in Hong Kong faced uncertainty after 1997, Wong decided to focus on a relationship between two men. He was keen to present the relationship as ordinary and universal, as he felt Hong Kong's previous LGBT films had not. Happy Together tells the story of a couple (Tony Leung Chiu-wai and Leslie Cheung) who travel to Buenos Aires in an effort to save their relationship. Wong decided to change the structure and style from his previous films, as he felt he had become predictable. Teo, Brunette, and Jeremy Tambling all see Happy Together as a marked change from his earlier work: the story is more linear and understandable, there are only three characters (with no women at all), and while it still has Doyle's "exuberant" photography, it is more stylistically restrained. After a difficult production period – where a six-week shoot was dragged out to four months – the film was released in May 1997 to great critical acclaim. It competed for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, where Wong became Hong Kong's first winner of the Best Director Award (an achievement he downplayed: "it makes no difference, it's just something you can put on an ad.") In his 2005 monograph, Brunette opines that Happy Together marked "a new stage in [Wong's] artistic development", and along with its successor – In the Mood for Love (2000) – showcases the director at "the zenith of his cinematic art." The latter film emerged from a highly complicated production history that lasted two years. Several different titles and projects were planned by Wong before they evolved into the final result: a romantic melodrama set in 1960s Hong Kong that is seen as an unofficial sequel to Days of Being Wild. Wong decided to return to the era that fascinated him, and reflected his own background by focusing on Shanghainese émigrés. Maggie Cheung and Tony Leung Chiu-wai play the lead characters, who move into an apartment building on the same day in 1962 and discover that their spouses are having an affair; over the next four years they develop a strong attraction. Teo writes that the film is a study of "typical Chinese reserve and repressed desire", while Schneider describes how the "strange relationship" is choreographed with "the grace and rhythm of a waltz" and depicted in "a dreamlike haze by an eavesdropping camera". The shoot lasted 15 months, with both Cheung and Leung reportedly driven to their breaking points. Wong shot more than 30 times the footage he eventually used, and only finished editing the film the morning before its Cannes premiere. At the festival, In the Mood for Love received the Technical Grand Prize and Best Actor for Leung. It was named Best Foreign Film by the National Society of Film Critics. Wong said after its release: "In the Mood for Love is the most difficult film in my career so far, and one of the most important. I am very proud of it." In subsequent years it has been included on lists of the greatest films of all time. ### International work (2001–2007) While In the Mood for Love took two years to complete, its sequel – 2046 – took double that time. The film was actually conceived first, when Wong picked the title as a reference to the final year of China's "One country, two systems" promise to Hong Kong. Although his plans changed and a new film developed, he simultaneously shot material for 2046, with the first footage dating back to December 1999. Wong immediately continued with the project once In the Mood for Love was complete, reportedly becoming obsessed with it. In Bettinson's account, it "became a behemoth, impossible to finish". 2046 continues the story of Chow Mo-wan, Leung's character from In the Mood for Love, though he is considered much colder and very different. Wong found that he did not want to leave the character, and commenced where he left off in 1966; nevertheless, he claimed: "It's another story, about how a man faces his future due to a certain past". His plans were vague and according to Teo, he set "a new record in his own method of free-thinking, time-extensive and improvisatory filmmaking" with the production. Scenes were shot in Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Macau, and Bangkok. Actresses Zhang Ziyi and Gong Li were cast to play the women who consume Mo-wan, as the character plans a science fiction novel titled 2046. The film premiered at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, but Wong delivered the print 24 hours late and still was not happy: he continued editing until the film's October release. It was Wong's most expensive and longest-running project to date. 2046 was a commercial failure in Hong Kong, but the majority of western critics gave it positive reviews. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe praised it as an "enigmatic, rapturously beautiful meditation on romance and remembrance", while Steve Erikson of Los Angeles Magazine called it Wong's masterpiece. Before starting on his next feature, Wong worked on the anthology film Eros (2004), providing one of three short films (the others directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and Steven Soderbergh) that centre on the theme of lust. Wong's segment, titled The Hand, starred Gong Li as a 1960s call girl and Chang Chen as her potential client. Although Eros was not well received, Wong's segment was often called the most successful. Following the difficult production of 2046, Wong wanted his next feature to be a simple, invigorating experience. He decided to make an English-language film in America, later justifying this by explaining: "It's a new landscape. It's a new background, so it's refreshing." After hearing a radio interview with the singer Norah Jones he immediately decided to contact her, and she signed on as the lead. Wong's understanding of America was based only on short visits and what he had seen in films, but he was keen to depict the country accurately. As such, he co-wrote the film (one of the rare times a screenplay was pre-prepared) with author Lawrence Block. Titled My Blueberry Nights, it focused on a young New Yorker who leaves for a road trip when she learns that her boyfriend has been unfaithful. Cast as the figures she meets were Jude Law, Natalie Portman, Rachel Weisz and David Strathairn. Filming on My Blueberry Nights took place over seven weeks in 2006, on location in Manhattan, Memphis, Las Vegas, and Ely, Nevada. Wong produced it in the same manner as he would in Hong Kong, and the themes and visual style – despite Doyle being replaced by cinematographer Darius Khondji – remained the same. Premiering in May 2007, My Blueberry Nights was Wong's fourth consecutive film to compete for the Palme d'Or at Cannes. Although he considered it a "special experience", the film did not receive positive critical reviews. With common complaints that the material was thin and the product uneven, My Blueberry Nights became Wong's first critical failure. ### 2008–present Wong's next film was not released for five years, as he underwent another long and difficult production on The Grandmaster (2013) – a biographical film of the martial arts teacher Ip Man. The idea had occurred to him in 1999, but he did not commit to it until the completion of My Blueberry Nights. Ip Man is a legendary figure in Hong Kong, known for training actor Bruce Lee in the art of Wing Chun, but Wong decided to focus on an earlier period of Ip's life (1936–1956) that covered the turmoil of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. He set out to make "a commercial and colourful film". After considerable research and preparation, filming began in 2009. Tony Leung Chui-wai rejoined Wong for their seventh film together, having spent 18 months being trained in Wing Chun. The "gruelling" production lasted intermittently for three years, twice interrupted by Leung fracturing his arm, and is Wong's most expensive to date. The Grandmaster is described by Bettinson as a mixture of popular and arthouse traditions, with form, visuals, and themes consistent with Wong's previous work. Three different versions of the film exist, as Wong shorted it from its domestic release for the 2013 Berlin Film Festival, and again for its US distribution by the Weinstein Company. Described in Slant Magazine as Wong's most accessible film since his debut, The Grandmaster won twelve Hong Kong Film Awards, including Best Film and Best Director, and received two Academy Award nominations (Cinematography and Production Design). Critics approved of the film, and with a worldwide gross of US\$64 million it is Wong's most lucrative film to date. When asked about his career in 2014, Wong told The Independent, "To be honest with you, I feel I'm only halfway done." In November 2016, he was announced as taking over an upcoming film about the murder of Maurizio Gucci from previous director Ridley Scott, but commented in October 2017 that he was no longer involved in the project. In September 2017, Amazon Video issued a straight-to-series order for Tong Wars, a television drama to be directed by Wong. It focuses on the gang wars that occurred in nineteenth-century San Francisco, but Amazon later dropped the series. Regarding his next film, the Asian media has reported that it will be titled Blossoms Shanghai and based on Jin Yucheng's book of the same name, which focuses on numerous characters in Shanghai from the 1960s to the 2000s. Blossoms Shanghai is also slated to become a web series for Tencent in which Wong produces. In May 2019, Wong announced the 4K restoration of his entire filmography, which was released in 2021 in celebration of the 20th anniversary of In the Mood for Love. The restoration was carried out by the Cineteca di Bologna's film restoration laboratory L'Immagine Ritrovata. Criterion Collection released Wong's restored filmography as a box set in the United States in March 2021. ## Personal life Wong and his wife, Esther, have one child – a son named Qing. The director is known for always appearing in sunglasses, which James Motram of The Independent says adds "to the alluring sense of mystery that swirls around the man and his movies." In 2009, Wong signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski following his arrest in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges after being detained while traveling to a film festival, which the petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown "freely and safely", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door "for actions of which no-one can know the effects." ## Filmmaking ### Influences Wong is wary of sharing his favourite directors, but has stated that he watched a range of films growing up, from Hong Kong genre films to European art films. They were never labelled as such, and so he approached them equally and was broadly influenced. The energy of the Hong Kong films had a "tremendous" impact according to Brunette. Art professor Giorgio Biancorosso commented that Wong's international influences include Martin Scorsese, Michelangelo Antonioni, Alfred Hitchcock, and Bernardo Bertolucci. Some of his favorite contemporary filmmakers include Scorsese, Christopher Nolan, and Quentin Tarantino. He is often compared with French New Wave director Jean-Luc Godard. Wong's most direct influence was his colleague Patrick Tam, who was an important mentor and likely inspired his use of colour. Outside of cinema, Wong has been heavily influenced by literature. He has a particular affinity for Latin American writers, and the fragmentary nature of his films came primarily from the "scrapbook structures" of novels by Manuel Puig and Julio Cortázar, which he attempted to emulate. Haruki Murakami, particularly his novel Norwegian Wood, also provided inspiration, as did the writing of Liu Yichang. The television channel MTV was a further influence on Wong. He said in a 1998 interview: "In the late eighties, when [MTV] was first shown in Hong Kong, we were all really impressed with the energy and the fragmented structure. It seemed like we should go in this direction." ### Method and collaborators Wong has an unusual approach to film making, starting production without a script and generally relying on instinct and improvisation rather than pre-prepared ideas. He has said he dislikes writing and finds filming from a finished script "boring". According to Stokes & Hoover, he writes as he shoots, "drawing inspiration from the music, the setting, working conditions, and actors". In advance, the cast are given a minimal plot outline and expected to develop their characters as they film. To capture naturalness and spontaneity, Wong does not allow for rehearsals while improvisation and collaboration are encouraged. He similarly does not use storyboards or plan camera placement, preferring to experiment as he goes. His shooting ratio is therefore very high, sometimes forty takes per scene, and production typically goes well over schedule and over budget. Tony Leung has commented that this approach is "taxing on the actors", but Stokes & Hoover speculate that Wong's collaborators endure it because "[the] results are always unexpected, invigorating, and interesting." Though Wong admits to being controlling, and oversees every aspect of the film making process, he has formed several long-lasting partnerships and close collaborators. In 2013, he said: "It is always good to work with a very regular group of people because we know how high we can fly and what are the parameters, and it becomes very enjoyable." Two men have been instrumental in developing and achieving his aesthetic: production designer William Chang and cinematographer Christopher Doyle. Chang has worked on every Wong film and is a trusted confidant, responsible for all set design and costuming. Doyle photographed seven of his projects, all from Days of Being Wild to 2046. Stephen Schneider writes that he deserves "much credit" in Wong's success, as his "masterful use of light and colour renders every frame a work of art". Wong's other regular colleagues include writer-producer Jeffrey Lau, producer Jacky Pang, and assistant director Johnnie Kong. Wong often casts the same actors. He is strongly associated with Tony Leung Chiu-wai, who has appeared in seven of Wong's feature length films. Wong describes him as a partner, stating, "I feel like there is a lot of things between me and Tony that is beyond words. We don't need meetings, talks, whatever, because a lot of things are understood." Other actors who have appeared in at least three of his films are Maggie Cheung, Chang Chen, Leslie Cheung, Jacky Cheung, and Carina Lau. ### Style Wong is known for producing art films focussed on mood and atmosphere, rather than following convention. His general style is described by Teo as "a cornucopia overflowing with multiple stories, strands of expression, meanings and identities: a kaleidoscope of colours and identities". Structurally, Wong's films are typically fragmented and disjointed, with little concern for linear narrative, and often with interconnected stories. Critics have commented on the lack of plot in his films, such as Burr who says: "The director doesn't build linear story lines so much as concentric rings of narrative and poetic meaning that continually revolve around each other". Similarly, Brunette says that Wong "often privileges audio/visual expressivity over narrative structure". Wong has commented on this, saying "in my logic there is a storyline." Key to Wong's films is the visual style, which is often described as beautiful and unique. The colours are bold and saturated, the camerawork swooning, resulting in what Brunette calls his "signature visual pyrotechnics". One of his trademarks is the use of step-printing, which alters film rates to "[liquefy] hard blocks of primary colour into iridescent streaks of light." Other features of the Wong aesthetic include slow motion, off-centre framing, the obscuring of faces, rack focus, filming in the dark or rain, and elliptical editing. Schneider writes of Wong's fondness for "playing with film stock, exposure, and speed the way others might fiddle with a script." Another trademark of Wong's cinema is his use of music and pop songs. He places great importance on this element, and Biancorosso describes it as the "essence" of his films; a key part of the "narrative machinery" that can guide the rhythm of the editing. He selects international songs, rarely cantopop, and uses them to enhance the sense of history or place. According to film scholar Julian Stringer, music "proved crucial to the emotional and cognitive appeal" of Wong's films. Wong's dependence on music and his heavily visual and disjointed style has been compared to music videos, but detractors claim that they are "all surface and no depth". Academic Curtis K. Tsui argues that style is the substance in Wong's film, while Brunette believes that his "form remains resolutely in the service of character, theme, and emotion rather than indulged in for its own sake". ## Legacy Wong is an important figure in contemporary cinema, regarded as one of the best filmmakers of his generation. His reputation as a maverick began early in his career: in the 1996 Encyclopedia of Chinese Film, Wong was described as having "already established a secure reputation as one of the most daring avant-garde filmmakers" of Chinese cinema. Authors Zhang and Xiao concluded that he "occupies a special place in contemporary film history", and had already "exerted a sizeable impact". With the subsequent release of Happy Together and In the Mood for Love, Wong's international standing grew further, and in 2002 voters for the British Film Institute named him the third greatest director of the previous quarter-century. In 2015, Variety named him an icon of arthouse cinema. The East Asian scholar Daniel Martin describes Wong's output as "among the most internationally accessible and critically acclaimed Hong Kong films of all time". Because of this status abroad, Wong is seen as a pivotal figure in his local industry; Julian Stringer says he is "central to the contemporary Chinese cinema renaissance", Gary Bettinson describes him as "a beacon of Hong Kong cinema" who "has kept that industry in the public spotlight", and Film4 designate him the filmmaker from China with the greatest impact. Together with Zhang Yimou, Wong is seen by the historian Philip Kemp as representing the "internationalisation" of East Asian cinema. Domestically, his films were generally not financial successes, but he has been consistently well-awarded by local bodies. From early on, he was regarded as Hong Kong's "enfant terrible" and one of their most iconoclastic filmmakers. Despite this, he has been recognised in both cult and mainstream circles, producing art films that receive commercial exposure. He is known for confounding audiences, as he adopts established genres and subverts them with experimental techniques. Both Stringer and Nochimson claim that Wong has one of the most distinctive filmmaking styles in the industry. From his first film As Tears Go By, he made an impact with his "liquid" aesthetic, which Ungerböck claims was completely new and quickly copied in Asian film and television. His second film, Days of Being Wild, is described by Brunette as "a landmark in Hong Kong cinema" for its unconventional approach. Nochimson writes that Wong's films are entirely personal, making him an auteur, and states, "Wong has developed his own cinematic vocabulary, with an array of shot patterns connected with him". Stringer argues that Wong's success demonstrates the importance of being "different". Wong's films frequently appeared on best-of lists domestically and internationally. On the Hong Kong Film Awards Association's 2005 list of The Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures, all except one of his films up to that time made the list. Days of Being Wild (1990) placed at number three, the highest position for a post-1980s film; other films ranked were Chungking Express (22), Ashes of Time (35), As Tears Go By (88), Happy Together (89), and In the Mood for Love (90). In the 2012 Sight & Sound poll, whereby industry professionals submit ballots to determine the greatest films of all time, In the Mood for Love was ranked 24th, the highest-ranked film since 1980 and the sixth greatest film by a living director. Chungking Express and Days of Being Wild both ranked in the top 250; Happy Together and 2046 in the top 500; and Ashes of Time and As Tears Go By also featured (all but two of Wong's films at the time). Wong's influence has impacted contemporary directors including Quentin Tarantino, Sofia Coppola, Lee Myung-se, Tom Tykwer, Zhang Yuan, Tsui Hark, and Barry Jenkins. In 2018, he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree by Harvard University. ## Filmography and awards Wong's oeuvre consists of ten directed features, 16 films where is he credited only as screenwriter, and seven films from other directors that he has produced. He has also directed commercials, short films, and music videos, and contributed to two anthology films. He has received awards and nominations from organisations in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. In 2006, Wong accepted the National Order of the Legion of Honour: Knight (Lowest Degree) from the French Government. In 2013, he was bestowed with the title of a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, the highest order, by French Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius. The International Film Festival of India gave Wong a Lifetime Achievement Award in 2014.

Sunshine & Health

Nudist magazine

Sunshine & Health (originally The Nudist) was an American nudist magazine published from 1933 until 1963. It has been described as the "flagship magazine" of the nudist movement in the US. It was published monthly, and sold at newsstands as well as being distributed by subscription through the mail. Though popular, the magazine faced a series of legal challenges relating to obscenity, particularly from the US Post Office, which repeatedly attempted to declare it nonmailable. This culminated in a favourable Supreme Court decision in Sunshine Book Co. v. Summerfield (1958). The subsequent weakening of obscenity enforcement ultimately hurt the magazine's circulation, as more sexually explicit magazines out-competed it, and it went bankrupt in 1963. ## Editorial staff The Nudist was a publication of the International Nudist Conference, which was founded in 1931 and later became the National Nudism Organization. At the launch of the magazine in 1933, Henry S. Huntington (the president of the Conference) served as editor, and Ilsley Boone (secretary of the Conference) was named as managing editor. Later, Boone's daughter, Margaret A. B. Pulis would also serve as editor. As of the early 1950s, the magazine's operations were based in Mays Landing, New Jersey. ## Circulation and audience The first issue of The Nudist sold 10,000 copies, and the subsequent issue sold 50,000. Given that the magazine's circulation far exceeded the International Nudist Conference's total membership, and that most copies were sold at newsstands rather than by subscription, it is believed that many readers bought the magazine for sexual titillation, rather than out of an interest in nudism per se. The magazine attempted to gain a more respectable image by changing its name to Sunshine & Health. The magazine saw a large increase in popularity during World War II, as it was enjoyed by American soldiers as pornographic gratification, and the magazine increasingly used suggestive poses to appeal to this audience. Because it also included nude men, the magazine could also serve as a covert source of gratification for gay soldiers. Sunshine & Health magazine went bankrupt in 1963. Its decline has been attributed to increasing competition from more explicitly pornographic periodicals which emerged in the wake of a series of court rulings which relaxed the legal definition of obscenity, including its own Supreme Court victory in Sunshine Book Co. v. Summerfield. ## Content The magazine included a combination of reporting related to the nudist movement and photographs of nudist men, women and children engaging in various activities. In a concession to postal authorities, the magazine initially avoided depictions of visible genitalia or pubic hair, using airbrushing to obscure them as necessary. Beginning around 1943, the magazine gradually relaxed this self-censorship policy, with photos increasingly including visible pubic hair and genitals (initially from a distance). A judge described the literary content of some 1951 issues of Sunshine & Health and sister publication SUN Magazine (also produced by Boone, but with an international scope) as: > reports of meeting and conventions, reports of officers, the "Olympic Games" of the movement, public relations theories for the expansion of nudism, reports of regional associations and local clubs, conflicts between nudism and the law, expositions of nudism for the advancement of physical and mental health, religious justifications of nudism, etc. The photographs in the same issues were described as a combination of "action pictures showing nudists in their camp activities, rowing, hitting volley balls, building fires, etc." as well as photos of "shapely and attractive young women in alluring poses". The judge noted that cover photos invariably belonged to the second category. ## Legal troubles Sunshine & Health faced a number of legal challenges, particularly from the US Post Office. In 1946, postal inspectors began an investigation of those placing letters and pen-pal notices in the magazine, suspecting them of sending nude photographs through the mail. Between 1948 and 1956, the magazine faced three separate investigations by the Post Office, in which issues were seized under suspicion of being nonmailable. Each case was eventually dismissed, but the effect on the magazine's distribution caused a significant financial burden. In New York City in 1951, several newsstand clerks were arrested for selling copies of Sunshine & Health and SUN Magazine, violating a state statute prohibiting the distribution of obscene materials. Newsstands were subsequently notified by the city's Department of Licenses that continuing to sell the magazines would result in losing their licenses. Initial appeals were unsuccessful, but six years later a New York appeals court found that the city's action was an unconstitutional act of prior restraint, violating the publisher's First Amendment rights. ### Sunshine Book Co. v. Summerfield In January 1955, Boone's Sunshine Book Company filed a complaint in US district court seeking an injunction to stop the Post Office's continued seizure of the magazine. They were represented by attorneys O. John Rogge and Josiah Lyman. Judge James Robert Kirkland ruled against the magazine, writing that the "American people are a clothed race", and identifying certain particular photographs as objectionable, such as a side view of a nude man with "the corona of his penis ... clearly discernible". The case was appealed to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, which overturned the decision by a 2–1 vote in May of 1956. The government petitioned for an en banc review, and the District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals again reversed the earlier decision, finding in favour of the government by a 5–3 vote. Finally, the publisher appealed to the US Supreme Court. A short per curiam decision in Sunshine Book Co. v. Summerfield was handed down on January 13, 1958, finding in favour of the publisher, citing the earlier case Roth v. United States. On the same day, the court issued a similar decision in One, Inc. v. Olesen, which concerned similar actions taken by the Post Office against ONE, a magazine dedicated to the homophile movement.

Beat 'em up

Video game genre

A beat 'em up (also known as brawler and, in some markets, beat 'em all) is a video game genre featuring hand-to-hand combat against a large number of opponents. Traditional beat 'em ups take place in scrolling, two-dimensional (2D) levels, while a number of modern games feature more open three-dimensional (3D) environments with yet larger numbers of enemies. The gameplay tends to follow arcade genre conventions, such as being simple to learn but difficult to master, and the combat system tends to be more highly developed than other side-scrolling action games. Two-player cooperative gameplay and multiple player characters are also hallmarks of the genre. Most of these games take place in urban settings and feature crime-fighting and revenge-based plots, though some games may employ historical, science fiction or fantasy themes. The first beat 'em up was 1984's Kung-Fu Master, which was based on Hong Kong martial arts films. 1986's Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun introduced the belt scroll format employed extensively by later games, while also popularizing contemporary urban settings, while its Western localized version Renegade further introduced underworld revenge themes. The genre then saw a period of high popularity between the release of Double Dragon in 1987, which defined the two-player cooperative mode and continuous belt scroll format central to classic beat 'em ups, and 1991's Street Fighter II, which drew gamers towards one-on-one fighting games. Games such as Streets of Rage, Final Fight, Golden Axe and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles are other classics to emerge from this period. In the late 1990s, the genre lost popularity with the emergence of 3D-polygon technology. In the 2000s, a sub-genre of 3D hack-and-slash games emerged (also known as "character action games"), adapting the beat 'em up formula to utilize large-scale 3D environments, with popular franchises including Devil May Cry, Dynasty Warriors, God of War and Bayonetta. Since the 2010s, traditional 2D beat 'em ups have seen a resurgence, with popular titles such as Dungeon Fighter Online, Dragon's Crown, Streets of Rage 4 and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Shredder's Revenge. ## Definition A beat 'em up (also called a "brawler") is a type of action game where the player character must fight a large number of enemies in unarmed combat or with melee weapons. Gameplay consists of walking through a level, one section at a time, defeating a group of enemies before advancing to the next section; a boss fight normally occurs at the end of each level. Arcade versions of these games are often quite difficult to win, causing players to spend more money. Beat 'em ups are related to but distinct from fighting games, which are based around one-on-one matches rather than scrolling levels and multiple enemies. Such terminology is loosely applied, however, as some commentators prefer to conflate the two terms. At times, both one-on-one fighting games and scrolling beat 'em ups have influenced each other in terms of graphics and style and can appeal to fans of either genre. Occasionally, a game will feature both kinds of gameplay. In the United Kingdom, video game magazines during the 1980s to 1990s, such as Mean Machines and Computer & Video Games (C+VG) for example, referred to all games which had a combat motif as beat 'em ups, including fighting games. However, they were differentiated by a specific prefix; games like Double Dragon or Final Fight were called "scrolling beat 'em ups" and games such as Street Fighter II or Mortal Kombat were referred to as "one on one beat 'em ups". Fighting games were still being called "beat 'em up" games in the UK gaming press up until the end of the 1990s. ## Game design Beat 'em up games usually employ vigilante crime fighting and revenge plots with the action taking place on city streets, though historical and fantasy themed games also exist. Players must walk from one end of the game world to the other, and thus each game level will usually scroll horizontally. Some later beat 'em ups dispense with 2D-based scrolling levels, instead allowing the player to roam around larger 3D environments, though they retain the same simple-to-learn gameplay and control systems. Throughout the level, players may acquire weapons that they can use as well as power-ups that replenish the player's health. As players walk through the level, they are stopped by groups of enemies who must be defeated before they're able to continue. The level ends when all the enemies are defeated. Each level contains many identical groups of enemies, making these games notable for their repetition. In beat 'em up games, players often fight a boss—an enemy much stronger than the other enemies—at the end of each level. Beat 'em ups often allow the player to choose between a selection of protagonists—each with their own strengths, weaknesses, and set of moves. The combat system typically tends to be more highly developed than other side-scrolling action games. Attacks can include rapid combinations of basic attacks (combos) as well as jumping and grappling attacks. Characters often have their own special attacks, which leads to different strategies depending on which character the player selects. The control system is usually simple to learn, often comprising just two attack buttons. These buttons can be combined to pull off combos, as well as jumping and grappling attacks. Since the release of Double Dragon, many beat 'em ups have allowed two players to play the game cooperatively—a central aspect to the appeal of these games. Beat 'em ups are more likely to feature cooperative play than other game genres. ## Sub-genres The beat 'em up or brawler genre includes several sub-genres: - Scrolling beat 'em up – Beat 'em up games which employ a 2D scrolling format. - Single-plane beat 'em up or side-scrolling beat 'em up – Scrolling beat 'em ups that move along a single side-scrolling plane of motion. This was the earliest style of beat 'em up, with the format established by Irem's Kung-Fu Master (1984), designed by Takashi Nishiyama. Other titles that followed in the sub-genre include Sega's My Hero and Flashgal (1985), Taito's The Ninja Warriors (1987), Data East's Bad Dudes Vs. DragonNinja (1988) and Namco's Splatterhouse (1988). This early style of beat 'em up is part of a broader genre of side-scrolling character action games, including 2D fighting games, scrolling platform games, and run and gun video games. A later example of this style is Capcom's Viewtiful Joe (2003). - Belt-scroll action game or belt-scroll beat 'em up – The most popular type of scrolling beat 'em up, these games use a belt scroll format, a side-scrolling format with a downward camera angle where players can move both vertically and horizontally along a horizontally scrolling environment. The term "belt scroll action game" was coined in Japan, where it was named as such due to the scrolling style resembling conveyor belt motion. This format was introduced by Technos Japan's Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun (1986), known as Renegade in the West, and further developed and popularized by its follow-up Double Dragon (1987). Later popular examples including titles such as the Sega's Streets of Rage series and Capcom's Final Fight series. - Hack and slash – Beat 'em ups or brawlers that are centered around combat with melee-based weapons, such as swords or blades, rather than fist-fighting. - 2D hack & slash or slash 'em up – 2D scrolling beat 'em ups centered around melee-based weapons. Examples include Sega's arcade series Shinobi (1987 debut) and Golden Axe (1989 debut), Data East's Captain Silver (1987), Taito's Rastan (1987) and Saint Sword (1991), Tecmo's early Ninja Gaiden (Shadow Warriors) 2D games (1988 debut), Capcom's Strider (1989), the Master System game Danan: The Jungle Fighter (1990), and Vanillaware's Dragon's Crown (2013). - 3D hack & slash or character action game – These are third-person action games centered around weapon-based melee combat in three-dimensional environments. The sub-genre was largely defined by Capcom's Devil May Cry (2001), designed by Hideki Kamiya, with other examples including Koei Tecmo's Dynasty Warriors and 3D Ninja Gaiden games, later Devil May Cry games, Sony's God of War and Genji: Dawn of the Samurai, No More Heroes, Kamiya's Bayonetta, Darksiders and Dante's Inferno. - 3D beat 'em up – 3D brawlers that are closer to traditional beat 'em ups, with fist-fighting, but take place in larger 3D environments. Examples include Sega's Die Hard Arcade (1996) and Yakuza series (2005 debut), Eidos Interactive's Fighting Force (1997), Squaresoft's The Bouncer (2000), and Capcom's God Hand (2006). This sub-genre of beat 'em up is generally not as popular as 3D hack & slash games. ## History Beat 'em up games have origins in martial arts films, particularly Bruce Lee's Hong Kong martial arts films. Lee's Game of Death (1972) inspired the basic structure of a beat 'em up, with Lee ascending five levels of a pagoda while fighting numerous enemies and several boss battles along the way, while another Lee film Enter the Dragon (1973) also influenced the genre. The first video game to feature fist fighting was Sega's arcade boxing game Heavyweight Champ (1976), which is viewed from a side-view perspective like later fighting games. However, it was Data East's fighting game Karate Champ (1984) which popularized martial arts themed games. ### Earliest beat 'em ups (mid-1980s) Kung-Fu Master (known as Spartan X in Japan), designed by Takashi Nishiyama and released by Irem in 1984, laid the foundations for side-scrolling beat 'em ups. It simplified the combat system of Karate Champ, while adding numerous enemies along a side-scrolling playfield. The game was based on two Hong Kong martial arts films: Jackie Chan's Wheels on Meals (1984), known as Spartan X in Japan (where the game was a tie-in), and Bruce Lee's Game of Death, the latter inspiring the five end-of-level boss fights and the plot structure, variations of which were used in subsequent scrolling beat 'em ups. Nishiyama, who had previously created the side-scrolling shooter Moon Patrol (1982), combined a shoot 'em up gameplay rhythm with fighting elements when he designed Kung-Fu Master. The game was also distinctive for its use of health meters, for both the player character and each boss. Another 1984 release, Bruce Lee, combined multi-player, multi-character combat with traditional collecting, platform and puzzle gameplay. Later that year, Karateka combined the one-on-one fight sequences of Karate Champ with the freedom of movement in Kung-Fu Master, and it successfully experimented with adding plot to its fighting action. It was also among the first martial arts games to be successfully developed for and ported across different home systems. Sega's My Hero (1985) adopted the gameplay format of Kung-Fu Master, but changing the more traditional martial arts setting to a more contemporary urban city environment with street gangs. Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun, developed by Technōs Japan and released in 1986 in Japan, introduced the belt scroll format, allowing both vertical and horizontal movement along a side-scrolling environment, while also popularizing street brawling in the genre. Created by Yoshihisa Kishimoto, game was inspired by his own teenage high school years getting into daily fights, along with Bruce Lee's martial arts film Enter the Dragon. The Western adaptation Renegade (released the same year) added an underworld revenge plot that proved more popular with gamers than the principled combat sport of other martial arts games. Renegade set the standard for future beat 'em up games as it introduced the ability to move both horizontally and vertically. It also introduced the use of combo attacks; in contrast to earlier games, the opponents in Renegade and Double Dragon could take much more punishment, requiring a succession of punches, with the first hit temporarily immobilizing the enemy, making him unable to defend himself against successive punches. Rather than one-hit kills, the player needed to hit enemies multiple times, "beating them up," in order to defeat them. Compared to earlier side-scrollers, the environment was expanded to a scrolling arena-like space, while the combat system was more highly developed, with the player able to punch, kick, grab, charge, throw and stomp enemies. ### Mainstream success (late 1980s to early 1990s) In 1987, the release of Double Dragon, designed as Technōs Japan's spiritual successor to Kunio-kun (Renegade), ushered in a "Golden Age" for the beat 'em up genre that took it to new heights with its detailed set of martial arts attacks and its outstanding two-player cooperative gameplay. It also had a continuous side-scrolling world, in contrast to the bounded scrolling arenas of Kunio-kun, giving Double Dragon a sense of progression, along with the use of cut scenes to give it a cinematic look and feel. Like Kunio-kun, the game's combat system drew inspiration from the Bruce Lee film Enter the Dragon, while Double Dragon added a new disaster-ridden city setting inspired by the Mad Max films and Fist of the North Star manga and anime series. Double Dragon became Japan's third highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987, before becoming America's overall highest-grossing dedicated arcade game for two years in a row, in 1988 and 1989. Double Dragon's success resulted in a flood of beat 'em ups in the late 1980s, where acclaimed titles such as Golden Axe and Final Fight (both 1989) distinguished themselves from the others. Final Fight was Capcom's intended sequel to Street Fighter (provisionally titled Street Fighter '89), but the company ultimately gave it a new title. In contrast to the simple combo attacks in Renegade and Double Dragon, the combo attacks in Final Fight were much more dynamic, and the sprites were much larger. Acclaimed as the best game in the genre, Final Fight spawned two home sequels and was later ported to other systems. Golden Axe was acclaimed for its visceral hack and slash action and cooperative mode and was influential through its selection of multiple protagonists with distinct fighting styles. It is considered one of the strongest beat 'em up titles for its fantasy elements, distinguishing it from the urban settings seen in other beat 'em ups. Bad Dudes Vs. DragonNinja featured platform elements, while P.O.W.: Prisoners of War took the weapon aspect a stage further, allowing the players to pick up guns. Another beat 'em up—River City Ransom (1989), named Street Gangs in Europe—featured role-playing game elements with which the player's character could be upgraded, using money stolen from defeated enemies. The Streets of Rage series was launched in the early 1990s and borrowed heavily from Final Fight. Streets of Rage 2 (1992) for Sega's Mega Drive/Genesis was one of the first console games to match the acclaim of arcade beat 'em ups. Its level design was praised for taking traditional beat 'em up settings and stringing them together in novel ways, and its success led to it being ported to arcades. The beat 'em up was also a popular genre for video games based on television series and movies, with Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Batman Returns a surprise success, and encouraged many more beat 'em up games based on the characters. Taito's arcade game Riding Fight (1992) combined beat 'em up gameplay with a pseudo-3D chase view and hoverboard racing gameplay. The "golden age" of the genre eventually came to an end during the early 1990s, following the success of Capcom's Street Fighter II (1991) which drew gamers back towards one-on-one fighting games, while the subsequent emerging popularity of 3D video games in the late 1990s diminished the popularity of 2D-based pugilistic games in general. ### Transition to 3D (late 1990s to early 2000s) Sega's Die Hard Arcade (1996) was the first beat 'em up to use texture-mapped 3D polygon graphics, and it used a sophisticated move set likened to a fighting game. It updated the Streets of Rage formula to 3D, while implementing moves and combos from the fighting game Virtua Fighter 2 (1994), the ability to combine weapons to create more powerful weapons, and in two-player mode the ability to perform combined special moves and combos. It also had cut scenes, with quick time events interspersed between scenes. The game achieved a certain degree of success, and entered the Japanese arcade earnings charts at number-two in August 1996. Core Design's Fighting Force (1997) was anticipated to redefine the genre for 32-bit consoles through its use of a 3D environment. However, it was met with a lukewarm reception. The beat 'em up genre declined in the late 1990s, largely disappearing from arcades by the end of the decade. In 2000, Squaresoft published The Bouncer (2000), developed by DreamFactory and designed by former Virtua Fighter designer Seiichi Ishii, for the PlayStation 2 console. It was an ambitious project that attempted to deliver a cinematic, story-driven beat 'em up, combining 3D beat 'em up gameplay with action role-playing game elements, cinematic cutscenes, high production values and an "Active Character Selection" system where choices alter the storyline. It was highly anticipated due to Squaresoft's reputation with Japanese role-playing games such as Final Fantasy, but was met with a mixed reception upon release. The same year, Italian studio NAPS team released Gekido: Urban Fighters for the PlayStation console, which uses a fast-paced beat 'em up system, with many bosses and a colorful design in terms of graphics. In the early 2000s, game reviewers started to pronounce that the genre had died off. By 2002, there were virtually no new beat 'em ups being released in arcades. ### 3D hack-and-slash games (early 2000s to present) After 2000, the beat 'em up genre began seeing a revival in the form of popular 3D hack and slash games in the style of Devil May Cry (2001 onwards), including Onimusha, Ninja Gaiden (2004 onwards), God of War (2005 onwards), Heavenly Sword (2007), Afro Samurai (2009), and Bayonetta (2009). Featuring a more fantasy themed approach, with longer campaigns and the variety seen before in multiple characters now being present in the one and only main character. Giving the player multiple weapons and movesets based on a variety of martial arts and different weapons. These games are also known as "character action" games, which represent an evolution of traditional arcade action games. The subgenre was largely defined by Hideki Kamiya, creator of Devil May Cry and Bayonetta. A best-selling Japanese series is the Dynasty Warriors series, which beginning with Dynasty Warriors 2 (2000) offered beat 'em up action on large 3D battlefields with war strategy game elements, displaying dozens of characters on the screen at a time. The series to date spans 14 games (including expansions) which players in the West view as overly similar, although the games' creators claim their large audience in Japan appreciates the subtle differences between the titles. While critics saw Dynasty Warriors 2 as innovative and technically impressive, they held a mixed opinion of later titles. These later games received praise for simple, enjoyable gameplay but were simultaneously derided as overly simplistic and repetitive. Capcom also created the Sengoku Basara series (2005 debut), following similar historical war conquering take of the Dynasty Warriors series, but following a more anime-esque and fantasy over the top presentation than Koei's franchise. Sengoku Basara featured multiple games in the series, an anime adaptation and multiple spin-offs. ### Traditional beat 'em ups (early 2000s to present) On the urban-themed side of the genre was the Yakuza series (2005 debut), which combined elaborate crime thriller plots and detailed interactive environments with street brawling action. Rockstar Games' The Warriors (based on the 1979 movie of the same name), released in 2005, featured large scale brawling in 3D environments interspersed with other activities such as chase sequences. The game also featured a more traditional side-scrolling beat 'em up Armies of the Night as bonus content, which was acclaimed along with the main game and was later released on the PlayStation Portable. Capcom's Viewtiful Joe (2003), directed by Devil May Cry creator Hideki Kamiya, used cel-shaded graphics and innovative gameplay features (such as the protagonist's special powers) to "reinvigorate" its traditional 2D scrolling formula. Releases such as God Hand in 2006 and MadWorld in 2009 were seen as parodies of violence in popular culture, earning both games praise for not taking themselves as seriously as early beat 'em up games. Classic beat 'em ups have been re-released on services such as the Virtual Console and Xbox Live Arcade; critics reaffirmed the appeal of some, while the appeal of others has been deemed to have diminished with time. Although the genre lacks the same presence it did in the late 1980s, some titles such as Viewtiful Joe and God Hand kept the traditional beat 'em up genre alive. The traditional 2D beat 'em up genre has seen a resurgence in Asia, where the South Korean online beat 'em up Dungeon Fighter Online (2004) is very popular. Dungeon Fighter Online has become one of the most-played and highest-grossing games of all time, having grossed over \$10 billion. Other traditional 2D scrolling beat 'em ups were released on Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network including The Behemoth's Castle Crashers (2008), featuring cartoon graphics, quirky humor, and acclaimed cooperative gameplay, The Dishwasher: Vampire Smile (2011), Double Dragon Neon (2012) and Scott Pilgrim vs. the World: The Game (2010). Fable Heroes (2012) is an Xbox Live Arcade only title released in 2012. Saints Row IV (2013) featured a parody of Streets Of Rage entitled "Saints Of Rage", where the player rescues Johnny Gat from a virtual prison. Dragon's Crown (2013) is a 2D fantasy game with a mix of beat 'em up and ARPG elements that were specifically inspired by Golden Axe and Dungeons & Dragons: Tower of Doom. Streets of Rage 4 (2020) was also released to critical acclaim and has renewed interested in both the series and genre. Dragon's Crown sold over a million copies by 2017, while Streets of Rage 4 has sold over 2.5 million copies as of April 2021. Also other well known classic franchises gained new titles such as Battletoads (2020) and The Ninja Saviors: Return of the Warriors (2019) and River City Girls (2019). The beat 'em up genre has also seen a resurgence within indie game development, resulting in unique titles such as DrinkBox Studios' 2013 indie title Guacamelee! and its 2018 sequel, which are both noted for their hybrid 2D Metroidvania-style platform brawler gameplay. Other indie titles are The Takeover (2019), Ninjin: Clash of Carrots (2018), and the critically acclaimed Fight'N Rage (2017). ## See also - List of beat 'em ups - Shoot 'em up - Hack and slash

Álvaro Betancourt

Puerto Rican footballer

Álvaro E. Betancourt (born 8 February 1994) is a Puerto Rican retired international footballer who played as a midfielder. He appeared at the senior level for High Performance FC, Conquistadores de Guaynabo, Bayamón, and Metropolitan FA, split around a two-year stint at Valparaiso University. A native of Caguas, Puerto Rico, Betancourt played youth football for Fraigcomar while attending the Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola. He made his senior debut at 15 years old, spending two seasons with High Performance FC followed by a year with Conquistadores de Guaynabo. He left his home island to attend college in the United States, spending two years with the men's soccer program at Valparaiso. After returning to Puerto Rico, Betancourt played the sport for four more years, splitting time between Bayamón and Metropolitan FA. He stepped away from the game in 2017, aged just 23. At international level, Betancourt captained the Puerto Rico U20 side in 2013 CONCACAF U-20 Championship qualifying and appeared at the 2013 CONCACAF U-20 Championship. He earned his senior debut for the nation on 14 November 2011, going on to represent Puerto Rico five times. Following the end of his senior career, Betancourt appeared for the under-23 national team in the 2015 CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship qualification stages. ## Early life Born in Caguas, Puerto Rico, Betancourt attended the Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola in San Juan. He began playing football when he was eight years old, spending seven years at the youth level with Fraigcomar and winning a national title in 2007. While at the Colegio San Ignacio, Betancourt was twice named the All-Around MVP of the Puerto Rico High School Athletic Alliance; along with playing football, he also ran track and field. ## Career ### Early career in Puerto Rico Betancourt began playing senior football at the age of 15, appearing in the Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Puerto Rico with High Performance FC. He took part in the first match in High Performance history on 26 July 2009, scoring a 52nd-minute goal in a 5–2 defeat against the Bayamón reserve team. While appearing at the senior level for the club, he continued to play for their U17 team and won two Puerto Rican national titles. After High Performance folded following the 2010 season, Betancourt joined Conquistadores de Guaynabo for the 2011 Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Puerto Rico season. He played for the senior and U17 team during the club's only season of existence, missing time due to national team call-ups before going to the United States to play in college. ### College Betancourt committed to play college soccer at Valparaiso University under head coach Mike Avery, becoming the first senior national team player in the history of the Crusader men's soccer program. On 29 September 2012, Betancourt made his collegiate debut for Valpo, playing nine minutes off the bench in a 1–0 defeat against UIC. He found playing time hard to come by as a freshman, however, as that match against the Flames marked his only appearance of the season. As a sophomore, Betancourt was selected to play more for the team, making five appearances for the Crusaders. He picked up a yellow card in a 2–1 victory over Michigan State in September and played a career-high 31 minutes in a loss to Kentucky in mid-October. Betancourt left Valparaiso following his sophomore year and returned to Puerto Rico, after having played in just six matches during his time with the Crusaders. ### Return from college After leaving Valparaiso following his sophomore year, Betancourt returned to Puerto Rico to get more playing time and joined Bayamón ahead of the club's run in the 2014–15 CONCACAF Champions League. He made his debut for the club, and played his first match at continental level, on 7 August 2014 in a 5–0 defeat to Guatemalan club Comunicaciones. During the 2015 season, Betancourt wore the captain's armband for Bayamón in the Liga Nacional while helping the club qualify for the playoffs. He played with Bayamón through the 2016 season, appearing for the side in the 2016 Copa Luis Villarejo after the 2016 Liga Nacional de Fútbol de Puerto Rico was cancelled. Betancourt finished his playing career by spending the 2017 season in the Puerto Rico Soccer League with Metropolitan FA. He had debuted for the club in the preseason Copa Bayamón and was assigned to play for Metropolitan's 'A' team. ## International career Betancourt captained the Puerto Rico U20 national team in the 2013 CONCACAF U-20 Championship qualifying stage, playing all three matches in the first round of the Caribbean zone. He was not called up for the final round due to academic commitments at Valparaiso, but was credited as part of the first male Puerto Rican team to qualify for a CONCACAF tournament through a Caribbean qualifying tournament. He was named to the Puerto Rican squad for the 2013 CONCACAF U-20 Championship and contested both matches; the side were defeated by Jamaica and Panama and failed to qualify for the knockout rounds. Betancourt earned five caps during his eligibility for the U20 side. The last time Betancourt would represent Puerto Rico was at the U23 level, less than a month after earning what would turn out to be his final senior cap. He was called up to participate in the 2015 CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship qualification stage and played in both of Puerto Rico's matches in the tournament. Following a draw against Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and a defeat against Trinidad and Tobago, Puerto Rico finished in third place in their group and missed out on advancement to the 2015 CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship. ### Senior career Betancourt was first called up by the Puerto Rico national team in 2011, training with the side in August of that year and appearing on the bench for a 2014 World Cup qualifier against Canada on 6 September. He made his international debut in Puerto Rico's final World Cup qualifying match, playing against Saint Lucia on 14 November 2011. Betancourt earned three more caps in 2012, with all three coming in friendlies against Nicaragua. On 26 February, with the scoreline level at 1–1, he was sent off in the 56th minute after picking up a second yellow card; Puerto Rico went on to lose that match 4–1. After three years without an appearance at senior level, Betancourt was called back up in June 2015 for the first matches under new manager Garabet Avedissian. Betancourt earned his fifth and final international cap against Bermuda on 5 June, replacing Michael Fernández in the 84th minute of a 1–1 draw. He was named to the bench twice more during that international window, but was not selected to play during a pair of 2018 World Cup qualifiers against Grenada. ## Career statistics

Theophylact (son of Michael I)

Byzantine co-emperor from 811 to 813

Theophylact or Theophylaktos (Greek: Θεοφύλακτος; c. 793 – 15 January 849), was the eldest son of the Byzantine emperor Michael I Rangabe (r. 811–813) and grandson, on his mother's side, of Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). He was junior co-emperor alongside his father for the duration of the latter's reign, and was tonsured, castrated, and exiled to Plate Island after his overthrow, under the monastic name Eustratius. ## Biography Theophylact was born to Michael Rhangabe and Prokopia c. 793. He was the couple's oldest child, but the list of his siblings given in the hagiography of Patriarch Ignatius I of Constantinople, who was Theophylact's youngest brother, is unclear on whether he was the eldest child or was born after his oldest sister Gorgo. The same source also states that he was crowned alongside his brother Staurakios. He was named after his paternal grandfather, the droungarios of the Dodekanesos Theophylact Rhangabe, who had participated in a failed conspiracy to wrest the throne from Empress-regent Irene of Athens in 780. Nevertheless his maternal grandfather, the emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811), rose to become General Logothete (finance minister) under Empress Irene before eventually deposing her in October 802. Following the death of Nikephoros in the Battle of Pliska on 26 July 811 and the crippling of his only son and heir Staurakios in the same battle, on 2 October the Byzantine Senate and the tagmata guard units acclaimed Nikephoros's son-in-law Michael Rhangabe as emperor and forced Staurakios to abdicate. Michael immediately set about to consolidate his rule, distributing lavish gifts, crowning his wife as augusta on 12 October, and finally, crowning Theophylact – then aged eighteen – as co-emperor in the Hagia Sophia on Christmas Day, 25 December 811. At about the same time, Michael sent an embassy under Bishop Michael of Synnada to the Frankish court, which among other issues raised the prospect of an imperial marriage between Theophylact and one of Charlemagne's daughters. Despite a warm reception at Aachen and the ratification of a peace treaty between the two realms, Charlemagne, perhaps wary after the repeated failures of successive efforts to that effect over the previous decades, hesitated to agree to such a match. Nothing further is known of Theophylact until 11 July 813, when Michael, faced with a military revolt under Leo the Armenian, abdicated the throne. Michael and his family sought refuge in the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos, where they were tonsured as monks and nuns. Michael and his sons were castrated to make them incapable of claiming the throne in the future, and exiled to Plate, one of the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara (though the later historians John Skylitzes and Zonaras mention the island of Prote instead). Leo accorded them an annual stipend. According to Theophanes Continuatus, Theophylact, who adopted the monastic name Eustratius (Εὐστράτιος), died five years after his father, on 15 January 849, and was buried alongside him in a church on Plate Island. Theophanes Continuatus also reports that his body (or perhaps that of his father) was later transferred by his brother, Patriarch Ignatios, to the monastery known as "tou Satyrou".

The Mountain Eagle

1926 film by Alfred Hitchcock

The Mountain Eagle is a 1926 silent drama film, and Alfred Hitchcock's second as director, following The Pleasure Garden. The film, a romantic melodrama set in Kentucky, is about a widower (Bernhard Goetzke) who jealously competes with his crippled son (John F. Hamilton) and a man he loathes (Malcolm Keen) over the affections of a schoolteacher (Nita Naldi). The film was mostly produced at the Emelka Film studios in Munich, Germany in autumn of 1925, with exterior scenes shot in the village of Obergurgl in the State of Tyrol, Austria. Production was plagued with problems, including the destruction of a village roof and Hitchcock experiencing altitude sickness. Due to producing the film in Germany, Hitchcock had more directorial freedom than he would have had in England, and he was influenced by German cinematic style and technique. The film was released in Germany in May 1926 and screened for its British distributors in October 1926. It was met with disapproval and it was not until after the success of Hitchcock's The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog that the film was released in the UK in May 1927. The film received mixed reviews and Hitchcock himself told François Truffaut he was relieved that the film was lost. Six surviving stills of The Mountain Eagle are reproduced in Truffaut's book, and further stills have been found. In 2012, a set of 24 still photographs was found in an archive of one of Hitchcock's close friends. The Cine Tirol Film Commission has described it as "the most wanted film in the world"; the British Film Institute has the film on the top of their BFI 75 Most Wanted list of missing films, and is actively searching for it. ## Plot The film is set in Kentucky, where J. P. Pettigrew's (Bernhard Goetzke) wife had died giving birth to their son Edward (John F. Hamilton), born disabled. Pettigrew loathes John 'Fear o' God' Fulton (Malcolm Keen) who was also in love with Pettigrew's wife. Pettigrew later witnesses his now-grown son making love to schoolteacher Beatrice (Nita Naldi), and confronts her about the relationship. He attempts to take her in his arms, but Beatrice rejects his advances. Edward sees this and flees the village. Pettigrew is incensed at both Beatrice's rejection and the loss of his son, and thus attempts to have Beatrice arrested as a wanton harlot. John forestalls Pettigrew's plan by marrying Beatrice and taking her to his cabin where they fall in love. Beatrice becomes pregnant. Pettigrew seeks revenge by having John thrown in prison for murdering his (missing) son. A year later, John breaks out of prison and attempts to flee with Beatrice and their child. However, Beatrice falls ill and John must return to the village for a doctor. There he finds that Edward has reappeared. John's affairs are now cleared up and he is legally free from the charge of murder. Pettigrew is subsequently shot and wounded (contemporary sources differ on this point), and is no longer a threat to John and his family. ## Cast - Nita Naldi as Beatrice - Malcolm Keen as John 'Fear o' God' Fulton - John F. Hamilton as Edward Pettigrew - Bernhard Goetzke as J.P. Pettigrew - Ferdinand Martini ## Preservation status The Mountain Eagle is the only feature film directed by Hitchcock that is considered a lost film, meaning that no prints are known to exist. Six surviving stills are reproduced in François Truffaut's book. More stills have since been located, many of which are reproduced in Dan Auiler's book. A lobby card for the film was found in a box of broken frames at a flea market in Rowley, Massachusetts. In 2012, a set of 24 still photographs were found in the archive of one of Hitchcock's close friends. Although these images gave clues to the film and its story, they were taken on the set rather than being stills from the film itself. They were auctioned off in Los Angeles for \$6,000 (£3,700). Hitchcock's notebooks were also found, documenting his journey to Obergurgl by train, horse and cart, and by foot. ## Production Both The Pleasure Garden and The Mountain Eagle were produced in co-operation with Emelka Film Studios in Munich, Germany. The film was mostly shot at Emelka in Munich in the fall of 1925, and the film exteriors were shot on location in Obergurgl, in what is now the municipality of Sölden in the State of Tyrol in southwestern Austria, the Ötztal Alps standing in for the mountains and hollows of Kentucky. Due to producing the film in Germany, Hitchcock had more directorial freedom than he would have had in England, and influences in the technique and style of German cinema are evident in his early works. Production was plagued with problems. Poor weather during the location shoot was a constant source of trouble, and Hitchcock and the crew had an uneasy relationship with the locals. Hitchcock ordered the clearance of snow from a meadow and ordered the local volunteer fire brigade to blast it away, causing the roof of a nearby building to collapse. The mayor demanded compensation of one shilling, but Hitchcock gave the woman who owned the house two shillings to cover the repair work and the inconvenience. Hitchcock offended the locals by refusing to stay at the village inn, and when he was taken ill with altitude sickness, he blamed the sickness on his reaction to the guttural sound of their accents. ## Reception The film was initially screened for its British distributors in October 1926, but they did not think much of the film and decided to shelve it. However, due to the runaway success of The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog, which was released in February 1927, the producers decided to release The Mountain Eagle three months later on 23 May 1927. Writing in 1949, the academic Peter Noble inadvertently started a rumour repeated by many authors since, of the film being released in the United States as Fear o' God. Noble's assertion is contradicted by the title on the surviving US lobby card and film historian J. Larry Kuhns, who claims the film was never released under that title. The film, distributed by Gainsborough Pictures, was neither a critical nor commercial success; Leonard J. Leff states that the film "impressed neither the distributor nor the public". Like Hitchcock's other early films, the film was criticised for a lack of realism; an early review by Bioscope stated that "in spite of skilful and at times brilliant direction, the story has an air of unreality." Hitchcock himself considered The Mountain Eagle to be mundane melodrama best forgotten, and described the film to François Truffaut as "awful" and a "very bad movie", and stated that he was not sorry that there are no known prints. After being bitterly disappointed with his first two films, Hitchcock believed that his directing career would soon be over, although he later described Waltzes from Vienna (1934) to be the "lowest ebb" of his career. Film historian J. Lary Kuhns, however, states in the book Hitchcock's Notebooks by Dan Auiler that one contemporary writer called The Mountain Eagle far superior to The Lodger. The Guardian describes the film as "a ripping yarn about a dastardly father, a crippled son, a lovely schoolteacher and an innocent imprisoned". William Rothman considers both The Pleasure Garden and The Mountain Eagle to be "equally worthy of study". The Cine Tirol Film Commission has described The Mountain Eagle as "the most wanted film in the world". In 1992, the British Film Institute released its first "Missing Presumed Lost" list of films, and in January 2010 they announced that they had begun actively searching for some 75 missing films, including The Mountain Eagle. ## See also - List of lost films

Sobekneferu

Earliest confirmed female Egyptian pharaoh c. 1700-1800 BC

Sobekneferu or Neferusobek (Ancient Egyptian: Sbk-nfrw meaning 'Beauty of Sobek') was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. She ascended to the throne following the death of Amenemhat IV, possibly her brother or husband, though their relationship is unproven. Instead, she asserted legitimacy through her father Amenemhat III. Her reign lasted 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days, according to the Turin King List. She adopted the full royal titulary, distinguishing herself from prior female rulers. She was also the first ruler to have a name associated with the crocodile god Sobek. Contemporary evidence for her reign is scant: there are a few partial statues – one with her face – and inscriptions that have been uncovered. It is assumed that the Northern Mazghuna pyramid was intended for her, though this assignment is speculative with no firm evidence to confirm it. The monument was abandoned with only the substructure ever completed. A papyrus discovered in Harageh mentions a place called Sekhem Sobekneferu that may refer to the pyramid. Her rule is attested on several king lists. ## Family Sobekneferu was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III, but her mother's identity is unknown. Amenemhat III had two known wives, Aat and an unnamed queen, both buried in his pyramid at Dahshur. He had at least one other daughter, Neferuptah, who had a burial at his second pyramid at Hawara that was eventually moved to her own pyramid. Neferuptah appears to have been groomed as Amenemhat III's heir as she had her name enclosed in a cartouche. Evidence of burials of three other princesses – Hathorhotep, Nubhotepet, and Sithathor – were found at the Dahshur complex, but it is not clear whether these princesses were his daughters as the complex was used for royal burials throughout the Thirteenth Dynasty. Amenemhat III's eventual heir, Amenemhat IV, is attested to be the son of Hetepti, though her titulary lacks reference to her being a 'King's Wife'. The relationship between Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu remains unclear. According to the ancient historian Manetho in Aegyptiaca they were brother and sister. According to Gae Callender they were also probably married. Although, neither the title of 'King's Wife' nor 'King's Sister' are attested for Sobekneferu. Sobekneferu's accession may have been motivated by the lack of a male heir for Amenemhat IV. However, two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty, Sobekhotep I and Sonbef, have been identified as possible sons of his based on their shared nomen 'Amenemhat'. As such, Sobekneferu may have usurped the throne after Amenemhat IV's death, viewing his heirs as illegitimate. ## Female kingship Sobekneferu was one of the few women that ruled in Egypt, and the first to adopt the full royal titulary, distinguishing herself from any prior female rulers. She was also the first ruler associated with the crocodile god Sobek by name, whose identity appears in both her birth and throne names. Kara Cooney views ancient Egypt as unique in allowing women to acquire formal – and absolute – power. She posits that women were elevated to the throne during crises to guide the civilization and maintain social order. Though, she also notes that, this elevation to power was illusory. Women acquired the throne as temporary replacements for a male leader; their reigns were regularly targeted for erasure by their successors; and overall, Egyptian society was oppressive to women. In ancient Egyptian historiography, there is some evidence for other female rulers. As early as the First Dynasty, Meritneith is proposed to have ruled as regent for her son. In the Fifth Dynasty, Setibhor may have been a female king regnant based on the manner her monuments were targets for destruction. Another candidate, Nitocris, is generally considered to have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty, though there is little proof of her historicity and she is not mentioned before the Eighteenth Dynasty. The kingship of Nitocris may instead be a Greek legend and that the name originated with an incorrect translation of the name of the male pharaoh Neitiqerty Siptah. ## Reign The Middle Kingdom was in decline by the time of Sobekneferu's accession. The peak of the Middle Kingdom is attributed to Senusret III and Amenemhat III. Senusret III formed the basis for the legendary character Sesostris described by Manetho and Herodotus. He led military expeditions into Nubia and into Syria-Palestine and built a 60 m (200 ft) tall mudbrick pyramid as his monument. He reigned for 39 years, as evidenced by an inscription in Abydos, where he was buried. Amenemhat III, in contrast, presided over a peaceful Egypt that consisted of monumental constructions, the development of Faiyum, and numerous mining expeditions. His reign lasted at least 45 years, probably longer. He built two pyramids, at Dahshur and at Hawara. Nicolas Grimal notes that such long reigns contributed to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, but without the collapse that ended the Old Kingdom. Amenemhat IV ruled for 9 or 10 years. There is little information regarding his reign. It is to this backdrop that Sobekneferu acquired the throne. She reigned for around 4 years, but as with her predecessor, there are few surviving records. Her death brought a close to the Twelfth Dynasty and began the Second Intermediate Period spanning the following two centuries. This period is poorly understood owing to the paucity of references to the rulers of the time. She was succeeded by either Sobekhotep I or Wegaf, who inaugurated the Thirteenth Dynasty. Stephen Quirke proposed, based on the numerosity of kingships and brevity of their rule, that a rotating succession of kings from Egypt's most powerful families took the throne. They retained Itj-tawy as their capital through the Thirteenth Dynasty. Their role, however, was relegated to a much lesser status than earlier and power rested within the administration. It is generally accepted that Egypt remained unified until late into the dynasty. Kim Ryholt contends that the Fourteenth Dynasty instead arose in the Nile Delta at the end of Sobekneferu's reign as a rival to the Thirteenth. Thomas Schneider argues that the evidence for this hypothesis is weak. ## Attestations ### Contemporary evidence Only a small collection of sources attest to Sobekneferu's rule as pharaoh of Egypt. A graffito in Kumma, a Nubian fortress, records the height of the Nile inundation at 1.83 m (6.0 ft) during her third regnal year. Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of the Season of the Emergence". The British Museum has a fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary in its collection. The seal is made of glazed steatite and is 4.42 cm (1.74 in) long with a diameter of 1.55 cm (0.61 in). A handful of headless statues of Sobekneferu have been identified. In one quartzite image, she blends feminine and masculine dress with an inscription reading 'daughter of Re(?), of his body, Sobekneferu, may she live like Re forever'. On her torso rests a pendant modelled on that worn by Senusret III. Three basalt statues of the female king were found in Tell ed-Dab'a; two depict her in a seated posture, another shows her kneeling. In one, she is depicted trampling the Nine Bows, representing the subjugation of Egypt's enemies. The three statues appear to be life-sized. One statue with her head is known. The bust was held in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin but was lost during World War II. Its existence is confirmed by photographic images and plaster casts. It fits on top of the lower part of a seated statuette discovered at Semna which bears the royal symbol smꜣ tꜣwy on the side of the throne. The lower half is held at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. There is a statuette in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York that has been suggested to represent Sobekneferu, though this assignment is unverified. The schist bust depicts a woman in a wig, wearing a crown composed of a uraeus cobra and two vultures with outstretched wings which is of unknown iconography, and the ḥb-sd cloak. The base of another statue bearing her name and identified as the representation of a king's royal daughter was discovered in Gezer, though it may also refer to a daughter of Senusret I or another unknown Sobekneferu. A headless black basalt sphinx discovered by Édouard Naville in Khatana-Qantir bearing a damaged inscription is also tentatively assigned to Sobekneferu. There is evidence that she had structures built in Heracleopolis Magna and added to the Pyramid of Amenemhat III in Hawara. She left inscriptions on four granite papyriform columns found at a temple in Kom el-Akârib, while a further ten granite beams there may date to the same period. Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps only a stepsister to Amenemhat IV, whose mother was not royal. Contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu adopted only the 'King's Daughter' title, which further supports this hypothesis. An example of such an inscription comes from a limestone block of 'the Labyrinth' of the Pyramid at Hawara. It reads 'Beloved of Dḥdḥt the good god Nỉ-mꜣꜥt-rꜥ [Amenemhat III] given [...] \* Daughter of Re, Sobekneferu lord of Shedet, given all life'. The inscription is also the only known reference to a goddess Dḥdḥt. By contrast, Amenemhat IV's name does not appear at Hawara. ### Historical sources She is mentioned on the Karnak list of early Egyptian kings, the Saqqara Tablet, and Turin King List, but is conspicuously excluded from the Abydos king list. Her exclusion, along with all other female kings, pharaohs of the First and Second Intermediate Periods, and of the Amarna Period, is an indicator of whom Ramesses II and Seti I viewed as the legitimate rulers of Egypt. She is credited in the Turin Canon with a reign of 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days. She is mentioned by Manetho as 'Scemiophris', where she is credited with a reign of 4 years. ## Funerary monument Sobekneferu's tomb has not yet been positively identified. The Northern Mazghuna pyramid is assumed to be her monument. There is, however, no clear evidence to confirm this assignment and the pyramid may date to a period well after the end of the Twelfth Dynasty. Only its substructure was completed; construction of the superstructure and wider temple complex was never begun. The passages of the substructure had a complex plan. A stairway descended south from the east side of the pyramid leading to a square chamber which connected to the next sloping passage leading west to a portcullis. The portcullis consisted of a 42,000 kilograms (93,000 lb) quartzite block intended to slide into and block the passage. Beyond the passage wound through several more turns and a second smaller portcullis before terminating at the antechamber. South of this lay the burial chamber which was almost entirely occupied by a quartzite monolith which acted as the vessel for a sarcophagus. In a deep recess lay a quartzite lid which was to be slid into place over the coffin and then locked into place by a stone slab blocking it. The builders had all exposed surfaces painted red and added lines of black paint. A causeway leading to the pyramid was built of mudbrick, which must have been used by the workers. Though the burial place had been constructed, no burial was interred at the site. A place called Sekhem Sobekneferu is mentioned on a papyrus found at Harageh which may be the name of her pyramid. On a funerary stela from Abydos, now in Marseille, there is mention of a storeroom administrator of Sobekneferu named Heby. The stela dates to the 13th Dynasty and attests to an ongoing funerary cult. ## See also - Hatshepsut - Merneith - Neithhotep - Statue of Sobekneferu

Triathlon at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's

The women's triathlon was one of the triathlon events at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. It took place on 4 August 2012, featuring 55 women from 31 countries. It was the fourth appearance of an Olympic women's triathlon event since the first at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, Australia. The race was around Hyde Park, a 1.42 km² park in central London. The race was held over the "international distance" (also called "Olympic distance") and consisted of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) swimming, 43 kilometres (27 mi) road cycling, and 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) road running. A sub-twenty degree Celsius Serpentine River met the athletes in the swimming discipline. A group of seven finished the 1,500 metres (1,600 yd) swim leg in a lead group. A couple of athletes crashed on the bike leg, including one of the pre-race favourites, Emma Moffatt of Australia. However, a large lead group of 22 athletes were together at the end of the cycling leg with an over a minute and a half over the rest of the field. A group of five athletes formed on the running leg; Nicola Spirig, Lisa Nordén, Erin Densham, Sarah Groff and Helen Jenkins and held together for most of the run. Jenkins (Great Britain) was dropped with two kilometres to go before Groff (United States) was dropped, also on the last lap. In the ensuing sprint finish Spirig (Switzerland) beat Nordén (Sweden) by 15 centimetres in a photo finish with both athletes recording the same time. Densham (Australia) finished two seconds behind Spirig to win the bronze medal with Groff fourth and Jenkins fifth. Switzerland became the first country to win the women's triathlon twice at the Olympics, with Spirig joining Brigitte McMahon (Sydney 2000) as an Olympic champion. Nordén and the Swedish Olympic Committee appealed against the result of the photo finish in the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) but their appeal was turned down and Spirig retained her gold medal. ## Qualification Qualification for the race was restricted to three athletes per National Olympic Committee (NOC), an organisation representing a country at the Olympics, until eight NOCs had three qualified athletes. Once eight NOCs had qualified three athletes; a NOC was limited to two entries. A NOC with an athlete who won one of the five continental championships (Africa, Asia, Pan America, Europe and Oceania) were given one place in the event. Additionally, three places were available for the NOC of the medallists at the International Triathlon Union (ITU) World Qualification Event. Another 38 places were available to the NOCs with the highest ranked athletes on the ITU Olympic Qualification List on 31 May 2012. If an athlete had already qualified through another method the NOC did not receive another quota with it instead going to the next NOC on the ITU Olympic Qualification List. Five more entries into the event were given to one NOC per continental region. This was based on the ITU Olympic Qualification List with the highest ranked athlete from a non-qualified NOC in their continental region qualifying a place for their NOC in the event. One was given to the Great Britain NOC as the hosts but as they had already gained a place, the host place was given to the highest eligible athlete on the ITU Olympic Qualification List's NOC. The final two places for the event was given to two NOCs chosen by the Tripartite Commission. For all qualification places the qualified NOC had the right to select any athlete who, by 31 May 2012, were in the top 140 of the ITU Olympic Qualification List, in the top 140 of the 2012 ITU World Triathlon Series or in the top 140 of the ITU Points List. ## Preview Before the race, there were no clear favourites for the gold medal. In a preview written on the ITU website, Merryn Sherwood identified Jenkins, Moffatt, Densham, Spirig and Andrea Hewitt (New Zealand) as favourites. She wrote that she expected Lucy Hall (Great Britain), Hewitt and Densham to be strong on the swim leg along with a few other athletes. Sherwood thought that if that there was a large group of athletes together on the run then many of the competitors would fancy their chances at winning. Sherwood wrote, "Most importantly every athlete will be going into the race knowing they have a chance." Sherwood's thoughts were similar to those of New Zealander Kate McIlroy who said, "It’s funny, the women’s race seems at the moment there is probably 25 girls that could win it on the day." On the website Triathlete Courtney Baird said that the race favourites were Paula Findlay (Canada), Jenkins, Hewitt and Densham. Moffatt was the only athlete competing in the women's triathlon at the 2012 Olympics that had previously won an Olympic medal. She had won a bronze medal in the 2008 race in Beijing, China. Anja Dittmer was competing in her fourth Olympic triathlon, the only woman in the race doing so. The ITU World Triathlon Series champions of the four previous years in Jenkins (2008 & 2011) and Moffatt (2009 & 2010) were competing. Three countries had athletes competing for the first time in an Olympic triathlon. They were Ecuador (Elizabeth Bravo), Slovenia (Mateja Šimic) and Mauritius (Fabienne St Louis). Densham won the last ITU World Triathlon Series race before the 2012 Olympics in Hamburg, Germany. She beat Moffatt and Groff to win her second race of the 2012 Series. Hewitt was leading the World Series going into the Olympics. ## Course The event was contested in Hyde Park in Central London, a park opened in 1637. The 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) swim started on the north side of The Serpentine and the course was just one lap. After competing in the London leg of the 2011 ITU World Championship Series on the Olympic course Laura Bennett said that the swim was the hardest part of the course: “The swim was the most difficult, it was hard to get away from everyone.” Erin Densham said that: "“The swim is going to play a big role. They have said before you can’t win the race in the swim but you can definitely lose it. Honestly there is no knowing how it’s going to go but it’s going to be hard and fast."After the swim there was then a 200 metres (220 yd) transition zone in front of the main grandstand. The competitors then started a 43-kilometre (27 mi) bike leg consisting of seven 6.137-kilometre (3.813 mi) laps. The cyclists first rode down Serpentine Road towards West Carriage Drive before changing direction and cycling to Hyde Park Corner. The course then quickly turned left towards Hyde Park to go past Buckingham Palace on Constitution Hill. Once passing Buckingham Palace, the cyclists turned and went back towards Hyde Park and eventually crossed through the transition area before starting the next lap. The final discipline was the run. It was four-laps of a 2.5-kilometre (1.6 mi) loop around The Serpentine on flat ground. The course was designed to be as spectator-friendly as possible. The athletes passed through the main grandstand area 12 times. The women's triathlon was one of the few events with free viewing points. ## Race The race started at 9:00 a.m. British Summer Time on 4 August 2012. Lucy Hall, the youngest athlete in the race, led early in the swim and finished the swim leg first in a time of 18 minutes and 27 seconds. Hall led a group of seven; Line Jensen (Denmark), Mariko Adachi (Japan), Pâmella Oliveira (Brazil), Claudia Rivas (Mexico), Laura Bennett (United States) and Jessica Harrison (France); out of the water. The seven women had transition one (swimming to cycling) times of between 39 and 44 seconds. Hall slowed the leading pack down so that her teammate Helen Jenkins could catch-up. The lead pack joined with the peloton at the end of the second cycling lap to form a 22-women strong group. Despite the chase group chasing hard, all 22 athletes finished the cycling leg in the same pack without any additions. There was a time difference of one minute and 44 seconds between the 22nd and 23rd athletes after the bike leg. The quickest individual bike split was shared between two New Zealanders, Andrea Hewitt and Kate McIlroy, who both completed the bike leg in one hour, five minutes and 26 seconds. Due to overnight rain the roads were wet and multiple athletes crashed on the bike leg. Two athletes in Kathy Tremblay (Canada) and Emma Moffatt had to withdraw from the race due to crashing. Moffatt, one of the pre-race favourites crashed on the first lap of the cycling leg. At the second transition (cycling to running) Anne Haug (Germany), who was in the second group, was the quickest through the transition in a time of 27 seconds. Of the leading group most went through in around 30 seconds. The group quickly separated on the run leg and the lead group was down to eight athletes after one lap of the running course. They were Spirig, Nordén, Densham, Jenkins, Groff and Hewitt, Ainhoa Murúa (Spain) and Emma Jackson (Australia). Jackson was the first to get dropped and was followed by Groff and Murúa. The five remaining athletes finished the second run lap together. The group was then reduced to four when Hewitt was dropped. The American Groff then rejoined the group at the very start of the final run lap after being dropped earlier on in the race. In the ensuing sprint finish between Spirig, Nordén, Densham and Groff, Spirig pushed the pace and held off a fast-finishing Nordén to win by an estimated margin of 15 centimetres. Both athletes recorded a time one hour, 59 minutes and 48 seconds, and were separated by a photo finish. Densham finished two seconds behind Spirig to win bronze. Groff finished fourth with Jenkins fifth, Hewitt sixth, Murúa seventh and Jackson eighth. After the race, Nordén and the Swedish Olympic Committee appealed against the result in the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). The organisation turned down the appeal and Spirig retained the gold medal. ## Results Key \*# denotes the athlete's bib number for the event - Swimming denotes the time it took the athlete to complete the swimming leg - Cycling denotes the time it took the athlete to complete the cycling leg - Running denotes the time it took the athlete to complete the running leg - Difference denotes the time difference between the athlete and the event winner - \* The total time includes both transitions - LAP denotes that an athlete was lapped on the bike course by another athletes and therefore was forced to withdraw Notes:

III Armored Corps

Major formation of the United States Army Forces Command

III Corps is a corps of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Cavazos, Texas. It is a major formation of the United States Army Forces Command. Activated in World War I in France, III Corps oversaw US Army divisions as they repelled several major German offensives and led them into Germany. The corps was deactivated following the end of the war. Reactivated in the interwar years, III Corps trained US Army formations for combat before and during World War II, before itself being deployed to the European Theater where it participated in several key engagements, including the Battle of the Bulge where it relieved the surrounded 101st Airborne Division. For the next 50 years, the corps was a key training element for the US Army as it sent troops overseas in support of the Cold War, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The corps saw no combat deployments, however, until Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. As of April 2019, III Corps includes some of the oldest formations of their type in the US Army: 1st Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division, 1st Armored Division and 1st Medical Brigade. ## History ### World War I III Corps was first organized on 16 May 1917 in France. It was designed as three of the four newly activated corps of the American Expeditionary Force, which at that time numbered over one million men in 23 divisions. The corps took command of US forces training with the French Seventh Army at the same time that IV Corps took command of US forces training with the French Eighth Army. #### Aisne-Marne campaign In July, the corps was rushed to the Villers-Cotterêts area in preparation for the Third Battle of the Aisne, the first major Allied counteroffensive of the year. There, it was put under the French Tenth Army and given administrative command of the 1st Division and the 2nd Division which were previously under command of the French XX Corps. However, the command group arrived in the area too late to exercise tactical command, and it was instead attached to the French XX Corps. On 18 July, the attack was launched, with the force spearheading the French Tenth Army's assault on the high ground south of Soissons. During this attack, the Corps also cut rail lines supplying the German Army. The first day of the attack was a success, but on the second day, the Germans were reinforced with heavier weapons and were able to blunt the attack, inflicting high casualties. The force was successful despite heavy casualties, and German forces were forced to retreat. On 1 August, the corps arrived in the Vesle area near the Marne River, where it assumed command of the 3rd Division, 28th Division, and 32nd Division from the French XXXVIII Corps, placing side by side with the U.S. I Corps for a few days. Troops continued to advance until September when they withdrew to form the new First United States Army. #### Meuse-Argonne campaign First Army formed up in preparation to advance in the Meuse-Argonne campaign. It consisted of over 600,000 men in I Corps, III Corps, and V Corps. III Corps took the Army's east flank, protecting it as the Army advanced to Montfaucon, then Cunel and Romagne-sous-Montfaucon. The offensive was slow and hampered by inexperience of many of the divisions under the Army's command, though III Corps was effective in protecting its sector. They advanced through September and October, taking a few weeks for rest after the formation of Second United States Army. On 1 November, the First Army went on a general offensive, pushing north to the Meuse River and the Barricourt Ridge. It was successful, pushing German forces back and advancing to the river until the end of the war. Around that time, III Corps received its shoulder sleeve insignia, approved it by telegram, though the insignia would not be officially authorized until 1922. The corps was demobilized in Neuwied, Germany at the close of hostilities. Following the end of World War I, III Corps remained in Europe for several months before it returned to the United States. It was demobilized at Camp Sherman, Ohio. #### Interwar period On 15 August 1927 the XXII Corps was activated in the United States. On 13 October of that year XXII Corps was redesignated as III Corps. It was formally activated on 18 December 1927. Throughout much of the next decade, the corps was directed primarily with training and equipping smaller units, as the US military began slowly building in strength in response to international conflicts. In 1940, III Corps was tasked specifically with training newly formed US Army combat divisions in preparation for deployment. It was moved to Camp Hood, Texas for this mission. ### World War II Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor bringing America into World War II, III Corps remained in the United States, where it was assigned to organize defenses of the West Coast, specifically California, against the threat of attack from Japan. During this time III Corps operated at Monterey, California. The corps was moved to Fort McPherson, Georgia in early 1942 for training. After a short period, the corps returned to Monterey and on 19 August 1942, it was designated a separate corps, capable of deployment. During the next two years, III Corps would train thousands of troops for combat, including 33 division-sized units, and participate in four corps-level maneuvers, including the Louisiana Maneuvers. #### Europe On 23 August 1944, the corps headquarters departed California for Camp Myles Standish in Massachusetts. It deployed for the European Theater of Operations (ETO) on 5 September 1944. Upon arrival at Cherbourg, France, III Corps, under the command of Major General John Millikin, was assigned to the Ninth Army, part of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's U.S. 12th Army Group, and given the code name "CENTURY" which it retained throughout the war. The corps headquarters was established at Carteret, in Normandy, and for six weeks, the corps received and processed all the troops of the 12th Army Group arriving over the Normandy beaches during that period. The corps also participated in the "Red Ball Express" by organizing 45 provisional truck companies to carry fuel and ammunition for the units on the front lines. The corps was assigned to Lieutenant General George S. Patton's Third Army on 10 October 1944, and moved to Etain, near Verdun, and into combat. The corps' first fighting was for the Metz region, as it was moved to attack Fort Jeanne d'Arc, one of the last forts holding out in the region. That fort fell on 13 December 1944. Later that month on 16 December came the last German counteroffensive in the Battle of the Bulge, as over 250,000 German troops, supported by over 1,000 tanks and assault guns assaulted the lines of VIII Corps, some 40 miles to the north of III Corps. The next day Patton, the Third Army commander, warned III Corps that it would likely be ordered to assist. At that time the corps consisted of the 26th and 80th Infantry Divisions and the 4th Armored Division. III Corps was moved north to assist in the relief of Bastogne, Belgium, with the attack commencing at 04:00 on 22 December 1944. The corps advanced north, catching the German forces by surprise on their south flank, cutting them off. The 4th Armored Division was eventually able to reach Bastogne, where the 101st Airborne Division had been surrounded by German forces, and relieve it. During the first 10 days of this action, III Corps liberated more than 100 towns, including Bastogne. This operation was key in halting the German offensive and the eventual drive to the Rhine River. During the first four months of 1945, III Corps moved quickly to the offensive. On 25 February, the corps, now as part of the First Army, established a bridgehead over the Roer River, which, in turn, led to the capture of the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen, on the Rhine River, on 7 March. On 30 March, the Edersee Dam was captured intact by Task Force Wolfe of the 7th Armored Division, and the corps, now commanded by Major General James Van Fleet after Millikin's relief, continued the attack to seize the Ruhr Pocket on 5 April 1945. In late April, III Corps reformed and launched a drive through Bavaria towards Austria. On 2 May 1945, III Corps was ordered to halt at the Inn River on the Austrian border, just days before V-E Day, when the German forces surrendered, bringing an end of World War II in Europe. #### Post-war At the end of the war, III Corps had added campaign streamers for Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, and Central Europe, had taken more than 226,102 prisoners and had seized more than 4,500 square miles (12,000 km²) of German territory. The corps had also participated in most of the critical actions from Normandy to the German-Austrian border. Its wartime commanders included Major General John Millikin and Major General James A. Van Fleet. After 13 months of occupation duty in Germany, the corps returned to Camp Polk, Louisiana, where it was inactivated on 10 October 1946. ### Cold War era On 15 March 1951, during the height of the Korean War, III Corps was again called to active duty at Camp Roberts, California. In April 1954, III Corps moved to Fort Hood, Texas, where it participated in a number of important exercises, either as director headquarters or as a player unit. It took command of the 1st Armored Division and the 4th Armored Division. The main purpose of these operations was the testing of new doctrines, organizations, and equipment. On 5 May 1959, the corps was again inactivated. The Berlin crisis brought III Corps back to active duty for the fourth time on 1 September 1961. Units participated in an intensive training program and were operationally ready by December 1961. In February 1962, the Department of the Army designated III Corps as a unit of the U.S. Strategic Army Corps and in September 1965, assigned III Corps to the U.S. Strategic Army Forces. Throughout much of the 1960s, III Corps and its subordinate units trained for rapid deployment to Europe in the event of an outbreak of war there. During the Vietnam War era, the corps supervised the training and deployment of more than 137 units and detachments to Southeast Asia, including the I and II Field Force staffs. The corps also trained more than 40,000 individual replacements for units in Vietnam, for a total of over 100,000 soldiers trained. As the war in Southeast Asia ended, the corps received many units and individual soldiers for reassignment or inactivation. It was also during this period that III Corps units participated in a number of key tests and evaluations that would help determine Army organization and equipment for the next 30 years. During this era, the corps also received its distinctive unit insignia. In July 1973, III Corps became part of the newly established Forces Command and its training, testing, and evaluation mission began to grow. For the remainder of the decade, III Corps would take part in a number of Training and Doctrine Command tests of organizations and tactical concepts, and play a key role in the fielding of new equipment. III Corps units would also participate in major exercises such as Exercise REFORGER (Return of Forces to Germany) and disaster relief operations in the United States and Central America. In the summer of 1974, the Army decided to implement one of the recommendations of the Howze Board and created an air cavalry combat brigade. The assets of the 2d Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division were used to create the 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat). The new brigade was assigned to the III Corps as a corps asset. 1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, was transferred to the new brigade on 21 February 1975. The brigade served as a test bed for new concepts involving the employment of attack helicopters on the modern battlefield. In 1985–85, the brigade consisted of 1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry; 4th Squadron, 9th Cavalry Regiment (4-9 CAV); and 5th and 7th Squadrons, 17th Cavalry Regiment (5-17 CAV and 7-17 CAV), all flying attack helicopters. As part of the Army's modernization effort in the 1980s corps units introduced new organizations and equipment including the M1 Abrams tank, M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, AH-64 Apache helicopter, Multiple Launch Rocket System, and Mobile Subscriber Equipment. In 1987, III Corps also conducted the largest deployment of forces to Germany since the Second World War, Exercise Reforger '87. During this time, the corps began assisting in the training and support of active and reserve component units. This support involves training guidance, resources, and the maintenance of relationships that extend to wartime affiliations. #### Organization 1972 During the Cold War in 1972 III Corps consisted of the following formations and units: - III Corps, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Cavazos, Texas (Operation Reforger Formation) - 2nd Armored Division, Fort Cavazos, Texas (Operation Reforger Formation) - 2nd Armored Division (Forward), Garlstedt, West Germany (as of 1978) - 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), Fort Polk, Louisiana (Operation Reforger Formation) - 101st Airborne Division, Fort Campbell - III Corps Artillery, Fort Sill, Oklahoma - 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma - 212th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma (Operation Reforger Unit) - 214th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma - 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment, Fort Bliss, Texas (Operation Reforger Unit) - 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat), Fort Cavazos, Texas - 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 89th Military Police Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 3rd Signal Brigade (Corps), Fort Cavazos, Texas - 504th Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 13th Corps Support Command, Fort Cavazos, Texas ### 1990s Following the end of the Cold War, III Corps headquarters itself saw no major contingencies, however it saw numerous units under its command deploy to contingencies around the world. III Corps units were sent to Grenada, Panama, Honduras, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Iraq. In the fall of 1990, two 6th Cavalry Brigade (Air Combat) units deployed to Iraq during Operation Desert Shield. One of those units was 2nd Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment, a Chinook battalion from Fort Hood. Other corps units also provided humanitarian support for Operation Restore Hope in Somalia. III Corps elements supported Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. It was after the Cold War that III Corps was acclimated to the role of primary counteroffensive force for the US Army. With the downsizing of other major Army formations, III Corps gained command of heavier units, including the 1st Cavalry Division while the XVIII Airborne Corps took charge of rapid-deployment for emergency contingencies, including the 101st Airborne Division and 82nd Airborne Division. III Corps took charge of the heavy units designed for large, conventional offensive actions. ### 21st century In 2001, the corps was composed of the 1st Cavalry Division and the 4th Infantry Division as well as the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 13th Corps Support Command. However, with realignment of the US Army and the return of several formations from Europe, the corps took command of the 1st Infantry Division and the 1st Armored Division as well, both of these units having been transferred from V Corps in Germany. The corps headquarters saw its first combat deployment since the Second World War in 2004, when it deployed to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom. There, III Corps headquarters assumed duties as Headquarters Multi-National Corps – Iraq, relieving V Corps. III Corps served as the administrative command for 2,500 soldiers of the Multi-National Force – Iraq command element, providing operational direction into 2005, when it was returned to Fort Hood, relieved by XVIII Airborne Corps. III Corps has for many years participated in an exchange program which sees a Canadian Army officer appointed as a deputy commanding general. Notably, Peter Devlin deployed with the corps to Iraq in 2005. III Corps Artillery was inactivated on 8 September 2006. Henceforth the field artillery brigades, soon to become Fires Brigades, would be assigned to the corps and division headquarters directly. In December 2006, the corps returned to Iraq for a second time to serve as commanding headquarters for Multi-National Corps Iraq. During this 15-month deployment, the corps took command of the force at its largest with Iraq War troop surge. The corps conducted a similar mission to its first deployment, focusing on providing personnel management, training, communications, convoy escort, and other duties to support the commanding elements of Multi-National Force Iraq. III Corps fulfilled this mission until February 2008, when it returned home, again relieved by XVIII Airborne Corps. In 2009, the corps began a number of training initiatives with the Republic of Korea Army. These included Operation Key Resolve, a command post exercise simulating major, high intensity combat operations. The exercises were held in Yongin, South Korea. These operations were designed to keep the corps familiar with commanding during large-scale conventional warfare, as opposed to counter-insurgency tactics it employed during its two tours in Iraq. Upon return to the United States, the corps conducted similar exercises at Fort Cavazos. On 5 November 2009, a gunman opened fire in the Soldier Readiness Center of Fort Hood, killing 13 people and wounding 30 others. Nidal Hasan, a Muslim U.S. Army major and psychiatrist, was alleged to be the gunman. He was felled and then arrested by civilian police officers Sergeant Mark Todd and Sergeant Kimberly Munley. Much of the subsequent investigation was handled by III Corps, as the soldiers killed were under the corps' chain of command. III Corps, commanded by LTG Robert W. Cone, assumed its final Iraq mission from I Corps from Joint Base Lewis–McChord, Washington in February 2010. As the core element of United States Forces – Iraq headquarters, III Corps oversaw a theater-wide transition from full-spectrum operations to stability operations. The corps changed the counterinsurgency (COIN) fight dynamic from partnered combat operations, led by brigade combat teams, to training, advising, and assisting operations, led by brigades organized as advise and assist brigades. The corps also completed the transition to complete Iraqi lead for security operations. During the deployment, III Corps reduced the amount of aviation assets in Iraq, resulting in one enhanced combat aviation brigade with six maneuver battalions having responsibility for the entire joint operations area. III Corps also oversaw the reduction of the force in Iraq from 110,000 to 50,000 U.S. personnel by 1 Sept. 2010, which established the conditions for the end of Operation Iraqi Freedom and the transition to Operation New Dawn. XVIII Airborne Corps from Fort Liberty, North Carolina, assumed the Iraq follow-on mission from III Corps in February 2011. The corps saw its first action in Afghanistan when it deployed to Kabul in early April 2013. The corps, under the command of LTG Mark A. Milley, replaced the U.S. V Corps from Stuttgart, Germany, in May 2013 and assumed the mission of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) Joint Command, or IJC, which was responsible for day-to-day operations throughout Afghanistan. During the corps' deployment, IJC oversaw Milestone 13/Tranche 5 ceremony on 18 June 2013, which marked the official transition of full responsibility for nationwide security operations from ISAF to the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. After the Milestone 13 ceremony, IJC transitioned from Coalition-led combat operations to Afghan-led combat operations and Coalition forces providing training, advice, and assistance. The ANSF, officially less than three years old, reached its peak of more than 350,000 members and conducted more than 70 major operations in more than 22 provinces. In November 2013, IJC forces provided technical support to the ANSF as it secured the Loya Jirga, a country-wide gathering of Afghan local leaders and officials, in Kabul. The Loya Jirga successfully laid the groundwork for a U.S.-Afghanistan Bilateral Security Agreement. During the deployment, III Corps also oversaw the drawdown of U.S. forces from more than 80,000 to 34,000 by 1 Feb. 2014. XVIII Airborne Corps from Fort Liberty, North Carolina, assumed the ISAF Joint Command mission from III Corps in March 2014. On 22 September 2015, III Corps assumed command of CJTF-OIR from United States Army Central. On 13 October 2020, the III Corps commander launched Operation People First at Fort Cavazos, Fort Bliss, Fort Carson, Fort Riley, and other III Corps units. ## Organization `III Corps, Fort Cavazos, Texas` - III Corps Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas - 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss. Texas - 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado - 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma - 36th Engineer Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 11th Signal Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 504th Military Intelligence Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 89th Military Police Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 13th Sustainment Command, Fort Cavazos, Texas - 1st Medical Brigade, Fort Cavazos, Texas ## List of Commanding Generals - William M. Wright June 1916 – July 1918 - Robert Lee Bullard July 1918 – October 1918 - John L. Hines October 1918 – July 1919 - Walter K. Wilson December 1940 – July 1941 - Joseph W. Stilwell July 1941 – December 1941 - Walter K. Wilson December 1941 – April 1942 - John P. Lucas April 1942 – May 1943 - Harold R. Bull June 1943 – October 1943 - John Millikin October 1943 – 17 March 1945 - James A. Van Fleet March 1945 – February 1946 - Ira T. Wyche February 1946 – May 1946 - Leland S. Hobbs May 1946 – October 1946 - William B. Kean March 1951 – July 1952 - Ira P. Swift August 1952 – April 1953 - William S. Biddle October 1953 – April 1954 - Hobart R. Gay April 1954 – October 1954 - Thomas L. Harrold October 1954 – June 1956 - William N. Gillmorre June 1956 - August 1958 - Earle G. Wheeler March 1959 – March 1960 - John A. Beall Jr. September 1961 – April 1962 - Thomas W. Dunn April 1962 – October 1963 - Harvey J. Jablonsky November 1963 – January 1964 - Harvey H. Fischer January 1964 – February 1965 - Ralph E. Haines Jr. March 1965 – April 1967 - George R. Mather June 1967 – July 1968 - Beverley E. Powell September 1968 – July 1971 - George P. Seneff Jr. July 1971 – September 1973 - Allen M. Burdett Jr. September 1973 – March 1975 - Robert M. Shoemaker March 1975 – November 1977 - Marvin D. Fuller November 1977 – January 1980 - Richard E. Cavazos January 1980 – February 1982 - Walter F. Ulmer Jr. February 1982 – June 1985 - Crosbie E. Saint June 1985 – June 1988 - Richard G. Graves June 1988 – June 1991 - Horace G. Taylor June 1991 – October 1993 - Paul E. Funk October 1993 – December 1995 - Thomas A. Schwartz December 1995 – August 1998 - Leon J. LaPorte August 1998 – August 2001 - Burwell B. Bell III August 2001 – November 2002 - Thomas F. Metz February 2003 – May 2006 - Raymond T. Odierno May 2006 – July 2008 - Rick Lynch July 2008 – September 2009 - Robert W. Cone September 2009 – April 2011 - Donald M. Campbell Jr. April 2011 – 2012 - Mark A. Milley 2012 – 2014 - Sean B. MacFarland 2014 – 2017 - Paul E. Funk II 2017 – 2019 - Robert P. White 2019 – 2022 - Sean C. Bernabe 2022 – Present ## Honors The corps received five campaign streamers in World War I and four campaign streamers in World War II. It also received two campaign streamers and two unit awards during the War on Terrorism. ### Unit decorations ### Campaign streamers

Soviet destroyer Svirepy

Soviet destroyer

Svirepy (Russian: Свирепый, lit. 'Fierce') was one of 18 Storozhevoy-class destroyers (officially known as Project 7U) built for the Soviet Navy during the late 1930s. Although she began construction as a Project 7 Gnevny-class destroyer, Svirepy was completed in 1941 to the modified Project 7U design. With her sea trials cut short by the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in June, Svirepy was assigned to the Baltic Fleet and fought in the Gulf of Riga and the defense of Tallinn, Estonia, providing naval gunfire support to Soviet troops. Escaping relatively unscathed from the evacuation of the latter, she provided fire support during the Siege of Leningrad, though seeing little activity after repairs in early 1942. Postwar, the destroyer continued to serve with the Baltic Fleet, spending much of the late 1940s and early 1950s under refit before being scrapped in the late 1950s. ## Design and description Originally built as a Gnevny-class ship, Svirepy and her sister ships were completed to the modified Project 7U design after Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, ordered that the latter be built with their boilers arranged en echelon, instead of linked as in the Gnevnys, so that a ship could still move with one or two boilers disabled. Like the Gnevnys, the Project 7U destroyers had an overall length of 112.5 meters (369 ft 1 in) and a beam of 10.2 meters (33 ft 6 in), but they had a reduced draft of 3.98 meters (13 ft 1 in) at deep load. The ships were slightly overweight, displacing 1,727 metric tons (1,700 long tons) at standard load and 2,279 metric tons (2,243 long tons) at deep load. The crew complement of the Storozhevoy class numbered 207 in peacetime, but this increased to 271 in wartime, as more personnel were needed to operate additional equipment. Each ship had a pair of geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller, rated to produce 54,000 shaft horsepower (40,000 kW) using steam from four water-tube boilers, which the designers expected would exceed the 37-knot (69 km/h; 43 mph) speed of the Project 7s because there was additional steam available. Svirepny herself reached 38 knots (70 km/h; 44 mph) during her sea trials in 1943. Variations in fuel oil capacity meant that the range of the Project 7Us varied from 1,380 to 2,700 nautical miles (2,560 to 5,000 km; 1,590 to 3,110 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph); Svirepny reached 1,800 nmi (3,300 km; 2,100 mi) at that speed. The Project 7U-class ships mounted four 130-millimeter (5.1 in) B-13 guns in two pairs of superfiring single mounts fore and aft of the superstructure. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by a pair of 76.2-millimeter (3 in) 34-K AA guns in single mounts and three 45-millimeter (1.8 in) 21-K AA guns, as well as four 12.7-millimeter (0.50 in) DK or DShK machine guns. They carried six 533 mm (21.0 in) torpedo tubes in two rotating triple mounts amidships. The ships could also carry a maximum of 58 to 96 mines and 30 depth charges. They were fitted with a set of Mars hydrophones for anti-submarine work, although these were useless at speeds over 3 knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph). ### Modifications By 1943, Svirepny had exchanged one each of her 21-K and machine gun mounts for an additional 34-K mount, a pair of 37-millimeter (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns in single mounts and two twin-gun mounts for Lend-Lease, water-cooled 12.7 mm Colt-Browning machine guns. By the end of the war, she had received a British ASDIC system and an early-warning radar of unknown type. After the war, all of her AA guns were replaced by eight water-cooled V-11M versions of the 70-K gun in twin mounts. ## Construction and career Svirepy was laid down in Shipyard No. 190 (Zhdanov) in Leningrad with the yard number 525 on 29 November 1936 as a Gnevny-class destroyer. She was relaid down as a Project 7U destroyer on 30 December 1938, and launched on 28 August 1939. After Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, began on 22 June, Svirepy was accepted by the Soviet Navy that day following much-reduced trials. However, she was not officially assigned to the Baltic Fleet's 4th Destroyer Division until 18 July, although the ship participated in combat earlier. Between 1 and 2 July Svirepy escorted the battleship Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya from Tallinn to Kronstadt with her sisters Smely and Strashny. From 13 to 19 July, again with Smely and Strashny, she operated in Moonsund and the Gulf of Riga, fighting off repeated German air attacks. Near miss bomb explosions on 16 July flooded several compartments and bent the left propeller shaft, while splinters killed two and wounded eight crew members. During the Moonsund operations she fired over 360 76 mm and a similar amount of 45 mm shells, as well as more than 800 12.7 mm rounds, in addition to 22 130 mm diving shells at a submarine on 14 July and high-explosive shells fired in support of an 18 July amphibious landing on Virtsu. Returning to Tallinn on 20 July, she came under attack from German S-boats in Moonsund, but forced them to retire behind a smoke screen by firing fourteen 130 mm shells. After docking at Tallinn, Svirepy supported ground troops in the defense of the base, expending 328 main-gun shells in 25 bombardments. The destroyer escaped relatively unscathed during the evacuation of Tallinn from 23 to 28 August, having her steering temporarily knocked out due to a near miss bomb explosion. Svirepy towed the damaged destroyer Gordy to Kronstadt over two days, expending 529 76 mm and 627 45 mm shells, in addition to 2,822 12.7 mm rounds, against German aircraft. She anchored in the Kronstadt roadstead at 23:00 on 29 August. The destroyer transferred to the Leningrad Trade Port on 4 September and expended 127 130 mm shells between 21 and 23 September, while also coming under air attack on multiple occasions. On 1 October Svirepy was hit by a shell on her aft superstructure that disabled a 76 mm gun and a torpedo tube in addition to destroying berthing compartments, wounding one and killing five crewmen. Repairs were postponed, and the destroyer returned to fire support duty on 4 October, expending 377 main-gun shells in 51 bombardments over the next month and a half. Svirepy made three trips to Gogland between 23 November and 6 December, covering attempts to save the wrecked transport Iosif Stalin. She was engaged by Finnish coastal artillery twice, but escaped unscathed. Relocated to Leningrad on 12 December, the destroyer began repairs at Shipyard No. 189 on New Year's Day 1942. The ship had fired a total of 1,073 main-gun rounds during 1941. For the rest of the war, Svirepy saw little action. Between 1942 and 1943 she remained in Leningrad, participating only in defense against air raids. In these two years her 130 mm guns carried out thirteen firings, all training except for one February 1943 bombardment in support of the Battle of Krasny Bor during which she expended 120 shells. The ship received minor damage from the nearby explosions of three aerial bombs on 4 April 1942. From 14 to 19 January 1944 the destroyer made her last bombardment during the Krasnoye Selo–Ropsha Offensive, firing 415 130 mm shells. Postwar, Svirepy became part of the 4th Fleet when the Baltic Fleet was split between 25 February 1946 and 4 January 1956. She was refitted and modernized at Neptun Werft in Rostock from 10 July 1947 to either 2 January 1951 or 6 July 1955 (sources differ on the exact end date). Her crew was disbanded on 28 January 1958 before she was struck from the Navy List on 3 April of that year prior to being scrapped.

Mark Hellinger Theatre

Former theater in Manhattan, New York

The Mark Hellinger Theatre (formerly the 51st Street Theatre and the Hollywood Theatre) is a church building at 237 West 51st Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City, which formerly operated as a cinema and Broadway theater. Opened in 1930, the Hellinger Theatre is named after journalist Mark Hellinger and was developed by Warner Bros. as a movie palace. It was designed by Thomas W. Lamb with a modern facade and a Baroque interior. It has 1,605 seats across two levels and has been a house of worship for the Times Square Church since 1989. Both the exterior and interior of the theater are New York City landmarks. The facade on 51st Street is designed in a modern 1930s style and is constructed with golden and brown bricks. The stage house to the west and the auditorium at the center are designed as one unit, with a cornice above the auditorium. The eastern section, containing the building's current main entrance, includes statues flanking the doors, as well as an overhanging marquee. The 51st Street facade was originally a side entrance; the main entrance was originally at 1655 Broadway but was closed in the 1950s. In contrast to the exterior, the theater has a Baroque interior. Its rotunda lobby contains eight fluted columns, a balcony, and a domed ceiling with several murals; a basement lounge exists under the lobby. The auditorium has a coved ceiling with murals, as well as boxes and a deep stage. For the first two decades of the Hellinger Theatre's existence, it largely served as a cinema under the Hollywood Theatre name. Vaudeville was presented in 1932, and some legitimate productions were shown intermittently from 1934 to 1942. The theater was briefly known as the 51st Street Theatre in 1936 and 1941 and as the Warner Theatre from 1947 to 1948. Anthony Brady Farrell bought the theater and renamed it after Hellinger, reopening it as a legitimate theater in 1949. The theater was subsequently acquired by the Stahl family in 1957 and the Nederlander Organization in 1976. The Hellinger hosted some hits from the 1950s to the 1970s, including My Fair Lady and Timbuktu!, but its later productions were mostly flops. By 1989, a lack of Broadway productions prompted the Nederlanders to lease the theater to the Times Square Church, which bought the building two years later. ## Site The Mark Hellinger Theatre is at 237 West 51st Street, on the north sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Broadway, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The irregular land lot covers 23,650 square feet (2,197 m²), with a frontage of 225 feet (69 m) on 51st Street and a depth of 200 feet (61 m). The bulk of the theater exists on 51st Street, with a wing extending north to 52nd Street. The Mark Hellinger shares the block with the Neil Simon Theatre to the west and Gallagher's Steakhouse to the north. Other nearby buildings include the August Wilson Theatre to the north; the Broadway Theatre and 810 Seventh Avenue to the northeast; Axa Equitable Center to the east; the Winter Garden Theatre to the southeast; and Paramount Plaza (including the Circle in the Square Theatre and the Gershwin Theatre) to the south. An entrance to the New York City Subway's 50th Street station, serving the , is just south of the theater. ## Design The Mark Hellinger Theatre, originally the Hollywood Theatre, was designed by Thomas W. Lamb and was constructed in 1930 as a movie palace for Warner Bros. While the interior was designed in a Baroque style, the exterior was treated in a modern style. ### Facade #### Former Broadway The Hollywood Theatre's main entrance was originally at 1655 Broadway, with a narrow lobby leading to a grand foyer on 51st Street. At the time of the theater's construction in 1930, cinemas that premiered films in the Times Square area typically had entrances on Broadway, regardless of the width. While the Broadway entrance was narrow, it contained a bright marquee and a huge lighted vertical sign. The Broadway entrance was closed in 1934 and converted to retail space before being demolished completely prior to the late 1990s. The roof of the Hollywood Theatre's Broadway wing originally contained a "V"-shaped steel sign measuring 80 feet (24 m) tall and 210 feet (64 m) wide. Described in 1929 as "the largest electrical display in the world", the sign weighed 115 tons. A dedicated generator illuminated the sign's 20,000 bulbs, which were arranged so that 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) letters could be flashed. #### 51st Street The only surviving facade is on 51st Street and consists of two modern-style sections, both made of brick and designed with vertical motifs. The eastern section is a narrow tower containing the building's entrance. The other section, which contains the stage house and auditorium, is shorter but wider. Although the 51st Street facade serves as the building's current front entrance, this was originally a side entrance. The entrance section has a water table made of black granite. The entrance itself contains five double doors below transom windows, all made of glass with bronze frames. On either side are tall figures holding globe-shaped lanterns, as well as bronze display boxes. A modern marquee is mounted over the building's entrance. The facade is made of gold brick, with three strips of brown-brick rectangles above the marquee, rising to a set of three brown-brick squares. On either side are fluted terracotta panels, topped by stylized urns that contain plant forms. On all stories, the theater's brick courses step outward to the left and right of the tower. The top of the entrance's facade contains a parapet with zigzag patterns. The stage house to the west and the auditorium at the center share a facade, with gold brick above a black-granite water table. Horizontal brown-brick strips run across the first story. The first floor also contains display boxes with brick headers around them, as well as an office door, a former stage door, and a wide garage door. On the upper stories, the central section (auditorium) contains a large brick panel surrounded by soldier courses. There are rectangular openings to the east (right) of this panel, with grilles above them. The top story of the auditorium contains stylized brick brackets, which support a decorative copper cornice; there are octagonal panels between the brackets. The stage house contains window openings between shallow brick piers. The stage house has a setback on the upper stories, with plain brick behind it. ### Interior The Hellinger's rococo interior was similar to that of other 1920s movie palaces. The interior spaces were designed by Leif Neandross, chief designer of the Rambusch Decorating Company. The original decorative scheme was gold with highlights of red and blue. #### Lobby The original lobby from Broadway (since demolished) was designed in a modern French style. It was Art Deco in design and led to the present main lobby. According to a contemporary account, the Broadway lobby had mirrored walls with bronze and marble decorations, in addition to a plaster ceiling. The Broadway lobby was designed to potentially support a taller building that was canceled during the Great Depression. The main lobby is a double-height oval rotunda with eight fluted columns holding up a domed ceiling. According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), the lobby's design is similar to the interior of the 18th-century Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers in Germany. The Times Square Church uses the lobby to sell religious products such as books and CDs. The main lobby's columns are placed on marble pedestals, and they are topped by Ionic-style capitals. Above the columns is a marble entablature with cherubs. The ceiling has paneled arches and coves, which converge at a rope molding that surrounds the oval dome at the ceiling's center. A classical mural is painted in the middle of the ceiling; the mural was intended to symbolize arts and learning. A large multi-tiered candelabra hangs from the middle of the dome. The lobby's walls contain marble bases, above which are panels surrounded by ornamental moldings. Lighting sconces are mounted onto the walls, and there are openings to the auditorium's orchestra level on the west wall. Doors on the south wall lead back to the ticket lobby. The north wall contains a grand staircase to a balcony at the auditorium's mezzanine level. Additional staircases connect to that level from the lobby's entrance. The balcony overlooks the lobby. The staircases from the lobby contain wall panels with ornamental moldings as well as lighting sconces; there are also mirrors at the landings. Underneath the balcony, next to the columns on the north wall, are segmental arches that are supported by console brackets. The balcony itself has a balustrade with motifs of scallops and cherubs, while the underside of the balcony has moldings. The walls of the balcony also have panels with moldings; there are doorways decorated with cartouches and swags, which lead to lounges. Ribs divide the balcony's ceiling into panels, and there are moldings along the border of both the ribs and the panels. Candelabras and globe chandeliers are suspended from the balcony ceiling. There was originally furniture along the balcony. #### Auditorium The auditorium has an orchestra level, one balcony, boxes, and a stage behind the proscenium arch. The auditorium is slightly wider than its depth, and the space is designed with plaster decorations in low relief. The auditorium's seating capacity is 1,603, though historically it could fit 1,506 people. The orchestra alone could fit 900 people. The seats are upholstered in red velvet and finished in wood. From the outset, three hundred seats were equipped with "Warner Theatre-phones" to both amplify and clarify sound for hard-of-hearing users. Damask curtains were placed on the walls to increase insulation. The auditorium curves inward near the proscenium. ##### Seating areas The rear (east) end of the orchestra contains a shallow, curving promenade. The walls of the orchestra promenade have doors, above which are exit signs with flanking volutes. Both the orchestra and the promenade contain flat pilasters on the walls, between which are panels with moldings on their borders. The orchestra is slightly raked, sloping down toward an orchestra pit near the stage. The underside of the balcony, above the orchestra, contains globe-shaped light fixtures and three coves with scallops and foliation. Though the balcony is also raked, its underside is convex, preventing sound-deadening air pockets from accumulating at the orchestra's rear wall. The balcony also has a promenade at its rear, separated from the main balcony by decorated vertical piers. The balcony and promenade walls contain flat pilasters and panels with molded borders. The side walls contain arched doorways with molded frames. The rear wall has a standing rail and lighting sconces. The balcony level is divided into front and rear sections by a crossover aisle, which runs between metal railings on either side. The balcony's front railing has foliate motifs, which are aligned on a vertical axis. A projection room was placed at the rear of the balcony, measuring 30 feet (9.1 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) tall. On either side of the proscenium is an archway with a single box that is curved outward. The balcony's front railing extends onto the box's front railing, supporting two fluted Corinthian columns on either side of each box. Underneath the front railing of each box is an arch at orchestra level, which contains a pair of console brackets with a cartouche at the center. There are also cartouches beside the arches, under each pair of columns; these in turn are flanked by brackets with cherubs and swags. Above each box is another arch, which rises from volutes atop the Corinthian-column pairs. Small pendant chandeliers are placed in front of the boxes' column pairs. ##### Other design features Next to the boxes is an inverted proscenium arch. The proscenium arch contains Corinthian-style fluted piers and columns on either side, topped by console brackets. The top of the arch is designed as an ornate entablature. The center of the proscenium contains a large plaster-of-Paris crown, supported by a broken pediment with winged figures. The stage has a depth of 45 feet (14 m). Although the Hellinger was built as a cinema, the theater's large stage could also be used to present large musical shows. Below the ceiling, wrapping around the whole auditorium, is an entablature with a leaf molding. The edges of the ceiling are split into numerous coves, separated by console brackets with cartouches at their centers. Each of the coves contains a painted mural with a round frame and a cartouche above. There are twelve frames in total, which depict 18th-century French aristocratic scenes; each mural signifies a different part of the year. The main portion of the ceiling contains additional molded bands, which contain more murals and surround an oval panel at the center. The oval panel contains a fan design while the surrounding panels are designed in the Adam style. There are small pendant-style chandeliers hanging from the outer panels of the ceiling. A large globe-style chandelier hangs from the center of the oval panel. #### Basement Directly below the lobby is an oval basement lounge. There are eight pairs of imitation-marble columns, topped by Tuscan-style capitals. The walls contain panels with molded borders, and there are molded doorway openings with entablatures. One wall contains a fireplace, the mantelpiece of which consists of a shelf supported on console brackets. The immediate opposite wall has doorways to the women's and men's restrooms. The lounge formerly also had a bar, which was installed in the 1960s. The ceiling dome is shallow and contains a central medallion with overlapping circles, from which hangs a large chandelier. The rest of the ceiling contains moldings and beams, which divide the ceiling into sections, each with a central medallion and a smaller globe-style chandelier. A staircase curves upward to the lobby and contains paneled walls with molded borders, as well as a paneled ceiling with suspended globe-style chandeliers. ## History Movie palaces became common in the 1920s between the end of World War I and the beginning of the Great Depression. In the New York City area, only a small number of operators were involved in the construction of movie palaces. Relatively few architects were responsible for these theaters' designs, including legitimate theater architects Thomas Lamb, C. Howard Crane, and John Eberson. ### Hollywood Theatre #### Development and opening In April 1929, Warner Bros. leased the lots at 217 to 233 West 51st Street and 234 West 52nd Street at an annual rate of \$40,000. The lease was to run for 17 years, with options for two 21-year extensions. Warner Bros. immediately started planning a movie palace on the site. The company planned to build an entrance from Broadway, on the eastern end of the block. The theater was to have 1,600 seats on an orchestra and a balcony level, and it would be the first Broadway theater built specifically for films. Warner Bros. had chosen this site specifically because it was close to the established Theater District around Times Square. That area, by the 1920s, was starting to see the development of movie theaters alongside legitimate venues. The Warner Bros. Hollywood Theatre opened on April 22, 1930, with the Warner Technicolor musical film Hold Everything, starring Winnie Lightner and Joe E. Brown. The storefronts on Broadway were leased out for uses such as a Lindy's restaurant. For its first two years, the Hollywood only screened films. These included Moby Dick and The Beggar of Bagdad in 1930, as well as Bought and The Mad Genius in 1931. Lou Holtz announced his intention in early 1932 to lease the theater for vaudeville. Holtz's vaudeville revues opened that February, but they stopped two months later because Holtz said his simultaneous acting and producing of these revues were "strenuous". Vaudeville returned in November 1932 when Arthur George Klein took over the theater for twice-a-day revue. By February 1933, the Hollywood was again dark, and the theater returned to hosting films afterward. During 1933, Warner Bros. acquired additional land at 235 to 239 West 51st Street from the Shubert brothers. Generally, the Hollywood's films were not successful, and the venue stood empty for long periods. #### Alternating live shows and film Warner Bros. announced in October 1934 that it would renovate the stage for theatrical use and add 32 dressing rooms. These changes were to accommodate Hollywood's first theatrical production: Calling All Stars, a musical revue with Martha Raye, which opened in December 1934 and ran 35 performances. In October 1935, the Hollywood hosted the premiere of the Warner Bros. film A Midsummer Night's Dream, starring James Cagney and Olivia de Havilland. The following March, Earl Carroll negotiated with Warner Bros. to rename the Hollywood Theatre for himself and stage musicals there. The theater was leased to George Abbott and renamed the 51st Street Theatre in late 1936. The theater's main entrance was relocated from Broadway to 51st Street, as Warner Bros. wished to use the Broadway entrance for films and the 51st Street entrance for legitimate productions. Abbott's play Sweet River opened that October and closed after just five performances. The 51st Street Theatre reverted to film in 1937; Warner Bros. planned to either host its own films or rent the theater out for screenings. The Hollywood Theatre name was restored in August 1937 with the screening of The Life of Emile Zola, the first premiere at the theater since A Midsummer Night's Dream. Further films followed until October 1938, when another live production opened, the Gilbert and Sullivan-themed musical Knights of Song. This was followed by the 1939 edition of George White's Scandals, a transfer from the Alvin Theatre, which ran for a month at the Hollywood. In 1940, the theater was again renamed the 51st Street Theatre, presenting a revival of Romeo and Juliet with Vivien Leigh and Laurence Olivier that May. Though the play had been highly promoted, it ran for only 36 performances. This was followed in October 1940 by a three-week performance by the Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo, then in November by performances from Colonel Wassily de Basil's Original Ballet Russe. The theater reverted to the Hollywood Theatre name and again began showing films. A renovation of the Hollywood Theatre was announced in mid-1941, when Eddie Cantor's musical Banjo Eyes was booked. Banjo Eyes opened in December 1941 and ran for 129 performances, ultimately closing after Cantor became ill. Following Banjo Eyes, the Hollywood returned to showing films exclusively for several years. The film Casablanca, which subsequently became a hit and a classic, premiered at the Hollywood in 1942. Among the films screened at the Hollywood in the mid-1940s were This Is the Army (1943), Old Acquaintance (1943), The Adventures of Mark Twain (1944), The Corn is Green (1945), and Night and Day (1946). The Hollywood Theatre became the Warner Theatre in August 1947 with the premiere of the film Life with Father. ### Mark Hellinger Theatre #### Late 1940s and 1950s Wealthy producer Anthony Brady Farrell agreed to purchase the Warner Theatre in June 1948 for about \$1.5 million; the sale was finalized the next month. Farrell planned to rename the theater for Mark Hellinger, a Broadway journalist and critic who had died the year before, and he proposed renovating the theater for legitimate plays and musicals. The theater was dedicated under its new name on January 16, 1949, and Farrell's musical All for Love opened the next week on January 22, with Paul Hartman, Grace Hartman, and Bert Wheeler. All for Love lost money but ran 121 performances. This was followed by S. M. Chartock's three-week-long showcase of Gilbert and Sullivan productions in late 1949. Despite a string of early losses, as well as a weekly expenditure of \$4,500 to \$5,000 for the Hellinger's maintenance, Farrell was optimistic about the theater's potential to make money. Farrell's musical Texas Li'l Darlin', featuring Kenny Delmar, opened at the end of 1949. Texas Li'l Darlin' was the first hit in the Hellinger's history, running for 293 performances. Tickets, Please! transferred from the Coronet Theatre in late 1950, followed by the Harold Rome revue Bless You All at the end that year. Premiering in 1951 was Two on the Aisle with Bert Lahr and Dolores Gray, which had 279 performances. Three Wishes for Jamie opened the next year and lasted for 91 performances. Chartock returned in late 1952 with a four-week engagement of Gilbert and Sullivan productions, followed by Guthrie McClintic and the Greek National Theater with two plays by Sophocles. The musical Hazel Flagg by Jule Styne opened in 1953; The New York Times had reported by then that the Broadway entrance had been "discontinued". The Broadway lobby was then leased out to a clothier in late 1953. The Girl in Pink Tights, the final show of the late composer Sigmund Romberg, premiered in 1954 and closed after 115 performances. The Ballets Espagnols also performed at the Hellinger that November for a four-week run. The Amish-themed musical Plain and Fancy opened in January 1955 and was a hit with 461 total performances (some at the Winter Garden Theatre). The same year, the Hellinger hosted Ankles Aweigh for 176 performances. The Hellinger had its greatest success with the musical My Fair Lady, with a score by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe. My Fair Lady opened in March 1956 and, with 2,717 total performances, was the longest-running Broadway production ever at the time. Prior to the success of My Fair Lady, there was a rumor in the theatrical community that the Hellinger was destined to never host a hit. A year after My Fair Lady opened, Farrell sold the Hellinger to Max and Stanley Stahl, who had already purchased the neighboring building on Broadway. The new owners chartered a company called Mark Hellinger Theatre Inc. #### 1960s to mid-1970s In the 1960s, the Hellinger continued to host several popular musicals. Richard Rodgers and Samuel Taylor tried to stage their musical No Strings, but My Fair Lady's producer refused to move. The New York Supreme Court ruled in February 1962 that My Fair Lady had to relocate, but Rodgers and Taylor had booked another theater by then. The Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The Sound of Music then transferred to the Hellinger from the Lunt-Fontanne for the last seven months of the musical's run. The Italian-language Rugantino was staged in 1964 with live supertitles on the proscenium, though it flopped in spite of critical acclaim. Styne, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green's musical Fade Out – Fade In also opened in 1964, featuring Jack Cassidy and Carol Burnett. On a Clear Day You Can See Forever opened in 1965 with a score by Burton Lane and Alan Jay Lerner. The same year, a 40-foot-wide (12 m) alcoholic bar was installed in the lounge's rotunda. The late 1960s was characterized by several unsuccessful musicals. The musical A Joyful Noise in 1966, with choreography by Michael Bennett, ended after just 12 performances. The Martha Graham Dance Company had a limited engagement at the theater the next year. Also staged in 1967 was Illya Darling with Melina Mercouri, which ran 319 performances without turning a profit. A third flop followed in 1968, the Biblical musical I'm Solomon with Dick Shawn and Karen Morrow. The same year, the Hellinger hosted ballet performances from Les Ballets Africains; a premiere of the documentary New York City—The Most; and a limited concert engagement by Marlene Dietrich. Two productions followed in 1969: Jerry Herman's Dear World, featuring Angela Lansbury, and Alan Jay Lerner and André Previn's Coco, starring Katharine Hepburn in her only Broadway musical. The Hellinger hosted its first Tony Awards ceremony in 1969; it also hosted the 1970 Tony Awards. The Hellinger next staged the flop Ari and the final performances of the long-running off-Broadway production Man of La Mancha in 1971. This was followed the same year by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice's Jesus Christ Superstar, another classic, which ran for 720 performances over the next two years. A mixture of successes and failures followed. The Martha Graham Dance Company returned in 1974 and 1975 to critical acclaim. Conversely, the all-male revival of As You Like It (1974), The Skin of Our Teeth (1975), and 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (1976) were all flops that managed less than ten performances each. Meanwhile, the Stahls had unofficially put the Hellinger on the market by 1975, and the Nederlander Organization bought the theater the next year. #### Late 1970s and 1980s The Hellinger was not successful in its 1978 productions of Timbuktu! with Eartha Kitt or Platinum with Alexis Smith. This was followed in 1979 by Sarava, a musical with a score by Mitch Leigh; the Joffrey Ballet, with featured artist Rudolf Nureyev; and The Utter Glory of Morrissey Hall, which closed on its opening night. The Hellinger finally saw a success in late 1979 when Ann Miller and Mickey Rooney costarred in the burlesque Sugar Babies, which ran 1,208 performances over the next three years. The Tony Awards returned to the Hellinger in 1980 and 1981. After the closure of Sugar Babies in 1982, Comden and Green produced A Doll's Life, which closed after five performances. Magician Doug Henning costarred with Chita Rivera in the 1983 musical Merlin, which ran for 199 performances. Merlin ended to make way for Chaplin, a musical that never opened. Afterward, the British musical Oliver! had a short run at the Hellinger in 1984. Michael Bennett negotiated to buy a half-interest in the theater's ownership in 1984, the same year that Jerry Weintraub purchased a stake in the operation of the Hellinger. In 1985, the Hellinger hosted Grind for 75 performances and Tango Argentino for about 200 performances. The 1985 film A Chorus Line was also partly shot on location at the theater. Throughout the remainder of the 1980s, the Hellinger showed short runs, solo shows, and industry bookings. The musical Rags ran for just four performances in 1986, and dance production Flamenco Puro appeared later the same year. The Hellinger then hosted the 1987 Tony Awards, as well as personal appearances from Smokey Robinson/Jean Carne, Virsky Company, Rodney Dangerfield, and the Georgian State Dance Company. The Hellinger hosted Shakespeare's Macbeth with Glenda Jackson and Christopher Plummer in early 1988. At the end of the year, the theater premiered its last-ever legitimate production, Legs Diamond. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started to consider protecting the Hellinger as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the Hellinger's interior as a landmark on November 17, 1987, followed by the facade in January 1988. This was part of the commission's wide-ranging effort in 1987 to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified the designations in March 1988. The Nederlanders, the Shuberts, and Jujamcyn collectively sued the LPC in June 1988 to overturn the landmark designations of 22 theaters, including the Hellinger, on the merit that the designations severely limited the extent to which the theaters could be modified. The lawsuit was escalated to the New York Supreme Court and the Supreme Court of the United States, but these designations were ultimately upheld in 1992. ### Times Square Church #### Lease In February 1989, the Nederlander Organization leased the Hellinger to the Times Square Church, headed by the Rev. David Wilkerson, for \$1 million per year on a five-year lease. At the time, the church occupied the 1,150-seat Nederlander Theatre, which was at standing-room only capacity five days a week. In addition, the Broadway theatrical industry was struggling to stage works, and James M. Nederlander said: "It's a short-term lease—five years is short term for me. It'll pass before you know it." Had the Nederlanders retained the Hellinger as a legitimate venue, the organization could have rented the theater to a large musical for \$1.04 million a year, but it would be far from a consistent income stream. Legs Diamond closed later the same month. According to The New York Times: "To many theater people, the leasing of the Hellinger, [...] which has long been considered one of the best and most beautiful theaters for musicals, was a sad symbol of both the state of Broadway and of the Nederlander organization." The Times Square Church moved to the Hellinger in March 1989. That August, the LPC held a hearing on whether the westernmost 26-foot-wide (7.9 m) section of the theater could be demolished to make way for a hotel developed by Silverstein Properties. The planned hotel would have used air rights from above the theater, which would have necessitated restoring the Hellinger for legitimate use. The producer Cameron Mackintosh expressed interest in leasing the Hellinger for his production Miss Saigon in 1990, but he ultimately leased the nearby Broadway Theatre. Rocco Landesman of rival chain Jujamcyn Theaters had also offered to buy the theater, but he said high maintenance costs precluded him or any other producer from offering more than \$7 million. #### Purchase and subsequent years Ultimately, in December 1991, the Nederlanders sold the Hellinger to the church for a reported \$17 million. Wilkerson then spent several years renovating the theater for his congregation. In the years after the Times Square Church's purchase, the church became so popular that the Hellinger could not accommodate all congregants, despite the theater's 1,600-seat capacity. The congregation at the theater numbered 4,000 in 1997 and doubled within the next year. As a result, in the late 1990s, an 800-person overflow room and eight secondary meeting rooms was leased in the neighboring Novotel hotel. By 2001, screens were installed both in the lobby and in a neighboring annex to allow additional congregants to view services. Theatrical producers have made several unsuccessful attempts to buy the theater from the Times Square Church. As early as 1993, Lloyd Webber had proposed buying the theater from the Times Square Church for his production of Sunset Boulevard. In addition to Mackintosh and the Bennett estate, offers were reportedly made by former Canadian impresario Garth Drabinsky, theatrical operator Shubert Organization, and corporate producers Disney and Clear Channel. The Times Square Church maintains the theater's historic interior decor and opens the theater to the public for regular services. The church also hosts tours of the theater, as during Christmas 2016, when it gave tours along with live performances of the Nativity play Bethlehem on Broadway. ## Notable productions Productions are listed by the year of their first performance. This list only includes Broadway shows; it does not include films screened there. - 1934: Calling All Stars - 1939: George White's Scandals - 1940: Romeo and Juliet - 1940: Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo - 1940: Original Ballet Russe, Colonel de Basil's - 1941: Banjo Eyes - 1949: Gilbert and Sullivan Series (four productions) - 1950: Tickets, Please! - 1951: Two on the Aisle - 1952: Three Wishes for Jamie - 1952: Gilbert and Sullivan Series (five productions) - 1952: Electra - 1952: Oedipus Tyrannus - 1953: Hazel Flagg - 1954: The Girl in Pink Tights - 1955: Plain and Fancy - 1955: Ankles Aweigh - 1956: My Fair Lady - 1962: The Sound of Music - 1964: Rugantino - 1964: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum - 1964: Fade Out – Fade In - 1965: On a Clear Day You Can See Forever - 1966: A Joyful Noise - 1967: Illya Darling - 1968: I'm Solomon - 1969: Dear World - 1969: Coco - 1971: Man of La Mancha - 1971: Jesus Christ Superstar - 1973: Seesaw - 1974: As You Like It - 1975: The Skin of Our Teeth - 1976: 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue - 1976: Porgy and Bess - 1977: Shenandoah - 1977: Lou Rawls on Broadway - 1978: Timbuktu! - 1978: Platinum - 1979: The Utter Glory of Morrissey Hall - 1979: Sugar Babies - 1982: A Doll's Life - 1983: Merlin - 1984: Oliver! - 1985: Grind - 1985: Tango Argentino - 1986: Rags - 1988: Macbeth - 1988: Legs Diamond ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets

Entertainment Software Publishing

Japanese video game publisher

(ESP) was a Japanese video game publisher headquartered in Shibuya, Tokyo. It was founded in 1997 as a publisher for games developed by the Game Developers Network (GD-NET). GD-NET, which included companies such as Treasure and Game Arts, was established due to concerns over smaller developers not having the same financial backing like larger game companies did, as production of console games was beginning to rise. ESP was best known for publishing shoot 'em ups and role-playing games. While primarily a publisher, ESP also developed a handful of games internally. ESP primarily published games for the Sega Saturn and Dreamcast. When both systems met their demise, the company started shifting operations towards consoles such as the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, and Nintendo DS. ESP was purchased by Game Arts in 2002 and became its publishing division. In 2004, ESP was sold to D3 Publisher, which had noticed ESP's track record and lineup of well-received titles. ESP was merged with D3 Publisher and its parent company, D3 Inc., in 2010. Many games that were published by ESP, including Grandia, Radiant Silvergun, and the Bangai-O series, have received praise from critics. Several have sold well and have been ranked among the best in their genres. In the past, ESP helped co-publish several Japanese massively multiplayer online video games, and also collaborated with other game companies on various projects. ## History In the late 1990s in Japan, several Japanese video game developers, including Treasure, Quintet, Sting Entertainment, and Game Arts, joined forces and established Game Developers Network (GD-NET). The purpose of GD-NET was to establish mutual assistance with one another. As the video game market in Japan began growing in size, the costs for developers to produce games for consoles was also rising. Members of GD-NET did not have the same financial backing like larger companies did, and believed that creating healthy relationships between them would increase their chances of surviving the industry landscape of the time. Companies under the network proposed a plan that would allow them to focus their resources on game development instead of production and promotion of their titles. GD-NET members established Entertainment Software Publishing (ESP) in November 1997. Youichi Miyaji, the president and CEO of Game Arts, was appointed president of the company. ESP was funded by many game studios, including Japan Art Media, CSK Research Institute, and Onion Soft, as well as most of the companies that were part of GD-NET. Additional funding was provided by CSK Holdings, the parent company of Sega. GD-NET members would create and produce games, while ESP would handle marketing, sales, and promotion of these games. GD-NET members believed that ESP would allow them to gain more recognition within the industry, as companies such as Sega, Nintendo, and Sony Computer Entertainment would have taken credit for their works when they were published. One of ESP's first hits was Grandia for the PlayStation and Sega Saturn. Developed by Game Arts, Grandia was released in 1997 to critical acclaim. Treasure's Saturn conversion of the arcade game Radiant Silvergun was also released to acclaim for its gameplay and mechanics, and is cited among the best and most influential shoot'em up games created. Slayers Royal and its follow-up Slayers Royal 2, both based on the Slayers light novel and anime series, were also commercially successful. In 1998, Sega discontinued production of the Sega Saturn in Europe and North America amidst poor sales. While the Saturn was still being sold in Japan, Sega largely abandoned the system in favor of the Dreamcast, which it released the same year. As such, ESP began to shift its publishing operations from Saturn to Dreamcast and other consoles like the Nintendo 64. It published Bangai-O for the latter console in 1999, which while critically successful was produced in limited quantities out of concern over its niche appeal. ESP commonly participated in the Tokyo Game Show and other major video game events in the country, where they regularly presented their more popular titles such as Silhouette Mirage. ESP also began publishing games for the PlayStation 2, which had become the best-selling video game console in Japan and outsold the Dreamcast by a wide margin. In 2002, ESP was acquired by Game Arts and became the latter's publishing division. In 2004, ESP was purchased by D3 Publisher, a Japanese video game studio best known for its Simple series of budget games. D3 purchased 100% of ESP's stock for a total of 120 million yen. ESP's track record and lineup of commercially successful games was the reason for the acquisition. In addition to publishing other developer's titles for systems like the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS, ESP also began developing its own games such as Hajime no Ippo Portable Victorious Spirits for the PlayStation Portable. ESP co-published several Japanese massively multiplayer online games as well. It announced at the 2005 Tokyo Game Show it would also begin production of games for the PlayStation 3. In 2008, the company partnered with Treasure, the only remaining GD-NET company to still have working relations with them, to form a publishing project known as "Treasure × ESP". The project lead to ESP publishing Bangai-O Spirits for the DS, a critically successful sequel to Bangai-O. On 1 April 2010, ESP and D3 Publisher were merged into the latter's parent holding company, D3 Inc., wherein both ESP and D3 Publisher were dissolved, while D3 Inc. was renamed D3 Publisher. The year prior, D3 Inc. had been majority-acquired by Namco Bandai Games. ## Games published

Logan Sapphire

423-carat blue sapphire

The Logan Sapphire is a 422.98-carat (84.596 g) sapphire from Sri Lanka. One of the largest blue faceted sapphires in the world, it was owned by Sir Victor Sassoon and then purchased by M. Robert Guggenheim as a gift for his wife, Rebecca Pollard Guggenheim, who donated the sapphire to the Smithsonian Institution in 1960. The sapphire's name is derived from Rebecca's new surname after she later married John A. Logan. It has been on display in the National Gem Collection of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., since 1971. It is a mixed cushion-cut sapphire, approximately the size of a large chicken egg, and set in a silver and gold brooch surrounded by 20 round brilliant-cut diamonds. ## Description The Logan Sapphire weighs 422.98 carats (84.596 g) and is approximately the size of a large chicken egg, measuring 49.23 mm × 38.26 mm × 20.56 mm (1.938 in × 1.506 in × 0.809 in). It is a mixed cushion-cut sapphire (having a rounded rectangular shape) and is blue with slight shades of violet. The cut is designed to highlight its color rather than to improve its brilliance. In 1997, the Gemological Institute of America determined that the Logan Sapphire's color was natural and that it had not previously undergone heat treatment, a technique that is sometimes used to enhance the color or mechanical properties of gemstones. It fluoresces reddish-orange when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. This phenomemon, as well as the slight violet tones, indicates trace amounts of the element chromium in the sapphire's structure. The Logan Sapphire is one of the largest blue faceted sapphires in the world. Rutile inclusions, commonly found inside Sri Lankan sapphires, are visible inside the gemstone. It is set in a silver and gold brooch and surrounded by 20 round brilliant cut diamonds. In total, the diamonds weigh approximately 16 carats (3.2 g). The diamonds were likely taken from an antique bracelet or necklace. A 1958 article in Ladies' Home Journal by Rebecca Pollard Guggenheim, its owner at the time, suggests that it was set in the brooch sometime after she had acquired it several years earlier, but further details of its setting are unknown. ## History The sapphire was mined from Sri Lanka. It is a "Ceylon sapphire", a term derived from the former name of Sri Lanka, and likely originates from Ratnapura, known as the "City of Gems". A New York jeweler who possessed the sapphire claimed that its first owner was a Sri Lankan native who was beheaded for withholding his discovery from his leader, but this story is likely fabricated. One of the sapphire's early owners was Sir Victor Sassoon, 3rd Baronet of Bombay, a member of the wealthy Sassoon family. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the Sassoons may have acquired the sapphire from an Indian maharaja. It was exhibited at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Sassoon planned to auction the sapphire in 1941 to raise money for the British war effort during World War II, but the auction did not take place. In the early 1950s, the American diplomat M. Robert Guggenheim purchased the sapphire from Sassoon. He gave it to his wife, Rebecca Pollard Guggenheim, as a Christmas and anniversary present in 1952. In Ladies' Home Journal, she recalled her reaction upon seeing it: "I was simply overcome. [...] It's simply not a stone you could wear casually. All I could think was, I'll never be able to wear it. And of course, I loved it." She often wore it on a clip at formal events, but the sapphire was so heavy that she had to wear it with a shoulder strap. In December 1960, a year after Robert's death, Rebecca deeded four-sevenths of it to the Smithsonian Institution, and the remaining portion the following year. This transaction was only in deed; the sapphire was not physically divided, and it was not publicly exhibited until almost a decade later. She wanted it to be reserved to be worn only by the First Lady of the United States "at such state and other occasions as may be appropriate", though it has never been used for this purpose. Rebecca Guggenheim changed her surname to Logan in 1962 after marrying John A. Logan, a management consultant, and the sapphire became known as the "Logan Sapphire". It was the first of several gifts from wealthy donors that came after the Smithsonian's acquisition of the Hope Diamond in 1958; another was the Napoleon Diamond Necklace. The Logan Sapphire was physically transferred to the Smithsonian in April 1971. According to Paul Desautels, the museum's curator at the time, Logan finally parted ways with the sapphire because it reminded her of her late husband's extramarital affairs. Since 1971, the Logan Sapphire has been on display in the National Gem Collection of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (catalog number NMNH G3703-00). It is the largest and heaviest mounted gem in the collection. ## See also - List of sapphires by size - List of individual gemstones

Kepier power station

Cancelled power station in Kepier, UK

The Kepier power station was a cancelled coal-fired power station on the River Wear at Kepier, 0.75 miles (1.21 km) north east of Durham, County Durham, North East England. Planned by the North Eastern Electric Supply Company (NESCo) in 1944, it was never realised as the scheme faced stiff opposition from those who claimed it would obstruct views of the historic Durham Cathedral from the East Coast Main Line. A number of people supported the scheme as it would help meet the increasing demand for electricity and provide much needed jobs in the post-depression, post-war economy of Britain. The station, which had been designed by architect Giles Gilbert Scott, would have been operational by the late 1940s and would have generated 150 megawatts of electricity. However, following a public inquiry the plans were not approved and instead NESCo installed additional capacity at their existing power stations. ## Background After several years of preliminary planning, surveying sites and drawing up plans, the North Eastern Electric Supply Company (NESCo) bought the site of a large rifle range, over both sides of the River Wear, at Kepier, 0.75 miles (1.21 km) north east of the city of Durham, and in early 1944 publicly announced their plans to build a large coal-fired power station on the site. The station was part of a post-war plan by NESCo, and the scheme had a projected cost of £3,500,000. The site was chosen in the mid-Durham area to be close to the coal supplies. It also needed to be a short distance from the River Wear, downstream of Durham, and on solid foundations. Mine workings in County Durham restricted the number of possible sites which could meet the requirement for solid foundations. The site also required good road and rail access. The estimated build time for the station was around four years, and once completed the station was expected to employ around 300 people. In June 1944, NESCo formally submitted their plans for consent of construction. ## Design The station's site plans and elevations were designed by Giles Gilbert Scott. He had previously designed Battersea Power Station in London, and so the designs of the Kepier station were considered to have been of a very high architectural quality. NESCo claimed that the design of the station would be considered "a credit to the whole district". The main station building was to be 135 feet (41 m) in height. The station would have burned between 1,500 and 2,000 tonnes of low-grade coal per week, to produce 150 megawatts (MW) of electricity. The coal was to be taken from mines in County Durham, and transported to the station by the Durham goods branch of the Leamside Line railway, which terminated at nearby Gilesgate. New sidings would have been required to reach the site from the railway line, which would have required cutting into the hillside above Kepier. Upon arriving at the station, coal would have been discharged from the wagons 135 feet (41 m) above the station and transported via a conveyor belt over six arches down to the station itself. The coal burnt would have had an estimated ash content of between 14% and 22%, and so at a cost of £160,000, the company were to install electrostatic precipitators, to remove 97% of the dust from the smoke and waste gasses from combustion, before leaving the two 350 feet (110 m) high chimneys. The view at the time was that the remaining dust that would leave the chimneys would not have caused "any appreciable pollution", and the waste gasses, consisting of carbon dioxide, were thought not to "cause any injury or harm to the inhabitants of the city, to buildings or to vegetation." Between 350 and 450 tonnes of bottom ash clinker would be produced by the station per week. NESCo intended to sell this on to local construction companies as a construction material and believed there was a ready market for this. Fly ash from the precipitators would also have built up, and NESCo claimed they would have spread this on land to the west of the station, and mixed it with soil to produce a 14 feet (4.3 m) high spoil tip. The station would have featured six 170 feet (52 m) high cooling towers. It was said that there would be provision to prevent excessive amounts of steam leaving the cooling towers, with no haze coming from the towers on 95% of days of the year. ## Criticism and support When the plans were first announced the county surveyor raised no objections, and it was not until October 1943 and onwards that the Ministry of Town and Country Planning began to increasingly warn of the opposition that was bound to arise against the scheme. The plans were strongly opposed by Thomas Wilfred Sharp, an urban planner from Durham, who thought that the station would intrude on the city's skyline. They were also opposed by The City of Durham Preservation Society (now the City of Durham Trust) which had been founded two years earlier. At the time the station had been given the go ahead by Durham City Council and the planning authority, but the Trust believed the station's tall chimneys and cooling towers would dwarf the nearby Durham Cathedral. NESCo argued that they thought the power station would enhance the city's attractions, with people coming to see the power station itself. At the least, they tried to assure the public that if built, the station would take as little away from the city as possible. An official statement from the company stated: > "Consultants of every kind will be employed in connection with the construction, and the City Corporation can rest assured that every precaution will be taken both in the design and the working of the station to cause as little harm as possible to the amenities of the City." NESCo also argued that they had chosen the site to protect the city's amenities, in that it was outside the city boundary, partially surrounded by higher ground, and in the lee of prevailing winds. They also said that much could be done architecturally to fit the station into its surroundings. Local trade unions, Durham County Council, and even the Farmers' Union were in support of the scheme, along with a number of private persons, the general reason being that it would bring a new form of employment to the city and surrounding areas. Opponents to the station however claimed that the new jobs at the power station would go to specialist technicians brought into the region, and that the positioning of the station near Durham would not be beneficial to the city's electricity supply or make the cost of electricity any cheaper for those living near the station. Critics also claimed that wherever in the region a new power station were to be built, County Durham coal would be used in it, and that despite NESCo's claims, there may be more suitable sites elsewhere. The critics claimed that Durham's functioning as a cultural, educational, administrative and tourist center, would be ultimately destroyed by heavy industrialisation. At a meeting of Durham County Council on 26 July 1944, J.W. Foster, chairman of the Finance Committee of the council, spoke in favour of the proposals, claiming they would fulfill the Government's White Paper on Employment Policy, and its policy on the rehabilitation of depressed areas. At the outbreak of war, the north of the country had still not fully recovered from the Great Depression of the 1930s, and Foster believed the employment the station's construction and maintenance provided would help prevent a return to those conditions. It was also seen that the station would generally improve the supply of electricity for industry. He pointed out that the criticism of the scheme was based entirely on assumption that the station would "destroy the Medieval charm of the city", without taking into account the thoughts of the experts who designed the station. He also pointed out that the critics made their comments without any suggestion of an alternative, and that their campaign against the scheme had attracted publicity through a BBC broadcast. Foster also claimed that if any other feasible site could be found, then it should be used to avoid any violation of the view. However, he warned that the interest of the county's economy should be put in front of the concerns of "those ill-informed critics, who view Durham from the railway ... passing from one more fortunate district to another." Durham MP Charles Grey later referred to the development as "vital to the well being of the County of Durham". British architect Frederick Gibberd published a diagrammatic comparison of Durham Cathedral alongside a power station typical of the design of the time, like the one planned at Kepier. This made clear that, although the cathedral was one of the largest in the country, it still would look small next to the projected power station. It was argued that as long as the two structures were viewed simultaneously, the visual juxtaposition would be detrimental to the cathedral. Somewhat ironically, Gibberd's Didcot Power Station would later be voted the third worst eyesore in Britain in 2003. Although geographically located 1 mile (1.6 km) north east and 100 feet (30 m) lower, it was thought that Kepier power station would dominate any view into which it entered and that it would enter into most of the views in the city. A Northern Echo reader summarised these ideas in 1944: > "As the traveller by train approaches Kepier and Durham from the North there would meet his eye in the foreground this vast power station. Kepier, a local beauty spot, and the picturesque remains of Kepier Hospital, a building of much historic interest, would be blotted out, the Castle and Cathedral beyond would be dwarfed by an incongruous mass of concrete buildings ill sorting with the landscape." ## Inquiry After the suggestion by the head of the Ministry of War Transport Cyril Hurcomb to conduct a joint local hearing chaired by an outsider was turned down by the Government due to much greater means being needed, the Government agreed that a public inquiry should be opened. A public inquiry into the plans was opened in December 1944, with the hearing lasting for three days. The Ministry of Town and Country Planning appointed Hurcomb as the chairman of the inquiry. The Electricity Commissioners appointed George Pepler and C.G. Morley New. The key opponents of the scheme were the City of Durham Preservation Society, chaired by Cyril Alington. NESCo were represented by Craig Henderson and Sydney Turner. The NESCo representatives argued that although the company already supplied around 85% of the North East region, a great deal more generating capacity would need to be built to meet the demand for years to come, and that the mid-Durham area was the best place to erect a new station. Henderson claimed the only real opposition to the scheme was that it would interfere with the amenities of Durham. John Hacking, chief engineer of the Central Electricity Board, backed NESCo because if the scheme were declined, and consent and new arrangements had to be made, they would have no new plant in operation until after 1948. A 11.8 kilograms (26 lb) Plasticine model of the station, city and surroundings was used in the inquiry. It was accompanied by a certificate of essentiality, issued by the Electricity Commissioners. Photographs of the city were also shown with the power station superimposed. During the hearing, Hurcomb pointed out a letter published in The Times in July 1944, in which the Bishop and Dean of Durham, and Warden of the Durham Colleges, had given the misleading impression that the proposed station would ruin views from the railway line, an idea compounded by the publication a few days later of a photograph taken from the proposed site. He acknowledged that a number of views from parts of the river would be ruined, and that the station would be visible from the Cathedral and church, Hurcomb emphasised that the majority of the beautiful views around the city would remain. Pepler also found that from the railway station, the power station and the Cathedral could not be viewed simultaneously. The members of the inquiry initially concluded that the station should be given the go-ahead, based on the grounds that a more suitable site could not be decided upon. The City of Durham Preservation Society, however, argued that with so many of Europe's finest monuments being destroyed in the Second World War, Durham and its cathedral was a gem which had survived both the war and the "industrial despoliation which had laid waste to so much of the rest of the County". Pepler supported the view that Durham was more suited as an administrative, shopping, and tourist centre, than it was for large-scale industrial development. Legal and political difficulties caused a long delay in reaching a decision. An important issue was whether or not the inquiry was subject to the new Town and Country Planning Act of 1944. NESCo from the beginning challenged the right of the Minister of Town and Planning, W. S. Morrison, to convene an inquiry at all. The initial legal advice to the Government was that it was not subject, and the inquiry was convened with terms of reference that they were to consider whether a proposed new or extended station could supply sufficient electricity to meet the needs of consumers at no greater cost than any alternative source of supply. In Hurcomb's view the inquiry could not refuse consent if these conditions were met. A later decision by the Treasury Solicitor that the inquiry was, in fact, subject to the Act had the effect of paralysing decision making. If Hurcomb persisted in adhering to his terms of reference and approved the power station, but Durham Rural District Council then withheld planning consent on the grounds of the objections, NESCo would be entitled to compensation for their losses due to the delay and building on a new site. The District Council would be liable for this but it was out of the question that they would be able to afford the large amount involved and the Government wished to avoid stepping in to pay themselves. If the inquiry could be persuaded to find against NESCo then no compensation would be payable and Hurcomb came under pressure from Ministers to do just that. Hurcomb argued that this would be denying compensation to those entitled to it and by April 1945 the decision on the station was still being delayed. The chairman of NESCo at the time voiced his anger in The Times, and Frank Tribe, secretary of the Ministry of Fuel and Power, wrote to Hurcomb asking if anything could be done to bring the inquiry to a decision. Eventually, Hurcomb put forward at a ministerial meeting a solution whereby the members of the inquiry would inform NESCo that on purely technical grounds they would have approved the scheme, but due to the opposition of Morrison, they had decided not to proceed to a decision. Although NESCo were initially hostile, in June 1945 they agreed to drop the scheme on condition that they received a letter from Morrison agreeing that they had satisfied the commissioners on technical grounds, thus entitling them to compensation. The Government thought the site was open to well founded objections, and even if the scheme had proceeded past the inquiry stage, they would have refused consent anyway. ## Outcome Ultimately, the decision of the inquiry went against NESCo and those in support of the station, and the company dropped their plans. NESCo received an ex gratia payment of £6,650 from the Ministry of Town and Country Planning for the expenditure incurred to that point. The site itself was inherited by the nationalised British Electricity Authority in 1948 and they eventually sold it. On 9 October 1945, Minister of Town and Country Planning Lewis Silkin made clear in the House of Commons that NESCo had begun extending their existing power stations by installing additional generating plant at sites other than Kepier, sufficing the demand for electricity, and meaning no station was needed at Kepier.

Survival horror

Video game subgenre

Survival horror is a subgenre of horror games. Although combat can be part of the gameplay, the player is made to feel less in control than in typical action games through limited ammunition or weapons, health, speed, and vision, or through various obstructions of the player's interaction with the game mechanics. The player is also challenged to find items that unlock the path to new areas and solve puzzles to proceed in the game. Games make use of strong horror themes, such as dark mazelike environments and unexpected attacks from enemies. The term "survival horror" was first used for the original Japanese release of Resident Evil in 1996, which was influenced by earlier games with a horror theme such as 1989's Sweet Home and 1992's Alone in the Dark. The name has been used since then for games with similar gameplay and has been retroactively applied to earlier titles. Starting with the release of Resident Evil 4 in 2005, the genre began to incorporate more features from action games and more traditional first person and third-person shooter games. This has led game journalists to question whether long-standing survival horror franchises and more recent franchises have abandoned the genre and moved into a distinct genre often referred to as "action horror." ## Definition Survival horror refers to a subgenre of survival video games that includes horror game elements. The player character is vulnerable and under-armed, which puts emphasis on puzzle-solving and evasion, rather than the player taking an offensive strategy. Games commonly challenge the player to manage their inventory and ration scarce resources such as ammunition. Another major theme throughout the genre is that of isolation. Typically, these games contain relatively few non-player characters and, as a result, frequently tell much of their story second-hand through the usage of journals, texts, or audio logs. While many action games feature lone protagonists versus swarms of enemies in a suspenseful environment, survival horror games are distinct from otherwise horror-themed action games. They tend to de-emphasize combat in favor of challenges such as hiding or running from enemies and solving puzzles. Still, it is not unusual for survival horror games to draw upon elements from first-person shooters, or even role-playing games. According to IGN, "Survival horror is different from typical game genres in that it is not defined strictly by specific mechanics but subject matter, tone, pacing, and design philosophy." ## Game design ### De-emphasized combat Survival horror games are a subgenre of horror games, where the player is unable to fully prepare or arm their avatar. The player usually encounters several factors that make combat unattractive as a primary option, such as a limited number of weapons or invulnerable enemies. If weapons are available, their ammunition is sparser than in other games, and powerful weapons such as rocket launchers are rare, if even available at all. Thus, players are more vulnerable than in action games, and the hostility of the environment sets up a narrative where the odds are weighed decisively against the avatar. This shifts gameplay away from direct combat, and players must learn to evade enemies or turn the environment against them. Games try to enhance the experience of vulnerability by making the game single-player rather than multiplayer, and by giving the player an avatar who is more frail than the typical action game hero. The survival horror genre is also known for other non-combat challenges, such as solving puzzles at certain locations in the game world, and collecting and managing an inventory of items. Areas of the game world will be off-limits until the player gains certain items. Occasionally, levels are designed with alternative routes. Levels also challenge players with mazelike environments, which test the player's navigational skills. Levels are often designed as dark and claustrophobic (often making use of dim or shadowy light conditions and camera angles and sightlines, which restrict visibility) to challenge the player and provide suspense, although games in the genre also make use of enormous spatial environments. ### Enemy design A survival horror storyline usually involves the investigation and confrontation of horrific forces, and as such, many games incorporate common elements from horror fiction into gameplay challenges. Early releases used camera angles seen in horror films, which allowed enemies to lurk in areas concealed from the player's view. Also, many survival horror games make use of off-screen sound or other warning cues to notify the player of impending danger. This feedback assists the player but also creates feelings of anxiety and uncertainty. Games typically feature a variety of monsters with unique behavior patterns. Enemies can appear unexpectedly or suddenly, and levels are often designed with scripted sequences where enemies drop from the ceiling or crash through windows. Survival horror games, like many action-adventure games, are sometimes structured around boss encounters where the player must confront a formidable opponent to advance to the next area. These boss encounters draw elements from antagonists seen in classic horror stories, and defeating the boss will advance the story of the game. ## History ### Origins (1980s–1996) The origins of the survival horror game can be traced back to earlier horror fiction. Archetypes have been linked to the books of H. P. Lovecraft, which include investigative narratives or journeys through the depths. Comparisons have been made between Lovecraft's Great Old Ones and the boss encounters seen in many survival horror games. Themes of survival have also been traced to the slasher film subgenre, where the protagonist endures a confrontation with the ultimate antagonist. Another major influence on the genre is Japanese horror, including classical Noh theatre, the books of Edogawa Rampo, and Japanese cinema. The survival horror genre largely draws from both Western (mainly American) and Asian (mainly Japanese) traditions, with the Western approach to horror generally favoring action-oriented visceral horror, while the Japanese approach tends to favor psychological horror. AX-2: Uchū Yusōsen Nostromo was a survival horror game developed by Akira Takiguchi, a Tokyo University student and Taito contractor, for the PET 2001. It was ported to the PC-6001 by Masakuni Mitsuhashi (also known as Hiromi Ohba, who later joined Game Arts), and published by ASCII in 1981, exclusively for Japan. Inspired by the 1979 Japanese-only stealth game Manbiki Shounen (Shoplifting Boy) by Hiroshi Suzuki and the 1979 sci-fi horror film Alien, the gameplay of Nostromo involved a player attempting to escape a spaceship while avoiding the sight of an invisible alien, which only becomes visible when appearing in front of the player. The gameplay also involved limited resources, where the player needs to collect certain items to escape the ship, and if certain required items are not available in the warehouse, the player is unable to escape and eventually has no choice but to be killed by getting caught by the alien. Another early example is the 1982 Atari 2600 game Haunted House. Gameplay is typical of future survival horror titles, as it emphasizes puzzle-solving and evasive action, rather than violence. The game uses creatures commonly featured in horror fiction, such as bats and ghosts, each of which has unique behaviors. Gameplay also incorporates item collection and inventory management, along with areas that are inaccessible until the appropriate item is found. Because it has several features that have been seen in later survival horror games, some reviewers have retroactively classified this game as the first in the genre. Malcolm Evans' 3D Monster Maze, released for the Sinclair ZX81 in 1982, is a first-person game without a weapon. The player cannot fight the enemy, a Tyrannosaurus rex, so they must escape by finding the exit before the monster finds them. The game states its distance and awareness of the player, further raising tension. Edge stated it was about "fear, panic, terror, and facing an implacable, relentless foe who’s going to get you in the end" and considers it "the original survival horror game". Retro Gamer stated, "Survival horror may have been a phrase first coined by Resident Evil, but it could’ve easily applied to Malcolm Evans’ massive hit." 1982 saw the release of another early horror game, Bandai's Terror House, based on traditional Japanese horror, released as a Bandai LCD Solarpower handheld game. It was a solar-powered game with two LCD panels on top of each other that enabled impressive scene changes and early pseudo-3D effects. The amount of ambient light the game received also had an effect on the gaming experience. Another early example of a horror game released that year was Sega's arcade game Monster Bash, which introduced classic horror-movie monsters, including the likes of Dracula, Frankenstein's monster, and werewolves, helping to lay the foundations for future survival horror games. Its 1986 remake Ghost House had gameplay specifically designed around the horror theme, featuring haunted house stages full of traps and secrets, and enemies that were fast, powerful, and intimidating, forcing players to learn the intricacies of the house and rely on their wits. Another game that has been cited as one of the first horror-themed games is Quicksilva's 1983 maze game Ant Attack. The latter half of the 1980s saw the release of several other horror-themed games, including Konami's Castlevania in 1986, and Sega's Kenseiden and Namco's Splatterhouse in 1988. Despite the macabre imagery of these games, their gameplay did not diverge much from other action games at the time. Splatterhouse, in particular, is notable for its large amount of bloodshed and terror, despite being an arcade beat 'em up with very little emphasis on survival. Shiryou Sensen: War of the Dead, a 1987 title developed by Fun Factory and published by Victor Music Industries for the MSX2, PC-88, and PC Engine platforms, is considered the first true survival horror game by Kevin Gifford (of GamePro and 1UP) and John Szczepaniak (of Retro Gamer and The Escapist). Designed by Katsuya Iwamoto, the game was a horror action RPG revolving around a female SWAT member named Lila who rescues survivors in an isolated monster-infested town and brings them to safety in a church. The game features open environments like Dragon Quest and real-time side-view battles like Zelda II, although War of the Dead departed from other RPGs with its dark and creepy atmosphere, expressed through its storytelling, graphics, and music. The player character has limited ammunition, though they can punch or use a knife if they run out of ammo. The game also has a limited item inventory and crates to store items and introduces a day-night cycle; the player can sleep to recover health, and the game keeps track of how many days the player has survived. In 1988, War of the Dead Part 2 for the MSX2 and PC-88 abandoned the RPG elements of its predecessor, such as random encounters, and instead adopted action-adventure elements from Metal Gear while retaining the horror atmosphere of the original. However, the game often considered the first true survival horror, due to having the most influence on Resident Evil, was the 1989 release Sweet Home for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It was created by Tokuro Fujiwara, who would later go on to create Resident Evil. Sweet Home's gameplay focused on solving a variety of puzzles using items stored in a limited inventory while battling or escaping from horrifying creatures that could lead to permanent death for any of the characters, thus creating tension and an emphasis on survival. It was also the first attempt at creating a scary and frightening storyline within a game, mainly told through scattered diary entries left behind fifty years before the events of the game. Developed by Capcom, the game would become the main inspiration behind their later release, Resident Evil. Its horrific imagery prevented its release in the Western world, though its influence was felt through Resident Evil, which was originally intended to be a remake of the game. Some consider Sweet Home to be the first true survival horror game. In 1989, Electronic Arts published Project Firestart, developed by Dynamix. Unlike most other early games in the genre, it featured a science-fiction setting inspired by the film Alien but had gameplay that closely resembled later survival horror games in many ways. Travis Fahs considers it the first to achieve "the kind of fully formed vision of survival horror as we know it today," citing its balance of action and adventure, limited ammunition, weak weaponry, vulnerable main character, feeling of isolation, storytelling through journals, graphic violence, and use of dynamically triggered music - all of which are characteristic elements of later games in the survival horror genre. Despite this, it is not likely a direct influence on later games in the genre, and the similarities are largely an example of parallel thinking. In 1992, Infogrames released Alone in the Dark, which is considered a forefather of the survival horror genre and is sometimes called a survival horror game in retrospect. The game featured a lone protagonist against hordes of monsters and made use of traditional adventure game challenges, such as puzzle-solving and finding hidden keys to new areas. Graphically, Alone in the Dark used static prerendered camera views that were cinematic in nature. Although players had the ability to fight monsters as in action games, players also had the option to evade or block them. Many monsters could not be killed, and thus could only be dealt with using problem-solving abilities. The game also used the mechanism of notes and books as expository devices. Many of these elements were used in later survival horror games, and thus the game is credited with making the survival horror genre possible. In 1994, Riverhillsoft released Doctor Hauzer for the 3DO. Both the player character and the environment are rendered in polygons. The player can switch between three different perspectives: third-person, first-person, and overhead. In a departure from most survival horror games, Doctor Hauzer lacks any enemies; the main threat is instead the sentient house that the game takes place in, with the player having to survive the house's traps and solve puzzles. The sound of the player character's echoing footsteps changes depending on the surface. In 1995, WARP's horror adventure game D featured a first-person perspective, CGI full-motion video, gameplay that consisted entirely of puzzle-solving, and taboo content such as cannibalism. The same year, Human Entertainment's Clock Tower was a survival horror game that employed point-and-click graphic adventure gameplay and a deadly stalker known as Scissorman that chases players throughout the game. The game introduced stealth game elements and was unique for its lack of combat, with the player only able to run away or outsmart Scissorman in order to survive. It features up to nine different possible endings. The term "survival horror" was first used by Capcom to market their 1996 release, Resident Evil. The game began as a remake of Sweet Home, borrowing various elements such as the mansion setting, puzzles, "opening door" load screen, death animations, multiple endings depending on which characters survive, dual character paths, individual character skills, limited item management, story told through diary entries and frescoes, emphasis on atmosphere, and horrific imagery. Resident Evil also adopted several features seen in Alone in the Dark, notably its cinematic fixed camera angles and pre-rendered backdrops. The control scheme in Resident Evil also became a staple of the genre, and future titles imitated its challenge of rationing very limited resources and items. The game's commercial success is credited with helping the PlayStation become the dominant game console, and it also led to a series of Resident Evil films. Many games have tried to replicate the successful formula seen in Resident Evil, and every subsequent survival horror game has arguably taken a stance in relation to it. ### Golden age (1996–2004) The success of Resident Evil in 1996 was responsible for its formula being used as the basis for a wave of successful survival horror games, many of which were referred to as "Resident Evil clones." The golden age of survival horror started by Resident Evil reached its peak around the turn of the millennium with Silent Hill, followed by a general decline a few years later. Among the Resident Evil clones at the time, there were several survival horror titles that stood out, such as Clock Tower (1996) and Clock Tower II: The Struggle Within (1998) for the PlayStation. These Clock Tower games proved to be hits, capitalizing on the success of Resident Evil while staying true to the graphic-adventure gameplay of the original Clock Tower rather than following the Resident Evil formula. Another survival horror title that differentiated itself was Corpse Party (1996), an indie, psychological horror adventure game created using the RPG Maker engine. Much like Clock Tower and later Haunting Ground (2005), the player characters in Corpse Party lack any means of defending themselves; the game also featured up to 20 possible endings. However, the game would not be released in Western markets until 2011. Another game similar to the Clock Tower series of games and Haunting Ground, which was also inspired by Resident Evil's success is the Korean game known as White Day: A Labyrinth Named School (2001). "White Day" was reportedly so scary that the developers had to release several patches adding multiple difficulty options, and the game was originally slated for localization in 2004 but abruptly cancelled. Building on its previous success in Korea and interest, a remake was developed in 2015. Riverhillsoft's Overblood, released in 1996, is considered the first survival horror game to make use of a fully three-dimensional virtual environment. The Note in 1997 and Hellnight in 1998 experimented with using a real-time 3D first-person perspective rather than pre-rendered backgrounds like Resident Evil. In 1998, Capcom released the successful sequel Resident Evil 2, which series creator Shinji Mikami intended to tap into the classic notion of horror as "the ordinary made strange". Rather than setting the game in a creepy mansion no one would visit, he wanted to use familiar urban settings transformed by the chaos of a viral outbreak. The game sold over five million copies, proving the popularity of survival horror. That year saw the release of Square's Parasite Eve, which combined elements from Resident Evil with the RPG gameplay of Final Fantasy. It was followed by a more action-based sequel, Parasite Eve II, in 1999. In 1998, Galerians discarded the use of guns in favour of psychic powers that make it difficult to fight more than one enemy at a time. Also in 1998, Blue Stinger was a fully 3D survival horror game for the Dreamcast incorporating action elements from beat 'em up and shooter games. Konami's Silent Hill, released in 1999, drew heavily from Resident Evil while using real-time 3D environments in contrast to Resident Evil'''s pre-rendered graphics. Silent Hill in particular was praised for moving away from B movie horror elements to the psychological style seen in art house or Japanese horror films, due to the game's emphasis on a disturbing atmosphere rather than visceral horror. The game also featured stealth elements, making use of the fog to dodge enemies or turning off the flashlight to avoid detection. The original Silent Hill is considered one of the scariest games of all time, and the strong narrative from Silent Hill 2 in 2001 has made the Silent Hill series one of the most influential in the genre. According to IGN, the "golden age of survival horror came to a crescendo" with the release of Silent Hill. Fatal Frame from 2001 was a unique entry into the genre, as the player explores a mansion and takes photographs of ghosts in order to defeat them. The Fatal Frame series has since gained a reputation as one of the most distinctive in the genre, with the first game in the series credited as one of the best-written survival horror games ever made, by UGO Networks. Meanwhile, Capcom incorporated shooter elements into several survival horror titles, such as 2000's Resident Evil Survivor which used both light gun shooter and first-person shooter elements, and 2003's Resident Evil: Dead Aim which used light gun and third-person shooter elements. Western developers began to return to the survival horror formula. The Thing from 2002 has been called a survival horror game, although it is distinct from other titles in the genre due to its emphasis on action, and the challenge of holding a team together. The 2004 title Doom 3 is sometimes categorized as survival horror, although it is considered an Americanized take on the genre due to the player's ability to directly confront monsters with weaponry. Thus, it is usually considered a first-person shooter with survival horror elements. Regardless, the genre's increased popularity led Western developers to incorporate horror elements into action games, rather than follow the Japanese survival style. Overall, the traditional survival horror genre continued to be dominated by Japanese designers and aesthetics. 2002's Clock Tower 3 eschewed the graphic adventure game formula seen in the original Clock Tower, and embraced full 3D survival horror gameplay. In 2003, Resident Evil Outbreak introduced a new gameplay element to the genre: online multiplayer and cooperative gameplay. Sony employed Silent Hill director Keiichiro Toyama to develop Siren. The game was released in 2004, and added unprecedented challenge to the genre by making the player mostly defenseless, thus making it vital to learn the enemy's patrol routes and hide from them. However, reviewers eventually criticized the traditional Japanese survival horror formula for becoming stagnant. As the console market drifted towards Western-style action games, players became impatient with the limited resources and cumbersome controls seen in Japanese titles such as Resident Evil – Code: Veronica and Silent Hill 4: The Room. ### Transformation (2005–present) In 2005, Resident Evil 4 attempted to redefine the genre by emphasizing reflexes and precision aiming, broadening the gameplay with elements from the wider action genre. Its ambitions paid off, earning the title several Game of the Year awards for 2005, and the top rank on IGN's Readers' Picks Top 99 Games list. However, this also led some reviewers to suggest that the Resident Evil series had abandoned the survival horror genre, by demolishing the genre conventions that it had established. Other major survival horror series followed suit by developing their combat systems to feature more action, such as Silent Hill: Homecoming, and the 2008 version of Alone in the Dark. These changes were part of an overall trend among console games to shift towards visceral action gameplay. These changes in gameplay have led some purists to suggest that the genre has deteriorated into the conventions of other action games. Jim Sterling suggests that the genre lost its core gameplay when it improved the combat interface, thus shifting the gameplay away from hiding and running towards direct combat. Leigh Alexander argues that this represents a shift towards more Western horror aesthetics, which emphasize action and gore rather than the psychological experience of Japanese horror. The original genre has persisted in one form or another. The 2005 release of F.E.A.R. was praised for both its atmospheric tension and fast action, successfully combining Japanese horror with cinematic action, while Dead Space from 2008 brought survival horror to a science fiction setting. However, critics argue that these titles represent the continuing trend away from pure survival horror and towards general action. The release of Left 4 Dead in 2008 helped popularize cooperative multiplayer among survival horror games, although it is mostly a first-person shooter at its core. Meanwhile, the Fatal Frame series has remained true to the roots of the genre, even as Fatal Frame IV transitioned from the use of fixed cameras to an over-the-shoulder viewpoint. Also in 2009, Silent Hill made a transition to an over-the-shoulder viewpoint in Silent Hill: Shattered Memories. This Wii effort was, however, considered by most reviewers as a return to form for the series due to several developmental decisions taken by Climax Studios. This included the decision to openly break the fourth wall by psychologically profiling the player, and the decision to remove any weapons from the game, forcing the player to run whenever they see an enemy. Examples of independent survival horror games are the Penumbra series and Amnesia: The Dark Descent by Frictional Games, Nightfall: Escape by Zeenoh, Cry of Fear by Team Psykskallar and Slender: The Eight Pages, all of which were praised for creating a horrific setting and atmosphere without the overuse of violence or gore. In 2010, the cult game Deadly Premonition by Access Games was notable for introducing open world nonlinear gameplay and a comedy horror theme to the genre. Five Nights at Freddy's effectively incorporated jump scares into the genre with the first game in the series releasing in 2014. Overall, game developers have continued to make and release survival horror games, and the genre continues to grow among independent video game developers. The Last of Us, released in 2013 by Naughty Dog, incorporated many survival horror elements into a third-person action-adventure game. Set twenty years after a pandemic plague, the player must use scarce ammo and distraction tactics to evade or kill malformed humans infected by a brain parasite, as well as dangerous survivalists. This was followed by a sequel in 2020. Shinji Mikami, the creator of the Resident Evil franchise, released his new survival horror game The Evil Within, in 2014. Mikami stated that his goal was to bring survival horror back to its roots as he was disappointed by recent survival horror games for having too much action. That same year, Alien: Isolation, developed by Creative Assembly and based on the Alien science fiction horror film series, was released. The game updated the concept of a single un-killable villain chasing the protagonist throughout most of the game, requiring the player to use stealth in order to survive. In 2015, Until Dawn, developed by Supermassive Games, was published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 4. The game is an interactive drama in which the player controls multiple characters and features a butterfly effect system in which the player's choices can change the story and may dictate who survives the night. All playable characters can survive or die, depending on the choices made. Players explore the environment from a third-person perspective and find clues that may help solve the mystery. Multiplayer asymmetrical survival horror games gained popularity as well. Dead by Daylight, released in 2016, features one player taking on the role of a killer and four others play as survivors. The game is also notable for featuring multiple characters from other survival horror franchises, such as Resident Evil and Silent Hill. Other examples which use similar one versus four gameplay include Friday the 13th: The Game, VHS, Evil Dead: The Game, and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre. The Resident Evil series abandoned its action-oriented direction beginning with 2017's Resident Evil 7: Biohazard. The game utilizes a first-person perspective and encourages resource management and puzzle-solving, more akin to earlier entries in the franchise. Many of these earlier entries were also remade with modern graphics while retaining their survival horror aspects with the remakes of Resident Evil 2, Resident Evil 3, and Resident Evil 4. The success of the Resident Evil 2 remake sparked a new trend of relaunching classic survival horror games, as evidenced by the remakes of Dead Space, Alone in the Dark and Silent Hill 2. It also ignited new interest in horror-centric games with less emphasis on action such as The Callisto Protocol and Alan Wake II''. ## See also - List of horror video games - Survival game

Yoga mat

Exercise mat, mainly for yoga as exercise

Yoga mats are specially fabricated mats used to prevent hands and feet slipping during asana practice in modern yoga as exercise. An early variety made of rubber carpet underlay, pioneered by the yoga teacher Angela Farmer in 1982, was called a sticky mat. Before modern times, meditative yoga and hatha yoga were practised on bare ground, sometimes with a deer or tiger skin rug. Modern mats suitable for energetic forms of yoga are made of plastic, rubber, and sometimes other materials including hessian and cork, trading off cost, comfort, grip, and weight. The yoga mat has been called "One of the most ubiquitous symbols of yoga's commercialization". ## History ### In ancient India In ancient times, meditational yoga was practised in India on kusha grass, on hard earth without any cover, or on a rug of deer or tiger skin, as specified in the Bhagavadgita and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad as suitable for attaining enlightenment. > Seated in an easy posture, on a (deer or tiger) skin, placed on Kusha grass, worshipping Ganapati with fruits and sweetmeats, placing the right palm on the left, holding the throat and head in the same line, the lips closed and firm, facing the east or the north, the eyes fixed on the tip of the nose, avoiding too much food or fasting, the Nâdis should be purified, without which the practice will be fruitless. ### Origin of the modern yoga mat With yoga's introduction in the West, many practitioners used towels or cotton mats on wooden floors. Feet tended to skid on these surfaces, requiring strength just to stand still in a pose like Trikonasana. In 1982, while teaching yoga in Germany, Angela Farmer used carpet underlay cut to towel size during yoga classes; she returned home to London with the material. Angela's father, Richard Farmer, contacted the German padding manufacturer and became the first retailer of "sticky mats". The first, purpose-made yoga mat was manufactured and sold by Hugger Mugger Yoga Products in the 1990s; the company initially imported Farmer-style mats, but finding that they began to crumble with use, developed their own more robust alternative. ## Types Yoga mats vary in thickness, composition, surface texture, "stickiness" or grip, and weight, as well as price. They are normally around 6 feet (180 cm) long and have a width of 2 feet (61 cm). Yoga mats range in thickness from lightweight 'travel' style at 1⁄16 inch (2 mm) to 1⁄8 inch (3 mm) (standard), and up to 1⁄4 inch (6 mm) for either high performance mats or soft mats for yoga therapy. Mats are available in many colours and patterns. "Alignment mats" are printed with guides to proper alignment, intended to help practitioners to place their feet the right distance apart and accurately in line with each other. Others are printed with images. Some travel mats can be folded into a small square. The first commercially produced "sticky" yoga mats were made from PVC; they have a smooth surface, and tend to be cheaper. More recently, some supposedly "eco-friendly" mats are being made from natural jute, organic cotton, and rubber. PVC mats are the spongiest, resulting in more "give" when stepped on; fibre mats such as cotton and jute are the firmest. Jute mats are the roughest; "sticky" PVC mats give good grip, but some of the modern textured mats in other materials also grip well. Smooth mats provide the most grip, so are suitable for the more energetic styles such as hot yoga and Ashtanga vinyasa yoga; the trade-off is that they may be less comfortable and appear dirty more quickly. Mats with more padding are useful for styles such as yin yoga where poses are held for longer periods. Travel mats are thinner and lighter, but provide less padding. Some yoga practices in Scandinavia use cotton futon mats. They consist of a mattress, usually with pockets of cotton batting, sometimes with wool or polyester-cotton mixes, and a washable cover. They give good cushioning and grip. However, futons are much heavier than other mats, weighing as much as 4.7 kg. Yoga Journal asked five yoga professionals for their views on yoga mats. They varied widely in their brand preferences, some choosing the traditional "sticky" type, but they agreed that mats must not be slippery. A hessian mat reviewed by The Independent gave good grip and was both comfortable and attractive; its rubber underside made it stable on any surface, but somewhat heavy; a cork mat provided both good grip and an exceptionally warm surface with a pleasant texture, and the property of being to some degree self-cleaning. The best grip was given by a smooth latex mat; in the review's opinion, its 4 mm thickness both gave enough padding for yin yoga, and the stability for energetic yoga styles. The review noted that a circular mat was at first unfamiliar, but helpful for personal practice of poses such as Prasārita Pādottānāsana (wide stance forward bend) and sequences where a rectangular mat would have to be turned through 90 degrees at intervals; it was also ideal for demonstrating asanas to a class. : : \* Comfort and weight depend on thickness; people choose thinner mats for portability, or thicker ones for comfort. : : ^\# Environmental impact of these products depends on how they are grown; impact will be low if they are grown with low usage of pesticides, or in the case of rubber, if from suitably certified forests. ## In popular culture The yoga mat has become the definitive symbol of modern yoga as exercise. The journalist Ann Louise Bardach wrote in The New York Times in 2011 that "precious few of the estimated 16 million supple, spandex-clad yoginis in the United States, who sustain an annual \$6 billion industry, seem to have a clue that they owe their yoga mats to Vivekananda." The yoga scholar Andrea Jain wrote in The Washington Post that "One of the most ubiquitous symbols of yoga's commercialization is the mat, which many consider a necessity to prevent slipping, to mark territory in crowded classes or to create a ritual space." She noted that "committed adherents" could pay over \$100 for a luxury mat. The yoga scholar Noora-Helena Korpelainen agreed that the yoga mat had a ritual function: every Ashtanga Yoga session "starts with opening a yoga mat, taking a straight standing pose (samastitiḥ) and chanting a mantra. ... The practice ends with a mantra, relaxation, and rolling up the mat." ## See also - Yoga in advertising - Yoga brick - Yoga pants - Yoga using props

Hilston Park

Grade II listed building in Skenfrith, UK

Hilston Park is a country house and estate between the villages of Newcastle and Skenfrith in Monmouthshire, Wales, close to the border with Herefordshire, England. The house and park are in the Monnow valley, beside the B4347 road, 7.9 miles (12.7 km) by road northwest of Monmouth and just over 1 mile (1.6 km) southwest of Skenfrith. The Palladian mansion, built in 1838 for Bristolian banker George Cave, is a Grade II\* listed building, the grounds and landscape park are registered on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales and the park's flower meadow is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The park includes an early 20th century lodge at each of the two entrance gates; a ruined coach house; a lake, boathouse, and pond; several streams, gardens, and wooded areas; and Hilston Tower, a late 18th-century folly of red sandstone in the grounds's northeastern corner. The house served as a residential outdoor education centre, operated by Gwent Outdoor Centres and supported by the local authorities of Newport, Torfaen, Blaenau Gwent and Monmouthshire until 2019. In 2020, the councils decided to consolidate their outdoor education facilities on a single site, and Hilston Park was deemed surplus to requirements. The house was sold at auction in 2021. ## History Hilston House was for many years the principal estate and mansion in the parish of St. Maughans. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was the residence of the Needham family, although Henry Milbourne, an important 17th century magistrate of the county, is also reported to have lived here at one time. Sebastian Needham is said to have been buried at Skenfrith, on 26 March 1723, having fathered nine children. The house remained in the family, who were Catholic, for four generations. Following this stable period of ownership, accounting for about a century, the estate then changed hands a considerable number of times within the next 70 years. It was eventually sold by John Needham, a barrister of Gray's Inn, to Sir William Pilkington when Needham moved to Somerset. Pilkington sold it to James Jones of the Graig, who sold it to Sir Robert Brownrigg, G.C.B. a distinguished officer in the Peninsular War. He died on 27 May 1833, aged 76 years and his monument may be seen on the south wall of St. Maughan's Church. After his death the house was sold to Thomas Coates of Lancashire. Shortly afterwards, on 12 September 1838, the house was destroyed by fire. It was then sold to George Cave, a banker of Bristol, who was responsible for building a new Palladian mansion which remains today. He sold it to Alfred Crawshay, who sold it to John Hamilton who finally completed the building. His son, Captain Pryce Hamilton, brother to Alice Mary Sinclair, seems to have added considerably to the Hilston Estate and it appears that he also purchased Norton Court, Skenfrith from Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, and bought Skenfrith Mill and Lower Dyffryn House, Grosmont around 1870. Pryce Hamilton sold Hilston House in about 1873 to James Graham, High Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1881, who passed the house on to Douglas William Graham, who was living at Hilston in 1902, when the hall was panelled with the oak from the hall of the Lower Duffryn. Graham was also responsible for other improvements, the stone and brick buildings at Home Farm, the Lodges, New Cottages and the reservoir. It was then owned for some time by the Lawley family, who had made their fortune in shipping and cotton in Manchester. In the 1930s, Hilston Park was the residence of Edmund Henry Bevan (High Sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1912), whose riches were by inheritance from the Portland cement made at Bevan Works in Northfleet, Kent. He married Joan Mary Conyers Norton, the eldest daughter of the 5th Baron Grantley, in the 1930s. It was purchased by T. E. Davies in the 1940s, who sold the house and estate on 17 October 1947. In the 1950s, the house was converted to a school. It became an outdoor education centre in 1971. It continued as a residential centre, operated since 1996 by Gwent Outdoor Education Service, a joint service supported by the four local authorities of Blaenau Gwent, Monmouthshire, Newport and Torfaen until 2019. In 2020, cost pressures led the councils to decide to consolidate their outward bound activities at a single site near Cwmbran, and Hilston Park was deemed surplus to requirements. It was sold at auction in March 2021. ## Architecture and layout ### Grounds #### Gardens and lodges Hilston House, which is situated in the western half of the park, has two entrances. The south drive "skirts the forecourt to the N and sweeps round southwards past the lake and straight to the B4347", and the main drive in tarmac, from the northwest, "drive winds through a wooded area to a level forecourt of grass with a rectangular tarmac area in front of the main entrance to the house." Two early 20th century lodges are contained on the estate, one at the northern end of the front drive and the other to the south, on the B4347. One of these, Lower Dyffryn, is an E-shaped building of Early Tudor style, with a slate roof, three gables, and a projecting chimney-breast. The coach-house on the northeastern side of the drive was largely demolished in 1972; all that remains is its rear and side walls. In the early 1920s, the estate was described as being 1,050 acres (420 ha), and that there were 6 miles (9.7 km) of fishing along the River Monnow. The park's flower meadow is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. Cadw cites the reason for it being listed as an SSSI in 1990 as "19th-century park and garden, with some well preserved features, including ornamental lake and folly tower". Much of the park is under agricultural cultivation, and several streams arising from springs, mainly in the western side of the park flow through and enter the River Monnow. To the southeast of the house is an Italian rose garden which contains a circular stone pool and fountain. To the northeast of the house is a large walled kitchen garden, rectangular in shape, and framed by red brick walls, mostly 3 metres (9.8 ft) in height, but 2.2 metres (7 ft 3 in) on the eastern side and 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) to the east of the door on the southern side. The kitchen garden is orientated in a southwest–northeast direction, with a buttressed northern wall, two entrances on the western side, and one on each of the northern, eastern and southern walls. In the summer months it is used as a caravan park. The area to the north of the kitchen garden contains mainly ruined sheds and glasshouses and was wildly overgrown at the time of its surveying in December 1990. The gardens and pleasure grounds surrounding the house, and the wider landscape park, are designated Grade II on the Cadw/ICOMOS Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales. #### Lake A lake and silted artificial pond is situated to the southwest of the house, separated by a belt of woodland consisting of mainly deciduous, coniferous trees and shrubs, and also pines, cypresses, monkey puzzle trees, copper beeches, yews and laurel trees. The lake, roughly 100 metres (330 ft) at longest from north to south and roughly 60 metres (200 ft) at its widest point, is cited by Cadw to be "fed by a spring at its [north] end, and dammed at its [south] end by a massive earthen dam across the valley floor." The lake contains a "kidney-shaped island", framed by a sloping stone revetment wall, and a similar smaller island nearer the eastern shore. On the eastern side of the lake is a boathouse and grotto. The grotto is situated in the middle of a revetment wall of about 2 metres high built of large irregularly placed stones, and is characterised as a semi-circular alcove, 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) in height, 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) in depth and 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) in width. #### Hilston Tower There is also a woodland, a former Forestry Commission plantation, planted around 1960 in the north-eastern corner of the park on a small hill, which contains a circular folly tower, of three storeys, in the centre. The tower, built from red sandstone, is believed to date to the late 18th century. The northern side is considerably more eroded by the weather than the southern side. The tower is marginally wider at the base and has no internal floor structure, but contains holes for floor joists and stair treads. There are four windows on the ground floors and narrower windows higher up. ### House Much work was done on the house in the expectation of a visit by George IV, which never happened. The main building has been described as "a major early Victorian stuccoed classical mansion, about which little is known". The two-storeyed north front features nine bays, the outermost ones slightly recessed, with a central pedimented porte-cochère of four massive Ionic columns. The southeast front has a single-storey portico running the length of the front, which leads to a conservatory at the northeast end of the house. The architect is not known. The building was extended on its eastern side and its interior remodelled, around 1912, when a large ballroom in the Arts and Crafts style, designed by Arthur Grove was added. This features elaborate plasterwork and decoration in the form of signs of the zodiac. It became a Grade II\* listed building on 5 January 1952.

The Lion, the Fox & the Eagle

Book by Carol Off

The Lion, the Fox & the Eagle: A Story of Generals and Justice in Rwanda and Yugoslavia is a non-fiction book by Canadian journalist Carol Off. The hardcover edition was published in November 2000 by Random House Canada. The writing was favourably received and the book was short-listed for the Shaughnessy Cohen Award for Political Writing. With numerous interviews and extensive research behind it, the book presents biographies of three Canadians in United Nations roles in the 1990s: Roméo Dallaire (the "lion"), Lewis MacKenzie (the "fox"), and Louise Arbour (the "eagle"). The book praises Dallaire's commitment to his peacekeeping mission, but is critical of MacKenzie, who is depicted as being ignorant of the Bosnian political situation. In response to Off's portrayal of him, MacKenzie said he would consider suing for libel, but never did. The book praises Arbour's efforts at building the legitimacy of International Criminal Tribunals and her efforts in indicting alleged war criminals from the massacres in Rwanda and Bosnia. Through these biographies, the book addresses themes of morality and UN effectiveness. ## Background Canadian Broadcasting Corporation journalist Carol Off began research to write a biography of Louise Arbour. Following input from fellow journalist and author Stevie Cameron, she broadened the book's scope to include profiles of Roméo Dallaire and Lewis MacKenzie. Along with her research assistant Sian Cansfield, they compiled twenty binders of research and conducted over a hundred interviews, including with the three subjects. For the historical background on Rwanda, she consulted the works of Gérard Prunier, Philip Gourevitch, Alison Des Forges, and the Human Rights Watch. For background on the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, she consulted, amongst others, the works of Noel Malcolm, David Rieff, Roy Gutman. Living in Toronto with husband Linden MacIntyre, the 45-year-old author wrote the book in the spring and summer of 2000. ## Content Roméo Dallaire, from October 1993 to August 1994, served as the Force Commander for the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda. In January 1994 he passed along information to the UN from a Hutu informant about a planned extermination of Tutsi citizens and a massacre of Belgian peacekeepers. After the UN denied him permission to protect the informant, or seize any weapons, Dallaire made a plea to the Canadian government who also denied him any assistance. Dallaire continued his pleas to the UN after the genocide began and devised a plans to end the violence. The UN ordered the peacekeepers to withdraw and not interfere. Dallaire, believing the order unethical and unlawful, disobeyed and with 450 Ghanaian soldiers, protected Tutsi hideouts. He received help from non-governmental organizations, foreign journalists, and the Canadian government. With the media reporting on the massacre, the UN authorized 5,500 troops to protect civilians. Dallaire was denied permission to arrest fleeing Hutu leaders. In August Dallaire asked to be replaced after he recognized signs of posttraumatic stress disorder. Once back in Canada, he became appalled at how little the general public knew, and how much the world leaders knew, of what happened. In the aftermath, blame was assigned to various people, including Dallaire, but Off argues that blame lies with the UN and its Security Council who refused to act when called upon. Lewis MacKenzie, in 1992, served in the Sarajevo division of United Nations Protection Force which was mandated to keep the peace in Croatia. Off describes MacKenzie as being indifferent as hostilities began in Sarajevo because his mandate did not include intervention in Bosnian affairs. MacKenzie's distrust of all participants in the hostilities grew following a botched prisoner exchange, the Breadline Massacre, and broken ceasefire arrangements. MacKenzie helped negotiate UN control of the Sarajevo International Airport which allowed humanitarian shipments. MacKenzie gave many media interviews but Off criticizes him for portraying both the Serbs and the Bosnians as aggressors and recommending against intervention. Louise Arbour began her job as Chief Prosecutor of war crimes at the UN in October 1996. She was unexpectedly selected by her predecessor, Richard Goldstone, as he believed she processed the toughness to pursue war crime suspects and the bureaucratic and diplomatic skills to function at the UN. At the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, contrary to Goldstone's tactic of publicizing indictments, which allowed the accused to make their arrest a risk to the ceasefire, Arbour kept hers sealed allowing for surprise arrests. In Rwanda she achieved several high-profile prosecutions, including the first conviction for rape as a war crime. By time she left in Fall 1999, her office had Slobodan Milošević, a head of state, indicted and arrested. ## Style The book is divided into four sections: one for each biography and one to provide background context for the conflicts in Rwanda and Bosnia. There are also sections entitled Introduction, Conclusion, Acknowledgments, Source Notes, and Index. The three biographies of the Canadians focus on their involvement in international conflicts through the United Nations, but also includes aspects of their backgrounds and follow events after they leave the UN. In the profiles Off avoids describing places and events but provides a chapter to "a Grapes of Wrath-style description of her two locales". The biographies compare and contrast the strategy and effect of each person's approach to their mission. One reviewer compared the profiles of Dallaire and MacKenzie to Suetonius's biographies of Athenian generals Nicias and Alcibiades. Suetonius portrayed Nicias as honourable, moderate, and effective but over-shadowed by the more vocal and polarizing Alcibiades. Likewise, Off portrayed Dallaire as the more honourable commander but over-shadowed by the more media savvy and callous MacKenzie. Off's focus on moral choices was called "a feminist approach" by several members of the Department of National Defence. In the Introduction, Off explains the animal metaphors. Roméo Dallaire is the 'lion' because he acted courageously with an appearance of control and confidence. Lewis MacKenzie compared to a 'fox' because while he made a brave and dramatic defense of the airport, and was trusted by outside observers, his actions in recommending against intervention were based on the cunning logic that all sides were, at least, partly responsible for the conflict. Louise Arbour is portrayed as the 'eagle' for her pursuit of justice and her use of surprise SWAT-like arrests. ## Themes Reviewers identified two themes: morality and the UN effectiveness. Off characterized Dallaire and Arbour as morally correct and MacKenzie morally wrong. In Rwanda, Dallaire lobbied the UN to intervene to stop the genocide. In Yugoslavia, MacKenzie is accused of being an apologist for the Serbs. In an interview Off admitted that she would prefer MacKenzie to be her son's commander but would want Dallaire if her people were being attacked because one puts his soldiers before the mission and the other the mission before the soldiers. She identifies the UN as the book's villain and criticizes the UN's practise of moral equivalency that treats both sides equally even though one side is clearly dominant and brutally oppressive. It results in the requirement of its personnel to remain neutral but Off questions how a peacekeeper can remain neutral while watching people being killed. The book treats this as a reality of international relations, which places precedence on state sovereignty over human rights, and a factor in making the UN slow, ineffectual, and inappropriately bureaucratic. She notes that some peacekeepers cope by demonizing all sides which helps diminish the sense of impotence in being unable to intervene. ## Publication and Reception Random House Canada published the hardcover in November 2000. An excerpt was published in the weekly general interest magazine Saturday Night. It appeared on Maclean's best-seller list for 4 weeks, peaking at \#3. A Random House imprint, Vintage Canada, published the trade paperback a year later. The Writers' Trust of Canada short-listed the book for its 2000 Shaughnessy Cohen Award for Political Writing. Reviewers described Off's writing as strong, clear, and sometimes elegant. Reviewing for the Quill & Quire, Derek Weiler wrote that the book's strength is its "informative outlines of [the] conflicts, with gripping and readable summary enhanced by evocative scene-setting." Weiler and other reviewers found the chapters on Arbour, where the narrative slackens, to be the weakest part of the book. While Arbour was pleased with her profile, MacKenzie was not. Reviewers noted Off's critical portrayal of MacKenzie as being excessive and MacKenzie considered suing Off for libel. Instead MacKenzie wrote a response in The Globe and Mail presenting his point of view concerning the mission and events. In 2008 he wrote an autobiography with a chapter dedicated to addressing the criticism he received as a result of Off's book. While Off condemns MacKenzie for not learning the conflict's history and telling American audiences that both sides were to blame for the conflict, MacKenzie defends himself by stating it was international decision-making, not his opinions, that led the UN to not intervene.

Sleepy Hollow Country Club

Historic country club in Briarcliff Manor, New York, USA

Sleepy Hollow Country Club is a historic country club in Scarborough-on-Hudson in Briarcliff Manor, New York. The club was founded in 1911, and its clubhouse was known as Woodlea, a 140-room Vanderbilt mansion owned by Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard and his wife Margaret Louisa Vanderbilt Shepard. It was built in 1892–95 at a cost of \$2 million (\$ in ) and was designed by the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White; the estate became a contributing property to the Scarborough Historic District (on the National Register of Historic Places) in 1984. Woodlea's exterior was designed in an Italian Renaissance Revival style, incorporating Beaux-Arts details. The building's facades are composed primarily of buff-colored Italian brick. The south and west facades are symmetrical, but the overall plan of the house is not. The house's west facade is the longest and most ornate, and has a view of the Hudson River from its west-facing windows and adjoining terrace. The main entrance is on the building's south, directly approached from the south drive. The interior also has significant features, including marble fireplaces, coffered ceilings, and extensive carved wood and plaster detail. The house has between 65,000 and 70,000 square feet (6,039 and 6,503 m²) of interior space, making it one of the largest privately owned houses in the United States. ## Club The club currently has 338 acres (0.5 sq mi) and a 27-hole golf course with tree-limb footbridges. Facilities include the main clubhouse, a pool complex, ten Har-Tru tennis courts, four aluminum heated platform tennis courts, four squash courts, eighteen guest rooms, skeet and trap areas, a 45-horse boarding facility, twenty paddocks, a large indoor riding arena, pro shops for golf and paddle sports, a fitness complex, the golf course and practice range (non-contributing), outdoor riding rings, stables, and a carriage house. Youth activities include golf, tennis, squash and riding. The clubhouse has three dining rooms, and altogether the club can hold 400 guests. The club currently has 570 members, and a staff consisting of 60 year-round employees and 200 during the height of the season. The stables have a tack room, fifty stalls, and two indoor arenas, and they host the Sleepy Hollow Stable and Riding Academy. The club's gross revenue is \$12 million; of it, \$2.5 million is from food and beverage sales. The club property surrounds Saint Mary's Episcopal Church on three sides and slopes upwards east from U.S. Route 9. The clubhouse, which is open through every season of the year, sits on a wide central plateau. Notable early members included George G. Haven, V. Everit Macy, George W. Perkins, Moses Taylor, Oakleigh Thorne, and Frank Vanderlip; notable current members include Bill Murray, James Patterson, and several members of the Rockefeller family. ## History ### Name Sleepy Hollow Country Club, founded in 1911, predates the 1996 renaming of the neighboring village of North Tarrytown to Sleepy Hollow. The club is named after its location in the river valley of the Pocantico River, a river which was once called Slapershaven ("sleepers' harbor" in Dutch); the Dutch name later grew to apply to the valley. Today, as a geographic term, "Sleepy Hollow" refers only to the incorporated village. ### 19th century Sleepy Hollow's clubhouse was once a private residence named Woodlea. The mansion retained the name of a former house of J. Butler Wright (son of Benjamin Wright), who lived there and called it Woodlea; it dates to around 1806. Wright's Victorian house, of painted brick with porches and a high tower on one end, was later renamed the Villa. The current property was originally made up of various farms. Colonel Elliott Fitch Shepard came to the Briarcliff area in the early 1890s, and having purchased the house and its 500-acre (0.8 sq mi) property, ordered construction of the existing house and improvements to the grounds. Construction on the mansion began in 1892, and it was completed in 1895. In 1892 Shepard ordered the construction of Scarborough's first dock (at the present Scarborough Park) to allow construction materials to be shipped to his property. Shepard died in 1893, leaving his wife Margaret to oversee the completion of Woodlea. After his death, Margaret lived there only during spring and autumn, with less frequent trips as time went on. In November 1896, Maria Louisa Kissam (Margaret's mother and widow of William Henry Vanderbilt) died in the house. Maria's sister and Margaret called for a Scarborough doctor who was unable to assist her. On September 11, 1906, New York businessman Archibald S. White purchased the then-250-acre (100 ha) property from Mrs. Shepard for between \$1 and 1.5 million. He bought it as a present for his wife Olive Celeste Moore White; together they lived on the property. The house and property's worth at the time was estimated between \$4 and 6 million, and it was often said that its owners didn't know how much money had been spent constructing and improving the estate. Around 1910, Frank Vanderlip and William Rockefeller purchased the estate. Vanderlip thought of it as too big of a bargain to pass up – it was offered for only \$165,000 (\$ in ). Narcissa Vanderlip thought the house too large and grand to live in, and so the Vanderlip family remained in their nearby property of Beechwood. ### 20th century to the present The two men assembled a board of directors to form a country club, including future Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV, coal baron Edward Julius Berwind, cotillion leaders Elisha Dyer and Lispenard Stewart, and sportsmen W. Averell Harriman, Cornelius Vanderbilt III, and Harrison A. Williams. The country club was incorporated on May 11, 1911, with 600 members. The directors' first meeting took place at Vanderlip's office at 55 Wall St., the National City Bank Building (Vanderlip was the president of the bank at the time). Initiation and yearly dues were each \$100 (\$ in ). For the first few years, the club rented Woodlea for \$25,000 (\$ in ) a year, and in 1912 the club purchased the property from Vanderlip and Rockefeller for \$350,000 (\$ in ). The club then constructed the golf course in close harmony to the existing lawns, and also built an outdoor garden theater with clipped cedars and a 16th-century Italian portal. The club ended up paying \$310,000 for the land and house, and spent another \$100,000 on improvements. The club spent four years, starting in 1910, rearranging the house's kitchen, pantries, and service wing to house and serve more people, and in renovating one of the stables into a garage. The club also constructed more tennis courts and a toboggan slide for use in the winter. The grounds and Italian garden had been designed by the sons of Frederick Law Olmsted from 1895 to 1901, including long stretches of lawns and using American and foreign trees; the club had Charles B. Macdonald and Seth Raynor design the first golf course in 1911, and A. W. Tillinghast designed an update in 1935, succeeded by Gil Hanse's redesign from 18 to 27 holes around 2008. In 1916, golf course architect Devereux Emmet and his son Devereux Emmet Jr. won the father-son tournament at Sleepy Hollow Country Club. This prompted the United States Golf Association to institute the "architects rule" that barred golf course architects from competing as amateurs in tournaments. In 1917 the club had 1,000 members, and its president was Frank Vanderlip. In June of that year, William Rockefeller purchased 387 acres (0.6 sq mi) for the club, bringing its area to 480 acres (0.8 sq mi) (the house was originally sold with only 93 acres (0.1 sq mi)). Rockefeller spent \$600,000 (\$ in ), making it the largest single real estate transaction in the county. The purchases allowed for the construction of about 40 houses on the club property. New facilities were built in the 1920s, including a manager's house, skeet house, squash house, indoor riding ring, and swimming pool. The club had operated at a loss from the beginning, and after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, club members were not successful in maintaining their wealth, and membership declined. Cuts were made – horses were sold, Woodlea was closed except for special occasions, and the golf house became the primary clubhouse. 5-acre (0.008 sq mi) building lots north of Woodlea were sold to members. In 1933, notable amateur golfer Bobby Jones played at the course. The club was also not successful during World War II and later; in 1950 a member could stay overnight at Woodlea for \$5 (\$ in ), and for less in the golf house. The first formal dance that year also cost \$5 a person. In 1961, in time for the club's 50th anniversary, Woodlea was redecorated with more modern fabrics, warm gold and forest green carpets, dropped lighting, and some lowered ceilings. Original to the house, and occupying its northwest terrace against its service wing, was an Italian garden with vine-clad pergolas on each side, symmetrical gravel paths, marble benches, and long stone balustrades, giving it characteristics of a hanging garden. The garden was below the house's first floor, and was built against the hillside, occupying a portion of the slope that falls far below it. The lower walls of the house were screened with a row of large cedars planted on the highest part of the garden. The garden formed an immense rectangular space, and on the four sides of the terrace there were pergolas thickly overgrown with vines. In the center was a pool and a carved stone fountain imported from Rome. Walks and beds of flowers and shrubbery occupied the rest, visible from the west-facing windows of the house. The garden was demolished in the 1960s, as was the golf house (in 1967). In the garden's location and replacing the use of the golf house, a wing was added to the clubhouse, constructed on the northeast terrace and completed in 1962. The building holds a pro shop, dining facilities, and locker rooms. The structure was designed to be spacious and convenient and not be noticeable from the grounds below, although from Woodlea, the sight of the tar roof and ventilators was noted to be worse than the prior standing gardens. The club hosted the NYNEX Commemorative from 1986 to 1993. In 1989, professional golfer Bob Charles set a current record when he won the tournament. In 2002, the club hosted the U.S. Women's Amateur Golf Championship. In 2014 the country club expanded and renovated the snack bar building, renovated the locker room building exterior, constructed a large array of solar panels on the roof of the locker room and dining facility building, and performed other renovations. Replacing the golf house's location, a pool facility and tennis shop was constructed in 1968. ## Architecture ### Woodlea The architect of Woodlea is variously stated as McKim, Mead & White, and Stanford White, although according to William Mitchell Kendall in his 1920 list of the firm's works, he attributes the house's design to McKim, Mead & White, with W. R. Mead as the supervising architect. Mead was rarely involved in architectural design in the partnership, making his design of Woodlea and another Vanderbilt house, Florham, unusual. He was related to Shepard, as Mead's sister was married to Shepard's brother. #### Exterior Woodlea's exterior was designed in an Italian Renaissance Revival style. The house is said to have been modeled after Kimberley Hall in Kimberley, Norfolk. Its classical devices of 18th-century English architecture include urns, pediments, columns, and balusters. The house also is a full-blown expression of the American Renaissance. Woodlea incorporates characteristics of the Beaux-Arts style of architecture – the exterior dictates the use of the interior, with family and guest rooms on the third floor. At the north end of the house, situated farthest from the main entrance, and of a size larger than most houses, is the service wing, which contains the servant quarters. Compared to the rest of the house, this wing has lower ceilings, smaller windows, and less exterior trim. In the early 1900s, the wing was clad in ivy. Woodlea is constructed of buff-colored pressed Italian brick with pale limestone trim. It is three stories tall, seven bays wide, and more than fourteen bays deep. The south and west facades are both symmetrical, although the house has an asymmetrical overall plan. The house has pedimented pavilions and entrance porticos on the west, south, and east; window trim consisting of stone surrounds, pediments, lintels, and sills; classical balusters and quoins. The house's third story is separated visually by a stone string course and is topped with a modillioned cornice. From a shallow hipped roof rise brick chimneys that are trimmed and capped with stone. The pavilion pediments have decorative urn-shaped elements. The house's windows are primarily rectangular, double hung, one-over-one panel style, except for a large triple Palladian window, which has stained glass and is situated midway up the house's main staircase, illuminating its lower steps. The house has distinctive quoins, pediments, and classical balustrades of pale gray limestone. The west facade of the house is the most ornate, and faces the Hudson River, with a view of the river from its terrace and west-facing windows. The curtain wall between the facade's pavilions contains a semicircular portico, and its entablature is upheld by Ionic columns, and supports a balustrade. A flight of semicircular steps descends to the terrace. The river front is parallel with the east front, which had a porte-cochère, a minor entrance, and a service entrance. The main entrance is at the building's south, directly approached by the south drive. The entrance is recessed, with a portico of Ionic columns over the entranceway. The house has been described as "low and spreading, notwithstanding its unusual height". It has between 65,000 and 70,000 square feet (6,000 and 6,500 m²), making it one of the largest houses in the U.S. The property has about three miles of wide driveways. #### Interior The house also has significant interior features, including marble fireplaces, wood paneling, coffered ceilings, window and door architraves, parquet floors, and extensive carved wood and plaster detail, primarily in the Adamesque mold. The original furnishings together were reported in 1895 to have cost hundreds of thousands of dollars, and to have included rare tapestries, carved woods, paintings, and Italian marble. In 1906, the house had 16 bathrooms and 65 rooms, including 20 for servants. The house's main door opens into a square vaulted vestibule, walled throughout with highly polished yellow marble. It leads into the main hall, which is paneled to the ceiling in wood, painted white, the corners and angles accentuated by pilasters, and the rich mahogany doors encased within monumental frames. The white ceiling is intricately coffered. The hall has a large fireplace of carved white marble and a large table in the room's center, which was on a large red rug covering most of the floor. The main hall also featured Gobelins and Italian tapestries. The first floor also has an enfilade of three rooms: the green silk- and cedar-paneled living room, the white and gold drawing room, and the dark mahogany dining room. The three rooms have large doorways between them to allow hosts to combine rooms for a large event. The combined space has a span or linear distance of about 150 feet. A corridor connects the main hall to three rooms; it has recessed windows, dividing the corridor into bays. The corridor has pilasters and the same coffered ceiling of the main hall, and it used to have heavy velvet curtains at the window alcoves and entrance to the hallway; the windows had curtains of delicate salmon silk. The corridor originally displayed silk and velvet tapestries from various parts of the world. The first room from the corridor was the living room, with a wainscot, pilasters, cornice, and door and window frames all of Spanish cedar, and a mantelpiece imported from an Italian chateau. Walls are paneled in green silk, mirroring the rug and furnishings. In its early history, the walls were inlaid with embossed Italian leather. The drawing room, sometimes referred to as the music room, salon, or parlor was at the center, with paneled walls in ivory white and gold, with gilded moldings and ornaments. There are richly interlaced panels above the doorways with paintings inserted in them. The mantle dates to around 1700, and is of mottled purple and white marble, and has a built-in mirror above it. The room has richly gilt chandeliers hanging from ornamental reliefs in the otherwise plain ceiling. Furniture was of tapestry and gold, with a light rug and yellow and gold curtains at the windows and doors. The dining room had a high wainscot of mahogany, paneled in rectangles, above which is a broad tapestry frieze. The ceiling is beamed with closely set beams, and the cornice is mahogany like the other woodwork. The room is lighted by the cluster of lights applied to the wainscot. The house's pantry was "as large as many New York apartments", had a counter and wash bowls and large rows of glazed closets around other walls. The kitchen and serving room had a refrigerator and were well stocked and equipped. The breakfast room was green and white, with woodwork painted white and walls covered in Nile green cloth; it had a wood mantel with facings of mottled white marble, also imported from Italy. Adjoining is the morning-room, finished in quartered oak, with walls papered in red stripes of two shades, has a quartered oak wainscot and white cornice, curtains and furniture are red and gold. The library is on the right of the hall, removed from the other rooms; it once held a billiard table. The walls are lined with tall bookcases containing rare books; the walls were otherwise covered in large square panel-like pieces of leather. The room has a richly coffered ceiling and had green and brown curtains. The house has bedrooms of various sizes, most large, with Mrs. Shepard's the biggest. Each room has distinct furnishings and from moderate to rich decoration. One particular was the Moorish room, furnished in the Moorish style, with mantel and furniture inlaid with mother of pearl. The third floor had bedrooms, a children's suite and a large playroom. The house's room arrangement was planned for convenience and comfort, as compared to typical English mansions, which often were built with kitchens far from the dining room. Woodlea has 140 rooms, which were designed not to be drafty, and with important rooms not too remote. The rooms are all over-scaled in terms of the height of the ceilings and size of the doors, with large fireplaces, and the length and breadth of the stairway to the house's second floor. The staircases have recesses with intricate decorative panels. ### Stable The stable was designed by McKim, Mead & White and built in the late 19th century using the same yellow brick used for the main residence. The stable is two and a half stories high, 29 bays wide, and 5 bays deep, and it has a gable roof covered with asbestos shingles that replaced its original ceramic tile. On the roof's ridge sits a shallow monitor, flanked by two taller octangular monitors with louvered ventilating elements and bell-cast copper roofs. The end bays of the west (main) facade are framed in pedimented pavilions, which have recessed brick panels above the impost line, and below it are bricks coursed to resemble rustication. One glazed roundel is at the middle of each tympanum. The pedimented central bay has an arched recessed entrance with a pair of oversized double wood doors beneath a fanlight. The arch is flanked with blind roundels above the impost line, with rustication below. The bay's tympanum is undecorated. The arch impost line continues as a belt course between the pavilions and forms the sills for recessed wood-framed, fixed-sashed, nine-light windows on the building's second level. The windows are divided by Doric pilasters. Fenestration at the main facade's lower level is only narrow wood-framed double-hung glazed embrasures with two-over-two sash. The facades have a denticulated cornice, repeated within the pediments and arched pavilion lintels. The stable is built into a hill, and has a partial basement level with 51 stalls. The two-story interior space on the first floor was originally used for carriages and then for automobiles, and now is used as an indoor exercising ring for the horses occupying the stalls below. In the end pavilions, there is a reception area, tack room, and small apartment designed to be occupied by the riding instructor. ### Golf house In the 1920s, the old Butler Wright house became the golf house. It was at the center of the club's sporting operations, originally holding a pro shop, dining room, bar, and bedrooms. In 1931, it was refurbished with more showers and dressing rooms, an addition to the locker room to double its space and increase the lounge space, an enlarged kitchen, a new women's locker room and sitting room, a larger dining veranda, an enclosed porch on the northwest corner of the building, and a new porch on the building's east side. The club's first pool was constructed adjoining the house in 1930, necessitating the construction of the showers and dressing rooms. The building was demolished in 1967. ### Gatehouses Both of the country club's Route 9 entrances have a gatehouse. Both are small, two stories high, three bays wide, and one bay deep, and were constructed along with the house in the 1890s. The gatehouses resemble Woodlea in materials and simplified stylistic detail. Both gatehouses have gable roofs and a shed-roofed one-story high rear addition. The houses have stone and brick pedimented porticos over their entranceways. The lower-level windows have flat-arched surrounds with keystones; the oculi break the cornice lines beneath segmentally arched pediments. The northern gatehouse has another one-story rear addition and a small one-car garage. The club's two tall gateways are made of French-imported carved stone and ironwork. ### Pool house The pool house was built in 1968 and is brick with wood-framed casement windows. It is a divided brick building with locker rooms on the larger west section and a refreshment area on the smaller east section. The west section has a flat roof, and the east section has a shallow hipped roof with a broad overhang. The building does not contribute to the former historic estate. ### Skeet house The skeet house was built around 1925, and is a small one-story log building, three bays wide and one bay deep with a gable roof. The interior is rustic, with a small kitchen and one large multi-purpose room. The building contributes to the estate's early 20th century development. ### Logan Memorial Riding Ring The 17,000-square-foot (1,600 m²) building, originally named the Logan Riding Ring, was completed in 1929. Mrs. Thomas F. Logan, an Ardsley resident and member of the Sleepy Hollow Riding Committee, funded the building's \$300,000 expense (\$ in ) and supervised its construction. The building has a length of 180 feet and a width of 95 feet. Its exterior is stucco over concrete block; the building has a main section with a round-arched asbestos-shingled roof, and is two stories high, five bays wide (95 feet (29 m)), and ten bays deep (180 feet (55 m)). The building has narrow metal-framed tripartite casement windows with brick sills. The upper, eight-light sections of the windows open horizontally, and the lower portions with sixteen lights open vertically; the central twenty-light sections are fixed. The structure's bays are divided on the side facades by sloping concrete ground-to-cornice buttresses, paired at the intersections of the side and rear facades. Around 1931, an exhibition ring and corrals were constructed near the riding ring. The main (west) facade has a projecting two and a half-story gable roof section that is three bays wide and two deep. Decorative detail on the exterior includes quoins, the James Gibbs-inspired surround on the main entrance, and the molded surrounds and keystones of the casement windows. In the northwest corner of the intersection between the building's two sections is a one-story-high, one-bay-square addition with a narrow metal casement window on the west facade and a large double entrance for horses on the north. The building's interior consists of a large riding ring that is open to the rafters, and in the gable-roofed section, there are lockers and changing rooms on the first floor and a multi-purpose room on the second; on one of its walls is a floor-to-ceiling window permitting view of the ring activity below. ### Squash house The squash house was constructed around 1920, completed in 1931, and was demolished between 2011 and 2013. It was located near the Logan Riding Ring, on the club's south entrance road. It was two stories high, five bays wide and nine bays deep, and was stucco-covered with a flat roof. There were two entrances on the main (south) facade, one at ground level and another on the balcony. The entrances had double wooden doors, paneled below and glazed above. All of the building's windows consisted of wood-framed, paired casement windows with brick sills. A veranda with Tuscan piers extended the length of the main facade, interrupted by a two-bay-wide, one-bay-deep projection east of the main entrance. The building's interior contained a doubles court, two singles courts, a reception room, locker rooms, showers, and a spectators' gallery seating 150. Across the road from where the building stood is an outdoor riding ring enclosed by a rough rail fence. To the west of the building's site, standing alone in the tall grass, is a 16th-century post-and-lintel stone element, which was at the center of the stage of a 1,500-seat outdoor Greek amphitheater that was part of the Shepard estate and was since dismantled. ### Former manager's house The manager's house was built of brick and stucco around 1920. It is two stories high, four bays wide, two bays deep, and has an asymmetrical plan. The building has a shallow hip roof with exposed rafter ends. Its windows are primarily one-over-one and double-hung with wood trim, with window-sills made of concrete. There is a three-story rectangular brick tower set into the main (west) facade. The tower is open at the top beneath a wide wood fascia. The building has a brick chimney decorated with corbelling; its chimney coping and caps are made of concrete. The building is now rented to the members. ### Carriage barn complex The carriage barn complex predates the Shepards' ownership of the property; it was built around 1875 as part of Wright's original estate. The most prominent component is the brick carriage house, which was designed by McKim, Mead & White. It is made of brick with granite trim and is one and a half stories high, ten bays wide and three bays deep. It has a steeply pitched slate hip roof with spring eaves and exposed rafters. At the roof's ridge sits an octagonal ventilating element with a bell-cast roof. On the main (north) facade, there is a two-bay-wide projection with a hip roof and two wall dormers. There is a large roof dormer on the side (east) facade which provides exterior access to the hayloft. Other fenestration includes small square windows with fixed sashes near the eaves on all facades and four double-hung windows, two per level, in the main facade's pavilion. Each end facade has a set of large double wood carriage doors. The complex now serves as a storage and maintenance facility for the club's golf carts. Opposite the carriage barn is another building, also of brick but with a low hip roof. It is one story high, one bay deep and five bays wide. There are three sets of overhead doors on the main (south) facade of the building. A high brick wall encloses the entire complex, and sections of the corner utility structures are a part of the surrounding wall. There is a small building in the northeast corner of the complex; it is one bay square with a steep hip roof with spring eaves. It has single round windows near the root line, on two facades. The building's entrance, on the south facade, is made of wood. The building has a counterpart across the yard, with a low hip roof, a large brick chimney, and a stone water table and string course; it has overhead doors on the north facade. ## Popular culture In the 2011–12 television show Pan Am, Sleepy Hollow Country Club was the setting for much of the series' third episode. Other media filmed at the country club include the 2012 show 666 Park Avenue, the 2009–2016 show The Good Wife, the 2009 film The Six Wives of Henry Lefay, the 2006–13 show 30 Rock, the 2009 television special Michael J. Fox: Adventures of an Incurable Optimist, the 2010 film The Bounty Hunter, the music video of Beyoncé's 2011 song "Best Thing I Never Had", the 2015–present Netflix show Daredevil, and the 2014–present Fox show Gotham. The club also stood in for the Biltmore and Ritz hotels in the 2017 Amazon Video series Z: The Beginning of Everything. It was also used in season 2 of ABC's 2015–present show Quantico. The club's interior and exterior were used throughout three seasons of CBS's 2014–present show Madam Secretary. The production team for the 2017 film The Greatest Showman used the club as a base for filming much of the film. ## Scorecard ## See also - List of Gilded Age mansions - National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester County, New York - History of Briarcliff Manor

Martha Logan

Character from the television series 24

Martha Logan is a fictional character played by Jean Smart in the television series 24. As a first lady of the United States within the 24 universe, she is the capable yet mercurial wife of President Charles Logan. Critics praised Martha Logan as the breakout character of the show's 2005-2006 season. In developing Martha Logan's character, the show's writers drew upon the historic example of a prominent whistleblower in the Watergate scandal, Martha Beall Mitchell. Similar to the real-life model, Martha Logan becomes contemptuous of her husband's conduct in office and decides to go public and end his career. Martha Logan takes part in a plot to get her husband to confess that he conspired with terrorists. Yet her mental health problems undermine her credibility and raise the possibility that she may be forced into treatment at an inpatient facility. After the events of the fifth season she was committed to a mental health facility. ## Concept and creation The inspiration for Martha Logan was Martha Beall Mitchell, the wife of John N. Mitchell, Attorney General during the Nixon administration. Mrs. Mitchell was a key whistleblower who contacted the press to disclose facts about the Watergate scandal, and for a time her statements were discredited because people believed she had a mental illness. Nixon said that "Watergate would have not occurred without Martha Mitchell." Howard Gordon, the executive producer of 24, said that, during character development, they "wanted an actress that had the strength and intelligence to be a first lady, yet have the unpredictability of never knowing when she might snap." Jean Smart was their first choice. Smart later told The New York Times that she decided she was eager to play the role after reading the character's introductory scene, and commented that in her almost 30 years of acting she had come across few roles that offered the possibilities that this one did: a character that is sexy, mysterious, and powerful, yet is mentally unstable and has lost her trust and respect for her husband. Smart also said of the opening scene that: "It encapsulates that character in one moment and says so much about her impulsiveness. We could not have accomplished that with a dozen speeches. When I saw it in the script, I thought 'this is great, this lady is going to be fun to play.'" On her first day on set, Smart was shocked to learn the producers wanted to cut the scene, a decision she felt was a mistake. She said "They had done this brilliant thing and now they were going to undo it. They were just being practical. They said, "It would be hours to get you back, your hair, your make-up." Smart spoke to the hair and makeup artists and guaranteed producers they could get it right in two takes; they did it in one, and the scene stayed in. Jean Smart's character and Martha Mitchell were both labeled "unstable." Although the real Martha Mitchell was not mentally ill, the fictional Martha Logan is, and with Smart's input the writers enhanced this aspect of the character. Smart has said of Martha that she is an impulsive, powerful, and capable woman, and that she is intelligent, but has some "chemical problems". ## Characterization Martha received a Bachelor of Arts in Art History from Stanford University. Prior to becoming a figure in politics, she served as a member of the Santa Barbara Museum Board of Trustees. She was once the most trusted adviser for the indecisive President Logan. She has also been portrayed as mentally ill, afflicted by depression and anxiety. Martha is a close personal friend of David Palmer. ## Appearances ### 24: Season 5 Prior to his death, Palmer asks to meet Martha to discuss a "matter of national security" involving Charles Logan. After his death, Martha believes that Palmer was killed to thwart the meeting, not knowing that her husband was involved in his murder. Several hours later, Martha is frustrated to see her husband negotiating with terrorist Vladimir Bierko and his willingness to compromise Yuri Suvarov and his wife's safety. Aaron Pierce eventually saves her from the ambush on the Suvarovs' motorcade. Martha continues to question Logan's motives as her husband attempts to prevent her from finding out about his role in Palmer's death. When Charles reveals that he was involved in the plot to assassinate Palmer, she is deeply shocked and says that she can never forgive him. Contemplating suicide, Logan comes into her room, begging for forgiveness. Rather than accepting his apology, Martha tells him that she is horrified to be his wife. After Jack Bauer fails to obtain a confession from Logan, she screams in public that he is a murderer during Palmer's funeral. Afterwards, President Logan hits her, and threatens to put Martha in an asylum for life. During his tirade, Logan acknowledges all of his misdeeds, unaware that there is a small listening device on his pen. The confession quickly reaches the Attorney General, who orders the U.S. Marshals to arrest Logan. As Charles is escorted away by agents, he turns to stare at Martha, who smiles at him in triumph. ### 24: Season 6 Following Day 5, Martha was admitted to a mental health facility in Vermont. Martha is romantically involved with Secret Service agent Aaron Pierce. After being persuaded to call Russian first lady Anya Suvarov to enlist her assistance in a diplomatic matter, Martha and Charles have a discussion, in which she verbally assaults Charles, and in a fit of rage, stabs him in the shoulder, severely injuring him. Several minutes after she is arrested, Martha calls Anya. ## Critical reception Joe Rhodes of The New York Times devoted a review to the character on February 19, 2006: > About the only thing viewers might not have been able to anticipate was that this season's break-out character would be a high-strung, sharp-tongued and off-her-meds first lady of the United States, a woman who screams, "I will have your family eating dog food out of a can" at Secret Service agents trying to keep her away from a presidential news conference. Rhodes described Martha Logan's debut scene as "perhaps the most memorable character debut in 24 history." In the debut scene, she proclaimed, "I look like a wedding cake" just before dunking her face into the bathroom sink. Her marriage to President Logan was described by producer Howard Gordon as "one of the highlights of this year." Smart was also nominated for an Emmy for her performance, Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Category, but lost the award to Blythe Danner.

Indigenous peoples in Canada

Indigenous groups of Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have fallen into disuse in Canada, and many consider them to be pejorative. Aboriginal peoples as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act, 1982, though in most Indigenous circles Aboriginal has also fallen into disfavour. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano, and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date the current Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels, and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions, and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Indigenous culture in Canada includes a long history of permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Métis of mixed ancestry originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European fur traders, primarily the French. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during that early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada. Today, it is a common perception that Aboriginal peoples in Canada have the right to self-government to provide an opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within First Nation's communities. However, some Canadian legislation may contradict this, for example the Indian act states 35 (3), As of the 2021 census, the Indigenous population totaled 1,807,250 people, or 5.0% of the national population, with 1,048,405 First Nations people, 624,220 Métis, and 70,540 Inuit. 7.7% of the population under the age of 14 are of Indigenous descent. There are over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands with distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music. National Indigenous Peoples Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Indigenous peoples to the history of Canada. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Indigenous community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. ## Terminology In Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982, "Aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Aboriginal peoples is a legal term encompassing all Indigenous peoples living in Canada. Aboriginal peoples has begun to be considered outdated and is slowly being replaced by the term Indigenous peoples. There is also an effort to recognize each Indigenous group as a distinct nation, much as there are distinct European, African, and Asian cultures in their respective places. First Nations (most often used in the plural) has come into general use since the 1970s replacing Indians and Indian bands in everyday vocabulary. However, on reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnic identity. In conversation, this would be "I am Haida," or "we are Kwantlens," in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. Also coming into general use since the 1970s, First Peoples refers to all Indigenous groups, i.e. First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. ### Native Notwithstanding Canada's location within the Americas, the term Native American is hardly ever used in Canada, in order to avoid any confusion due to the ambiguous meaning of the word "American". Therefore, the term is typically used only in reference to the Indigenous peoples within the boundaries of the present-day United States. Native Canadians was often used in Canada to differentiate this American term until the 1980s. In contrast to the more-specific Aboriginal, one of the issues with the term is its general applicability: in certain contexts, it could be used in reference to non-Indigenous peoples in regards to an individual place of origin/birth. For instance, people who were born or grew up in Calgary may call themselves "Calgary natives", as in they are native to that city. With this in mind, even the term native American, as another example, may very well indicate someone who is native to America rather than a person who is ethnically Indigenous to the boundaries of the present-day United States. In this sense, native may encompass a broad range of populations and is therefore not recommended, although it is not generally considered offensive. ### Indian The Indian Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. I-5) sets the legal term Indian, designating that "a person who pursuant to this Act is registered as an Indian or is entitled to be registered as an Indian." Section 5 of the act states that a registry shall be maintained "in which shall be recorded the name of every person who is entitled to be registered as an Indian under this Act." No other term is legally recognized for the purpose of registration and the term Indian specifically excludes reference to Inuit as per section 4 of the act. Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution; however, its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive. ### Eskimo The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, though the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages, but are related to each other. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik across the geographical area inhabited by them. ### Legal categories Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are often divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown (i.e. the state). Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal government (as opposed to the provinces) the sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands reserved for the Indians." The government inherited treaty obligations from the British colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and signed treaties itself with First Nations in Western Canada (the Numbered Treaties). The Indian Act, passed by the federal Parliament in 1876, has long governed its interactions with all treaty and non-treaty peoples. Members of First Nations bands who are subject to the Indian Act are compiled on a list called the Indian Register, and such people are designated as status Indians. Many non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Métis peoples are not subject to the Indian Act. However, two court cases have clarified that Inuit, Métis, and non-status First Nations people are all covered by the term Indians in the Constitution Act, 1867. The first was Re Eskimos (1939), covering the Inuit; the second was Daniels v. Canada (2013), which concerns Métis and non-status First Nations. ## History ### Paleo-Indian period According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska). Alaska was ice-free because of low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of Canada, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years. Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. The first inhabitants of North America arrived in Canada at least 14,000 years ago. It is believed the inhabitants entered the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver, steppe wisent, musk ox, mastodons, woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou). One route hypothesized is that people walked south by way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, and then fanned out across North America before continuing on to South America. The other conjectured route is that they migrated, either on foot or using primitive boats, down the Pacific Coast to the tip of South America, and then crossed the Rockies and Andes. Evidence of the latter has been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of metres following the last ice age. The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the areas in Canada untouched by glaciations during the Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and animals. The area holds evidence of early human habitation in Canada dating from about 12,000. Fossils from the area include some never accounted for in North America, such as hyenas and large camels. Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon, Canada from which a specimen of apparently human-worked mammoth bone has been radiocarbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were discovered in western North America during the 1930s. Clovis peoples were regarded as the first widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of the New World and ancestors to all Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Archaeological discoveries in the past thirty years have brought forward other distinctive knapping cultures who occupied the Americas from the lower Great Plains to the shores of Chile. Localized regional cultures developed from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago. The Folsom tradition are characterized by their use of Folsom points as projectile tips at archaeological sites. These tools assisted activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter and butchering of bison. The land bridge existed until 13,000–11,000 years ago, long after the oldest proven human settlements in the New World began. Lower sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called archipelago of Haida Gwaii. Hunter-gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic technology tools and the remains of large butchered mammals, occupying the area from 13,000–9,000 years ago. In July 1992, the Government of Canada officially designated X̱á:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia) as a National Historic Site, one of the first Indigenous spiritual sites in Canada to be formally recognized in this manner. The Plano cultures was a group of hunter-gatherer communities that occupied the Great Plains area of North America between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians moved into new territory as it emerged from under the glaciers. Big game flourished in this new environment. The Plano culture are characterized by a range of projectile point tools collectively called Plano points, which were used to hunt bison. Their diets also included pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon and coyote. At the beginning of the Archaic period, they began to adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence. Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia have evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over generations from around 11,000–10,000 years ago. Seasonal large and smaller game fish and fowl were food and raw material sources. Adaptation to the harsh environment included tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on wooden frames. ### Archaic period The North American climate stabilized by 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions were very similar to today's. This led to widespread migration, cultivation and later a dramatic rise in population all over the Americas. Over the course of thousands of years, Indigenous peoples of the Americas domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide. The vastness and variety of Canada's climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landform separations have defined ancient peoples implicitly into cultural or linguistic divisions. Canada is surrounded north, east, and west with coastline and since the last ice age, Canada has consisted of distinct forest regions. Language contributes to the identity of a people by influencing social life ways and spiritual practices. Aboriginal religions developed from anthropomorphism and animism philosophies. The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status. There is a continuous record of occupation of S'ólh Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the early Holocene period, 10,000–9,000 years ago. Archaeological sites at Stave Lake, Coquitlam Lake, Fort Langley and region uncovered early period artifacts. These early inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers, consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an extended family. The Na-Dene people occupied much of the land area of northwest and central North America starting around 8,000 BCE. They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabaskan-speaking peoples, including the Navajo and Apache. They had villages with large multi-family dwellings, used seasonally during the summer, from which they hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for the winter. The Wendat peoples settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River around 8,000–7,000 BCE (10,000–9,000 years ago). They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. Wendat hunted caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land. Many different First Nations cultures relied upon the buffalo starting by 6,000–5,000 BCE (8,000–7,000 years ago). They hunted buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near Lethbridge, Alberta, is a hunting grounds that was in use for about 5,000 years. The west coast of Canada by 7,000–5000 BCE (9,000–7,000 years ago) saw various cultures who organized themselves around salmon fishing. The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver Island began whaling with advanced long spears at about this time. The Maritime Archaic is one group of North America's Archaic culture of sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic. They prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE–1,500 BCE (9,000–3,500 years ago) along the Atlantic Coast of North America. Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert, a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine. The Pre-Columbian culture, whose members were called Red Paint People, is indigenous to the New England and Atlantic Canada regions of North America. The culture flourished between 3,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE (5,000–3,000 years ago) and was named after their burial ceremonies, which used large quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and grave goods. The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural entity that developed along the Alaska Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500 BCE (4,500 years ago). These Paleo-Arctic peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small blades (microblades) that were pointed at both ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows or spears made of other materials, such as bone or antler. Scrapers, engraving tools and adze blades were also included in their toolkits. The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset, and the Independence traditions. These two groups, ancestors of Thule people, were displaced by the Inuit by 1000 CE. ### Post-Archaic periods The Old Copper complex societies dating from 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE (5,000–2,500 years ago) are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture, and are pre-pottery in nature. Evidence found in the northern Great Lakes regions indicates that they extracted copper from local glacial deposits and used it in its natural form to manufacture tools and implements. The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2,000 BCE – 1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada. They created pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord marking technique that involved impressing tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland technology included items such as beaver incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The population practising sedentary agricultural life ways continued to increase on a diet of squash, corn, and bean crops. The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE – 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures and societies with the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes. #### First Nations First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed each with its own culture, customs, and character. In the northwest were the Athapaskan, Slavey, Dogrib, Tutchone, and Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast were the Tsimshian; Haida; Salish; Kwakiutl; Heiltsuk; Nootka; Nisga'a; Senakw and Gitxsan. In the plains were the Niisitapi; Káínawa; Tsuutʼina; and Piikáni. In the northern woodlands were the Nēhiyawak and Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe; Algonquin; Haudenosaunee and Wendat. Along the Atlantic coast were the Beothuk, Wəlastəkwewiyik, Innu, Abenaki and Mi'kmaq. Many First Nations civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks that included permanent urban settlements or cities, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. These cultures had evolved and changed by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been brought forward through archaeological investigations. There are indications of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Aboriginal people in Canada first interacted with Europeans around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts generally recorded friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade generally strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation. Throughout the 16th century, European fleets made almost annual visits to the eastern shores of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities. A sideline industry emerged in the un-organized traffic of furs overseen by the Indian Department. Prominent First Nations people include Joe Capilano, who met with King of the United Kingdom, Edward VII, to speak of the need to settle land claims and Ovide Mercredi, a leader at both the Meech Lake Accord constitutional reform discussions and Oka Crisis. #### Inuit Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, which emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE and spread eastward across the Arctic, displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut, the Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as "giants", who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Researchers hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies used by the expanding Inuit society. By 1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century. The Inuit had trade routes with more southern cultures. Boundary disputes were common and led to aggressive actions. Warfare was common among Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to engage in warfare. In the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items from Inuit campsites in Greenland were obtained by either trade or plunder. One account, Ívar Bárðarson, speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. 14th-century accounts relate that a western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, was taken over by the Skræling. After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16th century, Basque fishers were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as those excavated at Red Bay. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they did raid the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs. Notable among the Inuit are Abraham Ulrikab and family who became a zoo exhibit in Hamburg, Germany, and Tanya Tagaq, a traditional throat singer. Abe Okpik was instrumental in helping Inuit obtain surnames rather than disc numbers and Kiviaq (David Ward) won the legal right to use his single-word Inuktituk name. #### Métis The Métis are people descended from marriages between Europeans (mainly French) and Cree, Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux, Menominee, Mi'kmaq, Maliseet, and other First Nations. Their history dates to the mid-17th century. When Europeans first arrived to Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances, relationships between European fur traders and Aboriginal women were often consolidated through marriage. The Métis homeland consists of the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario, as well as the Northwest Territories (NWT). Amongst notable Métis people are singer and actor Tom Jackson, Commissioner of the Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and Louis Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870 and the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial and subsequent execution. The languages inherently Métis are either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif. Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of Métif, a variant of Métis. The Métis today predominantly speak English, with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. A 19th-century community of the Métis people, the Anglo-Métis, were referred to as Countryborn. They were children of Rupert's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian, Scottish, or English paternal descent and Aboriginal maternal descent. Their first languages would have been Aboriginal (Cree, Saulteaux, Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their fathers spoke Gaelic, thus leading to the development of an English dialect referred to as "Bungee". S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the Métis yet there has long been debate over legally defining the term Métis, but on September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people with significant rights (Powley ruling). Unlike First Nations people, there has been no distinction between status and non-status Métis; the Métis, their heritage and Aboriginal ancestry have often been absorbed and assimilated into their surrounding populations. ### Forced assimilation From the late 18th century, European Canadians (and the Canadian government) encouraged assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was referred to as "Canadian culture." These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation and subjugation of the Aboriginal peoples. These policies, which were made possible by legislation such as the Gradual Civilization Act and the Indian Act, focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education. #### Christianization Missionary work directed at the Aboriginal people of Canada had been ongoing since the first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, generally from France, some of whom were martyred (Jesuit saints called the Canadian Martyrs). Christianization as government policy became more systematic with the Indian Act in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for those who did not convert to Christianity. For example, the new laws would prevent non-Christian Aboriginal people from testifying or having their cases heard in court, and ban alcohol consumption. When the Indian Act was amended in 1884, traditional religious and social practices, such as the Potlatch, would be banned, and further amendments in 1920 would prevent "status Indians" (as defined in the Act) from wearing traditional dress or performing traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-Christian practices. #### Sedentary living, reserves, and 'gradual civilization' Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture. When most of these model farming villages failed, the government turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves with the Indian Act of 1876. With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reservations. Farming was still seen as an important practice for assimilation on reserves; however, by the late 19th century the government had instituted restrictive policies here too, such as the Peasant Farm Policy, which restricted reserve farmers largely to the use of hand tools. This was implemented largely to limit the competitiveness of First Nations farming. Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, the government would encourage Indians (i.e., First Nations) to enfranchise – to remove all legal distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects. If an Aboriginal chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and their family of Aboriginal title, with the idea that they would become "less savage" and "more civilized," thus become assimilated into Canadian society. However, they were often still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and those few who did enfranchise were often met with disappointment. #### Residential system The final government strategy of assimilation, made possible by the Indian Act was the Canadian residential school system: > Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the first century of Confederation, none was more ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of the Department, to its goal of assimilation than the residential school system... it was the residential school experience that would lead children most effectively out of their "savage" communities into "higher civilization" and "full citizenship." Beginning in 1847 and lasting until 1996, the Canadian government, in partnership with the dominant Christian Churches, ran 130 residential boarding schools across Canada for Aboriginal children, who were forcibly taken from their homes. While the schools provided some education, they were plagued by under-funding, disease, and abuse. According to some scholars, the Canadian government's laws and policies, including the residential school system, that encouraged or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a Eurocentric society, violated the United Nations Genocide Convention that Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. Therefore, these scholars believe that Canada could be tried in international court for genocide. A legal case resulted in settlement of in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples. In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system. ## Politics, law, and legislation ### Indigenous law vs. Aboriginal law Canadian Indigenous law refers to Indigenous peoples' own legal systems. This includes the laws and legal processes developed by Indigenous groups to govern their relationships, manage their natural resources, and manage conflicts. Indigenous law is developed from a variety of sources and institutions, which differ across legal traditions. Canadian aboriginal law is the area of law related to the Canadian Government's relationship with its Indigenous peoples. Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which includes groups governed by the Indian Act, different Numbered Treaties and outside of those Acts. ### Treaties The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period. Many agreements signed before the Confederation of Canada are recognized in Canadian law, such as the Peace and Friendship Treaties, the Robinson Treaties, the Douglas Treaties, and many others. After Canada's acquisition of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory in 1870, the eleven Numbered treaties were signed between First Nations and the Crown from 1871 to 1921. These treaties are agreements with the Crown administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations. In 1973, Canada re-started signing new treaties and agreements with Indigenous peoples to address their land claims. The first modern treaty implemented under the new framework was the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement in 1970. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement of 1993 lead to the creation of the Inuit-majority territory of Nunavut later that decade. The Canadian Crown continues to sign new treaties with Indigenous peoples, notably though the British Columbia Treaty Process. According to the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord, "cooperation will be a cornerstone for partnership between Canada and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. The Supreme Court of Canada argued that treaties "served to reconcile pre-existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal rights." First Nations interpreted agreements covered in treaty 8 to last "as long as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow." However, the Canadian government has frequently breached the Crown's treaty obligations over the years, and tries to address these issues by negotiating specific land claim. ### Indian Act The Indian Act is federal legislation that dates from 1876. There have been over 20 major changes made to the act since then, the last time being in 1951; amended in 1985 with Bill C-31. The Indian Act indicates how reserves and bands can operate and defines who is recognized as an "Indian." In 1985, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-31, An Act to Amend the Indian Act. Because of a constitutional requirement, the bill took effect on 17 April 1985. - It ends discriminatory provisions of the Indian Act, especially those that discriminated against women. - It changes the meaning of status and for the first time allows for limited reinstatement of Indians who were denied or lost status or band membership. - It allows bands to define their own membership rules. Those people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians. C-31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act apply to band members. The sections under debate concern community life and land holdings. Sections pertaining to Indians (First Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case, wills and taxation of personal property) were not included. ### Royal Commission The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples was a Royal Commission undertaken by the Government of Canada in 1991 to address issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada. It assessed past government policies toward Aboriginal people, such as residential schools, and provided policy recommendations to the government. The Commission issued its final report in November 1996. The five-volume, 4,000-page report covered a vast range of issues; its 440 recommendations called for sweeping changes to the interaction between Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal people and the governments in Canada. The report "set out a 20-year agenda for change." ### Health policy In 1995, the Government of Canada announced the Aboriginal Right to Self-Government Policy. This policy recognizes that First Nations and Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their own forms of government to suit their particular historical, cultural, political and economic circumstances. The Indian Health Transfer Policy provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by Aboriginal peoples, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on self-determination in health. Through this process, the decision to enter transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities can take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities. The National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO) incorporated in 2000, was an Aboriginal-designed and-controlled not-for-profit body in Canada that worked to influence and advance the health and well-being of Aboriginal Peoples. Its funding was discontinued in 2012. ### Political organization First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in size from band societies of a few people to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois. First Nations leaders from across the country formed the Assembly of First Nations, which began as the National Indian Brotherhood in 1968. The Métis and the Inuit are represented nationally by the Métis National Council and Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami respectively. Today's political organizations have resulted from interaction with European-style methods of government through the Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians. Indigenous political organizations throughout Canada vary in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for forming. First Nations, Métis and Inuit negotiate with the Government of Canada through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights. The First Nation groups that operate independently do not belong to these groups. ## Culture Countless Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use. The canoe, snowshoes, the toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war, maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the products, inventions and games. Some of the words include the barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, and moose. Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use Indigenous names. The word Canada itself derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word meaning 'village' or 'settlement'. The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the Saskatchewan River, which in the Cree language is called Kisiskatchewani Sipi, meaning 'swift-flowing river'. Ottawa, the name of Canada's capital city, comes from the Algonquin language term adawe, meaning 'to trade'. Modern youth groups, such as Scouts Canada and the Girl Guides of Canada, include programs based largely on Indigenous lore, arts and crafts, character building and outdoor camp craft and living. Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their ancestors' primary lifeway, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with physical and ecological regions of Canada. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were centred around ocean and river fishing; in the interior of British Columbia, hunter-gatherer and river fishing. In both of these areas, the salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, bison hunting was the primary activity. In the subarctic forest, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, shifting agriculture was practised, including the raising of maize, beans, and squash. While for the Inuit, hunting was the primary source of food with seals the primary component of their diet. The caribou, fish, other marine mammals and to a lesser extent plants, berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit diet. One of the most noticeable symbols of Inuit culture, the inuksuk is the emblem of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics. Inuksuit are rock sculptures made by stacking stones; in the shape of a human figure, they are called inunnguaq. Indian reserves, established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7, are lands of First Nations recognized by non-Indigenous governments. Some reserves are within cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Wendake in Quebec City or Enoch Cree Nation 135 in the Edmonton Metropolitan Region. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty. Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on them, from spirituality to political attitudes. National Indigenous Peoples Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year, by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21 annually. Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a statutory holiday. ### Languages There are 13 Aboriginal language groups, 11 oral and 2 sign, in Canada, made up of more than 65 distinct dialects. Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibwe have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term. Two of Canada's territories give official status to native languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government. In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act declares that there are 11 different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwichʼin, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey, and Tłįchǫ. Besides English and French, these languages are not vehicular in government; official status entitles citizens to receive services in them on request and to deal with the government in them. ### Visual art Indigenous peoples were producing art for thousands of years before the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the peoples who produced them, Indigenous art traditions spanned territories across North America. Indigenous art traditions are organized by art historians according to cultural, linguistic or regional groups: Northwest Coast, Plateau, Plains, Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and Arctic. Art traditions vary enormously amongst and within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with a focus on portability and the body is distinguished from European traditions and its focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may be used in conjunction with other arts. Shamans' masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in dance, storytelling and music. Artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads. The distinct Métis cultures that have arisen from inter-cultural relationships with Europeans contribute culturally hybrid art forms. During the 19th and the first half of the 20th century the Canadian government pursued an active policy of forced and cultural assimilation toward Indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned manifestations of the Sun Dance, the Potlatch, and works of art depicting them. It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that Indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin, Bill Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly renew and re-invent Indigenous art traditions. Currently, there are Indigenous artists practising in all media in Canada and two Indigenous artists, Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore, have represented Canada at the Venice Biennale in 1995 and 2005 respectively. ### Music The Aboriginal peoples of Canada encompass diverse ethnic groups with their individual musical traditions. Music is usually social (public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social music may be dance music accompanied by rattles and drums. Private, ceremonial music includes vocal songs with accompaniment on percussion, used to mark occasions like Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances. Traditionally, Indigenous peoples used the materials at hand to make their instruments for centuries before Europeans immigrated to Canada. First Nations people made gourds and animal horns into rattles, which were elaborately carved and brightly painted. In woodland areas, they made horns of birch bark and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Traditional percussion instruments such as drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides. These musical instruments provide the background for songs, and songs the background for dances. Traditional First Nations people consider song and dance to be sacred. For years after Europeans came to Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to practice their ceremonies. ## Demography There are three (First Nations, Inuit and Métis) distinctive groups of Indigenous peoples that are recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, sections 25 and 35. Under the Employment Equity Act, Aboriginal people are a designated group along with women, visible minorities, and persons with disabilities; as such, they are neither a visible minority under the Act or in the view of Statistics Canada. The 2016 Canadian Census enumerated 1,673,780 Aboriginal people in Canada, 4.9% of the country's total population. This total includes 977,230 First Nations people, 587,545 Métis, and 65,025 Inuit. National representative bodies of Aboriginal people in Canada include the Assembly of First Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis National Council, the Native Women's Association of Canada, the National Association of Native Friendship Centres, and the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples. In 2016, Indigenous children ages zero to four accounted for 7.7% of those aged zero to four in Canada, and made up 51.2% of children in this age group living in foster care. In the 20th century the Aboriginal population of Canada increased tenfold. Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew by 29%. After the 1960s the infant mortality level on reserves dropped dramatically and the population grew by 161%. Since the 1980s the number of First Nations babies more than doubled and currently almost half of the First Nations population is under the age of 25. Indigenous people assert that their sovereign rights are valid, and point to the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which is mentioned in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, Section 25, the British North America Acts and the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (to which Canada is a signatory) in support of this claim. ### Geographical distribution #### Provinces & territories Ethnographers commonly classify Indigenous peoples of the Americas in the United States and Canada into ten geographical regions, cultural areas, with shared cultural traits. The Canadian regions are: - Arctic cultural area (Eskimo–Aleut languages) - Subarctic culture area (Na-Dene languages and Algic languages) - Eastern Woodlands (Northeast) cultural area (Algic languages and Iroquoian languages) - Plains cultural area (Siouan–Catawban languages) - Northwest Plateau cultural area (Salishan languages) - Northwest Coast cultural area (Penutian languages, Tsimshianic languages and Wakashan languages) #### Urban population Across Canada, 56% of Indigenous peoples live in urban areas. The urban Indigenous population is the fastest-growing population segment in Canada. ## See also - Index of articles related to Indigenous Canadians - Native Americans in the United States - Aboriginal land title in Canada - Settler Colonialism in Canada - Indigenous education in Canada

A Parks and Recreation Special

Special episode of Parks and Recreation

"A Parks and Recreation Special" is a special episode of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation and the 126th episode overall. It was originally broadcast on April 30, 2020, on NBC. It was written by series co-creator Michael Schur with Megan Amram, Dave King, Joe Mande, Aisha Muharrar, Matt Murray, and Jen Statsky, and was directed by Morgan Sackett. Set during the COVID-19 pandemic, the episode shows Leslie Knope and her friends as they handle life during quarantine. The special served as a fundraiser for Feeding America's COVID-19 Response Fund. While the series had originally ended with no plans for a reboot, Schur decided to create a new episode in response to the pandemic. The show's main cast members, along with several recurring characters, returned for the special. It was produced in three weeks, with all work done remotely and the cast recording their parts individually. In its original broadcast, the episode was seen by 3.67 million viewers and was the highest-rated program of the night in the 18–49 demographic. It received acclaim from critics, particularly for its heart and comforting nature, and raised at least \$3 million for Feeding America. ## Plot Bobby Newport (Paul Rudd) introduces the special from his family fox hunting lodge in Switzerland. He had been unaware of the COVID-19 pandemic and is shocked when the cameraman tells him about it. Amid the ongoing quarantine, Leslie (Amy Poehler) calls her friends as part of her daily phone tree. Each character offers a glimpse into their day-to-day lives: - Leslie, a regional director for the National Park Service, is leading several committees she created in response to the quarantine. - Ben (Adam Scott) decides to make a claymation film based on his board game The Cones of Dunshire, but later comes to his senses and abandons the project. - Ron (Nick Offerman) is in his cabin and thinks Leslie's daily conversations with him are unnecessary. He later shows that his ex-wife Tammy 2 (Megan Mullally) has snuck up to his cabin; he has tied her up until he can deliver her to the authorities. - April (Aubrey Plaza) randomly selects five items from a bag to wear each day. - Andy (Chris Pratt) has accidentally locked himself in his shed. - Chris (Rob Lowe) regularly donates blood due to his excellent health. - Ann (Rashida Jones) returned to work as a nurse and isolates herself from Chris and their kids. - Tom (Aziz Ansari) had a book tour in Bali canceled, so he uses a green screen to show pictures of Bali. - Donna (Retta) expresses support for teachers after seeing what her husband has been experiencing. - Garry (Jim O'Heir), whom the others had avoided calling, explains the challenges he has faced as mayor of Pawnee during the pandemic. Leslie and Ben appear on talk shows with Joan Callamezzo (Mo Collins) and Perd Hapley (Jay Jackson) to discuss the pandemic. Andy appears on Perd's show as Johnny Karate to reassure kids about the ongoing situation. Fictional advertisements show several other characters: - Dennis Feinstein (Jason Mantzoukas) promotes a cologne that supposedly kills all viruses. - Jeremy Jamm (Jon Glaser) announces his plan to deliver dental equipment to homes and walk patients through procedures themselves. - Jean-Ralphio Saperstein (Ben Schwartz) buys a commercial so people can call him because he is lonely. Leslie tells Ron that she still misses her friends despite her daily calls. To cheer her up, Ron arranges for the others to join a group call, and they sing "5,000 Candles in the Wind" for her. Leslie thanks Ron for the gesture. ## Production In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, NBC announced they would air a special episode of Parks and Recreation, centered on Leslie trying to stay connected with the other residents of Pawnee during social distancing. The show's cast, including Amy Poehler, Rashida Jones, Aziz Ansari, Nick Offerman, Aubrey Plaza, Chris Pratt, Adam Scott, Rob Lowe, Jim O'Heir, and Retta, returned for the special, which served as a fundraiser for Feeding America's COVID-19 Response Fund. Poehler and series co-creator Michael Schur had agreed against doing a reboot when the series originally ended in 2015, but Schur explained that they thought the pandemic provided a "compelling reason" for the special. The episode was written by Schur along with former Parks and Recreation writers Megan Amram, Dave King, Joe Mande, Aisha Muharrar, Matt Murray, and Jen Statsky, and was directed by Morgan Sackett. Originally, Universal Television executive Pearlena Igbokwe had reached out to Schur about reuniting the cast for a remote table read of an existing episode. However, after reaching out to the cast and receiving responses from all of them in under an hour, Schur eventually decided it would be more worthwhile to create a new episode. The series finale, "One Last Ride", had already shown events after 2020, so the writers sought to fit everything into the existing continuity. According to Schur, the special is canonical but was not written to reference any events depicted in the show's future. The script for the episode was finished in about three days. Due to the pandemic isolation, Schur and the other writers created workarounds to explain why the characters were all in separate locations. The exception was Offerman and Megan Mullally; because the two are married in real life, they could appear in scenes together. To avoid trivializing or making light of the pandemic, the writers decided to have none of the characters become infected with COVID-19. They also made Ann an outpatient nurse instead of placing her on the front lines for the same reasons. One of the writers pitched the idea of using fake commercials, which Schur quickly found "perfect" because it allowed guest stars to appear and prevented the episode from feeling like other shows carried out via Zoom calls. Filming was carried out at the cast's homes over four days using iPhones, microphones, and other equipment shipped to each actor. Sackett designed rigs for filming to ensure the actors could film themselves with proper lighting and the correct frame rate. After making the rigs, Sackett and several other crew members drove around Los Angeles to deliver them to the cast, though Ansari's had to be shipped to him in England. Schur, Sackett, and other crew members then watched over Zoom as the actors each recorded their lines. To sing "5,000 Candles in the Wind", some actors listened to the song through an earpiece in order to keep the correct pace, while others sang it from memory. The visual effects team from the series The Good Place, also created by Schur, provided visual effects on the special to improve its appearance, as the cast did not actually interact together. Originally, the episode opened with Poehler and Offerman as themselves introducing the fundraiser, but Schur remarked that this opening felt strange. Late in production, the writers changed the opening to have Paul Rudd introduce the episode as Bobby Newport. Because Rudd was on the East Coast, they offered to ship him a rig, but Rudd instead provided his own equipment and completed filming within an hour of receiving the script. In total, production for the episode took about three weeks. Afterward, Schur noted that "this isn't the way TV is supposed to be made" and that it "was a lot of fun and hard work but it's not any kind of model for going forward." ## Reception ### Ratings In its original airing, "A Parks and Recreation Special" was seen by 3.67 million American viewers, roughly on par with the show's final season five years earlier. It also achieved a 1.4 rating in the 18–49 demographic, placing first for the night and giving NBC its best 18–49 rating for a Thursday comedy that season. A Paley Center special about Parks and Recreation aired before the episode; it was seen by 3.38 million viewers with a 1.0 rating among adults 18–49. By the next day, the episode had raised \$2.8 million for Feeding America's COVID-19 Response Fund, and the total reached at least \$3 million by May 2. ### Critical response The episode received acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 100% "Certified Fresh" approval rating based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7/10. The website's consensus reads, "Against all odds the delightful cast and crew of Parks and Recreation pull off a socially distant reunion that's warm, funny, and very, very special." On Metacritic, the episode holds a score of 89 out of 100 based on 14 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Dennis Perkins of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A−, writing that it was a needed episode with "warmth, laughs, and hope". The publication followed this with a roundtable of several of their critics reviewing the episode; Patrick Gomez was brought to tears, Erik Adams called it "the right show for right now", and Marah Eakin complimented the episode's heart. Rolling Stone's Alan Sepinwall remarked that the challenges of remote production limited the special's humor, but found the show's "warm hug [...] felt more welcome now". Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 4 out of 4 stars, calling the episode "a most wonderful and welcome pop-in visit". The New York Times' James Poniewozik considered the show well-suited for exploring the dynamic of protecting others by staying away from them. He added that the special didn't "tell us what to think; it helped us feel what we feel". In her review, Judy Berman of Time enjoyed watching the cast and their chemistry. However, she considered the episode "utopian" and "comforting but willfully naive", noting how much America had changed since the series finale in 2015. Vanity Fair's Sonia Saraiya enjoyed revisiting the series's optimism, sweetness, and light comedy but also remarked on how different the current world was from the show's original seasons. ### Awards For their work on the episode, Brent Findley, Jason Tregoe Newman, Bryant J. Fuhrmann, and Michael Jesmer were nominated for a Golden Reel Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Live Action Under 35:00.

Tropical Storm Bret (2011)

Atlantic tropical storm in 2011

Tropical Storm Bret was the second named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season. Bret formed along the southwestern periphery of a weather front north of the Bahamas on July 17. At first, the storm moved little and gradually strengthened in response to favorable upper-level conditions, reaching peak sustained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). Steering currents in the area subsequently became better established, and Bret turned toward the northeast only to encounter a substantial increase in vertical wind shear. Despite the shear, the storm maintained a well-defined wind circulation for several days, with intermittent bursts of thunderstorms near its center. By July 22, Bret had been devoid of strong thunderstorm activity for several hours, prompting the National Hurricane Center to discontinue public advisories when it was located about 375 miles (604 km) north of Bermuda. Since Bret remained over the open Atlantic for most of its existence, its effects on land were limited. While moving little, the storm produced inclement weather and widespread cloudiness over much of the north-central Bahamas. Squalls off the eastern coast of Florida generated rough seas along coastlines, injuring a number of people. Although it stayed well offshore, the storm enhanced tropical moisture over Bermuda, causing beneficial rainfall in dry areas. ## Meteorological history In mid-July, 2011, a broad upper trough dropped southward over the northwest Atlantic, supporting a cold front that extended westward across Bermuda to inland over Georgia. The front produced a large area of light showers to its north, with its westernmost component remaining quasi-stationary over northeastern Florida. On July 16, a surface low developed along the decaying boundary, just off the coast, generating an area of sporadic convection north of the Bahamas. Although a wind circulation was initially absent and surface pressures were relatively high, the low later became better organized under abating shear conditions. At 2100 UTC on July 17, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) declared it a tropical depression, after reconnaissance confirmed the presence of a closed circulation center about 100 mi (160 km) northwest of Great Abaco Island. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Bret just three hours later, owing to a quick increase in winds and deep central convection. Situated along a weakness in the subtropical ridge, Bret drifted very slowly southward during the initial stages of its existence. Though traces of dry air approached it from the west, the cyclone continued to strengthen, as prominent bands of deep thunderstorms tightened around it eastern semicircle. Satellite images displayed a disorganized eye-like feature on July 18, suggesting a rather sharp increase in strength. Indeed, an additional reconnaissance flight into the cyclone found peak surface winds of around 70 mph (110 km/h), just below hurricane strength. Following its peak, Bret began to accelerate toward the northeast in response to building high pressure in the area. It fluctuated little in intensity for several hours, although a combination of high wind shear and a lack of tropical moisture inhibited further development. By July 19, the circulation center had become exposed and devoid of deep convection, and the storm weakened to 50 mph (80 km/h) winds upon moving through the increasingly hostile environment. Despite the unfavorable conditions, Bret retained this intensity for the next couple of days as it briefly slowed, with a distinct low-level circulation and a few patches of persistent thunderstorms over its southwestern quadrant. Early on July 20, the heavily sheared cyclone began to reaccelerate within the deepening southwesterly wind flow. Over the next day, Bret continued to deteriorate in organization; however, a brief decline in the upper winds allowed intermittent bursts of convection to redevelop south of the exposed center. Bret eventually weakened to a tropical depression over cool ocean temperatures early on July 22, once again lacking significant convection while increasing in forward speed. Forecasters at the NHC noted that Bret remained "a maverick tropical cyclone by refusing to dissipate despite experiencing very hostile wind shear conditions," with ship data indications of prevailing strong winds. By 1500 UTC, however, the circulation had become ill-defined, prompting the NHC to declassify Bret as a tropical system about 375 mi (604 km) north of Bermuda. During the next several hours, the remnant low of Bret continued to move northeastward out into the Atlantic, until it dissipated on July 23. ## Preparations and impact ### Bahamas Upon the formation of a depression, the government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm watch for northwestern islands of the nation. It was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on July 18, when the storm showed signs of intensification. Further south, a severe weather warning was in effect for New Providence and Andros Island, and authorities urged small craft operators to secure their vessels. The warnings were discontinued later that day as Bret turned away from the territory. Since it initially moved little, Bret brought prolonged overcast conditions to much of the northern Bahamas, with most of the activity over the Abaco Islands and Grand Bahama. An estimated 3 in (76 mm) of precipitation fell in Abaco over the weekend of July 16–17. In addition, a weather station on the island reported gale-force gusting of up to 48 mph (77 km/h) at the height of the storm. The rain led to the cancellation of a local Little League baseball match. Outer rainbands spawned a waterspout that touched down on eastern Paradise Island, accompanied by lightning strikes and torrents. Nevertheless, locals considered the storm's impact to be generally positive, as its rains aided in alleviating mild drought conditions across the nation. ### United States and Bermuda Off the coast of Florida, the storm generated rough sea conditions with waves of up to 5 ft (1.5 m); high surf lightly injured several swimmers and surfers in Brevard County. Strong rip currents swept dozens of people out to sea, but all remained unharmed and were quickly rescued. Additionally, the waves washed ashore venomous jellyfish that stung more than 200 people near coastal beaches. Scattered funnel clouds and waterspouts were reported overseas, though the phenomena dissipated soon thereafter without affecting land. Onshore, Bret's effects were minimal; weak morning showers and breezy winds briefly brushed Brevard and Volusia Counties. As the storm lifted out of the area, it drew in a large mass of dry air, limiting chances of much-needed rain to subdue a large wildfire in the Okefenokee Swamp. Light showers from the precursor front skirted Bermuda prior to tropical development, with 24-hour precipitation totals of no more than 0.87 in (22 mm) recorded on the territory. Moisture brought on by the storm from afar enhanced rainfall that ended months of dry conditions in Bermuda; 1.75 in (44 mm) of precipitation fell at L.F. Wade International Airport on July 18, with an additional 1.6 in (41 mm) recorded the next day. Although the rains proved to be mostly beneficial, minor flooding affected some local businesses in poor-drainage areas. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - Hurricane Shary (2010)

Deep, Deep Trouble

1991 single by The Simpsons

"Deep, Deep Trouble" is a rap song from the 1990 Simpsons album The Simpsons Sing the Blues, performed by the fictional character Bart Simpson (voiced by Nancy Cartwright) about his trouble-making antics. It was written by Matt Groening and DJ Jazzy Jeff and recorded in September 1990. The song was released as the second single from the album in early 1991 and an accompanying music video (directed by Gregg Vanzo) was broadcast on television on March 7, 1991. This video has since been released on DVD as part of the 2002 boxset The Simpsons: The Complete Second Season. "Deep, Deep Trouble" charted in several countries around the world, including the top ten in Ireland, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Critical reception of the song was positive, with its humorous lyrics and Cartwright's performance being singled out for praise. ## Background "Deep, Deep Trouble" appeared on the successful 1990 album The Simpsons Sing the Blues that features songs sung by the characters from the American animated television series The Simpsons. It was recorded along with the rest of the album during late 1990, at which point the cast members of The Simpsons were also recording the second season of the series. The song was written by The Simpsons creator Matt Groening and DJ Jazzy Jeff, and produced by DJ Jazzy Jeff and John Boylan. DJ Jazzy Jeff provided the drum programming, keyboards, and scratches on "Deep, Deep Trouble". The song is a rap performed by the character Bart Simpson about his trouble-making antics. Groening has described it as "the tragic story of Bart Simpson, a bad youth gone worse." The Simpsons cast member Nancy Cartwright, who voices Bart on the show, provided the character's voice in "Deep, Deep Trouble" as well. The characters Homer Simpson and Maggie Simpson are also featured, with Homer (voiced by Dan Castellaneta like on the show) ranting at Bart, and Maggie sucking on her pacifier to the beat of the song. "Deep, Deep Trouble" was released in early 1991 as the second single from The Simpsons Sing the Blues after "Do the Bartman", which also features Bart rapping. That single achieved much popularity, placing first on the singles charts in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and eventually becoming certified gold in the latter country with 400,000 units sold. In Ireland, "Do the Bartman" spent nine weeks at number one on the Irish Singles Chart—only seven singles have ever managed a longer run at number one there. ## Reception The song received a positive response from critics. Sommer Swindell of the Observer-Reporter commented that "after listening to [The Simpsons Sing the Blues] once, no one will forget 'Deep, Deep Trouble' [...] It would be hard not to crack a smile while listening closely to the lyrics, as they are very creative and humorous." Thor Christensen of The Milwaukee Journal wrote that Bart "gets in a few good yuks" in the song, and Walt Belcher of The Tampa Tribune reported that Bart "raps out an amusing story about his misadventures while mowing the lawn". The Orange County Register's Cary Darling noted that "Bart turning his life into a hip-hop autobiography on 'Deep, Deep Trouble' is an absolute joy." Cartwright's rapping was praised by Tom Hopkins of the Dayton Daily News. Commercially, the single was not as successful as "Do the Bartman", but it still charted high in a few countries, reaching number one in Ireland, the top 10 in the UK and New Zealand, and the top 20 in Sweden. ## Music video The music video for the single premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 7, 1991, together with the Simpsons episode "Bart's Dog Gets an "F" of the series' second season. When "Do the Bartman" was released it was also accompanied by a music video, which ended up being nominated for Best Special Effects at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards and becoming the number one music video on the American network MTV. The version of the song used in the video is an edit, containing fewer lyrics than the album version. The video for "Deep, Deep Trouble", starting with Bart being shoved into what appears to be a jail cell, illustrates in flashback the things Bart raps about in the song, showing how he is forced by Homer to mow the lawn after throwing a buzzing alarm clock at his father in his sleep. When Homer tells Bart to hurry up, Bart accidentally runs over the sprinkler and as a result he has to stay at home when the family goes to see a boat show. After they leave, Bart decides to throw a party and invites his friends. They make a mess in the house and when Homer and Marge return home, Bart realizes he is in deep trouble. Homer later takes Bart to the barber, where his hair is shaved off. Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post thought the video was not "nearly as clever as the cartoon" and that it had "'promotional gimmick' written all over it." "Then again, I never thought the video of the dance rap 'Do the Bartman' would be a ratings hit when it aired in December. So what do I know?" she added. The music video features both original animation and old animation from the series and the Simpsons shorts that aired on The Tracey Ullman Show before they were spun off into The Simpsons in 1989. Gregg Vanzo directed the video, which, according to him, features quicker character poses than in episodes of the show to allow the animation to match the hip-hop beat. The music video was later included on the 2002 DVD boxset The Simpsons: The Complete Second Season, with audio commentary from its producers. ## Track listing - US maxi-single CD 1. "Deep, Deep Trouble" (Dance Mix Edit) (remixed by DJ Jazzy Jeff) – 4:13 2. "Deep, Deep Trouble" (Full Dance Mix) (remixed by DJ Jazzy Jeff) – 5:50 3. "Deep, Deep Trouble" (LP Version) – 4:28 4. "Sibling Rivalry" (LP Version) – 4:40 ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts

Richard Wright (musician)

English keyboardist, co-founder of Pink Floyd (1943–2008)

Richard William Wright (28 July 1943 – 15 September 2008) was an English musician who co-founded the progressive rock band Pink Floyd. He played keyboards and sang, appearing on almost every Pink Floyd album and performing on all their tours. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 as a member of Pink Floyd. Wright grew up in Hatch End, Middlesex, and met his future Pink Floyd bandmates Roger Waters and Nick Mason while studying architecture at the Regent Street Polytechnic, London. After being joined by frontman and songwriter Syd Barrett, Pink Floyd found commercial success in 1967. Barrett was replaced by David Gilmour in 1968, who, along with Waters and Wright, took over songwriting. Initially contributing more as a singer-songwriter, Wright later acted mainly as an arranger on compositions by Waters and Gilmour. He began to contribute less towards the end of the 1970s and left the band after touring The Wall in 1981. He rejoined as a session player in 1987 for A Momentary Lapse of Reason, and rejoined full-time for The Division Bell in 1994. Sessions with Wright during this period were later released on the 2014 album The Endless River. Away from Pink Floyd, Wright recorded two solo albums and was briefly active in the pop duo Zee with Dave Harris of Fashion. Following Pink Floyd's Live 8 appearance in 2005, he became part of Gilmour's touring band, singing occasional lead vocals on songs such as "Arnold Layne". Wright died from lung cancer in London in September 2008, aged 65. Wright's jazz influences and distinctive keyboard playing were an important part of the Pink Floyd sound. As well as playing Farfisa and Hammond organs and Kurzweil synthesisers, he sang regularly in the band and took lead vocals on songs such as "Remember a Day" (1968), "Time" (1973) and "Wearing the Inside Out" (1994). ## Early life Wright, whose father was head biochemist at Unigate, grew up in Hatch End, Middlesex, and was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's School. He taught himself to play guitar, trombone, trumpet and piano at the age of 12 while recuperating from a broken leg. His mother encouraged him to concentrate on the piano. He took private lessons in music theory and composition at the Eric Gilder School of Music and became influenced by the trad jazz revival, learning the saxophone along with his other instruments, but continuing to focus on piano. In 1962, uncertain about his future, Wright enrolled at Regent Street Polytechnic (later incorporated into University of Westminster) to study architecture. At Regent Street Polytechnic, Wright met fellow musicians Roger Waters and Nick Mason, and all three joined a band formed by their classmate Clive Metcalf called Sigma 6. Wright's position was initially tenuous, as he did not choose a definitive instrument, playing piano if a pub had one, otherwise settling on rhythm guitar or trombone. Wright moved with Waters and Mason into a house in Stanhope Gardens, Highgate, and they began serious rehearsals to become a professional group. Although Mason and Waters were competent students, Wright found architecture of little interest and after only a year of study moved to the London College of Music. He took a break from studies and travelled to Greece for a sabbatical. Their landlord, Mike Leonard, purchased a Farfisa electric organ and briefly replaced Wright in the band. However, this organ became Wright's main instrument. ## Career ### 1960s—1970s: Success with Pink Floyd Through a friend, Wright arranged Pink Floyd's first recording session in a West Hampstead studio, just before Christmas 1964. The guitarist Bob Klose and the guitarist and singer Syd Barrett joined the band, which became Pink Floyd. Wright's first solo song, "You're the Reason Why", appeared in 1964 on Decca as the B-side of a single by Adam, Mike and Tim. Pink Floyd stabilised with Barrett, Waters, Mason and Wright by mid-1965, and after frequent gigging that year became regulars on the underground circuit in London. While Barrett was the dominant member, writing and singing most of the songs, Wright had an important supporting role, playing keyboards, singing harmony and contributing arrangements. He also occasionally wrote and sang lead on songs. As the most qualified musician technically, Wright was also responsible for tuning Barrett's guitars and Waters' bass during concerts. Later on, he used a Strobotuner to tune guitars silently during gigs. Before Pink Floyd acquired a full-time road crew, Wright acted as the primary roadie, unloading the gear and packing it up at each gig. Pink Floyd released their debut album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn in 1967. While not credited for vocals, Wright sang lead on the Barrett-written songs "Astronomy Domine" and "Matilda Mother". Examples of his early compositions include "Remember a Day", "See-Saw", "Paint Box" and "It Would Be So Nice". Wright was close friends with Barrett, and at one point the pair shared a flat in Richmond, London. After Barrett was forced out of Pink Floyd in 1968 following mental health problems, Wright considered leaving and forming a group with him, but realised it would not have been practical. Wright played on Barrett's second solo album, Barrett (1970), and helped with its production. He recalled working on the album as a way of helping Barrett in any way possible. He guested at a concert by Sutherland Brothers & Quiver in 1974 at Newcastle Polytechnic. Following Barrett's replacement by David Gilmour, Wright took over songwriting with Waters, but gradually became less involved as a songwriter. His keyboard playing remained an integral part of the band's live set, particularly on "Interstellar Overdrive", "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" and "Careful with That Axe, Eugene". He contributed themes for Pink Floyd's film scores for More, Zabriskie Point and Obscured by Clouds. He made significant arranging contributions to longer compositions such as "Atom Heart Mother", "Echoes" (on which he sang lead vocals with Gilmour) and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond". On 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon he composed the music for "The Great Gig in the Sky" and "Us and Them". He also contributed to the composition of tracks such as "Time", for which he sang lead, and "Breathe". ### Late 1970s—early 1980s: Conflict and departure from Pink Floyd Wright recorded his first solo album, Wet Dream, in early 1978 in Super Bear Studios, France, which featured the Pink Floyd touring guitarist Snowy White and the former King Crimson saxophonist Mel Collins. Several songs on the album refer to his holiday home in Lindos. The album was released in September to minimal commercial success. Wright's contributions diminished in the late 1970s as Waters began to dominate the writing process. Animals (1977) was the first Pink Floyd album without songwriting credits for Wright. By the time the group recorded The Wall in 1979, Waters had become frustrated that Wright was not contributing but was claiming an equal share of production royalties. Wright refused to catch up on the recording backlog as his first marriage had deteriorated and he had not seen enough of his children, deciding family was more important. He said later: "Both myself and Dave... had little to offer, through laziness or whatever. Looking back, although I didn't realise it, I was depressed." Waters considered suing Wright, but decided it would be easier for Wright to leave at the end of the project. Wright spoke with Gilmour, who said he would back him to stay in the band but felt he had contributed little to the album. Wright agreed to leave, but would finish the album and accompanying tour. Waters, Gilmour, producer Bob Ezrin, composer Michael Kamen and session player Fred Mandel also played keyboard parts on The Wall. Wright generally went into the studio late at night when the other band members were not there. He was not credited for his parts on the first pressings on the album, which was later corrected. Wright's departure from Pink Floyd was not publicly confirmed until years later. As he was retained as a salaried session musician during the Wall tour, most fans were unaware that he was no longer a member. He recalled: "I put everything I could into the performances, and I think Roger approved of that. We would talk civilly to each other. It wasn't too bad at all." Though he remained angry about his treatment by Waters, he said he was not sad to leave Pink Floyd as "the band had lost any feeling of communication and camaraderie by this time ... It was a band that I felt was falling to pieces — which of course it did." Wright was the only member of Pink Floyd to profit from the Wall tour, since the net loss had to be borne by the band members. He did not attend the 1982 premiere of the film of Pink Floyd—The Wall. In 1983, Pink Floyd released The Final Cut, the only Pink Floyd album on which Wright does not appear. His absence from the album credits was the first time fans realised he had left. ### 1983—1995: Zee and return to Pink Floyd During 1983–1984, Wright formed a musical duo, Zee, with Dave Harris of the band Fashion. The pair had been introduced by a mutual friend, the saxophonist Raphael Ravenscroft. They signed a record deal with EMI Records and released only one album, Identity, which was a commercial and critical failure. Wright later referred to Zee as "an experiment best forgotten". After Waters' departure in 1985, Wright began to contribute to Pink Floyd again, beginning with A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987). However, he remained a salaried musician as his contract forbade him from rejoining as a member. On the album credits, Wright was listed among the other session musicians and his photo did not appear on the inner sleeve with Gilmour and Mason. By 1994, Wright had officially rejoined Pink Floyd. In 2000 he said: "I am a full member, but contractually I am not on a par with Dave and Nick." For the second Pink Floyd album without Waters, The Division Bell (1994), he co-wrote five songs and sang lead on "Wearing the Inside Out", which he co-wrote with Anthony Moore. Wright was initially unsure about contributing to the album, later saying it "didn't feel like what we'd agreed was fair". The Division Bell Tour was Pink Floyd's last. Wright, like Mason, performed on every Pink Floyd tour. ### 1996—2005: Broken China and reunion with Waters In 1996, inspired by his successful input into The Division Bell, Wright released his second solo album, Broken China, which had been co-written with Moore, who also helped with production and engineering. The album covers the theme of depression and helped Wright come to terms with seeing his wife and friends affected by it. Contributions came from the bassist Pino Palladino, the drummer Manu Katché and the guitarist Dominic Miller (both known for their work with Sting) and the guitarist Tim Renwick (another Pink Floyd associate). Gilmour contributed a guitar part for "Breakthrough", which was not used for the final mix. Sinéad O'Connor sang lead vocals on "Reaching for the Rail" and "Breakthrough", with Wright singing the remainder. Wright considered taking the album on tour, but concluded it would not be financially viable. In 2006, he co-wrote the Helen Boulding B-side "Hazel Eyes" with Chris Difford. In 1999, the Pink Floyd touring keyboardist Jon Carin joined Wright's wife to reunite Wright and Waters after 18 years apart. The men met backstage after a performance by Waters. Wright played at several of Gilmour's solo shows in 2002, contributing keyboards and vocals, including his composition "Breakthrough". On 2 July 2005, Wright, Gilmour and Mason were joined by Waters on stage for the first time since the Wall concerts for a short set at the Live 8 concert in London. It was the last time that all four members performed together. Wright underwent surgery for cataracts that November, preventing him from attending Pink Floyd's induction into the UK Music Hall of Fame. ### 2005—2008: Work with Gilmour In 2006, Wright became a regular member of Gilmour's touring band, along with the former Pink Floyd sidemen Jon Carin, Dick Parry and Guy Pratt. He contributed keyboards and background vocals to Gilmour's 2006 solo album On an Island, and performed live in Europe and North America that year. On stage with Gilmour, he played keyboards, including a revival of the Farfisa organ for "Echoes". Wright sang lead on "Arnold Layne", which was released as a live single. He declined an offer to join Waters and Mason on Waters' Dark Side of the Moon Live tour to spend time working on a solo project. That year, Wright joined Gilmour and Mason for a screening of the Pink Floyd Pulse live concert video. Asked about performing again, Wright replied he would be happy on stage anywhere. He explained that his plan was to "meander" along and play live whenever Gilmour required his services. Wright performed at the Barrett tribute concert "Madcap's Last Laugh" at the Barbican in London on 10 May 2007. It was organised by Joe Boyd in memory of Barrett, who had died the previous July. The first half featured a Waters solo performance, while the second half concluded with Wright, alongside Gilmour and Mason, performing "Arnold Layne". By mid-2007, Wright was living alone in Kensington. He enjoyed playing as part of Gilmour's solo band, calling it "the most fun tour I've ever done in my life". ## Death Wright died from lung cancer at his home in London on 15 September 2008, aged 65. At the time of his death, he had been working on a new solo album, thought to comprise a series of instrumental pieces. The surviving members of Pink Floyd paid tribute to Wright: Waters said it was "hard to overstate the importance of his musical voice in the Pink Floyd of the 60s and 70s", and added that he was happy they had reunited for Live 8. Mason said Wright's contributions were underrated, and that his playing "was the sound that knitted it all together", comparing his "quiet one" status in the band to George Harrison of the Beatles. Gilmour called him "my musical partner and my friend", and praised Wright's ability to blend his voice with Gilmour's, such as on "Echoes". Gilmour reiterated that it would be wrong to continue as Pink Floyd without him. In the updated edition of his memoir, Mason wrote that "the distinctive, floating textures and colours [Wright] bought into the mix were absolutely critical to what people recognise as the sound of Pink Floyd ... He once summed up his musical philosophy by saying, 'Technique is so secondary to ideas.' Many fine keyboard players could and did emulate and recreate his parts, but nobody else other than Rick had the ability to create them in the first place." Eight days after Wright's death, Gilmour performed "Remember a Day", a Wright composition from Pink Floyd's second album, A Saucerful of Secrets, on a live broadcast of Later... with Jools Holland on BBC Two as a tribute to Wright. Gilmour said that Wright had intended to perform with him that day, but had not been well enough. Gilmour and Nick Mason performed the song together at Wright's memorial service, which was held at Notting Hill Theatre. Jeff Beck was among those who attended the memorial service, and performed an unaccompanied guitar solo. Gilmour dedicated his song "A Boat Lies Waiting" from his 2015 album Rattle That Lock in Wright's memory. It features a sample of Wright's voice. The lyrics define Gilmour's sadness on his demise and revolves around mortality and Wright's love for the sea. ### The Endless River (2014) In 2014, Pink Floyd released The Endless River, comprising mostly instrumental music recorded during the Division Bell sessions along with new music recorded between 2010 and 2014. It contains previously unreleased parts recorded by Wright. Mason described the album as a tribute to Wright. Mason said that unreleased work recorded by Wright for Gilmour's solo projects could appear on Gilmour's future solo albums. ## Musical style Wright's main influence was jazz, particularly Miles Davis and John Coltrane. He did not consider himself a typical songwriter, preferring to create whole albums of music with a theme. He said: "If the words came out like the music, and we didn't have anything else to do, then quite a few would be written." A number of compositions credited to Wright came out of improvisation and randomly trying ideas, some of which were picked up enthusiastically by his bandmates. Wright later said "I just play and don't really think about what I'm doing, I just let it happen". Of all the Pink Floyd members, Wright was the most reserved, sitting down behind the keyboards and concentrating on the music. In the 1970s, Wright listened to some contemporary progressive rock bands, and particularly liked early Peter Gabriel-fronted Genesis. He later asked some of the musicians in Gabriel's solo touring band to play on Broken China. Wright enjoyed playing the organ, and considered the style he used in Pink Floyd to be unique. He played solos in the early part of Floyd's career, frequently using Egyptian scales, such as on "Matilda Mother" or "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun". His jazz background led to him being interested in free form music, with adherence to tempo being less important. Later, he was more interested in complementing each piece with organ, electric piano or synthesiser as a backing instrument, while still featuring occasional solos. ### Equipment In the early days of Pink Floyd, Wright dabbled with brass before settling on Farfisa electric organs as his main instrument onstage. He originally owned a single-manual Combo Compact model, which was used for early recordings of "Interstellar Overdrive", and he later upgraded to a dual-manual Compact Duo. During the 1960s, Wright relied heavily on his Farfisa fed through a Binson Echorec platter echo, as heard on the Ummagumma live album. On later tours, the Farfisa was fed through a joystick control allowing the signal to be sent through up to six speakers in an auditorium, which was called the "Azimuth Coordinator". Wright stopped using the Farfisa after The Dark Side of the Moon, but revisited it in later years, playing it on Gilmour's On An Island tour. It was recorded for the sessions that eventually became The Endless River. Wright played the piano and Hammond organ in the studio from the start of Pink Floyd's recording career; using the Hammond's bass pedals for the closing section of "A Saucerful of Secrets". He used a Mellotron in the studio for some tracks, including Ummagumma's "Sysyphus" and on the "Atom Heart Mother" suite. For a brief period in 1969, Wright played vibraphone on several of the band's songs and in some live shows, and reintroduced the trombone on "Biding My Time". He started using a Hammond organ regularly on stage alongside the Farfisa around 1970 and a grand piano became part of his usual live concert setup when "Echoes" was added to Pink Floyd's regular set list. All three keyboards are used in the concert film Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii. In the 1970s, Wright began using synthesisers such as the VCS 3, ARP String Ensemble and Minimoog, which were featured on "Shine on You Crazy Diamond". Wright wrote the closing part of the track alone, and included a brief extract of the band's early single "See Emily Play" on the Minimoog towards the end. He used a number of electric pianos during the 1970s, including a Wurlitzer fed through a wah-wah pedal on "Money" and an unaccompanied Rhodes introduction for "Sheep" on Animals. From the 1987 Momentary Lapse of Reason tour onwards, Wright and touring keyboardist Jon Carin favoured Kurzweil digital synthesisers, including the K2000 keyboard and K2000S rack module for reproducing piano and electric piano sounds. Wright retained the Hammond along with a Leslie speaker, playing it onstage and using it during the Division Bell sessions. In addition to keyboards, Wright played guitar, flute, cello, trombone, violin, drums, saxophone and bass. Other keyboards that he used in the studio were tack piano, harpsichord, celesta and harmonium, such as on Barrett's solo song "Love Song" and "Chapter 24". ## Personal life Wright married his first wife, Juliette Gale, in 1964. She had been a singer in one of the early bands that evolved into Pink Floyd. They had two children and divorced in 1982. Wright's second marriage, to Franka, lasted from 1984 to 1994. Wright married his third wife, Mildred "Millie" Hobbs, in 1995, with whom he had a son, Ben. Wright's 1996 solo album Broken China is about her battle with depression. They separated in 2007. Wright's daughter Gala was married to the bassist Guy Pratt, who toured and recorded with Pink Floyd after the departure of Waters. Wright had been fond of the Greek islands since a sabbatical visit in 1964, before Pink Floyd formed. He moved to Greece in 1984 after the Zee project, briefly retiring from music, and enjoyed sailing and yachting. In the 1970s, he acquired a property in Lindos, Rhodes. In his later years, Wright lived in Le Rouret, France, and spent time on a yacht he owned in the Virgin Islands. He found sailing therapeutic, relieving him from the pressures of the music business. He was also a collector of Persian rugs. ## Discography ### Solo albums - Wet Dream (1978) - Broken China (1996) ### Band albums #### With Pink Floyd - The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967) - A Saucerful of Secrets (1968) - More (1969) - Ummagumma (1969) - Atom Heart Mother (1970) - Meddle (1971) - Obscured by Clouds (1972) - The Dark Side of the Moon (1973) - Wish You Were Here (1975) - Animals (1977) - The Wall (1979) - A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987) - The Division Bell (1994) - The Endless River (2014) ### With Zee - Identity – 1984 ### Session appearances #### With Syd Barrett - Barrett – 1970 #### With Pink Floyd - A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987) #### With David Gilmour - David Gilmour in Concert (DVD) – 2002 - On an Island – 2006 - "On an Island" (Hammond organ) & "The Blue" (backing vocals) - Remember That Night (DVD/Blu-ray) – 2007 - Live in Gdańsk (CD/DVD) – 2008

Tank (video game)

1974 arcade game

Tank is an arcade game developed by Kee Games, a subsidiary of Atari, and released in November 1974. It was one of the few original titles not based on an existing Atari property developed by Kee Games, which was founded to sell clones of Atari games to distributors as a fake competitor prior to the merger of the two companies. In the game, two players drive tanks through a maze viewed from above while attempting to shoot each other and avoid mines, represented by X marks, in a central minefield. Each player controls their tank with a pair of joysticks, moving them forwards and back to drive, reverse, and steer, and firing shells with a button to attempt to destroy the other tank. The destruction of a tank from a mine or shell earns the opposing player a point, and tanks reappear after being destroyed. The winner is the player with more points when time runs out, with each game typically one or two minutes long. Tank was designed by Steve Bristow, who had previously worked with the founders of Atari on Computer Space, the first arcade video game, and was developed by Lyle Rains. It was created as part of Bristow's vision to move the company away from only producing copies of Atari's games into also developing original titles. The game's cabinet was designed by Peter Takaichi. In September 1974, Atari announced a merger with Kee, which went into effect a month after the release of the game. The game was commercially successful, selling over 10,000 units and buoying Atari's then-troubled finances. It led to a cocktail cabinet release of the game and to four sequels: Tank II (1974), Tank III (1975), Tank 8 (1976), and Ultra Tank (1978). A dedicated console version of Tank II was announced in 1977 but cancelled later that year; the joysticks for the game, however, became the standard joystick controllers for the Atari 2600 (1977). Variations on the game were included in the Atari 2600 game Combat, as well as in the Coleco Telstar game Telstar Combat!, both in 1977. ## Gameplay Tank is a two-player maze game in which the players, each controlling a tank, attempt to shoot each other. The maze is a set of blocks set at right angles to each other with an empty square central area all viewed from above; the shape of the maze is not symmetric, and is the same between games. One of the tank sprites is white and the other is black, while the central area is filled with black X marks representing land mines. The tanks can fire shells, which destroy the other tank if they hit; tanks are also destroyed if they hit a land mine. The destruction of a tank grants the opposing player a point and causes a brief explosion and accompanying sound, during which time the other tank cannot shoot, before restoring the tank at the same position. Destroyed land mines do not return. Points are displayed above the play area, and flash during the final twenty seconds of the round. The game continues until the time runs out, after which the player with the higher point value wins the match. Each game typically costs a quarter and lasts for 60 seconds, but an internal toggle adjusts it to two quarters and 120 seconds. The time can be further adjusted by operators. The game is displayed on a black-and-white television screen, and the tanks are controlled by two joysticks each. Pushing both joysticks moves the player's tank forward, and pulling them both back causes the tank to stop. Pulling them in different directions or amounts causes the tank to turn in place or while moving, respectively. A button on the top of the right joystick fires a shell. ## Development The arcade game market is split into manufacturers, distributors, and operators; manufacturers like Atari sell game machines to distributors—who handle several types of electronic machines—who in turn sell them to the operators of locations. In the early 1970s, distributors bought games on an exclusive basis, meaning that only one distributor in each distribution region would carry products from a given arcade game manufacturer, restricting the manufacturer to only the operators that distributor sold to. Atari, in 1973 just over a year old and largely based on their hit first game Pong, felt that as a smaller manufacturer this setup severely limited their ability to sell arcade games: they could only contract with a limited number of distributors, who would only buy a limited number of games per year. To work around this, Atari set up a secret subsidiary company in September 1973, Kee Games, which was intended to sell clones of Atari's games, in effect doubling their potential reach. Kee did have its own manufacturing equipment and therefore the ability to develop original titles, however, and after several clone games lead engineer Steve Bristow developed the idea for a new title. Bristow, who had previously worked with the Atari founders on Computer Space, the first arcade video game, came up with the idea while thinking of how he could improve Computer Space. His idea to correct the perceived shortcomings of the game were to replace its difficult to control rocket ships with more straightforward tanks, and to make it a two-player game instead of a single-player one. As the company's only engineer, Bristow rapidly developed a prototype himself before turning the game over to new hire Lyle Rains to develop into a finished product, codenamed K2 Tank. Rains added the maze and central minefield to the game design and developed the final hardware, including the simple control scheme. Peter Takaichi designed a large custom cabinet to house it. Tank was one of the first games to use integrated circuit-based memory—specifically, mask ROM (read-only memory)—to store graphical data, rather than the diode arrays that previous arcade games used; it is sometimes claimed in sources to be the very first, but was preceded at minimum by Atari's Gran Trak 10 (1974). Integrated circuit-based memory thereafter became the standard for arcade and console video games. Before the game could be completed, Kee Games was merged into Atari in September 1974; Tank was released that November. ## Reception and legacy Tank was a commercial success and is credited with buoying the finances of the newly merged Atari at a critical time for the company. Atari produced a second version of the game, a cocktail cabinet form in which the two players sat across a circular table from each other. Tank sold over 10,000 units, considered a large hit at the time, though Ralph H. Baer claims that was only the 1974 sales, with a further 5,000 sold in 1975. This would make Tank the best-selling arcade video game of 1974 in the United States as well as the second best-selling title of 1975 in America (below Wheels), according to Baer. A sequel, Tank II, was released in 1974 to sales of around 1,000 units; gameplay was identical, though the maze could be changed to a new format by modifying the circuitry and more sound effects were added. In March 1976, RePlay magazine published a survey of the top 20 arcade games in use, and listed Tank and Tank II together as the highest-earning game in the prior year in the United States. Tank II was later the 15th highest-grossing arcade game of 1977 in the United States according to Play Meter (or 14th highest video game, excluding the electro-mechanical game F-1). It was followed by three further sequels: Tank III in 1975, the first game to be third in a series; the color Tank 8 in 1976, which featured eight tanks and players simultaneously; and Ultra Tank in 1978, which reverted to a two-player black and white game with the ability to select multiple different maze types and have invisible tanks. A dedicated console version of Tank II was announced by Atari at the Consumer Electronics Show in 1977, but was cancelled by the end of the year; the joysticks for the game, designed by Kevin McKinsey, became the standard joystick controllers for the Atari 2600 (1977). The Atari 2600 game Combat, released in 1977, includes several variations of Tank, including ones with bouncing shots or invisible tanks. Combat was initially developed as a console version of the arcade game, like the cancelled dedicated console version, with additional plane-based game modes added during development. Despite Atari's cancellation of the dedicated console version of Tank, a dedicated console game inspired by Tank was still released in 1977 by Coleco: the Telstar game Telstar Combat! plays four variations of Tank, and was released prior to the Atari 2600 and Combat. The success of Tank, along with 1975 title Western Gun (Gun Fight), led to the popularization of one-on-one dueling video games. The 1980 arcade first-person shooter game Battlezone (1980) was primarily inspired by Tank. According to Battlezone designer Ed Rotberg, his concept was to update Tank with the advent of vector graphics in the arcades.

Thomas Hines

Confederate Army officer

Thomas Henry Hines (October 8, 1838 – January 23, 1898) was a Confederate cavalryman who was known for his spying activities during the last two years of the American Civil War. A native of Butler County, Kentucky, he initially worked as a grammar instructor, mainly at the Masonic University of La Grange, Kentucky. During the first year of the war, he served as a field officer, initiating several raids. He was an important assistant to John Hunt Morgan, doing a preparatory raid (Hines' Raid) in advance of Morgan's Raid through the states of Indiana and Ohio, and after being captured with Morgan, organized their escape from the Ohio Penitentiary. He was later involved in espionage and tried to stir up insurrections against the Federal government in selected Northern locales. On several occasions during the war, Hines was forced to make narrow, seemingly impossible, escapes. At one point, he concealed himself in a mattress that was being used at the time; on another occasion, he was confused for the actor and assassin John Wilkes Booth, a dangerous case of mistaken identity that forced him to flee Detroit in April 1865 by holding a ferry captain at gunpoint. Union agents viewed Hines as the man they most needed to apprehend, but apart from the time he served at the Ohio Penitentiary in late 1863, he was never captured. After the war, once it was safe for him to return to his native Kentucky, he settled down with much of his family in Bowling Green. He started practicing law, which led him to serve on the Kentucky Court of Appeals, eventually becoming its chief justice. Later, he practiced law in Frankfort, Kentucky, until his death in 1898, keeping many of the secrets of Confederate espionage from public knowledge. ## Early life Hines was born in Butler County, Kentucky, on October 8, 1838, to Judge Warren W. and Sarah Carson Hines and was raised in Warren County, Kentucky. While his education was largely informal, he spent some time in common schools. He was 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) tall, and weighed a mere 140 pounds (64 kg). With his slender build, Hines was described as rather benign in appearance, and a friend observed that he had a voice resembling that of a "refined woman". He was said to have a fondness not only for women, but also music and horses. He became an adjunct professor at the Masonic University, a school established by the Grand Lodge of Kentucky Freemasons for teaching the orphans of Kentucky Masons in La Grange in 1859. He was the principal of its grammar school, but with the advent of the war, he joined the Confederate Army in September 1861. ## Civil War ### Early war experiences Hines joined the Confederate army, as did at least eleven of his cousins. Hines initially led "Buckner's Guides", which were attached to Albert Sidney Johnston's command, as his fellow guides recognized his "coolness and leadership". In November 1861, he was given a lieutenant's commission. On December 31, 1861, he led a successful mission to Borah's Ferry, Kentucky, to attack a Union outpost there. The Guides were disbanded in January 1862 after the Confederate government of Kentucky fled Bowling Green, as Hines did not want to fight anywhere except in Kentucky. He traveled to Richmond, Virginia, and missed the Battle of Shiloh as a result. In April, he decided to join Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan, and he re-enlisted in the army as a private in the 9th Kentucky Cavalry in May 1862. Morgan recognized Hines' talents and commissioned him as a captain on June 10, 1862. Afterward, Hines spent most of his time engaged in secret missions in his beloved Kentucky. Dressed in civilian clothes, he usually operated alone to avoid drawing attention to himself, not wanting to be executed as a spy. On many of his forays in Kentucky, Hines made special trips to see loved ones. Often it was to visit Nancy Sproule, his childhood sweetheart and future bride, in Brown's Lock, near Bowling Green. On other occasions he visited his parents in Lexington, Kentucky. In both places, Union spies attempted to capture Hines, but he always escaped, even after his father had been captured and his mother was sick in bed. ### 1863 In June 1863, Hines led an invasion into Indiana with 25 Confederates posing as a Union unit in pursuit of deserters. Their goal was to see if the local Copperheads would support the invasion of John Hunt Morgan planned for July 1863. Traveling through Kentucky for eight days to obtain supplies for their mission, they crossed the Ohio River to enter Indiana, near the village of Derby, on June 18, 1863. Hines visited the local Copperhead leader, Dr. William A. Bowles, in French Lick, and learned that there would be no formal support for Morgan's Raid. On his way back to Kentucky, Hines and his men were discovered in Valeene, Indiana, leading to a small skirmish near Leavenworth, Indiana, on Little Blue Island. Hines had to abandon his men as he swam across the Ohio River under gunfire. After wandering around Kentucky for a week, Hines rejoined General Morgan at Brandenburg, Kentucky. Colonel Basil W. Duke made a disparaging comment in his memoirs about how Hines appeared on the Brandenburg riverfront, saying Hines was "apparently the most listless inoffensive youth that was ever imposed upon"; despite being Morgan's second-in-command, Colonel Duke was usually not told of all the espionage Hines was carrying out, causing some to believe that Hines and Duke did not like each other, which was not the case. It was due to Hines that the riverboats Alice Dean and the John T. McCombs were captured for the purpose of transporting Morgan's 2000+ men force across the Ohio River. It was Hines' reports that encouraged Morgan to be rough with anyone posing as a Confederate sympathizer in Indiana, as Morgan had been relying on support from sympathizers in Indiana to be successful on his raid. Hines stayed with Morgan until the end of the Raid, and was with John Hunt Morgan during their imprisonment, first at Johnson's Island, and later at the Ohio Penitentiary just outside downtown Columbus, Ohio, where, despite the rules of war dictating that prisoners of war should go to military prison, they were put in with common criminals. #### Escape Hines discovered a way to escape from the Ohio Penitentiary. He had been reading the novel Les Misérables and was said to be inspired by Jean Valjean and Valjean's escapes through the passages underneath Paris, France. Hines noticed how dry the lower prison cells felt and how they were lacking in mold, even though sunlight never shined there. This caused him to believe that escape by tunneling down was possible. After discovering an air chamber underneath them, which he had deduced, Hines begun the tunneling effort. The tunnel was only eighteen inches wide, which was just large enough for him to enter the four foot by four foot air chamber that was surrounded by heavy masonry. As Hines and the six others who accompanied Hines and John Hunt Morgan worked on the tunnel, a thin crust of dirt was used to hide the tunneling from the prison officials. They tunneled for six weeks, with the tunnel's exit coming between the inner and the 25-foot (7.6 m) outer prison walls, near a coal pile. On the day of escape, November 26, 1863, Morgan switched cells with his brother, Colonel Richard Morgan. The day was chosen as a new Union military commander was coming to Columbus, and Morgan knew that the prison cells would be inspected at that time. Together, after the daily midnight inspection, Hines, John Hunt Morgan and five captains under Morgan's command used the tunnel to escape. Aided by the fact that the prison sentries sought shelter from the raging storm occurring at the time, the Confederate officers climbed the 25-foot-tall (7.6 m) wall effortlessly, using metal hooks to effect their escape. Hines had even left a note for the warden. It read: "Warden N. Merion, the Faithful, the Vigilant" as follows: "Castle Merion, Cell No. 20. November 27, 1863. Commencement, November 4, 1863. Conclusion, November 20, 1863. Hours for labor per day, three. Tools, two small knives. La patience est amere, mais son fruit est doux. By order of my six honorable confederates." Those left behind were strip searched and moved to different cells in the Ohio State Penitentiary. Two of the officers who escaped with Hines and Morgan, Captain Ralph Sheldon and Captain Samuel Taylor, were captured four days later in Louisville, Kentucky, but the other three (Captain Jacob Bennett, Captain L. D. Hockersmith, and Captain Augustus Magee) made good their escape to Canada and the South. Hines led John Hunt Morgan back to Confederate lines. First, they arrived at the train station in downtown Columbus, where they bought tickets to Cincinnati, Ohio. The duo jumped off the train before it entered the Cincinnati train station. They continued to evade capture in Cincinnati, staying for one night at the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky. In Tennessee, Hines diverted the Union troops' attention away from John Hunt Morgan, and was himself recaptured and sentenced to death by hanging. He escaped that night by telling stories to the soldier in charge of him and subdued him when given the chance. A few days later he again escaped Union soldiers who intended to hang him. ### Northwest Conspiracy Hines went to the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, after his escape in January 1864. He convinced Confederate President Jefferson Davis of a plan to instill mass panic in the Northern states, by means of freeing prisoners and causing arson in larger Northern cities. Impressed by Hines' plan, Davis agreed to back him. Davis urged Hines to tell Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin and Secretary of War James Seddon his plan. Both men agreed to the plan, and encouraged Hines to proceed, with the only hesitation by Davis, Benjamin and Sheldon being the effect on public opinion on such a plan, including what Great Britain and France would think of Hines' actions. Hines thought it would be easier to enter the North from Canada and traveled there during the winter. Hines led the Northwest Conspiracy from Canada in the fall of 1864. Colonel Benjamin Anderson was involved in the plot, along with other Confederate soldiers. It was hoped that Hines and his men would be able to free the Confederate prisoners held at Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois. Hines led sixty men from Toronto, Ontario, on August 25, 1864. They arrived during the Democratic Party National Convention held in Chicago that year. The Copperheads had told Hines to wait until that time, as they said that 50,000 Copperheads would be there for the event. However, encountering Copperhead hesitation to assist Hines and his force, and with Federal authorities apparently knowledgeable of the plot, Hines and his men were forced to flee Chicago on August 30, 1864. Many of the men thought Anderson may have been a double agent, forcing him to leave the group. A second attempt to free the Camp Douglas Confederate prisoners occurred during the United States Presidential Election of 1864, but that plan was also foiled. In the same year he tried to free Confederate prisoners of war by recruiting former members of Morgan's Raiders who had escaped to Canada, including John Hunt Morgan's telegrapher George "Lightning" Ellsworth, who was a native of Canada. On his last day in Chicago, Hines had to avoid discovery by Union soldiers inspecting the home he was hiding in by crawling into a mattress upon which the homeowner's wife lay ill with delirium. The Union soldiers inspected the house he was in, and even checked to see if Hines was the one lying on the bed, but did not discover Hines in the mattress. The soldiers established a guard by the door of the house. As it rained the next day, visitors were encouraged to visit the sick woman. The soldiers never looked at the faces under the umbrellas, and as a result, Hines sneaked out of the house and left Chicago. ### Late war In October 1864, Hines again went to Cincinnati, after crossing covertly through Indiana, where Union troops had again sought him. This time, with the help of friends whose home he hid in, Hines concealed himself in an old closet obscured by mortar and red bricks, where he avoided detection by the Union troops who inspected the house. Hines learned there that his beloved Nancy Sproule was in an Ohio convent. He decided to "spirit" her from it, and on November 10, 1864, at St. Mary's Catholic Church in Covington, Kentucky, they were married, despite her father's wishes that they wait until the war was over, due to Hines' wartime activities. They spent a week's honeymoon in Kentucky, after which Hines returned to his clandestine activities in Canada. Two days after Lincoln's assassination, on April 16, 1865, Hines was in Detroit, Michigan, when he was mistaken for John Wilkes Booth, who was then the subject of a massive manhunt. After finding himself in a fight, Hines jumped several fences and made his way to Detroit's wharf. He waited for a ferryboat to empty its passengers and then forced the captain at gunpoint to take him across the Detroit River to Canada. On arrival, Hines apologized to the captain and gave him five dollars. Hines' exploit led to the mistaken rumor that Booth had escaped into Canada. ## Later life After his escape from Detroit, Hines went to Toronto, where several other former Confederates lived. Not expecting to return to the United States, he sent for his wife, Nancy. In Toronto, he studied law with General John C. Breckinridge, a former Vice President of the United States. Once U.S. President Andrew Johnson declared a pardon for most former Confederates, Hines went back to Detroit to sign a loyalty oath to the United States on July 20, 1865. However, knowing that Union officials in Kentucky would consider him an exception to the pardon, he remained in Canada until May 1866. After sending his wife to Kentucky, where their first child was born, Hines began living in Memphis, Tennessee, passing the bar exam on June 12, 1866, with high honors. During his stay in Memphis, he also edited the Daily Appeal. Hines moved to Bowling Green, Kentucky, in 1867, where many of his family lived, and practiced law there. Basil W. Duke appointed Hines a colonel in the Soldiers of the Red Cross. Hines later became the County Judge for Warren County, Kentucky. Hines was elected to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1878 and served there until 1886. From 1884 to 1886, he served as Chief Justice. He was said to be "exceptionally free from all judicial bias." Hines was a witness to the assassination of fellow judge John Milton Elliott on March 26, 1879, while the two were leaving the Kentucky State House, by Colonel Thomas Buford, a judge from Henry County, Kentucky. Buford, enraged by Elliott's failure to rule in favor of his late sister in a property dispute, shot Elliott with a double-barreled twelve gauge shotgun filled with buckshot after Hines had turned and walked away from Elliott. Hines inspected the body as Buford surrendered to a deputy sheriff who had come to investigate the turmoil. After his time on the Kentucky Court of Appeals, Hines returned to practicing law in Frankfort, Kentucky. In 1886, Hines began writing a series of four articles discussing the Northwest Conspiracy for Basil W. Duke's Southern Bivouac magazine. The magazine was dedicated to the memory of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, but was less adversarial than similar Southern magazines, gaining a larger Northern readership than similar journals. The first of the articles was printed in the December 1886 issue. However, after consulting with former Confederate President Jefferson Davis at Davis' home in Mississippi, Hines did not name anybody on the Northern side who assisted in the conspiracy. After writing the first article, Hines was attacked for not being more forthcoming regarding all the participants from both newspapers' reviewers (particularly from the Louisville Times) and Southern readers, which discouraged Hines from publishing any more accounts of the Northwest Conspiracy. Hines died in 1898 in Frankfort and was buried in Fairview Cemetery in Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the Hines series of plots. Also among the Hines family plots is the grave site of Duncan Hines, a second cousin twice removed. ## Misinformation Historical markers concerning Hines' exploits have occasionally included mistaken information. The historical marker placed by the Indiana Civil War Centennial Commission in 1963 in the vicinity of Derby, Perry County, Indiana, to memorialize Hines' entry into Indiana states that Hines invaded Indiana in 1862, although he actually did so in 1863. In addition, a marker by the Confederate Monument of Bowling Green in Bowling Green's Fairview Cemetery says that Hines died before he could go to the dedication ceremony in 1876, when in reality he died in 1898 and is buried a few hundred feet away.

Raymond Berry

American football player and coach (born 1933)

Raymond Emmett Berry Jr. (born February 27, 1933) is an American former professional football player and coach in the National Football League (NFL). He played as a split end for the Baltimore Colts from 1955 to 1967, and after several assistant coaching positions, was head coach of the New England Patriots from 1984 to 1989. With the Colts, Berry led the NFL in receptions and receiving yards three times and in receiving touchdowns twice, and was invited to six Pro Bowls. The Colts won consecutive NFL championships, including the 1958 NFL Championship Game—known as "The Greatest Game Ever Played"—in which Berry caught 12 passes for 178 yards and a touchdown. He retired as the all-time NFL leader in both receptions and receiving yardage. As a head coach, Berry led the Patriots to Super Bowl XX following the 1985 season, where his team was defeated by the Chicago Bears, 46–10. After catching very few passes in high school and college, Berry was drafted in the 20th round of the 1954 NFL Draft by the Colts and was considered a long shot to make the team's roster. Diminutive and unassuming, his subsequent rise to the Pro Football Hall of Fame has been touted as one of football's Cinderella stories. He made up for his lack of athleticism through rigorous practice and attention to detail, and was known for his near-perfect route running and sure-handedness. Berry was a favorite target of quarterback Johnny Unitas, and the two were regarded as the dominant passing and receiving duo of their era. After his playing career, Berry coached wide receivers for the Dallas Cowboys, the University of Arkansas, Detroit Lions, Cleveland Browns, and Patriots. He became the Patriots' head coach in 1984 and held that position through 1989, amassing 48 wins and 39 losses. In recognition of his playing career, Berry was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1973. He is a member of the NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team as one of the best players of the NFL's first 75 years and a unanimous selection to the NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team as one of the best players of the NFL's first 100 years. His number 82 jersey is retired by the Indianapolis Colts and he is a member of the Patriots' 1980s All-Decade Team. ## Early life and college Raymond Emmett Berry Jr. was born in Corpus Christi, Texas, on February 27, 1933, and spent the majority of his childhood in Paris, Texas. At Paris High School and in college, Berry caught very few passes. He did not start on his high school team until he was a senior, even though his father, Berry Sr., was the coach. After high school Berry played one year of junior college football at Shreiner Institute (now Schreiner University) in Kerrville, Texas, during the 1950 campaign. He helped the Mountaineers finish its most successful season in 10 years with a record of 7–3. He then transferred to Southern Methodist University (SMU). In three seasons for the SMU Mustangs football team, Berry received only 33 passes total. Sportswriters attributed his lack of receptions to his poor eyesight, but during the early 1950s, colleges specialized in the running game. As Berry said, "I didn't catch many passes because not many were thrown". He also played outside linebacker and defensive end for the Mustangs, despite weighing only 180 pounds (82 kg) even by his senior year. ## Professional playing career Berry was drafted by the Baltimore Colts in the 20th round as the 203rd overall pick of the 1954 NFL Draft. Considered a long-shot to make the team roster, he was used sparingly as a rookie, catching only 13 passes. By his second NFL season he became a permanent starter when the Colts acquired quarterback Johnny Unitas. Over the next 12 seasons together the two became one of the most dominant passing and catching duos in NFL history. Berry, who did not miss a single game until his eighth year in the league, led the NFL in receptions and receiving yards three times and in receiving touchdowns twice. In 1957, Berry caught 47 passes for 800 yards and six touchdowns, leading the NFL in receiving yards for the first time. Against the Washington Redskins that year in near-freezing weather, Unitas connected with Berry on 12 passes for 224 yards and two touchdowns, staging what the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette called a "spectacular show". He was recognized as a first-team All-Pro by The Sporting News and earned second-team honors from the Associated Press (AP). The following season, he recorded 794 receiving yards and led the league with 56 receptions and nine touchdowns. For his efforts, Berry was invited to his first Pro Bowl, and was a first-team All-Pro by the AP and several other major selectors. The Colts finished atop the Western Division with a record of 9–3 and faced the New York Giants in the NFL Championship Game. One of Berry's most notable performances was in that 1958 NFL Championship Game, known as "The Greatest Game Ever Played", in which he led the Colts to the franchise's first title with a then championship record 12 catches for 178 yards and a touchdown in the Colts' 23–17 victory over the Giants. At the end of regulation, he caught three consecutive passes for 62 yards to set up the Colts' tying field goal. He also had two key receptions for 33 yards during the Colts' final game-winning drive in overtime. His 12 receptions would remain an NFL championship game record for more than half a century, topped by one by Demaryius Thomas in Super Bowl XLVIII after the 2013 season. Berry led the NFL in receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns in 1959, becoming the fourth player to record a "triple crown" in receiving. His 14 receiving touchdowns set a Colts single-season franchise record that stood unmatched for over four decades. He was invited to his second straight Pro Bowl, and earned first-team All-Pro honors from the AP, UPI, the Newspaper Enterprise Association, and the New York Daily News. The Colts won back-to-back championships in an encore with the Giants, 31–16. In that game, Berry caught five passes for 68 yards, second on the team behind halfback Lenny Moore's 126 yards on three receptions. In 1960, Berry recorded his only 1,000-yard season, catching 74 passes en route to career highs in receiving yards (1,298) and receiving yards per game (108.2). Each of those totals led the NFL that year by a wide margin; no other player had more than 1,000 yards, and the next highest yards-per-game average was 81.0. He had a mid-season string of six straight games with over 100 yards, during which he caught 50 passes for 920 yards and eight touchdowns. Berry again was a Pro Bowl invitee, and earned first-team All-Pro honors from all the same selectors as the previous year, including unanimous All-Pro recognition by UPI sportswriters. Following this zenith, Berry did not have the same statistical success over his final seven seasons, but remained a consistent target for Unitas. His 75 receptions in the 1961 season was second-most in the league, and he finished 10th in receiving yards, but failed to record a touchdown for the first time since his rookie year. He scored the first touchdown of the 1962 Pro Bowl on a 16-yard reception from Unitas in the first quarter. His streak of Pro Bowl invitations ended at four, but he rebounded to appearances in 1963 and 1964, the latter his final. The Colts returned to the postseason in 1964, where they were shut out 27–0 by the Cleveland Browns in the 1964 championship game. After consecutive seasons recording 700+ receiving yards and seven touchdowns in 1965 and 1966, Berry missed half of the 1967 season due to injuries and caught only 11 passes for 167 yards. He announced his retirement shortly after the season's end. He completed his professional playing career having caught 631 passes for 9,275 yards (14.7 yards per catch) and 68 touchdowns. At the time, he held the NFL career records for receptions and receiving yards, and his receiving touchdowns were tied for fourth most with Don Maynard. ## NFL career statistics ### Regular season ### Postseason ## Coaching career After retiring from playing, Berry joined Tom Landry's Dallas Cowboys coaching staff as receivers coach. In 1970, after two seasons, Berry took a job with Frank Broyles at the University of Arkansas as receivers coach. In 1973 Berry joined Don McCafferty with the Detroit Lions as his receivers coach. In 1976, Berry joined former SMU teammate Forrest Gregg as his receivers coach with the Cleveland Browns. Berry joined the New England Patriots as receivers coach under Chuck Fairbanks in 1978. He stayed on with new coach Ron Erhardt until Erhardt and his entire staff were fired following a 2–14 1981 season. Berry left football and worked in real estate in Medfield, Massachusetts, until the Patriots fired Ron Meyer in the middle of the 1984 season and hired Berry to replace him. Under his leadership, the Patriots won four of their last eight games and finished the season with a 9–7 record. Berry's importance to the team was reflected less in his initial win–loss record than in the respect he immediately earned in the locker room – according to running back Tony Collins, "Raymond Berry earned more respect in one day than Ron Meyer earned in three years". In the 1985 season, the team improved further, posting an 11–5 record and making the playoffs as a wild card team. They went on to become the first team in NFL history to advance to the Super Bowl by winning three playoff games on the road, defeating the New York Jets 26–14 (the second postseason win in franchise history), the Los Angeles Raiders 27–20, and the Miami Dolphins 31–14. It was the first time the Patriots had beaten the Dolphins at the Orange Bowl (Miami's then-home stadium) since 1966, Miami's first season as a franchise. The Patriots had lost to the Dolphins there 18 consecutive times, including a 30–27 loss in Week 15 of the regular season. Despite their success in the playoffs, the Patriots were heavy underdogs to the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XX. They lost 46–10 in what was at the time the most lopsided defeat in Super Bowl history. "We couldn't protect the quarterback, and that was my fault. I couldn't come up with a system to handle the Bears' pass rush", Berry acknowledged. The following season, Berry's Patriots again recorded an 11–5 record and made the playoffs, this time after winning their second division title as an NFL team. However, they lost in the first round of the postseason. It would be Berry's last postseason appearance in New England, and the Patriots' last playoff berth altogether until 1994. They narrowly missed the playoffs with an 8–7 record in 1987 (a strike-shortened season) and a 9–7 record in 1988, in which quarterback Doug Flutie went 6–3 as a starter. However, Berry benched Flutie in the season finale against the Denver Broncos until the final seconds. The Patriots lost 21–10 and Flutie left for the CFL less than two years later. Then in Berry's last year as a coach, the Patriots finished the 1989 season 5–11. New Patriots majority owner Victor Kiam demanded Berry relinquish control over personnel and reorganize his staff; Berry refused and was fired. His regular-season coaching record was 48–39 (.552) and he was 3–2 (.600) in the playoffs. After a year out of coaching, Berry joined Wayne Fontes' staff with the Detroit Lions in 1991 as their quarterbacks coach, and then held the same position the following season on Dan Reeves' staff with the Denver Broncos. Reeves was fired after that season, along with his entire coaching staff. ## Coaching record ## Profile Berry overcame several physical ailments during his football career, a fact he became famous for, but one that according to Berry was often exaggerated by the media. He was skinny and injury-prone, such that when his college teammates saw him for the first time they sarcastically dubbed him, "Jack Armstrong, the All-American Boy". Reportedly, because one leg was shorter than the other, Berry had to wear padding inside his shoe in order to walk properly. However, according to Berry, this was not entirely true. In actuality, bruised nerves near the sacroiliac joint occasionally caused misalignment in his back, which in turn affected his legs and caused one to become slightly shorter; it was not a permanent condition. To alleviate this, he wore a back brace for 13 years in the NFL. That he required specialized shoes was a myth, which Berry says was perpetuated by an overzealous information director with the Colts when Berry tried to compensate for his condition by putting something in his shoe during training camp. Due to his poor eyesight, Berry wore contact lenses when he played. Because the lenses would often slip when he did rapid eye movements toward the ball, he tried many different lenses, which led sportswriters to believe he must have had major eye problems. "I tried all kinds of lenses till we got what we wanted," he said. "I even had tinted lenses for sunny days, so I could watch the ball come right across the sun." Berry was famous for his attention to detail and preparation, which he used to overcome his physical limitations. Considered slow for a wide receiver, he ran the 40-yard dash in 4.8 seconds. Rather than speed, he was renowned for his precise pass patterns and sure hands; he rarely dropped passes, and he fumbled only once in his career. He would squeeze Silly Putty constantly to strengthen his hands. He and Unitas regularly worked after practice and developed the timing and knowledge of each other's abilities that made each more effective. The reason for this, according to Berry, was that the two did not think on the same wavelength. "Every season we had to start all over on our timing, especially the long ball," said Berry. "He knew he had to release the ball when I was eighteen yards from scrimmage for me to receive it thirty-eight yards out. I knew I had to make my break in those first eighteen yards and get free within 2.8 seconds." He also relied on shifty moves, and by his count, he had 88 different moves to get open, all of which he practiced every week. Even in his adult years, Berry was soft-spoken and reserved. He preferred not to draw attention to himself, and was described by sportswriter Jim Murray as "polite as a deacon, as quiet as a monk." Both as a player and as a coach, he was studious, serious, and orderly; "He was too straight and narrow—but a great guy, a hell of a guy," former Colts teammate Art Donovan said of Berry. "He was a little peculiar, to say the least." ## Honors In 1973, Berry was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio. He is a member of the NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team, compiled in 1994 by the Hall of Fame selection committee and media to honor the NFL's best players of the league's first 75 years, and the 1950s All-Decade Team. In 1999, he was ranked 40th on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players. Berry's number 82 jersey is retired by the Colts, he is a member of the Patriots' 1980s All-Decade Team as a coach, and he is enshrined in the Baltimore Ravens Ring of Honor. ## Personal life Berry is a professed born again Christian and a member of the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. He considers his faith to be a "huge part" of his life. As of 2009, he lives with his wife in Tennessee. On February 5, 2012, at Super Bowl XLVI, Berry carried the Vince Lombardi Trophy to midfield to present it to the New York Giants, who had just defeated the New England Patriots. He was given the honor due to the game being played at Lucas Oil Stadium, the home stadium of his former team, the Colts, who had moved to Indianapolis in 1984.

Delaware Route 6

Highway in Delaware, United States

Delaware Route 6 (DE 6) is a state highway in Kent County, Delaware. It runs from Maryland Route 291 (MD 291) at the Maryland border west of Blackiston east to the Delaware Bay in Woodland Beach. The route passes through rural areas of northern Kent County as well as the towns of Clayton and Smyrna. DE 6 intersects DE 42 in Blackiston, DE 15 in Clayton, DE 300 and U.S. Route 13 (US 13) in Smyrna, and DE 9 to the east of Smyrna. The road was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s and received the DE 6 designation by 1936. The easternmost part of the route was paved in the 1960s and the route was moved to its current alignment bypassing downtown Smyrna by the 1990s. ## Route description DE 6 begins at the Maryland border, where the road continues west into that state as MD 291. From the state line, the route heads east on two-lane undivided Millington Road, passing through the Blackiston Wildlife Area. The road runs through areas of woods and farms with some homes. In the community of Blackiston, DE 6 intersects the western terminus of DE 42, which heads southeast toward the town of Kenton, and Longridge Road. The route continues east through more agricultural areas and reaches a junction with DE 15, at which point residential development near the road increases. DE 15 turns east to form a concurrency with DE 6. Upon reaching the western edge of the town of Clayton, DE 15 splits from DE 6 by heading to the north. DE 6 proceeds northeast through Clayton on Main Street, where it passes homes along with a few businesses. In Clayton, the road crosses the Delmarva Central Railroad's Delmarva Subdivision line at-grade north of the former Clayton Railroad Station as it turns more to the east. The route continues into the town of Smyrna, where it becomes Smyrna Clayton Boulevard. Shortly after entering Smyrna, DE 6 crosses Greens Branch and intersects DE 300, where it turns northeast onto West Glenwood Avenue and forms a concurrency with DE 300. The two routes pass a mix of homes and businesses before gaining a center left-turn lane past the Main Street junction and entering a commercial area in the northern part of Smyrna as East Glenwood Avenue. Here, the road widens into a divided highway before intersecting US 13. At this point, DE 300 ends and DE 6 turns southeast to form a concurrency with US 13. The two routes pass more businesses on four-lane divided North Dupont Boulevard. DE 6 splits from US 13 by heading to the east on two-lane undivided East Commerce Street, running through residential areas. The route passes over the DE 1 toll road without an interchange and leaves Smyrna. Upon leaving Smyrna, DE 6 becomes Woodland Beach Road and passes to the north of Smyrna Airport. The road heads east into agricultural areas, crossing Mill Creek as it winds east. The route intersects DE 9 before curving northeast into marshland within the Woodland Beach Wildlife Area. DE 6 turns north and reaches its eastern terminus at an intersection with Delaware Avenue in the community of Woodland Beach, located along the Delaware Bay. Past the eastern terminus, the road continues as Beach Avenue for one block to a parking lot adjacent to the Delaware Bay. The portion of the route between Alley Mill Road west of Clayton and DE 300 in Smyrna is part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway, a Delaware Byway. DE 6 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 26,210 vehicles at the east end of the US 13 concurrency to a low of 525 vehicles at the Delaware Avenue intersection in Woodland Beach. ## History By 1920, what is now DE 6 existed as an unimproved county road. The road was completed as a state highway within Clayton and was proposed as one from Clayton west to Blackiston by 1924. On August 5, 1925, the state highway between Clayton and Blackiston was completed. In 1929, the road leading to Woodland Beach was completed as a state highway. The portion of the road between Blackiston and the Maryland border was upgraded to a state highway in 1930. When Delaware created its state highway system by 1936, DE 6 was routed between the Maryland border west of Blackiston and Woodland Beach, following its current alignment to Smyrna, passing through Smyrna on Commerce Street, and continuing east on its current alignment to Woodland Beach. All of the route was paved except for the portion between present-day DE 9 and Woodland Beach. The eastern portion of the road was paved by 1967. By the 1990s, DE 6 was routed onto its current alignment through Smyrna along DE 300 and US 13, bypassing the downtown area. ## Major intersections ## See also

Homer the Vigilante

"Homer the Vigilante" is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 6, 1994. In the episode, a crime wave caused by an elusive cat burglar plagues Springfield. Lisa is distraught when her saxophone is stolen, and Homer promises to get it back. The police are ineffective, so Homer takes charge of a neighborhood watch. Under his leadership, it becomes a vigilante group which fails to catch the burglar. With the help of Grampa, Homer discovers that the burglar is a charming senior named Molloy. Molloy is arrested, but he outwits the citizens of Springfield and escapes. The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jim Reardon. Sam Neill guest starred in the episode as Molloy. "Homer the Vigilante" was selected for release in a 1997 video collection of selected episodes titled: The Simpsons: Crime and Punishment. It features cultural references to films such as It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World and Dr. Strangelove. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.2, and was the highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. ## Plot One night, the Simpson family's house is robbed by a cat burglar while the family sleeps; the next morning, the family finds out that several other houses in Springfield have been robbed by the same burglar. The town's residents arm themselves and install security devices to thwart the burglar. A neighborhood watch group is formed and Homer is elected as its leader. The street patrol soon devolves into a vigilante group whose members violate laws instead of catching criminals. When Homer is interviewed on news anchor Kent Brockman's Smartline, the cat burglar calls into the show and reveals he plans to steal the world's largest cubic zirconia from the Springfield museum. Homer's posse guards the museum, refusing the help of Grampa, as well as Jasper and Molloy, two of Grampa's friends from the Springfield Retirement Castle. After Homer spots a group of teenagers drinking beer, he leaves his post to intervene, but gets drunk with them instead. When the cat burglar subsequently steals the zirconia, Homer is blamed and pelted with fruits and vegetables by the unforgiving townspeople. Later, Grampa deduces that Molloy is the cat burglar and tells his family. Homer captures Molloy at the home, and the surprisingly amiable cat burglar returns the objects he stole. Nevertheless, Chief Wiggum arrests and imprisons Molloy. At the police station, Molloy asks if Homer and the police officers would like to know where he's hidden all the money he's stolen over the years. When Molloy tells them the stash is hidden under a giant "T" somewhere in Springfield, they rush from the station hoping to find the buried treasure. After checking several possible sites, the crowd returns to get more information from Molloy, who directs them to a large, T-shaped palm tree on the outskirts of town. The residents excavate the site, but find only a box containing a note from Molloy; he lied about the treasure in order to buy himself enough time to escape from his cell. Several citizens continue to dig, hoping that there is a real treasure, but soon find themselves at a loss for ways to get out of the hole they have made. ## Production The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Jim Reardon. New Zealand actor Sam Neill guest starred in the episode as Molloy, the cat burglar. Executive producer David Mirkin thought Neill, a big The Simpsons fan, was "lovely" to direct. Mirkin also said Neill was "really game" and did "a terrific job" on the episode. Neill considers recording this episode to be a "high-point" of his career. One scene of the episode features Kent Brockman reporting on the burglaries. Mirkin said this was a joke the staff enjoyed doing because it pointed out how negative and mean-spirited news broadcasts can be, and how they are seemingly "always trying to scare everybody" by creating panic and depression. "Homer the Vigilante" originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 6, 1994. The episode was selected for release in a 1997 video collection of selected episodes titled: The Simpsons: Crime and Punishment. Other episodes included in the collection set were "Marge in Chains", "Bart the Fink", and "You Only Move Twice". It was included in The Simpsons season five DVD set, The Simpsons - The Complete Fifth Season, which was released on December 21, 2004. Creator Matt Groening, supervising director David Silverman, and Mirkin appeared in the episode's audio commentary on the season five DVD. The episode was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the Crime and Punishment set. ## Cultural references The Molloy character is based on actor David Niven's performance as the character A. J. Raffles, a gentleman thief, in the 1939 film Raffles. The music heard at the beginning of the episode during the burglaries is taken from the film The Pink Panther, in which Niven played The Phantom, a similar character. Flanders tells Homer that his Shroud of Turin beach towels were stolen during one of the burglaries. Homer's dream of riding a nuclear bomb into oblivion is a reference to the famous scene from the film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb. Homer says "Take That Maynard G. Krebs", a reference to the Beatnik character from The Many Loves Of Dobie Gillis. Homer's line "So I said, Look buddy, your car was upside-down when I got here. And as for your grandma, she shouldn't have mouthed off like that!" is a reference to Flannery O'Connor's short story "A Good Man Is Hard to Find". The scene of Homer and Principal Skinner talking in front of the museum is a reference to a scene from the television series Dragnet. In a reference to the plot of the 1963 film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, Molloy sends the residents of Springfield on a hunt for a treasure that is buried under a big letter. The ending sequence of the episode also references the film by using the same music and camera angles. In another scene that references It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, Bart tricks American actor Phil Silvers into driving his car into a river, just like Silvers's character did in the film. ## Reception ### Critical reception Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, thought it was "a bit lacking in focus", but it contained "a number of satisfying set-pieces — we like Professor Frink's walking house security system — and displays Wiggum at his all-time most useless." DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote: "After the many plots of the prior show, 'Vigilante' maintains a much tighter focus. It’s nothing quite as wonderful an episode as its immediate predecessor, but it’s strong nonetheless. Much of the humor comes from Homer’s newfound power and abuse of it. If nothing else, it’s a great program due to Homer’s reaction to Lisa’s jug playing." Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of B, and Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave it a score of 4 out of 5. Les Winan of Box Office Prophets named "Homer the Vigilante", "Cape Feare", "Homer Goes to College", "\$pringfield", and "Deep Space Homer" his favorite episodes of season five. It was also the Liverpool Daily Post's Mike Chapple's favorite episode of the season, together with "Bart Gets an Elephant" and "Burns' Heir". ### Ratings In its original broadcast, "Homer the Vigilante" finished 41st in the ratings for the week of January 3–9, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 12.2, equivalent to approximately 11.5 million viewing households. It was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week.

Chris Howard (American football)

American football player (born 1975)

Christopher L. Howard (born May 5, 1975) is a retired professional American football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Jacksonville Jaguars. Howard had been drafted by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft. His professional football career was haunted by fumble troubles, which caused the Broncos to release him before he played a regular season game for them. Howard began to have fumble problems again when the Jaguars acquired and promoted him to a role as a regular player. He had previously played for the Michigan Wolverines football team where in the 1997 NCAA Division I-A football season, his final year at Michigan, they won a national championship. Howard led the National Champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team in rushing and was a Hula Bowl MVP in 1998. Chris attended Louisiana high school football powerhouse, John Curtis Christian High School in River Ridge, Louisiana. He was formerly married to Gabrielle Union. ## Early years Howard was born in Kenner, Louisiana. He enrolled at Michigan after playing for Louisiana High School football powerhouse John Curtis Christian High School. ## College career In four years at Michigan from 1994 to 1997, he totaled 1876 yards rushing on 418 carries and added 429 yards receiving on 60 receptions. He totaled nine 100-yard rushing efforts for Michigan including four during the 1997 championship season. In college, his biggest rushing effort was 127 yards against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in 1996. However, he once rushed for 109 yards and 4 touchdowns against the UCLA Bruins. In addition, Howard also posted the fourth longest rush in school history, an 86-yard rush. In 1996, he had five 100-yard games despite only playing in ten games as a junior. He totaled 725 yards rushing and ten touchdowns in the ten games. However, he was second on the team in rushing to sophomore Clarence Williams who tallied 837 yards in 12 games. In the 1997 championship season, he was the rushing leader for an undefeated 12–0 Michigan team that did not have a 1000-yard rusher or 500-yard receiver. The team emphasized defense behind 1997 Heisman Trophy winning defensive back Charles Woodson. Howard totaled 938 yards rushing on 199 carries and 276 yards receiving on 37 receptions. He was second on the team in scoring to placekicker Kraig Baker with 7 rushing touchdowns and 1 receiving touchdown. He was complemented in the backfield by freshman Anthony Thomas who added 549 yards and 5 rushing touchdowns. One of the key games in Michigan's 1997 National Championship season was the game against the unbeaten Penn State Nittany Lions, then ranked Number 2 in the nation. Howard rushed for 120 yards and a touchdown in the win over the Nittany Lions, prompting Coach Lloyd Carr to comment: "I think that Chris Howard is a very underrated back. He proved that today." Michigan controlled the game and led 34–0 after 3 quarters behind Howard’s best collegiate performance in terms of yards from scrimmage with 120 yards rushing and 41 yards receiving. The 1997 season concluded with a 21–16 win over Washington State in the January 1, 1998 Rose Bowl. Howard led all rushers in the game with 70 yards rushing on 19 carries. He was also the North MVP for the 1998 edition of the Hula Bowl, an invitational college football all-star game. He rushed for 116 yards on 14 carries and was involved in the culminating score in the North’s second half comeback. He handed off to Joe Jurevicius on a reverse play which ended with Jurevicius passing to Brian Griese for a five-yard touchdown pass. The North would lose, however, when the missed extra point left the door open for a game-winning field goal. ## Professional career Howard was selected by the Denver Broncos in the fifth round of the 1998 NFL Draft, but he had a difficult pre-season with the Broncos in 1998, fumbling five times in two games. The Broncos released him from their practice squad in September 1998, and he was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars. At the time, Jacksonville Coach Tom Coughlin said: "Chris Howard is a young man and he certainly still is developmental. A couple weeks into our system and I think he'll be a guy who can be counted on. But I'm not going to say we're done with our evaluations just yet." Coughlin said of Howard's fumbles with Denver: "It was carelessness. Basically, we'll start from scratch with him fundamentally here." Howard had professional totals of 123 yards rushing on 41 carries and 37 yards receiving on five receptions. In 2000, his final year, he fumbled twice on only 21 carries in the first two games. These were his final two career NFL games. ## Personal life Chris Howard married actress Gabrielle Union on May 5, 2001. They separated in 2005 and their divorce was made final in April 2006. ## See also - Lists of Michigan Wolverines football rushing leaders

Helen Lee (director)

Korean-Canadian film director

<table class="infobox biography vcard"> Sally's Beauty Spot, Prey, The Art of Woo </td> </tr> </table> Helen Lee (Korean: 헬렌 리) is a Korean-Canadian film director. Born in Seoul, South Korea, she emigrated to Canada at the age of four and grew up in Scarborough, Ontario. Interested in film at a young age, she took film studies at the University of Toronto and, later, New York University. While in university she was influenced by gender and minority theories, as reflected in her first film, the short Sally's Beauty Spot (1990). While continuing her studies she produced two more films before taking a five-year hiatus to live in Korea beginning in 1995. After her return, she released another short film and her feature film debut, The Art of Woo (2001). She continues to produce films, although at a reduced rate. Lee's films often deal with gender and racial issues, reflecting the state of East Asians in modern society; a common theme in her work is sexuality, with several films featuring interracial relationships. ## Early life Helen Lee was born in Seoul, South Korea, around 1965, but came to Canada when she was four, a year after her parents. She was raised in Scarborough, Ontario, having moved there in the mid-1970s. As a child, she became interested in black-and-white films from the Golden Age of Hollywood. She later wrote that the 1960 film The World of Suzie Wong spoke to her racial identity as an Asian Canadian, an experience she found to have influenced her filmmaking; excerpts from the film were included in her first short. Lee began her tertiary studies at the University of Western Ontario, taking art studio and business courses, before transferring to the University of Toronto; there she majored in English literature and film studies. By 1989 she was attending New York University (NYU), studying under Homi K. Bhabha, Faye Ginsburg, and Michael Taussig, with a scholarship. During this period she was influenced by Trinh T. Minh-ha's paradigms on women and ethnicity, as expressed in the 1989 book Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism; these were later expressed in Lee's first film. She later described Minh-ha as at one point being her "ultimate role model". ## Early film career Lee made Sally's Beauty Spot, a 12-minute-long short film focusing on a mole on her sister's right breast, for a film editing class at NYU in 1990. For the film she used a second-hand Bolex camera and edited it with a Steenbeck editing suite. She later recalled that she recorded the film while in her pyjamas. The production cost a total of \$4,000. Fellow Canadian filmmaker David Weaver described it as sexualizing Sally's body, something that Lee had not intended. The film was first screened at the Festival of Festivals in Toronto. After graduation, Lee attended the prestigious International Study Program at the Whitney Museum of American Art before returning to Canada. In 1992 Lee made the forty-minute long film My Niagara, which featured scenes shot in Japan that were reminiscent of home movies; the effect was obtained by filming in Super 8 Kodachrome, then transferring it to 16 mm film. Filmed in Etobicoke, Ontario, at the childhood home of co-writer Kerri Sakamoto, the film detailed a young Asian-Canadian woman living alone with her father after the death of her mother. Scenes were also shot at the R. C. Harris Water Treatment Plant in Toronto. Francesca Duran in LIFT writes that the film, which had a budget of \$80,000, had a theme of cultural displacement, and that My Niagara was well received. That year she also released the three-minute To Sir With Love. After My Niagara, Lee took a position as a director observer on the set of Atom Egoyan's Exotica, and then enrol at a summer program at the Canadian Film Centre (CFC). Meanwhile, she worked as a film and music critic for Now and extensively wrote about films for other publications. She took further studies at the Banff Centre for the Arts in Banff, Alberta, before returning to the CFC as a director residency. She continued to be involved with the American company Women Make Movies, a distributor of feminist media, which she had become involved with while at NYU. In 1995 Lee released the 26-minute-long Prey, starring Adam Beach and Sandra Oh; she described the film as a "cross-cultural comedy". The film, which followed a young Korean woman who falls in love with a drifter, was a collaboration with Cameron Bailey and dealt with themes of racial differences, immigration, and social class. The Canadian film critic and experimental filmmaker Mike Hoolboom compared the themes to those of the 1989 Hollywood film Do the Right Thing, writing that had short films been respected it would have been a watershed mark. That year she also released the four-minute M. Nourbese Philip. She then took a five-year hiatus, which she spent in Korea. ## Post Korea In 2000 Lee released the 22-minute short Subrosa, following a woman's search for her mother in Seoul. Intended as a prequel for an undeveloped film entitled Priceless, the film was shot in several formats with a fifteen-person crew, hurriedly recording scenes in public locations. It extensively used character-centred shots, leading to what Lee described as an organic understanding of the character. It also featured on-screen sexual intercourse, framed in a medium shot, which Lee intended as a sign and not simply a sex scene. Although Priceless, meant as a sequel to Subrosa, went through more than thirty drafts, it was ultimately cancelled despite interest from Alliance Atlantis and Citytv. Anita Lee, co-producer of Priceless, then suggested that Helen Lee make The Art of Woo, a romantic comedy sponsored by the Canadian Film Centre's Feature Film Project; it was Lee's feature film debut. Starring Adam Beach and Sook Yin Lee as Alessa Woo, the Toronto-set film follows an Asian-Canadian art dealer who finds herself living in close quarters with a handsome and talented Indigenous artist but considers him unworthy as he is penniless. The film also stars Don McKellar, Alberta Watson, Joel Keller, John Gilbert and Siu Ta. Executive producer was Peter O'Brian. Original paintings were provided by Kent Monkman to stand in for artworks by Beach's character, Ben Crowchild. Artworks were also loaned by Suzy Lake and then-Power Plant director, Marc Mayer, appears in a cameo. The film had its world premiere at the 2000 Toronto International Film Festival, and was commercially released in Canada in 2001 by "Cineplex Odeon Films. It was invited to the Busan International Film Festival that autumn, continuing its festival run. The original soundtrack – by Ron Sexsmith and Kurt Swinghammer – notably won a Genie Award for Best Achievement in Music – Original Song. That year she also released the three-minute Star. After The Art of Woo, Lee announced that she intended to adapt Kerri Sakamoto's novel The Electrical Field with the author, and a "romantic thriller". However, neither has yet been released. In 2002 she mounted the video installation Cleaving at the Werkleitz Biennale in Germany. She married around 2008, and that same year released the short Hers at Last, about the interactions of two women living as "outsiders" in Korea. The short was premiered at the Seoul International Women's Film Festival as part of an omnibus entitled Ten Ten, in celebration of the festival's tenth anniversary. The omnibus also featured works by fellow directors Byun Young-joo, Ulrike Ottinger and Lee Su-yeon. ## Themes Race, gender issues, sexual and racial identity often feature in Lee's works. The main characters, up through The Art of Woo, are Asian women that are "caught up in some cross cultural encounter". She writes that she attempts to address these issues through her films in non-didactic ways, such that the "racial melancholia ... are like seepages in the more obvious dramatic or comedic content". She contrasts her films with the 1993 drama The Joy Luck Club, which she considers a film with obvious, easily consumable, ethnic content. She considers the stereotype of Asian women as seductresses, either demure "lotus blossoms" or vociferous "dragon ladies", to be a degenerative one which is "sometimes extremely offensive", but one that has "a cultural memory that demands [the viewer's] attention." Lee's works often include elements of sexuality in their characterizations. She writes that the main characters of My Niagara and Subrosa reach a greater understanding of themselves and their relationships after sexual encounters. She considers sex as "never the culmination or end point", but a signifier for intimacy. As such, she feels that the more intimate aspects of sex are best conveyed wordlessly, through how it is presented, although she concedes that "talky sex" can be appropriate for romantc comedies. ## Filmography All of the below are short films unless noted. - Sally's Beauty Spot (1990) - My Niagara (1992) - Prey (1995) - Subrosa (2000) - Helen (2002) - The Art of Woo (2001; feature film debut) - Hers at Last (2008) - Into Such Assembly'' (2019)

Leslie H. Sabo Jr.

US Army Medal of Honor recipient (1948–1970)

Leslie Halasz Sabo Jr. (Hungarian: ifj. Halász Szabó László; 22 February 1948 – 10 May 1970) was a soldier in the United States Army during the Vietnam War. He received the highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions during the Cambodian Campaign in 1970. Born in Kufstein, Austria, Sabo's family immigrated to the United States when he was young and moved to Ellwood City, Pennsylvania. Sabo dropped out of college and was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1969, becoming a member of the 506th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division. On 10 May 1970 Sabo's unit was on an interdiction mission near Se San, Cambodia when they were ambushed from all sides by the Vietnam People's Army. Sabo repeatedly exposed himself to North Vietnamese fire, protecting other soldiers from a grenade blast and providing covering fire for American helicopters until he was killed. Sabo was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but the records were lost. In 1999 a fellow Vietnam War veteran came across the records and began the process of reopening Sabo's recommendation. Following several delays, Sabo's widow received the Medal of Honor from President Barack Obama on 16 May 2012, 42 years after his death. ## Biography ### Early life Sabo was born in Kufstein, Austria on 22 February 1948 to Elizabeth and Leslie Sabo Sr., who had been members of an upper-class Hungarian family. Leslie Jr. had one brother, George, who was born in 1944, as well as a second brother who had been killed in World War II bombings at the age of one. With the post-World War II occupation of Hungary by the Soviet Union, Sabo's family lost their fortune in the war and, upon realizing Communism would be installed in Hungary long-term, they left the country permanently. The Sabo family moved to the United States in 1950 just after Sabo turned two years old. Leslie Sr., who had previously worked as a lawyer, attended evening classes to become an engineer in the United States. The family moved to Youngstown, Ohio and lived there for a short time before moving to Ellwood City, Pennsylvania, as Leslie Sr. followed a job at Blaw-Knox Corp. Growing up, Sabo's father stressed discipline and patriotism. Sabo graduated from Lincoln High School in 1966 and briefly attended Youngstown State University before dropping out and working at a steel mill for a short time. He was described by friends and family as an affectionate and "kind-hearted hometown boy" who was easygoing and always in good humor. He enjoyed billiards and bowling. ### Military career Sabo was drafted into the United States Army in April 1969 and sent to Fort Benning, Georgia for basic combat training. While on leave he married Rose Sabo-Brown (née Buccelli), the daughter of a World War II veteran and Silver Star Medal recipient, whom he had met in 1967. He attended advanced individual training in September and October of that year, followed by a honeymoon trip to New York City, New York. Sabo was assigned to Bravo Company of the 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry Regiment, U.S. 101st Airborne Division and was known to enjoy his time in the military, preferring the environment of discipline and camaraderie. In January 1970 Sabo and his unit departed for Vietnam to fight in the Vietnam War and he began corresponding with his wife regularly via letter. The unit came into contact with North Vietnamese troops frequently for the first several months of its deployment, but most of these were small hit-and-run attacks. On 5 May 1970 Sabo's platoon was attached to the U.S. 4th Infantry Division for a secret mission into Cambodia and dropped into the country on a UH-1 Huey helicopter. They were to conduct a series of interdiction missions against the Ho Chi Minh Trail with the assistance of heavy air support. For five days they came into constant, heavy contact with North Vietnamese forces that were often of superior size. ### Medal of Honor action On 10 May 1970 Sabo's platoon was part of a force of two platoons from Bravo Company on a mission to Se San, Cambodia. They were to engage a force of North Vietnamese Army (NVA) troops that had used the area as a staging ground for the Tet Offensive and other attacks. There they were ambushed by a force of 150 NVA troops hidden in the jungle and the trees, which had caught the American force in the open and unprepared. This battle became known as the "Mother's Day ambush." Sabo, who was at the column's end, repeatedly repulsed efforts by the North Vietnamese to surround and overrun the Americans. As the battle continued, a North Vietnamese soldier threw a grenade near a wounded American soldier lying in the open. Sabo ran out from a small tree that had been providing him cover and draped himself over his wounded comrade as the grenade exploded. Then, after absorbing multiple wounds from the grenade blast, Sabo attacked the enemy trench, killing two soldiers with a grenade of his own, and helped his injured ally to the shelter of a nearby treeline. Later, with the Americans running out of ammunition, Sabo again exposed himself to retrieve rounds from Americans killed earlier in the day. Sabo then began redistributing ammunition to other members of the platoon, including stripping ammunition from wounded and dead comrades. As night fell the North Vietnamese refocused their efforts from wiping out the American force to harassing the helicopters that were carrying more than two dozen wounded soldiers. As that was occurring, the remaining platoon from Bravo Company broke through the North Vietnamese lines and relieved the other two platoons while the first medical helicopter arrived and loaded two wounded soldiers under heavy fire. Sabo again stepped out into the open and provided covering fire for the helicopter until his ammunition was exhausted. He received several serious wounds under heavy fire by the North Vietnamese while trying to reload. Although mortally wounded, Sabo crawled forward toward the enemy emplacement, pulled the pin of a grenade, and threw it at the last possible second toward an enemy bunker. The resulting explosion silenced the enemy bunker at the cost of Sabo's life. In all, seven other members of the platoon were killed in this ambush and another 28 were wounded. The North Vietnamese forces lost 49. ### Subsequent recognition Although he was posthumously promoted to the rank of sergeant, the circumstances of Sabo's death remained unclear to his family for several decades thereafter. Officially the military reported Sabo had been killed by a sniper while guarding an ammunition cache somewhere in Vietnam. Shortly after the action Sabo's company commander, Captain Jim Waybright, recommended him for the Medal of Honor, but the accounts of Sabo's actions and citation were lost for several decades. This changed in 1999 when Alton Mabb, another Vietnam War veteran of the 101st Airborne Division and a columnist for the division association magazine, uncovered the documents while at the National Archives in College Park, Maryland. Mabb publicized Sabo's exploits in the magazine and also wrote U.S. Congresswoman Corrine Brown D.-FL, whom he asked to forward the recommendation. Brown lobbied the U.S. Department of Defense for Sabo to be recognized and, in 2006, Secretary of the Army Francis J. Harvey recommended that Sabo receive the Medal of Honor. Due to the delay in processing the citation, however, the award had to be approved by an act of Congress, so Brown attached it as a rider to a 2008 defense authorization bill. After continued delays in the process, however, Sabo's family contacted U.S. Congressman Jason Altmire D.-PA to push the award through the Defense Department. Secretary of the Army John McHugh recommended the Medal of Honor for Sabo in March 2010 and, on 16 April 2012, it was announced that Sabo's family would receive the medal from U.S. President Barack Obama at a White House ceremony, 42 years after the action. Sabo posthumously received the Medal of Honor at the White House 16 May 2012, which was accepted by his widow. Sabo is interred at Holy Redeemer Cemetery in North Sewickley Township, Pennsylvania and is honored at a memorial to B Company in Marietta, Ohio, the home of his former commanding officer. Company of Heroes, a book written by Ellwood City-based journalist Eric Poole about Sabo and his fellow soldiers in Bravo Company, was released in 2015 by Osprey Publishing. ## Awards and decorations In addition to the Medal of Honor Sabo also received several other honors as well as being posthumously promoted to the rank of sergeant. His other military decorations include the Purple Heart Medal, the Air Medal, the Army Commendation Medal, the Army Good Conduct Medal, the National Defense Service Medal, the Vietnam Service Medal with two campaign stars, the Vietnam Military Merit Medal, the Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Bronze Palm, and the Vietnam Campaign Medal. His unit awards include the Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation and the Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation. ### Medal of Honor citation Sabo was the 249th person to be awarded the Medal of Honor for actions in the Vietnam War and the 3,458th awardee in the history of the medal. > For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty: Specialist Four Leslie H. Sabo Jr. distinguished himself by conspicuous acts of gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty at the cost of his own life while serving as a rifleman in Company B, 3d Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division in Se San, Cambodia, on May 10, 1970. On that day, Specialist Four Sabo and his platoon were conducting a reconnaissance patrol when they were ambushed from all sides by a large enemy force. Without hesitation, Specialist Four Sabo charged an enemy position, killing several enemy soldiers. Immediately thereafter, he assaulted an enemy flanking force, successfully drawing their fire away from friendly soldiers and ultimately forcing the enemy to retreat. In order to re-supply ammunition, he sprinted across an open field to a wounded comrade. As he began to reload, an enemy grenade landed nearby. Specialist Four Sabo picked it up, threw it, and shielded his comrade with his own body, thus absorbing the brunt of the blast and saving his comrade's life. Seriously wounded by the blast, Specialist Four Sabo nonetheless retained the initiative and then single-handedly charged an enemy bunker that had inflicted severe damage on the platoon, receiving several serious wounds from automatic weapons fire in the process. Now mortally injured, he crawled towards the enemy emplacement and, when in position, threw a grenade into the bunker. The resulting explosion silenced the enemy fire, but also ended Specialist Four Sabo's life. His indomitable courage and complete disregard for his own safety saved the lives of many of his platoon members. Specialist Four Sabo's extraordinary heroism and selflessness, above and beyond the call of duty, at the cost of his life, are in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit upon himself, Company B, 3d Battalion, 506th Infantry, 101st Airborne Division, and the United States Army. ## See also - List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Vietnam War

The Boat Race 1839

The 3rd Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 3 April 1839. It was the second of the University Boat Races to be held on the River Thames, this time between Westminster and Putney. Cambridge had competed against Leander Club in 1837 and 1838; it had been three years since Oxford and Cambridge raced against one another. Representatives of both universities and an independent referee oversaw the proceedings. Cambridge won the race by 35 lengths, as of 2023 the largest winning margin in the history of the event. ## Background The Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford (sometimes referred to as the "Dark Blues") and the University of Cambridge (sometimes referred to as the "Light Blues"). The race was first held in 1829, and takes place on the River Thames in southwest London. No race between the two universities was held in 1837 or 1838, instead Cambridge raced against Leander Club those years. The umpires for the race were C. B. Wollaston (for Oxford) and C. J. Selwyn (for Cambridge), while W. H. Harrison acted as referee. Cambridge's boat was constructed by Searle of Stangate, while Oxford's "beautifully constructed" vessel was built by King of Oxford. The race was scheduled to take place on a five-and-three-quarter-mile stretch between Westminster Bridge and Putney Bridge. Oxford were trained by a Thames waterman while Cambridge were guided by their cox, Thomas Selby Egan. ## Crews The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 10.5 lb (74.4 kg) per rower, almost 10 pounds (4.5 kg) more per man than their opponents. None of the Oxford crew from the 1836 featured in this year's race; however, both the stroke Edmund Stanley and cox Egan returned for Cambridge, the former being described by Bell's Life as "really terrific, one of the severest we ever saw". Oxford's boat club president was Calverley Bewicke who rowed at stroke for the Dark Blues, while Cambridge had a non-rowing president in Augustus Granville. ## Race The umpires for the race were Charles Woolaston and C. J. Selwyn, while W. Harrison Esq, the Commodore of the Royal Thames Yacht Club, fulfilled the position of referee. The race was held on a Wednesday, 3 April 1839, the start time of "precisely" 4.47pm, in conditions described by MacMichael as "cold, cloudy and windy, and just the very worst sort of day for an aquatic expedition". According to Bell's Life, Cambridge were slight favourites. Oxford won the toss and elected to commence closest to the Middlesex shore of the river. After a close start, the Cambridge boat started to draw away and by Vauxhall Bridge were "several boats' lengths" ahead. They increased their lead further by Battersea Bridge and shot Putney Bridge 1 minute 45 seconds ahead, and won by a margin of 35 lengths which remains, as of 2023, the largest in the history of the event. Cambridge's victory took them to an overall lead in the event of 2–1.

Tucker: The Man and His Dream

1988 American biographical film

Tucker: The Man and His Dream is a 1988 American biographical comedy-drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola, starring Jeff Bridges as inventor Preston Tucker. The film recounts Tucker's story and his attempt to produce and market the Tucker 48, which was met with scandal between the Big Three automobile manufacturers and accusations of stock fraud from the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Joan Allen, Martin Landau, Elias Koteas, Frederic Forrest and Christian Slater appear in supporting roles. Landau won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor and was nominated for the Academy Award in the same category. In 1973, Coppola began development of a film based on the life of Tucker, originally with Marlon Brando in the lead role. Starting in 1976, Coppola planned Tucker to be both a musical and an experimental film with music and lyrics written by Leonard Bernstein, Betty Comden and Adolph Green. The project eventually collapsed when Coppola's American Zoetrope experienced financial problems. Tucker was revived in 1986 when Coppola's friend, George Lucas, joined as an executive producer. The film received positive reviews from critics, despite underperforming at the box office. Tucker: The Man and His Dream produced a spike in prices of Tucker 48s, as well as a renewed appreciation for Tucker and his automobiles. ## Plot Detroit engineer Preston Tucker has been interested in building cars since childhood. During World War II he designed an armored car for the military and made money building gun turrets for aircraft in a small shop next to his home in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Tucker is supported by his large extended family, particularly his wife Vera, his sons Preston Jr. and Noble, and his daughter Marilyn Lee. As the war winds down, Tucker becomes inspired to build the "car of the future". The "Tucker Torpedo" will feature revolutionary safety designs, including disc brakes, seatbelts, a pop-out windshield, and headlights which swivel when the car turns. Tucker hires young designer Alex Tremulis to help with the design and enlists New York financier Abe Karatz to arrange financial support. Raising the money through a stock issue, Tucker and Karatz acquire the enormous Dodge Chicago Plant to begin manufacturing. Abe hires Robert Bennington to run the new Tucker Corporation on a day-to-day basis. Launching "the car of tomorrow" in a spectacular way, the Tucker Corporation is met with enthusiasm from shareholders and the general public. However, the Tucker board of directors, unsure of his ability to overcome the technical and financial obstacles ahead, send Tucker off on a publicity campaign and attempt to take complete control of the company. While Tucker travels the country, Bennington and directors change the design of the Tucker 48 to a more conventional design, eliminating the safety and engineering advances Tucker was advertising. At the same time, Tucker faces animosity from the Big Three automakers—General Motors, Ford and Chrysler—and from the authorities, led by Michigan Senator Homer S. Ferguson. Tucker returns from his publicity tour and confronts Bennington, who curtly informs him that he no longer has any power in the company to make decisions, and that the engine originally planned for the car is not viable. Tucker then receives a call from Howard Hughes, who sends a private plane to bring Tucker to his aircraft manufacturing site. Hughes advises Tucker to purchase the Aircooled Motors Company, which can supply both the steel Tucker needs, as well as a small, powerful helicopter engine that might replace Tucker's original 589 power plant. Unable to change Bennington's design, Tucker modifies the new engine and installs it in a test Tucker in the secrecy of his backyard tool-and-die shop. This prototype proves successful, both in durability and in crash-testing. However, Tucker is confronted with allegations of stock fraud. Ferguson's investigation with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) causes Karatz—once convicted of bank fraud—to resign out of fear that his criminal record will prejudice the hearings. Yellow journalism all but ruins Tucker's public image, but the courtroom battle is resolved when he parades his entire production run of fifty Tucker 48s, proving that he has reached production status. After giving a speech to the jurors on how capitalism in the United States is harmed by efforts of large corporations against small entrepreneurs like himself, Tucker is acquitted on all charges, but the Tucker Corporation falls into bankruptcy. In the film's closing shot, Tucker's entire production line—fifty "cars of the future"—is driven through the streets of downtown Chicago, admired by everyone as they pass. ### Epilogue Preston Tucker died of lung cancer six years after the trial. Although only 50 Tucker 48s were ever produced, 46 of them remained roadworthy and in use as of 1988. Many of Tucker's innovations—aerodynamic styling, padded dash, pop-out windows, seatbelts, fuel injection, and disc brakes—were gradually adopted by larger automakers and are found in most modern cars. ## Cast ## Background From childhood, Coppola envisioned a film about the Tucker automobile and while attending the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television in the early 1960s, further refined a film concept based on the life of Preston Tucker. In June 1973, during the filming of The Godfather Part II (1974), Coppola announced his intention to start development at American Zoetrope as writer, producer and director. He had already approached Marlon Brando for the lead role. He then purchased the rights from the Tucker Estate in 1976, and, in addition to Brando, discussed the leading role with Jack Nicholson and also considered Burt Reynolds. Taking inspiration from Citizen Kane (1941), Kabuki theater and the work of Bertolt Brecht, Coppola initially planned to make Tucker as a "dark kind of musical". He later said that the idea approximated the style of an experimental film, similar to Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters (1985), which he produced. The musical would have featured Tucker predominantly, but storylines would have interwoven Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Harvey Samuel Firestone and Andrew Carnegie as supporting characters. Leonard Bernstein agreed to write the music, and Betty Comden and Adolph Green were hired to write the lyrics. They all spent a week at Coppola's home in California, planning the musical which resulted in Bernstein writing one song. Coppola also approached Gene Kelly as a consultant for the dance choreography. However, financing for Tucker fell through when Coppola's production company, American Zoetrope, filed for bankruptcy after the box office failures of One from the Heart (1982) and The Cotton Club (1984). Coppola abandoned Tucker for the time being and went to work on Peggy Sue Got Married (1986). In 1986, during the production of Captain EO (1986), Coppola's friend George Lucas encouraged him to revive development for Tucker, believing it to be "the best film Francis had ever been involved with". In addition, Lucas agreed to serve as executive producer and offered the use of his filmmaking companies, Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic. He also convinced Coppola to drop the musical idea in favor of doing a homage to the films of Frank Capra, especially Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939). Coppola became interested in the American Dream aspect of the storyline, as well as post-World War II capitalism and politics. At one point, Coppola approached Capra to produce the film with Lucas, however, Capra thought Tucker was a failure and Coppola dropped that plan. Coppola originally intended to write the screenplay himself, but due to his commitment to the filming of Gardens of Stone (1987), engaged Arnold Schulman who scripted Capra's A Hole in the Head (1959). Schulman was angered when screenwriter David Seidler, who'd been previously attached to the project, was granted a co-writing credit by the WGA, stating: "Believe me, I was pissed off about the credit grabbing on Tucker. I'm still pissed off. That is one instance where every word of the script is mine." Coppola was also displeased by Seidler's credit, stating: "They gave a credit to a writer who had nothing to do with the script that I used." The filmmakers devised a \$24 million production budget, but Universal Pictures, Walt Disney Pictures, TriStar Pictures and Paramount Pictures wanted Coppola and Lucas to lower it to \$15 million. Distributors were also dubious about working with Lucas after the 1986 commercial and critical failures of both Labyrinth and Howard the Duck. Lucas decided to cover the \$24 million budget himself, and pre-production proceeded. ## Production Development and production for Tucker: The Man and His Dream included the involvement of Tucker's children and grandchildren. Jeff Bridges was cast in the title role and, for research, studied Preston Tucker's mannerisms and movements through home movies. Tucker's descendants also granted Bridges the opportunity to sport the man's black pearl ring and cuff links for his wardrobe. Preston's son, John Tucker, said that Bridges has "got it all in the mannerisms and the look. My father was very positive, always thinking of what came next. Jeff captures that." Martin Landau was enthusiastic about accepting the pivotal role of Abe Karatz as a means to avoid typecasting. The construct of family values played a crucial role in the Tuckers' life and Coppola studiously selected Joan Allen for the part of Vera, Tucker's devoted wife while Christian Slater and Elias Koteas fill in the other central roles of eldest son and Tucker's friend and confederate, Alex Tremulis. Coppola's family was undergoing a stressful time during the production and he dedicated the film to Gio, his eldest son, who died before filming began. Principal photography started with first unit shooting on April 13, 1987, in the Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant in Richmond, California, doubling for the Dodge Chicago Plant. The majority of outdoor filming took place in Marin County, California, as well as various locations including Oakland, Novato, and San Francisco. Forty-seven of the original 51 Tucker '48s still exist, and many are in excellent condition. Twenty-one of the cars were borrowed from members of the Tucker Automobile Club of America and were extensively used as both "set dressing" and in starring roles. Three cars were used to film the crash scene, a "before" version, with a fiberglass body, the car used to do the actual rollover was a Studebaker modified to look like a Tucker (this car is currently in a privately owned museum in Tallahassee, Florida), and an "after crash" version which was another fiberglass body fitted to a Ford LTD chassis. The production is notable as the first film to have audio mixing work done at Lucas's Skywalker Ranch. Production wrapped on July 17, 1987, and in the following month, Lucas convinced Paramount Pictures to distribute the film and cover the majority of the budget. He was helped by the fact that the studio was distributing Lucasfilm's forthcoming Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and courting Coppola to direct The Godfather Part III (1990). Prior to final editing, the studio insisted on amplifying the title to Tucker: The Man and His Dream. ## Historical accuracy Coppola had a certain amount of personal affinity with the short-lived legacy of Preston Tucker. His father, Carmine Coppola, had been one of the original investors in Tucker stock and purchased one of the cars off the production line. Coppola included the involvement of Preston Tucker's children, grandchildren and members of the Tucker Estate during the development of Tucker in the late 1970s, as well as during filming in 1987. Coppola and Lucas acknowledged that they purposely intended to portray Tucker in an entirely sympathetic way. Both filmmakers each owned two Tuckers, although Lucas eventually sold one of his cars in September 2005 for \$385,500. The Tucker Automobile Club made up of a legion of Tucker owners and collectors pronounced in their trade journal, TACA, that the "basic theme of the movie is quite accurate..." although "the film compresses time and often takes artistic license with facts in order to more effectively present the story". Anahid Nazarian, Coppola's librarian, spoke of the historical inaccuracies. "Preston Tucker didn't really have an assembly line; there's one in the film. He actually had five kids; there are only four in the film. Our story takes place in one year; the real story took place over four years. People who know the story will find a lot of what they call errors. I'm sure I'll be deluged with letters." Nazarian's research, collected over several years, consisted of books, some 350 articles, interviews with the Tucker family, hundreds of photographs, home movies and information from the Tucker Automobile Club of America, whom the production company considered important arbiters of the Tucker mystique. "We knew the facts", she continued, "but to fit the spirit of the story in a film that is exciting and has characters you love and characters you hate – that made us change a lot of things. Things like the president of the Tucker Company was a good guy really, but we needed a villain, so we made him a villain." Alex Tremulis, who served as one of the historical consultants during production, is depicted as the chief car designer of the Tucker Torpedo rather than as the stylist, and the film ignores the involvement of designer Philip Egan. ## Reception ### Box office Tucker: The Man and His Dream was released in the United States on August 12, 1988, earning \$3,709,562 in its opening weekend in 720 theaters. The film eventually grossed \$19.65 million in US totals and was declared a box office bomb because it did not reimburse its \$24 million production budget, despite positive reviews. Pocket Books published a novelization written by Robert Tine to coincide with the release of the film. Paramount Home Video released Tucker: The Man and His Dream on DVD in October 2000, which included audio commentary by Coppola, the 1948 promotional film Tucker: The Man and the Car (with optional commentary by Coppola), as well as a making-of featurette, Under the Hood: Making Tucker. ### Critical reception On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Though it may not be as comprehensive as some would like, Francis Ford Coppola's cheerful biopic of the failed automotive designer features sparkling direction and a strong central performance from Jeff Bridges." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade "A" on an A+ to F scale. Richard Schickel of Time magazine praised the film for its exaggerated kitsch style. He also believed the role of Preston Tucker to be Jeff Bridges' best performance. Janet Maslin from The New York Times agreed, writing that Coppola, known for his dark approach on his previous films, "found the directorial range to actually make a feel-good movie". In addition, Desson Thomson, writing in The Washington Post, called the film a "satisfying commercial breakthrough for Coppola" and praised the cinematography of Vittorio Storaro, as well as the ubiquitous approach for Dean Stockwell's cameo appearance as Howard Hughes. Roger Ebert gave a mixed review. "Preston Tucker lacks an ounce of common sense or any notion of the real odds against him. And since the movie never really deals with that – never really comes to grips with Tucker's character – it begins as a saga but ends in whimsy." Although Coppola enjoyed his working relationship with Lucas, he commented in a July 1988 The New York Times interview with Robert Lindsey that "I think it's a good movie - it's eccentric, a little wacky, like the Tucker car – but it's not the movie I would have made at the height of my power." Coppola was able to stoically accept the critical and commercial reaction to Tucker: The Man and His Dream. "Every time in my career I tried to make, dare I say it, an art film, it never did well." Despite helming his "labor of love", Coppola was insistent that Tucker: The Man and His Dream would be his last Hollywood project. He reiterated a long-held dream of his own, embarking on a "period of amateurism and experimentation as a Hollywood dropout". One unexpected effect of the film's release was a renewed interest in the Tucker automobile and a boost in the collector's value of the Tucker 48; in a 2008 auction, a low-mileage example topped the \$1 million mark. ### Awards and nominations

Beautiful (MercyMe song)

"Beautiful" is a song by contemporary Christian music band MercyMe. Written and composed by MercyMe, Dan Muckala, and Brown Bannister, the song was written for the daughters of the band's members. The song's lyrics revolve around self-worth and the love of God. "Beautiful" was released on September 17, 2010, as the second single from MercyMe's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell. "Beautiful" received generally mixed to positive reviews from critics and attained success on Christian radio, peaking at the top spot on Billboard magazine's Christian Songs, Christian AC Indicator, Christian AC Monitored, and Soft AC/Inspo charts. "Beautiful" ranked at number 7 on the 2011 year-end Christian Songs chart, as well as at number 10 on the 2011 year-end Hot Christian AC chart. ## Background and composition "Beautiful" was written and composed by the members of MercyMe, Dan Muckala, and Brown Bannister. "Beautiful" was written for the daughters of MercyMe's band members. Lead singer Bart Millard, in an interview with Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday, stated that "We [MercyMe] wrote the song with our daughters in mind. The band has 15 kids among all of us... Satan targets our girls from a materialistic way, telling them how to act and how to look, what to eat and not to eat", also commenting that "I try to tell my kids all the time that they are perfect and I know my daughters need to get their confidence in themselves from me. The way they want to be treated by men needs to come from me". "Beautiful" is a ballad with a length of four minutes and twenty-one seconds. It is set in the key of G major and has a moderate tempo of 69 beats per minute, with a vocal range spanning from D₄-B₅. Lyrically, the song is about self-worth and the love of God, specifically aimed at young women and daughters. However, the song also has a broader theme; Millard noted in an interview that "All of us have felt unlovable at some point. At times, I feel worthless. I have an argument with a friend, all that I’ve come to like about myself is suddenly falling apart. Who can love me if I don’t even like myself? It’s hard to drag ourselves out of this way of thinking. We are taught to live according to these expectations. We think we need approval and accomplishment to validate our lives. But what does God tell us? He says, “You’re beautiful. You are made for so much more than all of this.” He loves us, even in our failings". ## Reception ### Critical response Critical reception to "Beautiful" was generally mixed to positive. Andy Argyrakis of Today's Christian Music commented on his review of The Generous Mr. Lovewell that "Of course, there's the token ballad or two, including "Beautiful" and "Won't You Be My Love," both of which are sure to further MercyMe's radio domination, while providing a soothing and tender touch to the plugged in periods". Kevin Davis of Christian Music Review opined that "Having three young daughters, I’m extremely moved by the passion behind the lyrics speaking of how the world says we are never good enough, yet Christ saw something beautiful in us worth dying for". Jesus Freak Hideout reviewer Roger Gelwicks was less positive, commenting that the song (along with an album cut, "Free") "lack[s] anything to be held onto musically, and they do tend to drag on for too long and therefore bore the listener". ### Chart performance "Beautiful" debuted at number 42 for the chart week of October 2, 2010 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart. The song advanced to number 22 in its second chart week, and to number 15 in its sixth chart week. The song advanced to number 10 the next week, and spent four weeks at number 9 (from weeks eight to eleven) before dropping back to number 10 in its twelfth chart week. "Beautiful" dropped to number 16 for the chart week of January 8, 2011 (its fifteenth week on the chart), but advanced to number 6 the following week and spent two consecutive weeks at that spot. Starting with the chart week of February 18, 2011, the song spent four consecutive weeks at number 2 before advancing to the top spot in its twenty-fifth chart week. "Beautiful" held the top spot for one week (the chart week of March 19, 2011) before dropping to number 5. The song spent fourteen more weeks on the chart before dropping out, having spent a total of forty weeks on the Christian Songs chart. "Beautiful" also peaked at the top spot on the Christian AC Indicator, Christian AC Monitored, and Soft AC/INSPO charts. "Beautiful" ranked at number 45 on Billboard magazine's 2010 year-end Christian Songs chart; it also ranked at number 7 on the 2011 year-end Christian Songs chart, number 10 on the year-end Hot Christian AC chart, and number 27 on the year-end Christian Digital Songs chart. ## Other uses "Beautiful" was included on the compilation album WOW Hits 2012. ## Music video A music video was released for "Beautiful". The video features the band performing the song in a live concert setting. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## See also - List of number-one Billboard Christian Songs of the 2010s

Wilma Mankiller

Cherokee Nation chief and activist (1945–2010)

Wilma Pearl Mankiller (Cherokee: ᎠᏥᎳᏍᎩ ᎠᏍᎦᏯᏗᎯ, romanized: Atsilasgi Asgayadihi; November 18, 1945 – April 6, 2010) was a Native American (Cherokee Nation) activist, social worker, community developer and the first woman elected to serve as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. Born in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, she lived on her family's allotment in Adair County, Oklahoma, until the age of 11, when her family relocated to San Francisco as part of a federal government program to urbanize Native Americans. After high school, she married a well-to-do Ecuadorian and raised two daughters. Inspired by the social and political movements of the 1960s, Mankiller became involved in the Occupation of Alcatraz and later participated in the land and compensation struggles with the Pit River Tribe. For five years in the early 1970s, she was employed as a social worker, focusing mainly on children's issues. Returning to Oklahoma in the fall of 1976, Mankiller was hired by the Cherokee Nation as an economic stimulus coordinator. With her expertise at preparing documentation, she became a successful grant writer, and by the early 1980s was directing the newly created Community Development Department of the Cherokee Nation. As Director she designed and supervised innovative community projects allowing rural citizens to identify their own challenges and, through their labor, participate in solving them. Her project in Bell, Oklahoma, was featured in the movie The Cherokee Word for Water, directed by Charlie Soap and Tim Kelly. In 2015, the movie was selected as the top American Indian film of the past 40 years by the American Indian Film Institute. Her project in Kenwood received the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Certificate of National Merit. Her management ability came to the notice of the incumbent Principal Chief, Ross Swimmer, who invited her to run as his deputy in the 1983 tribal elections. When the duo won, she became the first elected woman to serve as Deputy Chief of the Cherokee Nation. In 1985, when Swimmer took a position in the federal administration of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, she was elevated to Principal Chief, serving until 1995. During her administration, the Cherokee government built new health clinics, created a mobile eye-care clinic, established ambulance services, and created early education, adult education and job training programs. She developed revenue streams, including factories, retail stores, restaurants and bingo operations, while establishing self-governance, allowing the tribe to manage its own finances. When she retired from politics, Mankiller returned to her activist role as an advocate working to improve the image of Native Americans and combat the misappropriation of native heritage, by authoring books including a bestselling autobiography, Mankiller: A Chief and Her People, and giving numerous lectures on health care, tribal sovereignty, women's rights and cancer awareness. Throughout her life, she had serious health problems, including polycystic kidney disease, myasthenia gravis, lymphoma and breast cancer, and needed two kidney transplants. She died in 2010 from pancreatic cancer, and was honored with many local, state and national awards, including the nation's highest civilian honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 2021 it was announced that Mankiller's likeness would appear on the quarter-dollar coin as a part of the United States Mint's "American Women Quarters" program. ## Early life (1945–1955) Wilma Pearl Mankiller was born on November 18, 1945, in the Hastings Indian Hospital in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, to Clara Irene (née Sutton) and Charley Mankiller. Her father was a full-blooded Cherokee, whose ancestors had been forced to relocate to Indian Territory from Tennessee over the Trail of Tears in the 1830s. Her mother descended from Dutch-Irish and English immigrants who had first settled in Virginia and North Carolina in the 1700s. Her maternal grandparents came to Oklahoma in the early 1900s from Georgia and Arkansas, respectively. The surname "Mankiller", Asgaya-dihi (Cherokee syllabary: ᎠᏍᎦᏯᏗᎯ) in the Cherokee language, refers to a traditional Cherokee military rank, similar to a captain or major, or a shaman with the ability to avenge wrongs through spiritual methods. Alternative spellings are Outacity and Ontassetè. Wilma's given Cherokee name, meaning flower, was A-ji-luhsgi. When Charley and Irene married in 1937, they settled on Charley's father, John Mankiller's allotment, known as "Mankiller Flats", near Rocky Mountain in Adair County, Oklahoma, which he had received in 1907 as part of the government policy of forced assimilation for Native American people. Wilma had five older siblings: Louis Donald "Don", Frieda Marie, Robert Charles, Frances Kay and John David. In 1948, when she was three, the family moved into a house built by her father, her uncle and her brother, Don, on the allotment of her grandfather John. Her five other siblings, Linda Jean, Richard Colson, Vanessa Lou, James Ray and William Edward, were born over the next 12 years. The small house had no electricity or plumbing and they lived in "extreme poverty". The family hunted and fished, maintaining a vegetable garden to feed themselves. They also grew peanuts and strawberries, which they sold. Mankiller went to school through the fifth grade in a three-room schoolhouse, in Rocky Mountain. The family spoke both English and Cherokee at home; even Mankiller's mother spoke Cherokee. Her mother canned food and used flour sacks to make clothes for the children, whom she immersed in Cherokee heritage. Though they joined the Baptist church, the children were wary of white congregants and customs, preferring to attend tribal ceremonial gatherings. Family elders taught the children traditional stories. ## Relocation to San Francisco (1956–1976) In 1955, a severe drought made it more difficult for the family to provide for itself. As a part of the Indian termination policy, the Indian Relocation Act of 1956 provided assistance to relocate Native families to urban areas. Agents from the Bureau of Indian Affairs promised better jobs and living conditions for families that agreed to move. In 1956, when she was 11, her father Charley was denied a loan from the BIA, and decided that moving to a city where he would have a regular income and a steady job would be good for his family. The family chose California because Irene's mother lived in Riverbank. Selling their belongings, they took a train from Stilwell, Oklahoma, to San Francisco. Though they were promised an apartment in the city, there were no apartments available when the Mankillers arrived. They were housed in a squalid hotel in the Tenderloin District for several weeks. Even when the family moved to Potrero Hill, where both her father and brother Don found work, the family struggled financially. They had few Native American neighbors, creating alienation from their tribal identities. Mankiller and her siblings enrolled in school, but it was difficult as the other students made fun of her surname and teased her about her clothes and the way she spoke. Her classmates' treatment caused Mankiller to withdraw. Within a year, the family had saved money and were able to move to Daly City, but Mankiller still felt alienated and ran away from home, going to her grandmother's farm in Riverbank. Her grandmother made her return to Potrero, but after Wilma continued to run away, her parents decided to let her live on the farm for a year. By the time she returned, the family had moved again and were living in Hunters Point, a neighborhood riddled with crime, drugs and gangs. Though she had regained her confidence during her year away, Mankiller still felt isolated and began to become involved in the activities of the San Francisco Indian Center. She remained indifferent to school, where she struggled with math and science, but graduated from high school in June 1963. As soon as she finished school, Mankiller found a clerical job in a finance company and moved in with her sister Frances. That summer, at a Latin dance, she met Hector Hugo Olaya de Bardi, an Ecuadorian college student from a well-to-do family, and the two began dating. Mankiller found him sophisticated, and despite her parents' discomfort with the union, the two married in Reno, Nevada, on November 13, 1963, and then honeymooned in Chicago. Returning to California, they moved into an apartment in the Mission District, where 10 months later their daughter Felicia was born. They then moved to a house in a nearby neighborhood and in 1966 had a second daughter, Gina. While Olaya continued with his schooling at San Francisco State University and worked for Pan American Airlines, Mankiller was busy raising their daughters. Olaya saw his role as the family's provider, leaving his wife at home to bring up the children. But Mankiller was restless and returned to school, enrolling in classes at Skyline Junior College. For the first time, she enjoyed school and took only courses that interested her. ### Activism In 1964, a small group of Red Power activists occupied Alcatraz Island for a few hours. In the late 1960s, a group of students from the University of California at Berkeley, Los Angeles and Santa Cruz, along with students at San Francisco State, began protesting against the Vietnam War and in favor of civil rights for ethnic minorities and women. Among the groups that sprang up in the period was the American Indian Movement (AIM), which in San Francisco was centered around the activities at the San Francisco Indian Center. Also meeting there was the United Bay Indian Council, which operated as an umbrella organization for 30 separate groups representing people of different tribal affiliations. In October 1969, the Center burned, and the loss of their meeting place created a bond between administrators and student activists, who combined their efforts to bring the plight of urban Native Americans to the public eye with the reoccupation of Alcatraz. The occupation inspired Mankiller to become involved in civil rights activism. Prior to the November takeover of the island, she had not been involved in either AIM or the United Bay Council. She began to meet with other Native Americans who had participated in the Indian Center, becoming active in the groups supporting the Occupation. While she did visit Alcatraz, most of her work focused on fundraising and support, gathering supplies of blankets, food and water for those on the island. Soon after the Occupation began, Charley Mankiller was diagnosed with kidney disease, which caused Mankiller to discover that she shared polycystic kidney disease with her father. In between her activism, school and family obligations, she spent as much time with him as she was able. The Occupation lasted 19 months, and during that time, Mankiller learned organizational skills and how to do paralegal research. She had been encouraged by other activists to continue her studies, and began planning a career. ### Social work On her father's death in 1971, the Mankiller family returned to Oklahoma for his burial. When she returned to California, she transferred to San Francisco State University in 1972 and began to focus her classes on social welfare. Against her husband's wishes, she bought her own car and began to seek independence, taking her daughters to Native American events along the West Coast. On her travels, she met members of the Pit River Tribe in Northern California, near Burney, and joined their campaign for compensation with the Indian Claims Commission and Pacific Gas and Electric Company for lands illegally taken from the tribe during the California Gold Rush. Over the next five years, she assisted the tribe in raising funds for its legal defense and helped prepare documentation for their claim, gaining experience in international and treaty law. Closer to home, Mankiller founded East Oakland's Native American Youth Center, where she served as director. Locating a building, she called for volunteers to paint and help draft educational programs to help youth learn about their heritage, enjoying overwhelming support from the community. In 1974, Mankiller and Olaya divorced and she moved with her two daughters to Oakland. Taking a position as a social worker with the Urban Indian Resource Center, she worked on programs conducting research on child abuse and neglect, foster care, and adoption of Native children. Recognizing that most indigenous children were placed with families with no knowledge of Native traditions, she worked on legislation with other staff and attorneys to prevent children from being removed from their culture. The law, which eventually passed as the Indian Child Welfare Act, made it illegal to place Native children in non-Native families. ## Return to Oklahoma ### Community development (1976–1983) In 1976, Mankiller's mother returned to Oklahoma, prompting Mankiller to move as well with her two daughters. Initially, she was unable to find work and moved back to California for six months. By the fall, she was back in Oklahoma, and built a small house near her mother's in Mankiller Flats. After doing volunteer work for the Cherokee Nation, Mankiller was hired in 1977 to work on a program for young Cherokees to study environmental science. That same year she enrolled in additional classes at Flaming Rainbow University in Stilwell, Oklahoma, completing her Bachelor of Science degree in social sciences with an emphasis on Indian Affairs, thanks to a correspondence course under a program offered by the Union for Experimental Colleges in Washington, D.C. She enrolled in graduate courses in community development at the University of Arkansas, in Fayetteville, while continuing to work in the tribal offices as an economic stimulus coordinator. She worked on home health care, the Indian child welfare protocols, language services, a senior citizens program and a youth shelter. On November 9, 1979, on her way back to Tahlequah from Fayetteville, Mankiller's vehicle was struck by an oncoming car. Sherry Morris, one of Mankiller's closest friends, was driving the other vehicle and died in the crash. Mankiller suffered broken ribs as well as breaks in her left leg and ankle, and both her face and right leg were crushed. Initially doctors thought that she would not regain the ability to walk. After 17 operations and plastic surgery to reconstruct her face, she was released from the hospital able to walk with crutches. While still in recovery from the accident, three months after the collision, Mankiller began to notice a loss of muscle coordination. She dropped things, was unable to grip items, her voice tired after a few moments of speaking. Doctors thought that the problems were related to the accident, but one day while watching a muscular dystrophy telethon, Mankiller thought her symptoms sounded similar. She called the muscular dystrophy center, was referred to a specialist, and was diagnosed with myasthenia gravis. In November 1980, she returned to the hospital, underwent more surgeries and began a course of chemotherapy, which lasted several years. She went back to work in December. Mankiller's first community development program as a grant writer was for Bell, Oklahoma. By requiring community members to donate their time and labor to lay 16 miles of pipe for a shared water system, build houses, or work on building rehabilitation, the grant involved the community in self-improvement. Working on the Bell project, Mankiller collaborated with Charlie Soap, who worked in the Indian Housing Authority and helped her supervise the venture. The success of the program led to its use as a model for other grant programs for her own and other tribes. In the midst of the Bell Project, in 1981, tribal chief Ross Swimmer promoted her as first director of a department she devised, the Community Development Department of the Cherokee Nation. Over the next three years, Mankiller raised millions of dollars for similar community development programs. Her approach was one of self-help, which allowed citizens to identify their problems and gain control of the challenges they faced. Impressed by her skill and results, Swimmer asked her to be his running mate for the next tribal election. ### Politics (1983–1995) #### Deputy Chief (1983–1985) In 1983, Mankiller, a Democrat, was selected as a running mate by Ross Swimmer, a Republican, in a bid for Swimmer's third consecutive term as principal chief. Though they both wanted the tribe to become more self-sufficient, Swimmer felt the path was through developing tribal businesses, like hotels and agricultural enterprises. Mankiller wanted to focus on small rural communities, improving housing and health care. Their differences on policy were not a key problem in the election, but Mankiller's gender was. She was surprised by the sexism she faced, as in traditional Cherokee society, families and clans were organized matrilineally. Though traditionally women had not held titled positions in Cherokee government, they had a women's council which wielded considerable influence, and were responsible for training the tribal chief. She received death threats, her tires were slashed, and a billboard with her likeness was burned. Swimmer nevertheless remained steadfast. Swimmer won reelection against Perry Wheeler by a narrow margin, on the strength of absentee voters. Mankiller also won by absentee voters in a run-off election for the deputy chief post against Agnes Cowen and became the first woman elected deputy chief of the Cherokee Nation. Wheeler and Cowen demanded a recount and filed a suit with the Cherokee Judicial Appeals Tribunal and U. S. District Court alleging voting irregularities. Both tribal and federal courts ruled against Wheeler and Cowen. One of her main duties as deputy chief was to preside over the Tribal Council, the fifteen-member governing body for the Cherokee Nation. Though she assumed that the sexism of the campaign would end once the election was resolved, Mankiller quickly realized that she had little support in the council. Some members viewed her as a political enemy, while others discounted her because of her gender. She chose to avoid involvement in tribal legislation to minimize the hostility to her election, instead concentrating on areas of government that the council did not control. One of her first focus issues was on the full-blood/mixed-blood divide. Cherokees with non-Native ancestry had assimilated into American culture to a greater extent, while full-bloods maintained Cherokee language and culture. The two groups historically had been at odds, with much disagreement on development. By the time Mankiller was elected deputy, the mixed-blood faction focused on economic growth and favored non-Natives being hired to run Native businesses if they were more qualified. Full-bloods believed that such modernization would compromise Cherokee identity. Mankiller, who supported a middle-of-the-road approach, expanded the Cherokee Heritage Center and the Institute for Cherokee Literacy. She persuaded the tribal council to change the way that council members were elected so that rather than at-large candidates, potential members came from newly created districts. The change meant that urban areas with large populations no longer controlled the council membership. #### Principal Chief, partial term (1985–1986) In 1985, Chief Swimmer resigned when appointed assistant secretary of the US Bureau of Indian Affairs. Mankiller succeeded him as the first female principal chief of the Cherokee Nation, when she was sworn into office on December 5, 1985. To appease her detractors on the council, she did not attend council meetings, and stressed the separation between the executive and legislative branches of the government. Almost immediately, the press coverage on Mankiller made her an international celebrity and improved the perception of Native Americans throughout the country. In articles such as a November 1985 interview in People, Mankiller strove to show that Native cultural traditions of cooperation and respect for the environment made them role models for the rest of society. In an interview with Ms., she pointed out that Cherokee women had been valued members of their communities before mainstream society imposed patriarchy upon the tribe. In presenting her critiques of Reagan administration policies that might diminish tribal self-determination or threaten their culture, she built relationships with various power brokers. Because she lacked favor with the Tribal Council, she also used her access with the press to educate Cherokee voters on the goals of her administration and her desire to improve housing and health services. Within five months of becoming chief, Mankiller's celebrity status resulted in her election that year as American Indian Woman of the Year, an honor bestowed by the Oklahoma Federation of Indian Women, and her induction into the Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame. She was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of New England and received a citation for leadership from Harvard University. By 1986, Mankiller and Charlie Soap's relationship had changed from a professional one to a personal one, leading to their engagement early in the year. Not wanting to provoke calls for her to step down, they kept the relationship private until their marriage in October. It nevertheless caused controversy, generating calls for Soap to resign from his position. He resigned, effective with the end of January 1987, which generated further criticism from Mankiller's opponents, who saw the delay as a tactic for Soap to qualify for retirement benefits. Initially, Mankiller's negative experiences dissuaded her from seeking re-election, but after her opponents tried to persuade her not to run, she entered the race with Soap's support. She persuaded voters that the tribe could cooperate with state and federal governments to negotiate favorable terms to improve their opportunities. Soap, as a full-blood Cherokee, was instrumental in taking her message to that faction and defusing the gender issue, by speaking in Cherokee with them about the traditional place of women in Cherokee society. Focusing on budget cuts by the Reagan White House, she highlighted how reductions in funding for low-income housing, health and nutrition programs, and educational initiatives were affecting the tribe. While she recognized that economic development was a priority, Mankiller stressed that business development had to be balanced by addressing social problems. Weeks before the election, Mankiller was hospitalized for her kidney disease. Her opponents argued that she was medically unfit to lead the tribe. Turnout was high and even though Mankiller won 45% of the vote, tribal law required 50% to avoid a run-off with Perry Wheeler. She won the run-off, but within a week one of her supporters, who had been elected to the Tribal Council, died. The tribal election committee voted to nullify the absentee ballots for the new council membership, and Mankiller petitioned the Judicial Appeals Tribunal, which required a recount including the absentee voters. The council recount gave Mankiller's administration the majority and the seat was filled by a supporter of her policies. Mankiller used the press surrounding her election to combat the negative stereotypes about Native people, stressing their cultural heritage and strengths. She was selected as Newsmaker of the Year by the Association for Women in Communications and as Ms. magazine's Woman of the Year for 1987, and was featured in the article "Celebration of Heroes" in Newsweek's July 1987 edition. #### Principal Chief, first elected term (1987–1991) One of Mankiller's first initiatives was to lobby for maintaining the operation of the Talking Leaves Job Corps Center, which the U.S. Department of Labor had placed on a list for closure. Officials agreed to suspend the closure if she could find a suitable location. She recommended that the job center be housed in the financially insolvent motel, but initially the Tribal Council denied her permission. She was able to reverse their decision by promising to take the issue directly to a vote of the tribal members. She also expanded community development programs, using the Bell Project model, and in 1987 the Kenwood Project won the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Certificate of National Merit. Announcing that the Cherokee government would not wholly fund the Heritage Center, she pressed the center to become more proactive in attracting tourists and generating income to pay for its own operational expenses. When the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 passed, Mankiller remained cautious about participating, though she acknowledged that other tribes had a right to do so. Concerned by research connecting gambling and crime, she did not endorse gaming for the Cherokee Nation. She also rejected requests for the tribe to store nuclear waste, given its potential to harm the environment. Eventually, she changed her stance and bingo parlors became a major revenue source for the tribe. Founding the Private Industry Council, Mankiller brought government and private businesses together to analyze ways to generate economic growth in northeastern Oklahoma. She established employment training opportunities and programs that offered financial and technical expertise to tribal members who wanted to start their own small enterprises. She also backed the creation of a tribal electronic harness and cabling company, construction of a hydroelectric plant and a horticultural operation. Another initiative launched soon after her installment was a claim of compensation from the U.S. government for misappropriating resources from the Arkansas River. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Choctaw Nation v. Oklahoma that the Cherokee, Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations owned the banks and riverbed of the Arkansas River. At issue was whether the tribes were entitled to be paid for the loss of access to coal, gas and oil deposits, which could no longer be extracted as the United States Army Corps of Engineers had rerouted the river during the construction of the McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System. The Cherokee then sued the United States for compensation, and the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the tribe was entitled to it, though the claim was reversed by the Supreme Court. The three tribes filed a claim in the United States Court of Federal Claims in 1989 alleging "mismanagement of tribal trust resources". In December 1988, Mankiller's leadership was recognized with a national award bestowed by the Independent Sector, an umbrella group for non-profit organizations. The John W. Gardner Leadership Award recognized not only her community development projects, but also her administration of Cherokee Nation Industries, which had seen profits soar to over \$2 million. In the middle of her first term, Mankiller was invited to the White House to meet with President Reagan to discuss Native peoples' grievances with his administration. Thinking that it was going to be a productive meeting, Mankiller, who had been chosen as one of the three spokespeople for the 16 invited chiefs, was disappointed that Reagan discounted their issues and merely reiterated his pledge for self-determination. Though she brushed off the meeting as a "photo opportunity" for the president, the publicity of the event further enhanced her image with the public. The most significant development in her first full term was the negotiation with the State of Oklahoma for tax sharing on businesses operating on Cherokee lands. The compact, signed by Governor David Walters and leadership of all of the Five Civilized Tribes except the Muscogee (Creek) Nation, allowed the chiefs to collect state taxes and retain a portion of the revenues. In June 1990, Mankiller's kidney disease worsened and one of her kidneys failed. Her brother Don donated one of his kidneys, and she underwent a kidney transplant in July, returning to work within a few weeks. While she was in Boston recuperating from the transplant, she met with officials from Washington, D.C., and signed an agreement for the Cherokee Nation to participate in a project that allowed the tribe to self-govern and assume responsibility for the use of federal funds. This change in policy had come about because of allegations of corruption and mismanagement in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Hearings on the matter resulted in amendments in 1988 to the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, to allow ten tribes to participate in a pilot program spanning five years. Tribes received block grants and were allowed to tailor the use of funds based on local needs. Further amendments in the early 1990s extended self-determination to the Indian Health Service. Mankiller welcomed the initiative, which reinforced intergovernmental cooperation and increased self-determination. During her first full administration, her government built new health clinics, created a mobile eye-care clinic and established ambulance services. They also created early education and adult education programs. Mankiller was recognized with an honorary degree from Yale University in 1990 and from Dartmouth College in 1991. Around the same time, the contentious relationship with the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians flared again. Under Swimmer, the Cherokee Nation had filed a lawsuit against the Keetoowah Band, which traditionally had allowed members to belong to both federally recognized tribes. Mankiller had hoped to reconcile the differences between the two tribes, but the tax compact created controversy. The Keetoowah Band refused to allow the Cherokee Nation to collect taxes from its members and began a policy of requiring their tribal members to withdraw from the Cherokee Nation, claiming to be the "true" tribe representing Cherokee people. Mankiller, whose administration had established a district court to deal with the problem of Indian country being in federal jurisdiction rather than falling under state or local law enforcement, began a practice in late 1990 of negotiating cross-deputation agreements with law enforcement agencies and the Cherokee Nation Marshal Service. (Cross-deputation became formally authorized in April 1991). Raids conducted by county officials and Cherokee Marshals on 14 smoke shops licensed by the Keetoowah Band were carried out in the fall of 1990. Officials of the band failed to obtain a restraining order against the Cherokee Nation and took their grievance to the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Unable to resolve the matter, the federal courts stepped in and ruled that the smoke shops of the Keetoowah Band were not exempt from state taxes. #### Principal Chief, second elected term (1991–1995) In March 1991, Mankiller announced her candidacy for the next election and shortly thereafter was invited to meet with other Indian leaders at the White House with President George H. W. Bush. Bush's officials, unlike Reagan's, were receptive to input from tribal leaders, and Mankiller hoped that a new era of "government-to-government relationships" would follow. In the June election, she won 83% of the vote. One of her first actions was to participate in a conference on educational programs for Native Americans, where she strongly opposed centralizing Indian education. Similarly, she opposed legislation proposed by the Oklahoma House of Representatives to collect cigarette taxes on products sold at Indian smoke shops to non-Indians. In the continuing battle over compensation for the loss of access to mineral rights owned by the tribe in the Arkansas River, Mankiller estimated that one-third of her time as chief was spent on trying to obtain a settlement. During the school term of 1991–1992, Mankiller's administration revived the tribal Sequoyah High School in Tahlequah. Working with the American Association of University Women, she worked on a grant program to match Cherokee mentors with girls attending the boarding school. The mentors shadowed the girls through their schooling and provided guidance on career opportunities. She also focused on issues of identity throughout her second term. Mankiller worked with tribal registrar Lee Fleming and a staff member Richard Allen to document groups which claimed Cherokee heritage, and they compiled a list of 269 associations throughout the country. After the passage of the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, which provided both civil and criminal penalties for non-Native artists who promoted their work as "Indian Art", the tribe had the ability to certify artisans who could not prove their ancestry. In two highly publicized cases, involving Willard Stone and Bert Seabourn, Stone was certified, but his family asked for his certification to be removed, and Seabourn was not certified as an artist, but instead as a "goodwill ambassador". Mankiller was vocal in her disapproval of relaxing the rigorous Bureau of Indian Affairs' processes for tribal recognition, a stance for which she was frequently criticized. In 1993, she wrote to then-governor of Georgia Zell Miller, protesting the state recognition of groups claiming Cherokee and Muscogee (Creek) ancestry. She and other tribal leaders among the Five Civilized Tribes believed that the state recognition process could allow some groups to falsely claim Native heritage. During the congressional hearings on reform of the tribal recognition policies in Washington, D.C., Mankiller stated her opposition to any reform that would weaken the recognition process. During her tenure as chief, the Cherokee tribal council passed two resolutions to bar those without a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) from enrolling in the tribe. The 1988 Rules and Regulations of the Cherokee Registration Committee required applicants to possess a federal certification that they had ancestry linking them to the Dawes Rolls. The 1992 Act Relating to the Process of Enrolling as a Member of the Cherokee Nation enacted the policy into law, effectively barring Cherokee Freedmen from citizenship. Mankiller had reaffirmed "Swimmer's order on CDIBs and voting. But in 2004, Lucy Allen, a Freedman descendant, took the matter to the Cherokee Supreme Court, and the court, in a split decision, said that the descendants of Freemen were, in fact, Cherokee, could apply to be enrolled, and should have the right to vote." In 1992, Mankiller endorsed Bill Clinton for president, but did not donate any money to his campaign. She was invited to take part in an economic conference in Little Rock, Arkansas, and participated in his transition team for the presidency. Thanks to her access to high-level officials, she became the "most influential Indian leader in the country". Her autobiography, Mankiller: A Chief and Her People, published in 1993, became a national best-seller. Gloria Steinem said in a review, "As one woman's journey, Mankiller opens the heart. As the history of a people, it informs the mind. Together, it teaches us that, as long as people like Wilma Mankiller carry the flame within them, centuries of ignorance and genocide can't extinguish the human spirit". Steinem and Mankiller became close friends, and Steinem later married her partner David Bale in a ceremony at Mankiller Flats. In May, Mankiller received an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Drury College; in June, she was honored with the American Association of University Women's Achievement Award; and in October was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. In 1994, she was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame, as well as the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas. That same year, Mankiller was invited by Clinton to moderate the Nation-to-Nation Summit, in which leaders of all 545 federally recognized tribes in the United States were assembled to discuss a variety of topics. The summit provided a forum for tribal leaders and government officials to resolve issues concerning jurisdiction, law, resources and religious freedom. It was followed by a conference held in Albuquerque, which included the U.S. Attorney General and Secretary of the Interior. As a result of the two meetings, the Office of Indian Justice was established by the Department of Justice. In 1995, Mankiller was diagnosed with lymphoma and chose not to run again, largely due to health problems. Because of the chemotherapy, Mankiller had to forgo the immunosuppressive drugs she had been taking since her transplant. When George Bearpaw was disqualified as a candidate, Joe Byrd succeeded her as Principal Chief. Mankiller refused to attend his inauguration, on the grounds that the disqualification of his rival was based on an expunged conviction of assault. Fearing that Byrd would fire the staff she had hired, Mankiller authorized severance packages for the workers in her final days in office. A lawsuit was filed by the new Chief on behalf of the Cherokee Nation against Mankiller, alleging embezzlement of tribal funds of \$300,000 paid out to tribal officials and department heads who left at the end of her term in 1995. Cherokee Nation v. Mankiller was withdrawn by a vote of the tribal council. Reflecting on her chieftainship, Mankiller said, "We've had daunting problems in many critical areas, but I believe in the old Cherokee injunction to 'be of a good mind'. Today it's called positive thinking". When Mankiller left office, the population of the Cherokee Nation had increased from 68,000 to 170,000 citizens. The tribe was generating annual revenues of approximately \$25 million from a variety of sources, including factories, retail stores, restaurants and bingo operations. She had secured federal assistance of \$125 million annually to assist with education, health, housing and employment programs. Having obtained the tribe's grant for "self-governance", federal oversight of tribal funds was minimized. ### Return to activism (1996–2010) Byrd's administration became embroiled in a constitutional crisis, which he blamed on Mankiller, stating that her failure to attend his inauguration and lack of mentoring divided the tribe and left him without experienced advisors. His supporters also alleged that Mankiller was behind attempts to remove Byrd from office, an allegation she denied. She had remained silent on Byrd's administration until he accused her of heading a conspiracy. Two months after Byrd was accused of improperly using federal funds, and a month after he blamed his administration's issues on Mankiller, she went to Washington with her predecessor, Swimmer, to ask that the federal authorities allow the tribe to sort out their own problems. Despite calls from the US Secretary of the Interior, Bruce Babbitt, for congressional intervention and Oklahoma Senator Jim Inhofe's desire for presidential action, Mankiller continued to maintain that the problem was one of inexperienced leadership, in which she did not want to be involved. When an independent group of legal analysts, known as the "Massad Commission", was assembled in 1997 to evaluate the problems in Byrd's administration, Mankiller, in spite of her ongoing health concerns, was called to testify. She reiterated at the hearings that she believed the problems stemmed from poor advisors and the Chief's lack of experience. After her term as chief, in 1996, Mankiller became a visiting professor at Dartmouth College, where she taught in the Native American Studies program. That year, she was honored with the Elizabeth Blackwell Award from Hobart and William Smith Colleges for her exemplary service to humanity. After a semester, she began traveling on a national lecture tour, speaking on health care, tribal sovereignty, women's rights and cancer awareness. She spoke to various civic organizations, tribal gatherings, universities and women's groups. In 1997, she received an honorary degree from Smith College. In 1998, President Clinton awarded Mankiller the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States. Shortly after that, she had a second kidney failure and received a second transplant, from her niece, Virlee Williamson. As previously, she immediately returned to work, resuming her lecture tours and working simultaneously on four books. In 1999 Mankiller was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a double-lumpectomy followed by radiation treatment. That same year, The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History, co-edited by Mankiller, was published. In 2002, Mankiller contributed to the book That Takes Ovaries!: Bold Females and Their Brazen Acts, and in 2004, she co-authored Every Day Is a Good Day: Reflections by Contemporary Indigenous Women. The following year, she worked with the Oklahoma Breast Cancer Summit to encourage early screening and raise awareness on the disease. In 2006, when Mankiller, along with other Native American leaders, was asked to send a pair of shoes to the Heard Museum for the exhibit Sole Stories: American Indian Footwear, she sent a simple pair of walking shoes. She chose the shoes because she had worn them all over the world, including trips from Brazil to China, and because they conveyed the normalcy of her life as well as her durability, steadfastness and determination. In 2007, Mankiller gave the Centennial Lecture in the Humanities for Oklahoma's 100th anniversary of statehood. After the lecture, she was honored with the inaugural Oklahoma Humanities Award by the Oklahoma Humanities Council. She continued her lecture tours and scholarship, and in September 2009 was named the first Sequoyah Institute Fellow at Northeastern State University. ## Death and legacy In March 2010, her husband announced that Mankiller was terminally ill with pancreatic cancer. Mankiller died on April 6, 2010, from cancer at her home in rural Adair County, Oklahoma. About 1,200 people attended her memorial service at the Cherokee National Cultural Grounds in Tahlequah on April 10, including many dignitaries such as sitting Cherokee Chief Chad Smith, Oklahoma Governor Brad Henry, U.S. Congressman Dan Boren and Gloria Steinem. The ceremony included statements from Bill and Hillary Clinton, as well as President Barack Obama. Mankiller was buried in the family cemetery, Echota Cemetery, in Stilwell, and a few days later was honored with a Congressional Resolution from the U.S. House of Representatives. She was posthumously presented with the Drum Award for Lifetime Achievement by the Five Civilized Tribes. Mankiller's papers are housed in the Western History Collection at the University of Oklahoma, in Norman. With 14 honorary doctorates, she left a permanent mark on both her state and the nation, through her work to build communities and stewardship of her tribe. Over the course of her three terms as Principal Chief, Mankiller reinvigorated the Cherokee Nation through community development projects where men and women work collectively for the common good. Under the national policy of Native American self-determination, Mankiller improved federal–tribal negotiations and helped create and shepherd the government-to-government relationship that the Cherokee Nation now enjoys with the U.S. federal government. She was an inspiration to Native and non-Native Americans and a role model for women and girls. "Prior to my election", Mankiller once said, "young Cherokee girls would never have thought that they might grow up and become chief". At the 2010 annual women's conference hosted by Women Empowering Women for Indian Nations (WEWIN) to promote and empower Indigenous women's leadership, for which Mankiller had been a founding board member, a scholarship was named in her honor to pay travel expenses for women to attend the gathering. A 2013 feature film, The Cherokee Word for Water, tells the story of the Bell waterline project that helped launch Mankiller's political career and started her friendship with her future husband, Charlie Soap. In the film, Mankiller is portrayed by actress Kimberly Norris Guerrero, and Soap is portrayed by actor Moses Brings Plenty. The film, produced by Kristina Kiehl and Soap, was a dream that involved more than 20 years of planning and fundraising. It was important to Mankiller that the story of the resilience of Native people be the focus of the film. The Mankiller Foundation, named in her honor, which focuses on educational, community and economic development projects, was involved in the production. In 2015, the Cherokee Nation completed construction on an addition to the Wilma P. Mankiller Health Center, located in Stilwell, doubling its size and updating its equipment. The center, one of the busiest of the eight hospitals in the Cherokee Nation Health Services system, serves approximately 120,000 patients annually. In 2017 a documentary film, Mankiller, produced by Valerie RedHorse Mohl, was released. Through interviews with those who knew her and archival records, the film tells the story of Mankiller's life and her time as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. In 2018, Mankiller became one of the honorees in the first induction ceremony held by the National Native American Hall of Fame. In 2021 it was announced that Mankiller, Maya Angelou, Sally Ride, Adelina Otero-Warren and Anna May Wong were each selected to have their likeness appear on a quarter-dollar coin as a part of the United States Mint's "American Women Quarters" Program. ## Selected works - Reprinted in

French ironclad Héroïne

Armored frigate build by the French Navy during the 1860s

The French ironclad Héroïne was one of 10 Provence-class armored frigates built for the French Navy (Marine Nationale) during the 1860s. She was the only ship of the class to be built with an iron hull. Completed in 1865, the ship was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (Escadre du Nord), sometimes serving as a flagship. The ironclad played a minor role in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, blockading the North Sea coast of Prussia and a Prussian commerce raider in a neutral Spanish port. Héroïne was decommissioned after the war, but was reactivated in 1876 and was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron (Escadre de la Méditerranée). She was transferred to the Levant Division (Division du Levant) the following year and then spent the years 1879–1881 in reserve. Héroïne was reactivated in 1882 and rejoined the Mediterranean Squadron. The ship was placed in reserve again in 1886 for the final time and was disarmed. Condemned in 1893, her engine was removed and she sailed to French West Africa the following year where she was hulked. The ship was converted into a floating battery in 1898, but was disarmed in early 1901. After an outbreak of yellow fever, she was scuttled in late 1901. ## Design and description The Provence class was designed as an enlarged version of the Gloire-class ironclads with thicker armor, more powerful guns, and better seakeeping qualities. Héroïne was the only ship of the class with an iron hull and differed somewhat from her sister ships. She had a length of 80.08 meters (262 ft 9 in) at the waterline, a beam of 17.13 meters (56 ft 2 in), and a draft of 8.27 meters (27 ft 2 in) at deep load. The ship displaced 5,969 metric tons (5,875 long tons). Her crew numbered 579–594 officers and enlisted men. Guyenne had a single two-cylinder horizontal-return connecting-rod compound steam engine that drove the propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight boilers. The engine was rated at 1,000 nominal horsepower or 3,200 metric horsepower (2,400 kW) and was intended to give the ships a speed in excess of 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). Héroïne reached a speed of 13.68 knots (25.34 km/h; 15.74 mph) from 2,918 PS (2,146 kW) during her sea trials. The Provence-class ships carried enough coal to allow them to steam for 2,410 nautical miles (4,460 km; 2,770 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). They were fitted with a three-masted barque rig that had a sail area of 1,960 square meters (21,100 sq ft). ### Armament and protection The main battery of the Provence-class ships was intended to be thirty 164.7-millimeter (6.5 in) Modèle 1858–60 rifled muzzle-loading (RML) guns, but this was changed to a mixed armament of four 240-millimeter (9.4 in) Modèle 1864 MLRs and six 194-millimeter (7.6 in) Modèle 1864 smoothbore muzzle-loading guns on the gundeck. Positioned on the quarterdeck and the forecastle were another 194 mm RML and six 164.7 mm Modèle 1858 RMLs, at least some of which served as chase guns. Sometime after 1867, her armament was changed to a total of eight 240 mm Modèle 1864 RMLs. From the upper deck down to below the waterline, the sides of the ships were completely armored with 150 mm (5.9 in) of wrought iron, backed by 750 mm (29.5 in) of wood. The sides of the battery itself were protected with 110 mm (4.3 in) of armor that was backed by 610 mm (24 in) of wood. The conning tower's sides consisted of 100-millimeter (3.9 in) armor plates. ## Construction and career Héroïne (Heroine) was ordered on 16 November 1860 from the Arsenal de Lorient, laid down on 10 June 1861 and launched on 10 December 1863. She was commissioned for trials on 1 April 1864, completed in June 1865, and was definitively commissioned (armement définitif) on the 7th. The ship was assigned to the Ironclad Division (Division cuirassée) of the Northern Squadron, based in Cherbourg. After a visit to Plymouth, England, on 17–19 July by several other French ironclads, the French invited the Channel Fleet to visit Cherbourg on Emperor Napoleon III's birthday in August, to reciprocate British hospitality. They arrived on 14 August and remained for four days, their crews' exchanging ship visits, touring the dockyard and participating in multiple banquets and balls. The British then invited the Ironclad Division and the Mediterranean Squadron (Escadre de la Méditerranée) to visit Portsmouth. The French ships, including Héroïne, arrived later that month and remained until 2 September; their crews similarly occupied as the British were earlier. In September–October 1866 Héroïne, her sisters Magnanime and Flandre and the ironclad Magenta participated in fleet maneuvers and comparative gunnery trials. In 1867 Héroïne was assigned to the Squadron of Evolutions (Escadre d'évolutions) and she became the flagship of Rear Admiral (contre-amiral) Albert Gicquel des Touches in 1868. Two years later she was the flagship of Rear Admiral Bernard Jauréguiberry. When the Franco-Prussian War began on 19 July 1870, Héroïne was assigned to Vice Admiral (vice-amiral) Léon Martin Fourichon's squadron that was tasked to blockade German ports in the Heligoland Bight. It departed Brest on 8 August and arrived off the British-owned island of Heligoland three days later. The neutral British denied the French permission to re-coal there and the ships were forced to perform it at sea under dangerous conditions. Bad weather and a series of storms beginning in late August prevented the squadron from coaling and the ships were forced to return to France in early September. By then the Prussians were besieging Paris and many of the trained gunners aboard the squadron were transferred to defend the city. The squadron resumed the blockade with reduced crews until December when smaller ships took it over. Héroïne arrived in mid-January 1871 and blockaded the German commerce raider SMS Augusta in Vigo, Spain, where she was resupplying in the neutral harbour. The ironclad was reinforced by three more ships in the following days which trapped Augusta until the Armistice of Versailles on 28 January. Héroïne was paid off on 14 April 1871 in Toulon and remained in that status for the next five years. The ship was recommissioned on 21 January 1876 as part of the 2nd Division of the Squadron of Evolutions; later that year she sailed to Thessaloniki, Greece, after the Salonika Incident, where a mob assassinated the French and German Consuls in Thessaloniki on 6 May 1876. Héroïne was assigned to the Levant Division on 22 May 1877 and rejoined the Squadron of Evolutions later that year. The ship was placed in reserve again in 1879, but was reactivated in 1882. She returned to reserve in 1886 and was disarmed. Héroïne was condemned on 10 January 1893 and her engine was removed; on 11 January 1894 she departed Toulon, bound for Dakar, French West Africa, where she arrived on 6 February where she was hulked. The ship then served as a floating workshop. In January 1898, Héroïne was converted into a floating battery, but was disarmed in January 1901. A severe yellow fever outbreak later began aboard the hulk which was scuttled off Dakar on 29 December 1901 as a preventative measure.

Sharon Kay Penman

American historical novelist (1945–2021)

Sharon Kay Penman (August 13, 1945 – January 22, 2021) was an American historical novelist, published in the UK as Sharon Penman. She was best known for the Welsh Princes trilogy and the Plantagenet series. In addition, she wrote four medieval mysteries, the first of which, The Queen's Man, was a finalist in 1996 for the Best First Mystery Edgar Award. Her novels and mysteries are set in England, France, and Wales, and are about English and Welsh royalty during the Middle Ages. The Sunne in Splendour, her first book, is a stand-alone novel about King Richard III of England and the Wars of the Roses. When the manuscript was stolen she started again and rewrote the book. Her work was generally well received, with the more recent novels reaching the New York Times Bestseller List. Critics have praised her meticulous research of settings and events presented in her fiction, as well as the characterizations. Penman died from pneumonia on January 22, 2021, at the age of 75. ## Career Born in New York City, Penman grew up in New Jersey. She received her bachelor's degree from the University of Texas at Austin, where she majored in history. She also received a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree from Rutgers University School of Law, and worked as a tax lawyer before becoming a writer. While a student, Penman researched and wrote The Sunne in Splendour that chronicled the life of Richard III. When the 400-page manuscript was stolen from her car, Penman found herself unable to write for the next five years. She eventually rewrote the book and by the time the 936-page book was published in 1982 she had spent 12 years writing it, while practicing law at the same time. Of practicing law, she admitted she "considered it penance." Penman lived in New Jersey, and in the early 1980s moved to Wales to research her second book, Here Be Dragons. She had a second home in the Welsh mountains where, she said, the history inspired her and provided material for her novels. ## Writing career The Sunne in Splendour is about the end of England's War of the Roses. In the book, Penman characterizes King Richard III as a healthy, if misunderstood, ruler. She chose to write Richard's character in such a way after becoming fascinated with his story and researching his life, both in the United States and in the United Kingdom, which led her to believe that "his was a classic case of history being rewritten by the victor." Once finished with The Sunne in Splendour she claimed to have become "hopelessly hooked" on writing. She had plenty of material to be written about the "rebellious sons and disgruntled brothers and conniving kings and willful queens" of the Plantagenets and hoped to write as many as a dozen books on the subject. After the publication of The Sunne in Splendour, Penman began work on the Welsh Trilogy, set primarily in Wales. The "Welsh Trilogy" was followed by the "Plantagenet series", which presents the events of the life of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Penman's settings are all in the Middle Ages; the Welsh Princes trilogy is set in the 13th century, two centuries earlier than The Sunne in Splendour. During her research for Here Be Dragons, the first book in the series, she became fascinated with the complexity of the role of women in medieval society; for example, Welsh women at the time had a great deal more independence than the English women. Whether in Wales or in England, a noble wife had responsibility for a household, complete with household knights, whom the wife relied upon to keep the household safe. In 1996, Penman published the first in the series of medieval mystery novels. Penman's first mystery, The Queen's Man, was a finalist for an Edgar Award for Best First Mystery from the Mystery Writers of America. Penman explained her reasons for turning to the mystery genre after writing only historical novels: "By the time I'd finished researching and writing When Christ and His Saints Slept, I was in danger of burning out. For the first time in nearly two decades, my boundless enthusiasm for the Middle Ages had begun to flag. So I decided I needed a change of pace, and since I am a long-time mystery fan, it occurred to me that a medieval mystery might be fun to write. Once that idea took root, it was probably inevitable that I'd choose to write about Eleanor of Aquitaine, surely one of history's most memorable women." Set in the 12th century, Penman presents the young Justin de Quincy as a medieval sleuth. In the first book he is elevated to the status of "queen's man" by Eleanor of Aquitaine. The Queen's Man and Cruel as the Grave depict the period after King Henry II's death, as Eleanor, about age 70, rules the Angevin empire with one son (Richard) in captivity, and another son (John) hovering at the edge of power. The third novel in the series, The Dragon's Lair, is set during the same period, but Penman shifts the locale to northwest England and north Wales. And finally, in the most recent novel of the series, Prince of Darkness, Penman continues to show the conflict between mother and sons, and weaves in de Quincy's conflicts as well. In addition to the Edgar Award, Penman was the winner of the 2001 Career Achievement Award for Historical Mysteries from Romantic Times. ## Welsh Princes trilogy Here Be Dragons (1985) is the first of Penman's trilogy of novels about the medieval Welsh princes of Gwynedd. Of the novel, Penman stated, “I think Dragons is so popular because it was virgin territory for most readers. The saga of the Plantagenets was much better known, but not many people were familiar with medieval Wales or its princes. And then, too, the story of Llewelyn the Great and Joanna, King John's illegitimate daughter, is a remarkable one, which struck an emotional chord with many readers.” In Falls the Shadow (1988) Penman chronicles the family relationships of King Henry III and his brother-in-law Simon de Montfort. Falls the Shadow is a bridge novel as Penman uses the Simon de Montfort rebellion to lead her to the conclusion of the trilogy in The Reckoning. As Penman explained: '“After I'd finished Here Be Dragons, I knew I wanted to continue the story... At first I'd planned to write one book in which Simon de Montfort would share top billing with Llewelyn Fawr's grandson, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, who later wed Simon's daughter. I soon realized, though, that this was too much to tackle in one book, that Simon and Llewelyn each deserved his own novel. So I decided to devote Falls the Shadow to Simon and The Reckoning to Llewelyn". Penman's characterization of Simon de Montfort is that of a man increasingly disillusioned by his sovereign, who rebels in 1263, becomes regent to Henry III, and attempts to re-establish rights granted under the Magna Carta. In addition to the story of Simon de Montfort and his wife, Eleanor the Countess of Pembroke and sister to King Henry III, the novel presents characters such as the Welsh ruler Llywelyn Fawr and London's FitzThomas. Of her research for Falls the Shadow, Penman explained: "I did a great deal of on-site research, visiting the castles and battlefields that figured in Falls the Shadow, visiting the Reading Room at the British Library, the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth, and local reference libraries... Here at home, I made use of the University of Pennsylvania Library in Philadelphia, which has an excellent medieval selection. But it really helped to see the scenes for myself. At Lewes, we actually walked along the same path that Simon de Montfort and his men would have followed. It was breathtaking to stand on the Downs, gazing out upon the same view that he would have seen". The Reckoning (1991) chronicles the reign of England's King Henry III in Penman's final volume of the series that began with Here Be Dragons. The conflict between the Welsh prince Llewelyn ap Gruffydd who is the grandson of Llewelyn the Great of Here Be Dragons, and England's King Henry III is one subplot. Additionally, Penman chronicles the life and character of Ellen, daughter of Simon de Montfort and niece to Henry III; her betrothal to Llewelyn (negotiated prior to de Montfort's death); and the conflict between Ellen and her cousin Edward, soon to become King Edward, who opposes the betrothal. ## Plantagenet series The Plantagenet series focuses on the Angevin King Henry II and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, beginning with the sinking of the White Ship, the marriage of the Empress Maude and Geoffrey of Anjou, and Henry's birth and childhood in When Christ and His Saints Slept. Of Henry and Eleanor, Penman explained: > Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine were larger than life, legends in their own lifetimes. He was one of the greatest of the medieval kings, and she was the only woman to wear the crowns of both England and France. They loved and fought and schemed on a stage that stretched from the Scots border to the Mediterranean Sea. Their children were branded by contemporaries as "The Devil’s Brood," but they founded a dynasty that was to rule England for three hundred years. > > My first novel in their trilogy [sic], When Christ and His Saints Slept, traces the beginning of their tempestuous union. Time and Chance continues their story at high noon. From the greenwoods of Wales to a bloodied floor at Canterbury Cathedral, theirs was an amazing story, and I very much enjoyed being along for the ride! When Christ and His Saints Slept introduces the genesis of the Plantagenet dynasty as Empress Maude fights to secure her claim to the English throne. In the 15 years she spent writing three novels and four mysteries set during the period of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine Penman claimed she found no villains. Instead she focused on the human characteristics: she believed Henry II was a brilliant king but a bad father. Of Eleanor of Aquitaine, she claimed she was a "law unto herself", and Penman was intrigued by the role of a medieval queen. Time and Chance (2002), a New York Times Bestseller, continues the story of Eleanor of Aquitaine and her husband, and focuses on the rift between Henry II and Thomas Becket. Time and Chance spans a 15-year period from 1156 to 1171 as Henry II became estranged from his wife (although Eleanor and Henry have eight children during thirteen years), and from his close friend and advisor Thomas Becket. King Henry's decision to elevate Becket to the Archbishop of Canterbury becomes a fulcrum for discord between Henry and Eleanor. Devil's Brood (2008) opens with the conflict between Henry II, his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, and their four sons, which escalates into a decade of warfare and rebellion pitting the sons against the father and the brothers against each other while Eleanor spends the period imprisoned by Henry. Penman places the characters against a tightly woven tapestry of medieval life, personal conflict, and dramatic characters. The Devil's Brood was supposed to be the final volume in Penman's Plantagenet series, but the "Angevins were not ready to go quietly into that good night." Lionheart (2011) is about the children of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. The book focuses on Richard the Lionheart's Crusades in the Holy Land, and on what happened to Eleanor when she was finally released after spending sixteen years in a confinement that was ordered and enforced by her husband. A King's Ransom is about the second half of Richard's life, during and following his imprisonment, ransom, and life afterward. ## Writing characteristics Penman's approach to her novels is to present meticulously researched medieval life and history as everyday life, and to present the nobility as fallible. Set against a backdrop of political tension, power struggles, war, and hardship, the main characters confront personal drama such as conflict in love, conflict between family members, conflict with God, and conflict in friendship, as well as conflicted loyalties between family, self, king and country. A Library Journal review praises Penman's attention to detail in which she "combines an in-depth knowledge of medieval Europe with vivid storytelling, re-creating the complex events and emotional drama of the 12th – 15th centuries." Although set in the 12th and 13th centuries, Penman sets the characters and narrative in her novels in medieval sites that still exist and can be visited, including castles, churches and archeological areas. Areas such as Aber Falls and Dolwyddelan Castle have important scenes in Penman's novels. In Devil's Brood, Penman sets the characters in scenes in a variety of medieval royal residences, castles and abbeys, in England and present day France, many of which still exist such as the Château de Chinon, Fontevrault Abbey, and Château de Loches.

Double bubble theorem

On smallest surface enclosing two volumes

In the mathematical theory of minimal surfaces, the double bubble theorem states that the shape that encloses and separates two given volumes and has the minimum possible surface area is a standard double bubble: three spherical surfaces meeting at angles of 120° on a common circle. The double bubble theorem was formulated and thought to be true in the 19th century, and became a "serious focus of research" by 1989, but was not proven until 2002. The proof combines multiple ingredients. Compactness of rectifiable currents (a generalized definition of surfaces) shows that a solution exists. A symmetry argument proves that the solution must be a surface of revolution, and it can be further restricted to having a bounded number of smooth pieces. Jean Taylor proof of Plateau's laws describes how these pieces must be shaped and connected to each other, and a final case analysis shows that, among surfaces of revolution connected in this way, only the standard double bubble has locally-minimal area. The double bubble theorem extends the isoperimetric inequality, according to which the minimum-perimeter enclosure of any area is a circle, and the minimum-surface-area enclosure of any single volume is a sphere. Analogous results on the optimal enclosure of two volumes generalize to weighted forms of surface energy, to Gaussian measure of surfaces, and to Euclidean spaces of any dimension. ## Statement According to the isoperimetric inequality, the minimum-perimeter enclosure of any area is a circle, and the minimum-surface-area enclosure of any single volume is a sphere. The existence of a shape with bounded surface area that encloses two volumes is obvious: just enclose them with two separate spheres. It is less obvious that there must exist some shape that encloses two volumes and has the minimum possible surface area: it might instead be the case that a sequence of shapes converges to a minimum (or to zero) without reaching it. This problem also raises tricky definitional issues: what is meant by a shape, the surface area of a shape, and the volume that it encloses, when such things may be non-smooth or even fractal? Nevertheless, it is possible to formulate the problem of optimal enclosures rigorously using the theory of rectifiable currents, and to prove using compactness in the space of rectifiable currents that every two volumes have a minimum-area enclosure. Plateau's laws state that any minimum area piecewise-smooth shape that encloses any volume or set of volumes must take a form commonly seen in soap bubbles in which surfaces of constant mean curvature meet in threes, forming dihedral angles of 120° ($2\pi/3$ radians). In a standard double bubble, three patches of spheres meet at this angle along a shared circle. Two of these spherical surfaces form the outside boundary of the double bubble and a third one in the interior separates the two volumes from each other. In physical bubbles, the radii of the spheres are inversely proportional to the pressure differences between the volumes they separate, according to the Young–Laplace equation. This connection between pressure and radius is reflected mathematically in the fact that, for any standard double bubble, the three radii $r_1$, $r_2$, and $r_3$ of the three spherical surfaces obey the equation $\frac{1}{r_1}=\frac{1}{r_2}+\frac{1}{r_3},$ where $r_1$ is the smaller radius of the two outer bubbles. In the special case when the two volumes and two outer radii are equal, calculating the middle radius using this formula leads to a division by zero. In this case, the middle surface is instead a flat disk, which can be interpreted as a patch of an infinite-radius sphere. The double bubble theorem states that, for any two volumes, the standard double bubble is the minimum area shape that encloses them; no other set of surfaces encloses the same amount of space with less total area. In the Euclidean plane, analogously, the minimum perimeter of a system of curves that enclose two given areas is formed by three circular arcs, with the same relation between their radii, meeting at the same angle of 120°. For two equal areas, the middle arc degenerates to a straight line segment. The three-dimensional standard double bubble can be seen as a surface of revolution of this two-dimensional double bubble. In any higher dimension, the optimal enclosure for two volumes is again formed by three patches of hyperspheres, meeting at the same 120° angle. ## History The three-dimensional isoperimetric inequality, according to which a sphere has the minimum surface area for its volume, was formulated by Archimedes but not proven rigorously until the 19th century, by Hermann Schwarz. In the 19th century, Joseph Plateau studied the double bubble, and the truth of the double bubble theorem was assumed without proof by C. V. Boys in the 1912 edition of his book on soap bubbles. Plateau formulated Plateau's laws, describing the shape and connections between smooth pieces of surfaces in compound soap bubbles; these were proven mathematically for minimum-volume enclosures by Jean Taylor in 1976. By 1989, the double bubble problem had become a "serious focus of research". In 1991, Joel Foisy, an undergraduate student at Williams College, was the leader of a team of undergraduates that proved the two-dimensional analogue of the double bubble conjecture. In his undergraduate thesis, Foisy was the first to provide a precise statement of the three-dimensional double bubble conjecture, but he was unable to prove it. A proof for the restricted case of the double bubble conjecture, for two equal volumes, was announced by Joel Hass and Roger Schlafly in 1995, and published in 2000. The proof of the full conjecture by Hutchings, Morgan, Ritoré, and Ros was announced in 2000 and published in 2002. After earlier work on the four-dimensional case, the full generalization to higher dimensions was published by Reichardt in 2008, and in 2014, Lawlor published an alternative proof of the double bubble theorem generalizing both to higher dimensions and to weighted forms of surface energy. Variations of the problem considering other measures of the size of the enclosing surface, such as its Gaussian measure, have also been studied. ## Proof A lemma of Brian White shows that the minimum area double bubble must be a surface of revolution. For, if not, one could use a similar argument to the ham sandwich theorem to find two orthogonal planes that bisect both volumes, replace surfaces in two of the four quadrants by the reflections of the surfaces in the other quadrants, and then smooth the singularities at the reflection planes, reducing the total area. Based on this lemma, Michael Hutchings was able to restrict the possible shapes of non-standard optimal double bubbles, to consist of layers of toroidal tubes. Additionally, Hutchings showed that the number of toroids in a non-standard but minimizing double bubble could be bounded by a function of the two volumes. In particular, for two equal volumes, the only possible nonstandard double bubble consists of a single central bubble with a single toroid around its equator. Based on this simplification of the problem, Joel Hass and Roger Schlafly were able to reduce the proof of this case of the double bubble conjecture to a large computerized case analysis, taking 20 minutes on a 1995 personal computer. The eventual proof of the full double bubble conjecture also uses Hutchings' method to reduce the problem to a finite case analysis, but it avoids the use of computer calculations, and instead works by showing that all possible nonstandard double bubbles are unstable: they can be perturbed by arbitrarily small amounts to produce another surface with lower area. The perturbations needed to prove this result are a carefully chosen set of rotations. Because a surface of minimum area exists, and none of the other candidate surfaces have minimum area, the minimum-area surface can only be the standard double bubble. ## Related problems John M. Sullivan has conjectured that, for any dimension $d$, the minimum enclosure of up to $d+1$ volumes (not necessarily equal) has the form of a stereographic projection of a simplex. In particular, in this case, all boundaries between bubbles would be patches of spheres. The special case of this conjecture for three bubbles in two dimensions has been proven; in this case, the three bubbles are formed by six circular arcs and straight line segments, meeting in the same combinatorial pattern as the edges of a tetrahedron. Frank Morgan called even the case of three volumes in three dimensions "inaccessible", but in 2022 a proof was announced of the three-volume case in all dimensions, and of additional partial results in higher dimensions. Numerical experiments have shown that for six or more volumes in three dimensions, some of the boundaries between bubbles may be non-spherical. For an infinite number of equal areas in the plane, the minimum-length set of curves separating these areas is the hexagonal tiling, familiar from its use by bees to form honeycombs, and its optimality (the honeycomb conjecture) was proven by T. C. Hales in 2001. For the same problem in three dimensions, the optimal solution is not known; Lord Kelvin conjectured that it was given by a structure combinatorially equivalent to the bitruncated cubic honeycomb, but this conjecture was disproved by the discovery of the Weaire–Phelan structure, a partition of space into equal volume cells of two different shapes using a smaller average amount of surface area per cell. Researchers have also studied the dynamics of physical processes by which pairs of bubbles coalesce into a double bubble. This topic relates to a more general topic in differential geometry of the dynamic behavior of curves and surfaces under different processes that change them continuously. For instance, the curve-shortening flow is a process in which curves in the plane move at a speed proportionally to their curvature. For two infinite regions separated by a line, with a third finite region between them, the curve-shortening flow on their boundaries (rescaled to preserve the area of the finite region) converges towards a limiting shape in the form of a degenerate double bubble: a vesica piscis along the line between the two unbounded regions.

1922–23 Cardiff City F.C. season

Cardiff City F.C. played the 1922–23 season in the First Division. The campaign was the 22nd season of competitive football played by Cardiff City F.C. and its second consecutive season in the top tier of The Football League. Cardiff had won promotion to the top tier of English football in 1920–21 by finishing as runners-up in the Second Division, becoming the first Welsh team to reach the top tier of English football. Entering the campaign, Cardiff were considered one of the strongest sides in the division, but, despite scoring more goals than any other side, indifferent away form ultimately resulted in a ninth-place finish. In the FA Cup, the side reached the third round after victories over Watford and Leicester City but were eliminated by Tottenham Hotspur for the second consecutive season. Cardiff were the reigning holders of the Welsh Cup having won the 1922 final. In the early rounds, the team showed their strength with 7–0 and 10–0 victories over amateur sides Rhymney and Oswestry. They went on to retain their title after defeating Aberdare Athletic in the final. Jack Evans made 50 appearances in all competitions during the season, more than any other player. He missed only one senior team fixture, due to an international call-up. Five other players made over 40 appearances and 27 players made at least one senior appearance. Len Davies was the club's top goalscorer for the second consecutive season. He scored 28 goals in all competitions including 19 in the First Division. He also scored the winning goal in the final of the Welsh Cup. ## Background and preseason Cardiff had entered The Football League in 1920, winning promotion from the Second Division in its first attempt. The team had endured a difficult start in the First Division the following year, losing the first six matches of the campaign, but the signing of Joe Clennell and the emergence of Len Davies vastly improved the team's attack and they eventually went on to finish fourth. The team's performance meant that confidence was high heading into the new season. Manager Fred Stewart remained in charge of the side for the eighth consecutive season of competitive football and felt no need to make any significant signings prior to the new season. Club captain Charlie Brittain was quoted in the South Wales Echo, "We ought to do well, seeing that the present season opens as a sort of continuation of the glorious run we had last year [...] if we do no more than reproduce our old form it must needs be a great side that will stem our progress." The Times expressed a similar belief in the team's potential prior to the start of the campaign, stating that Cardiff possessed "undeniable all-round ability" and reported in the early stages of the season that the team were "at present considered to be as good a team as any in the First Division of the League". Tommy Brown and Willie Page who had both been signed at the start of the previous season were the only notable departures from the first team squad. ## First Division In a repeat of the team's first season in the First Division, Cardiff met Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane in the first match of the campaign in a tie that was regarded as the biggest game of the opening day. The match was described as "disappointing to watch" by The Times match reporter as the warm weather proved draining to both sides. Cardiff fell behind in the first five minutes of the match as Jimmy Cantrell gave Tottenham the lead. Although Cardiff enjoyed the majority of the chances, it took until midway through the second half to equalise through Jimmy Gill. Len Davies missed a late chance to win the match when he failed to react to a mistake by the opposition goalkeeper who had misjudged a cross and the game ended in a draw. Two days later, Cardiff recorded its first win of the season by defeating Aston Villa 3–0 at Ninian Park after a brace from Clennell and one goal from Billy Grimshaw. In the reverse fixture against Tottenham on 2 September, Cardiff suffered a 3–2 defeat in front of 50,000 spectators. Len Davies, the previous season's top goalscorer in all competitions, scored his first goals of the campaign with a brace. Despite taking the lead, three second half goals gave Tottenham an unassailable lead and Cardiff's efforts were further hampered by an injury to Clennell. Cardiff recovered by beating Villa 3–1 in the two sides' second meeting on 8 September. The team recorded a 4–1 home victory over Arsenal to move into fourth place after five matches. Arsenal took the lead in the first half through Tom Whittaker before Grimshaw equalised. In the second half, a brace from Len Davies and one from Harry Nash secured victory for Cardiff. Cardiff was considered a heavy favourite to repeat its win in the reverse fixture on 16 September. However, Arsenal dominated the fixture and won the match 2–1 as Cardiff suffered injuries to Jack Page, already deputising for the injured Jimmy Blair, and Gill. The defeat saw Cardiff fall to seventh in the table and was the start of a poor run of form that would damage the club's season. Back-to-back defeats against Everton followed at the end of September and this pattern was repeated in successive fixtures against Sunderland in October. A 3–1 away defeat against reigning league holders and league leaders Liverpool meant Cardiff had suffered six consecutive defeats and left the club in 21st position with only Stoke remaining below them. In the reverse fixture against Liverpool on 26 October, the team won their first fixture since early September to end their losing run, winning 3–0 following goals from Grimshaw, Ken MacDonald and Clennell. The victory lifted Cardiff out of the relegation zone at the expense of Preston North End. A goalless draw against Birmingham was followed by a 1–1 draw against the same opponents on 11 November, despite Cardiff playing with what The Times described as "a great pace, which would have beaten many teams". Cardiff's brief return to form was ended by consecutive 1–0 defeats against Huddersfield Town at the end of November. The team defeated bottom side Stoke 2–1 on 2 December following goals from Gill and Clennell but defeat to Stoke in the reverse fixture a week later left the two sides tied at the bottom of the league on 13 points along with Arsenal and Oldham Athletic. The Times expressed surprise at the club's struggles in the first half of the season, reporting "Cardiff City can play extremely well at Cardiff on occasions [...] They have not however reproduced their form at the end of last season, playing rather in-and-ourlt football". The slump in form was blamed largely on the team's attacking players and their lack of scoring. This prompted manager Fred Stewart to make the first major signings of the season, with Fergie Aitken arriving on a free transfer. The side were credited with playing "dashing and improved football" as they recorded a 3–1 home victory over Manchester City in their following match. In the week following the fixture, defender Blair collapsed during a training session and was taken to a local hospital. It was believed that he was still suffering effects from a bout of pneumonia earlier in the season. A second signing arrived soon after with George Reid arriving from Walsall. He made a goalscoring debut for Cardiff in the reverse fixture against Manchester City with what proved a consolation goal as the side were soundly beaten 5–1. He scored again in the club's following fixture with Gill adding a brace in a 3–0 win over West Bromwich Albion before Cardiff finished the year with a defeat to West Brom and a goalless draw with Bolton Wanderers. Reid scored his third goal in five appearances since his arrival with the only goal in a victory over Bolton on 6 January, moving Cardiff four points clear of the relegation places. However, after Reid failed to score in a 3–1 defeat to Blackburn Rovers and Len Davies scored in consecutive FA Cup matches with Reid cup-tied, Davies was restored to the first team. His return proved pivotal as the team's goalscoring rapidly improved, recording consecutive 5–0 home victories over Blackburn and Newcastle United with Davies and Gill scoring all but one of the goals in the ties. The pair scored again against fellow strugglers Nottingham Forest on 17 February to give Cardiff a 2–0 lead before Forest rallied in the final 30 minutes, coming from behind to win 3–2. After losing to Newcastle and drawing 1–1 with Chelsea, Cardiff recorded its biggest victory of the season by beating Chelsea 6–1 in the reverse fixture at Ninian Park. Len Davies scored a hat-trick for the side with Gill scoring a brace and Jack Evans scoring once. The result began a strong run of form for the team as they went on to defeat Middlesbrough in back-to-back fixtures, Preston and Burnley. The five straight victories saw Cardiff rise up the table and by the start of April the club had moved into the top ten. Cardiff's winning streak ended with a 2–2 draw with Burnley at Ninian Park on 2 April with both goals being scored by Keenor. With Gill and Davies both absent, defenders Keenor and Page were used as makeshift strikers. Keenor remained in his new role for a 3–0 defeat against Preston before international call-ups depleted Cardiff's squad even further with six players being named in their international squads. As a result, Herbert Kneeshaw, Sidney Evans, Fred Mason, Vince Jones and Billy Taylor were all called upon to make their first appearance of the season and helped the side to a 1–0 victory over Sheffield United. Cardiff's first team returned a week later for the reverse fixture but could only manage a goalless draw. The team finished their campaign with a 3–1 victory over Nottingham Forest and a 2–0 victory over Oldham before losing their final match 3–1 in the reverse fixture against Oldham. They finished the season in ninth position and were the highest scoring team in the First Division with 73 goals. ### Match results Key - In the result column, Cardiff City's score is shown first - H = Home match - A = Away match - pen. = Penalty kick - o.g. = Own goal Results ### Partial league table ## Cup matches ### FA Cup Cardiff entered the FA Cup in the first round, being drawn against Third Division South side Watford at home. A crowd of 34,000 witnessed a 1–1 draw between the sides, with Jack Evans scoring for Cardiff via a penalty, resulting in the need for a replay. The teams met again on 17 January 1923 but neither side emerged victorious for a second time as the match ended in a 2–2 draw. A second replay was needed at a neutral ground, being held at the home stadium of Aston Villa, Villa Park on 22 January. Watford led the tie with ten minutes remaining before Cardiff scored two late goals through Herbie Evans and Len Davies to finally overcome the lower ranked opponents. In the second round, Cardiff overcame Leicester City 1–0 through Len Davies' goal. Having been eliminated by Tottenham Hotspur in the third round the previous season, Cardiff were drawn against the side again in the 1922–23 season. 54,000 fans attended the tie at Ninian Park with heavy rain and wind making playing conditions difficult. Tottenham dominated the first half and led 3–0 by half-time. However, Cardiff scored early in the second half through Gill and Jack Evans later converted a penalty to make the score 3–2. Cardiff pressured Tottenham for the remainder of the game but were unable to score an equalising goal as Tottenham defeated Cardiff in the FA Cup for the second consecutive season. ### Match results Key - In the result column, Cardiff City's score is shown first - H = Home match - A = Away match - N = Neutral venue - pen. = Penalty kick - o.g. = Own goal Results ### Welsh Cup Cardiff entered the Welsh Cup in the fourth round as reigning holders having defeated Ton Pentre in the 1922 final. The team were drawn against Rhymney and proved too strong for the amateur side, recording a 7–0 victory with five different goal scorers and a hat-trick for Gill. In the following round, Cardiff again proved far too strong for amateur opponents as Oswestry were soundly beaten 10–0. Len Davies, Gill and Reid all scored hat-tricks in the tie with Keenor the other goalscorer. Third Division South side and South Wales rivals Swansea Town were the opposition in the semi-final and proved a much sterner test. Len Davies and a brace from Clennell secured a narrow 3–2 victory for Cardiff. In the final, Cardiff met another Third Division South side, Aberdare Athletic at Swansea's Vetch Field. The match was described as "hard-fought" in local press coverage, and Aberdare took an early lead in front of the 8,000 spectators. Cardiff equalised soon after when an Aberdare defender accidentally gave the ball away allowing Grimshaw to score easily. In the second half, Gill gave Cardiff the lead before Len Davies added a third. Aberdare converted a penalty to pull a goal back but the match finished 3–2. Cardiff captain Blair received the trophy from Football Association of Wales (FAW) vice-president Sydney Nicholls. The match generated £450 in gate receipts. ### Match results Key - In the result column, Cardiff City's score is shown first - H = Home match - A = Away match - N = Neutral venue - pen. = Penalty kick - o.g. = Own goal Results ## Player details Jack Evans made more appearances for Cardiff during the 1922–23 season than any other player, playing in 41 league matches and all nine FA Cup and Welsh Cup fixtures. He missed only one match in any senior team competition, a 1–0 win over Sheffield United in the First Division, due to an international call-up for Wales. Five other players made 40 or more appearances during the course of the season, including Billy Grimshaw who had made the most appearances the previous season. Six players made a single appearance during the season, four of whom played in the 1–0 victory over Sheffield United that was disrupted by international call-ups. The match was the only senior appearance that Fred Mason, Vince Jones and Billy Turnbull made for Cardiff during their careers. In total, 27 players made at least one senior appearance during the season. For the second consecutive season, Len Davies finished the campaign as the club's top goalscorer. His tally of 19 in the league was the highest by any Cardiff player and he scored a further 8 goals in cup competitions, including the winning goal in the Welsh Cup final. Jimmy Gill was the second highest scoring player, scoring 20 or more goals for the third consecutive season since his arrival at the club. Joe Clennell was the only other Cardiff player to reach double figures, scoring 17 times. ### Player statistics Sources: ## Aftermath Although the club eventually secured a midtable position, the high expectations at the start of the season prompted The Times to describe Cardiff's poor form as "the mystery of the season" during the campaign. Despite a disappointing season, the majority of the side remained for the following season as the club retained confidence in the players. This belief proved well founded as Cardiff went on to finish as runners-up in the First Division, missing out on the title on the final day of the season through goal average. Club captain Charlie Brittain was the only major departure before the start of the following season as he retired from playing. Blair was appointed club captain in his place with Keenor his deputy. Grimshaw would also depart the club three months into the new season, being sold to Sunderland for £4,000.

Post-punk revival

Genre of indie rock music

Post-punk revival (also known as garage rock revival, new wave revival, and new rock revolution) is a genre or movement of indie rock that emerged in the early 2000s as musicians started to play a stripped down and back-to-basics version of guitar rock inspired by the original sounds and aesthetics of garage rock, new wave, and post-punk. Bands shared an emphasis on energetic live performance and used aesthetics (in hair and clothes) closely aligned with their fans, often drawing on fashion of the 1950s and 1960s, with "skinny ties, white belts [and] shag haircuts". There was an emphasis on "rock authenticity" that was seen as a reaction to the commercialism of MTV-oriented nu metal, hip hop and "bland" post-Britpop groups. The commercial breakthrough of the genre came with the release of the Strokes' Is This It in 2001. ## Definitions and characteristics The term post-punk was coined to describe groups who took punk and experimented with more challenging musical structures and lyrical themes, and a self-consciously art-based image, while retaining punk's initial iconoclastic stance. In the early 2000s, a new group of bands that played a stripped down and back-to-basics version of guitar rock emerged into the mainstream. They were variously characterized as part of a garage rock, new wave or post-punk revival. Inspired by the original sounds and aesthetics of garage rock of the 1960s and new wave and post-punk of the late 1970s and early 1980s, with other influences that ranged from traditional blues, through new wave to grunge. The music ranged from the atonal tracks of bands like Liars to the melodic pop songs of groups like the Sounds, popularising distorted guitar sounds. They shared an emphasis on energetic live performance and used aesthetics (in hair and clothes) closely aligned with their fans, often drawing on fashion of the 1950s and 1960s, with "skinny ties, white belts [and] shag haircuts". There was an emphasis on "rock authenticity" that was seen as a reaction to the commercialism of MTV-oriented nu metal, hip hop and "bland" post-Britpop groups. Because the bands came from countries around the world, cited diverse influences and adopted differing styles of dress, their unity as a genre has been disputed. For garage rock historian Eric James Abbey, these were diverse bands that appropriated (or were given) the label "garage" to gain a degree of credibility. AllMusic argued that rather than a revival, the history of post-punk was more of a continuum from the mid-1980s, with scattered bands that included Big Flame, World Domination Enterprises, and Minimal Compact extending the genre. In the mid-1990s, notable bands in this vein included Six Finger Satellite, Brainiac and Elastica. At the turn of the century, the term "post-punk" began to appear in the music press again, with a number of critics reviving the label to describe a new set of bands that shared some of the aesthetics of the original post-punk era. Music critic Simon Reynolds noted that bands like the Rapture and Franz Ferdinand were influenced by the more angular strain of post-punk, particularly bands such as Wire and Gang of Four. Others identified this movement as another wave of garage rock revivalism, with NME in 2003 designating it a "new garage rock revolution", or simply a "new rock revolution". According to music critic Jim DeRogatis, the Strokes, the White Stripes and the Hives all had a sound "to some extent rooted in Nuggets-era garage rock". ## History ### Background There was interest in garage rock and elements of punk in the 1980s and 1990s, and by 2000 local music scenes in several countries had bands playing alternative and indie music. The Detroit rock scene included the White Stripes and the Von Bondies. New York's scene included the Strokes, Interpol, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, TV on the Radio, LCD Soundsystem, the Walkmen, the Rapture, and Liars. In Los Angeles & San Francisco, the scene was centered around Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, Brian Jonestown Massacre, the Dandy Warhols and Silversun Pickups. Other countries had their own local bands incorporating post-punk music. ### 2001–2007: Commercial breakthrough The commercial breakthrough from these scenes began initially in the UK, and was led by a small group of bands. The Strokes emerged from the New York club scene with their debut album, Is This It (2001), which debuted at No. 2 in the UK and cracked the Top 50 in America. The White Stripes, from Detroit, released their third album, White Blood Cells (2001), which charted decently in both the US and the UK, as well as spawning two transatlantic Top 25 singles. The Hives, from Sweden, became a mainstream success with their compilation album Your New Favourite Band (2001) which peaked at No. 7 on the UK charts. Also in 2001, Black Rebel Motorcycle Club's debut album hit No. 5 in the UK. The Vines, from Australia, released Highly Evolved in 2002, which was a top 5 success in both England and Australia, and peaked at No. 11 in the US. Along with the Strokes, White Stripes, Hives and others, they were christened by parts of the media as the "The" bands, and dubbed "the saviours of rock 'n' roll", prompting Rolling Stone magazine to declare on its September 2002 cover, "Rock is Back!" This press attention, in turn, led to accusations of hype, and some dismissed the scene as unoriginal, image-conscious and tuneless. According to Reynolds, "apart from maybe the White Stripes, none could really be described as retro". In the wake of this attention, existing acts like Yeah Yeah Yeahs were able to sign to major record labels. A second wave of bands that managed to gain international recognition as a result of the movement included Interpol, the Black Keys, the Killers, Kings of Leon, Modest Mouse, the Shins, the Bravery, Spoon, the Hold Steady, and the National in the US, and Franz Ferdinand, Bloc Party, the Futureheads, The Cribs, the Libertines, Kaiser Chiefs and the Kooks in the UK. Arctic Monkeys were the most prominent act to owe their initial commercial success to the use of Internet social networking, with two No. 1 singles and Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not (2006), which became the fastest-selling debut album in British chart history. ### 2008–2010: Decline in popularity As a dominant commercial force, the revival was relatively short-lived. By 2008, the initial success of the movement was beginning to subside, leading commentators to discuss its decline as a phenomenon and argue that it had been overtaken by the more musically and emotionally complex music of indie rock bands like Arcade Fire (which, nevertheless, has been characterized by critics as featuring post-punk influences and sound) and Death Cab for Cutie. By the end of the decade, many of the bands of the movement had broken up, were on hiatus, or had moved into other musical areas, and very few were making significant impact on the charts. Bands that returned to recording and touring in the 2010s included Franz Ferdinand, Arctic Monkeys, the Strokes and Interpol. ### 2011–present: Resurgence Post punk artists that attained prominence in the 2010s and early 2020s included Parquet Courts, Protomartyr and Geese (United States), Preoccupations (Canada), Iceage (Denmark), and Viagra Boys (Sweden). In the mid-to-late 2010s and early 2020s, a new wave of post-punk bands from Britain and Ireland emerged. The groups in this scene have been described with the term "Crank Wave" by NME and The Quietus in 2019, and as "Post-Brexit New Wave" by NPR writer Matthew Perpetua in 2021. Perpetua describes the groups in the scene as "U.K. bands that kinda talk-sing over post-punk music, and sometimes it's more like post-rock." Many of the acts are associated with producer Dan Carey and his record label Speedy Wunderground, and with The Windmill, an all-ages music venue in Brixton, London. Artists that have been identified as part of the style include Black Midi, Squid, Black Country, New Road, Dry Cleaning, Shame, Sleaford Mods, Fontaines D.C., The Murder Capital, Idles and Yard Act. ## See also - List of post-punk revival bands - New rave - New wave of new wave

Relics of Sariputta and Moggallana

Relics of two main disciples of the Buddha

The relics of Sariputta and Moggallana refers to the cremated remains of the Buddhist disciples Sariputta (Sanskrit: Śāriputra; Pali: Sāriputta) and Moggallana (Sanskrit: Maudgalyāyana; Pali: Moggallāna). Sariputta and Moggallana (also called Maha Moggallana) were the two chief disciples of the Buddha, often stylized as the right hand and left hand disciples of the Buddha respectively. The two disciples were childhood friends who ordained under the Buddha together and are said to have become enlightened as arahants. The Buddha declared them his two chief disciples, after which they assumed leadership roles in the Buddha's ministry. Both of the chief disciples died a few months before the Buddha near the ancient Indian city of Rājagaha in what is now Bihar, and were cremated. According to Buddhist texts, the cremated remains of the disciples were then enshrined in stupas at notable monasteries of the time, with Sariputta's remains being enshrined at Jetavana monastery and Moggallana's remains being enshrined at Veḷuvana monastery. However, as of 1999 no modern archaeological reports have confirmed this, although in 1851 discoveries were made at other sites. In 1851, British archaeologists Major Alexander Cunningham and Lieutenant Frederick Charles Maisey discovered relics attributed to the chief disciples during excavations of stupas in the Indian cities of Sanchi and Satdhara. Scholars have theorized that the relics were enshrined in stupas near Rajagaha after the disciples' deaths but were redistributed by later Indian kings such as King Asoka. Following the discovery, the Satdhara relics were sent to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London in 1866, while the Sanchi relics are said to have been lost when a ship carrying the remains sank. Following a Buddhist revival movement in South Asia in the late 19th century, Buddhist organizations including the Maha Bodhi Society began pressuring the British government to return the relics to Asia so they can be properly venerated, with the British government eventually conceding. The relics were sent to Sri Lanka in 1947, where they were on display at the Colombo Museum for nearly two years, and then were put on tour around parts of Asia starting in 1949. The relics were then divided up and permanently relocated in 1952, with portions being enshrined at the Kaba Aye Pagoda in Yangon, Burma, the Maha Bodhi Society temple in Colombo, Sri Lanka, and the Chethiyagiri Vihara in Sanchi, India. ## Sariputta and Moggallana Sariputta and Moggallana were considered to have been the two chief disciples of the Buddha. Sariputta was considered the disciple who was foremost in wisdom and Moggallana was considered the disciple who was foremost in psychic powers. Buddhist texts relate that Sariputta and Moggallana were childhood friends who became spiritual wanderers in their youth. After having searched for spiritual truth under different contemporary masters, they came into contact with the teachings of the Buddha and ordained as monks under him, after which the Buddha declared the friends his two chief disciples, together described in the Mahāpadāna Sutta, as "the chief pair of disciples, the excellent pair" (Pali: sāvakayugaṁ aggaṁ bhaddayugaṁ). Texts describe that the two friends became arahants and played a key leadership role in the Buddha's ministry, including being tasked with the training of the Buddha's other disciples. Sariputta was considered the Buddha's right hand disciple, while Moggallana was considered his left hand disciple. According to Buddhist texts, Sariputta and Moggallana both died a few months before the Buddha. Accounts of Sariputta's death state that he died peacefully in his hometown and was cremated in the city of Rājagaha. Sariputta's brother, Cunda, then brought his relics to the Buddha in Savatthi, where they were enshrined in a stupa at Jetavana monastery. Accounts of Moggallana's death state that he died violently, dying after being beaten by a group of bandits in a cave near Rājagaha. Buddhist texts state that Moggallana's relics were then collected and enshrined in the Veḷuvana monastery near Rājagaha. Over the succeeding centuries reports from Chinese pilgrims such as Xuanzang indicated that the relics could be found in the Indian city of Mathura in stupas built by Emperor Asoka. ## Excavation of the lost relics As of 1999, no archaeological reports had confirmed findings of the relics of the chief disciples at the sites mentioned by either Chinese pilgrims or Buddhist texts. However, a 19th century British excavation did result in the discovery of relics attributed to the chief disciples in other locations. ### Sanchi relics In 1851, British archaeologists Major Cunningham and Lieutenant Maisey were exploring a site in Sanchi, near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh in India, which was known for its many Buddhist stupas, also called "Topes", dating back to the 3rd century BCE. Attempts to excavate the stupas had been done in the past by Sir Thomas Herbert Maddock, who breached the outside of the stupas but was unable to reach the center. Cunningham and Maisey instead excavated the sites by going in perpendicular through the middle of the stupas, allowing them to successfully open and explore several stupas in Sanchi. During the expedition, Cunningham and Maisey excavated Stupa number 3 of the site and discovered an undisturbed chamber with two sandstone boxes. Each of the boxes contained a steatite casket containing human bone fragments. The lids of the boxes bore Brāhmī script, the southern box bore the inscription Sariputasa, meaning "(relics) of Sariputta", while the lid of the northern box bore the inscription Maha Mogalanasa meaning "(relics) of Maha Moggallana", identifying the bone fragments as belonging to the two chief disciples. The relative positioning of the boxes also had religious significance. Cunningham states that > Sariputra and Mahamoggallana were the principal followers of the Buddha, and were usually styled his right and left hand disciples. Their ashes thus preserved after death the same positions to the right and left of Buddha which they had themselves occupied in life. According to Cunningham, people in ancient India sat facing the east during religious ceremonies and even used the word east (para) for "front", as well as the word south (dakshina) for "right" and the word north (vami) for "left", meaning the positioning of Sariputta's casket toward the south and Moggallana's casket toward the north symbolized each disciple's relative positions as right and left hand disciple respectively. This positioning has also been explained by the fact that the Buddha traditionally sat facing the east, which would make the south his right hand side, and the north his left hand side. The box attributed to Sariputta contained a round white steatite casket, more than six inches in diameter and three inches in height. The surface was polished and hard, and the box is believed to have been turned on a lathe. Surrounding the casket were two pieces of sandalwood, which Cunningham believed was from Sariputta's funeral pyre. Inside the casket was one single bone fragment nearly one inch long, and seven beads made up of precious stones and metals. The box attributed to Moggallana contained a slightly smaller steatite casket made up of a slightly softer substance. Inside the casket were two bone fragments, the larger one being nearly half an inch long. Each of the caskets had an ink Brāhmī character inscribed on the inner surface of the lid: the Brāhmī character "Sa" (𑀲𑀸) on the casket attributed to Sariputta and the Brāhmī character "Ma" (𑀫) on the casket attributed to Mahamoggallana. According to Cunningham, the ink inscriptions were possibly the oldest ink writings in existence. ### Satdhara relics Following the discovery in Sanchi, Cunningham and Maisey excavated several nearby sites. During an excavation at the city of Satdhara a few miles west, the archaeologists found another pair of steatite relic caskets at Satdhara's Stupa Number 2, one of a group that was locally called the "Buddha Bhita" or "Buddha Monuments". The caskets were smaller than the Sanchi ones, about three inches in diameter and two inches in height, and each contained several human bone fragments. According to Cunningham, there was evidence that the stupa had been opened before and concluded that villagers had opened it and then closed it up after finding nothing but bone fragments. Inside the lids of the caskets were inscriptions like those in Sanchi, Sariputasa meaning "(relics) of Sariputta" and Maha Mogalanasa meaning "(relics) of Maha Moggallana". The only notable difference between these inscriptions and the ones in Sanchi was the positioning of a Brāhmī vowel, which Cunningham believed was due either to the inscription being done by a different engraver or being done at a different time period. Cunningham theorized that the relics were enshrined in stupas near Rajagaha after the disciples' deaths until the time of Emperor Asoka, who then redistributed them in stupas throughout India. Scholars have also theorized that a Sunga king may have also done a similar redistribution and built stupas such as the one in Sanchi to enshrine them. Cunningham and Maisey spent several months excavating numerous stupas in the area, but they didn't make any more finds as significant as the findings in Sanchi and Satdhara. ## Display in Britain Cunningham and Maisey later divided their findings among each other, with Maisey bringing the Satdhāra relics to Britain and loaning them to the Victoria and Albert Museum (then called the South Kensington Museum) in London in 1866 along with several other artifacts from Asia. The relics were eventually purchased by the Museum in 1921 from Maisley's son, whose ownership devolved. Cunningham brought his findings to Britain on two ships, one of which sank, thus the Sanchi relics are assumed to have been lost. Scholar of religion Torkel Brekke [no], however, argues that Maisey took all the relics with him, and thus the Sanchi relics went to Britain along with the Satdhāra ones. Archeologist Louis Finot notes that Cunningham had no interest in the relics, only in the caskets. In the late 19th century, a Buddhist revival movement led by the Maha Bodhi Society began taking place in South Asia. The revival efforts led several Buddhist organizations to begin pressuring the British government starting in the 1920s to return the relics of the chief disciples to India, where they can be properly venerated. The Victoria and Albert Museum rejected the initial requests, which at first came as a series of letters from local English Buddhists. On one occasion, the museum instead offered to allow a small group of local Buddhists to worship the relics at the museum, in response to a request that the relics temporarily be sent to a local Buddhist center for a worship. The museum argued that it also held Christian relics, and that returning the Buddhist relics would result in many museums being forced to return other relics as well. The situation changed in 1939 however, when the museum was informed that the government of India had forwarded a request for the return of the relics on behalf of Buddhist organizations. While museum director Eric Maclagan still argued that doing so would result in being forced to also return their Christian relics, one museum official argued that Britain being a Christian country gives them rights to those relics that they do not have with Buddhist relics. The museum was eventually instructed by the British government to return the relics for diplomatic reasons later that year. However, the transfer was delayed due to the outbreak of World War II, due to fear of the relics being lost in wartime transport. After the war ended, the transfer was officially made in 1947 with the relics first being transported to predominantly Buddhist Sri Lanka in accordance with an agreement made with Buddhist organizations. ## Tour of Asia Following the transfer of the relics from the British, they were put on display at the Colombo Museum (now called the National Museum of Colombo) in Sri Lanka, where they were visited by an estimated two million people across different faiths. The Victoria and Albert Museum originally transferred the relics in plaster casket copies, but after the High Commissioner of India made a request for the original caskets in 1948 the museum transferred the original caskets to Sri Lanka as well. The relics remained in Sri Lanka for nearly two years before being transported to Calcutta, India in 1949, where they were formally received by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and officially handed over to the Maha Bodhi Society of India. They were housed at the Dharmarajika Vihara, the headquarters of the Society, for two weeks where they received a constant stream of visitors, many of which Hindu and Muslim. The relics were then put on tour around northern India. In 1950 the relics were sent to Burma for a two month visit. The relics were received in the Burmese city of Rangoon, coinciding with the arrival of other Buddhist relics from Sri Lanka. According to reports of the occasion, most of the city had turned out for the arrival of the relics and the relics received a constant stream of visiting devotees for the month that they were in the city. In the second month of the visit, the relics were put on tour around Burma in a river tour that drew large crowds at the stops, including people from neighboring villages. One thing that was well reported in Burmese news was the visitation of the relics to areas of ethnic minorities, where they were also enthusiastically received. The relics were also taken for exposition in Nepal, Tibet and Cambodia. ## Re-enshrinement ### Burma Following the tour of the relics in Burma in 1950, Burmese Prime Minister U Nu asked India for a portion of the relics for Burma to keep permanently. Later that year, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to make a "permanent loan" of a portion of the relics to Burma in what was seen as a gesture of goodwill toward its newly independent neighbor. Burma's portion of the relics arrived from Calcutta in 1951, on the same day as some relics from the Buddha himself. Like the first visit, they were received by a large crowd and were put on tour around the Burma. The relics were then housed in a shrine near Botatuang Pagoda, which was destroyed in World War II and was being reconstructed. Although the Burmese government originally intended to house the relics at the Botatuang Pagoda after reconstruction, following the completion of the Kaba Aye Pagoda in 1952, Prime Minister U Nu decided to permanently house them at the Kaba Aye Pagoda in Yangon instead. ### Sri Lanka Sri Lanka also obtained a portion of the relics, which were brought from Sanchi in 1952 and kept at the temple of the Maha Bodhi Society in Colombo. The relics are exhibited annually during the local celebration of the Buddha's birthday, Vesak Day. In 2015, the Maha Bodhi Society broke with tradition by showing the relics to Pope Francis outside of the duration of the annual festival. Responding to critics, the head of the society stated that no pope had set foot inside a Buddhist temple since 1984, and added that "religious leaders have to play a positive role to unite [their] communities instead of dividing". ### India The portion of the relics that stayed in India were also enshrined in 1952, at the Chethiyagiri Vihara in Sanchi, which was built by the Maha Bodhi Society specifically to house the relics. The vihara was funded in part by a donation from the Nawab of Bhopal as well as a land grant from the local Bhopal government. The relics are shown every year at the annual international Buddhist festival in November. In 2016, the exhibition was visited by Thai princess Sirindhorn. ## Legacy Brekke calls the return of the relics of Sariputta and Moggallana to Asia the greatest achievement and "the most significant historical point of reference" of the Maha Bodhi Society of India, matched only by the role the society played in the return of relics of the Buddha himself. The relics were received in India in a massive ceremony and their retrieval was highly celebrated. According to Brekke, Indian Prime Minister Nehru saw Buddhism as a peaceful and unifying force for India and the relics of the chief disciples were seen as a symbol of the newly independent country's values of religious tolerance and non-violence. In various speeches made at the receiving ceremony for the relics, speakers made comparisons between Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi and the Buddha. According to art historian Jack Daulton, the visit of the relics to Burma played a significant political role in Burma as well. The newly independent Burmese state promoted a revival of Buddhism in the country, which at the time was dealing with widespread civil strife. The relics helped establish the new Burmese government's legitimacy and had a unifying effect on the country. After the relics visited Burma, Burmese Prime Minister U Nu stated that "at every place where the relics have been exhibited, most of all in the neighborhoods of disturbed areas, public morale greatly improved." Daulton describes the story of the relics and their influence on various governments as "amazing" given that they were just tiny bone fragments, stating that: "those tiny pieces of bone moved not only millions of devotees worldwide, but national governments as well". Brekke argues that the story of the relics showed a dynamic between archaeology and politics. In the view of curators at the Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as that of Maisey and Cunningham, the relics of Sariputta and Moggallana had only artistic and historical value, and in that world there was "no place for the religious use of relics", states Brekke. However, in the places where the relics were ultimately enshrined, the significance of the relics was almost entirely religious. In Burma, the enshrinement of the Burmese portion of the relics was met with devotees dropping to their knees in veneration as the relics passed by. In Sri Lanka, the Sri Lankan portion of the relics are customarily only taken out for public display and veneration on the Buddha's birthday, Vesak Day, while in India, a fair is held annually at the vihara that houses the Sanchi portion of the relics that is attended by Buddhists all over the world.

Confessions on a Dance Floor

2005 studio album by Madonna

Confessions on a Dance Floor is the tenth studio album by American singer and songwriter Madonna. It was released on November 9, 2005, by Warner Bros. Records. A complete departure from her previous studio album American Life (2003), the album includes influences of 1970s disco and 1980s electropop, as well as 2000s club music. Initially, she began working with Mirwais Ahmadzaï for the album but later felt that their collaboration was not going in the direction she desired. Madonna took her collaboration with Stuart Price who was overseeing her documentary I'm Going to Tell You a Secret. The album was mainly recorded at Price's home-studio where Madonna spent most of her time during the recordings. Musically, the record is structured like a DJ's set. The songs are sequenced and blended so that they are played continuously without any gaps. The title arrived from the fact that the album tracklisting consists of light-hearted and happy songs in the beginning, and progresses to much darker melodies and lyrics describing personal feelings and commitments. Songs on the album sample and reference the music of other dance-oriented artists like ABBA, Donna Summer, Pet Shop Boys, the Bee Gees and Depeche Mode, as well as Madonna's 1980s output. Madonna promoted the album through several live performances and a promotional tour. She embarked on the Confessions Tour in 2006, which became the highest-grossing tour ever for a female artist at that time. Four singles were released from the album. "Hung Up", the lead single, topped the charts in a total of 41 countries. According to Billboard, it was the most successful dance song of the decade. It was followed by "Sorry", which became Madonna's twelfth number-one single in the United Kingdom. "Get Together" and "Jump" were also released as singles, both becoming top-ten hits in several countries. The album received widespread acclaim, with critics calling it a return to form for Madonna and ranking it alongside her best albums. Madonna was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Electronic/Dance Album in 2007, as well as International Female Solo Artist at the 2006 BRIT Awards. Commercially, Confessions on a Dance Floor peaked at number one in 40 countries, earning a place in the 2007 Guinness World Records for topping the record charts in the most countries. The album sold between 3.6 to 4 million copies in its first-week worldwide, and remains one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century, with over 10 million copies. Ranked third on "The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time" by Vice magazine, the album is noted as a testament to Madonna's longevity with the ability to continuously reinvent herself in the third decade of her career. ## Background and development Confessions on a Dance Floor merged elements from 1970s disco, 1980s electropop and 2000s club music. Madonna decided to incorporate disco-influenced elements in her songs while trying not to remake her music from past, instead choosing to pay tribute towards artists like the Bee Gees and Giorgio Moroder. The songs reflected Madonna's thoughts on love, fame and religion, hence the title Confessions on a Dance Floor. It was the complete opposite direction from her previous studio effort American Life (2003). The songs on that album were a form of diatribe directed at the American society. However, Madonna decided to take a different direction with this album. Regarding the development, Madonna commented: > "When I wrote American Life, I was very agitated by what was going on in the world around me, [...] I was angry. I had a lot to get off my chest. I made a lot of political statements. But now, I feel that I just want to have fun; I want to dance; I want to feel buoyant. And I want to give other people the same feeling. There's a lot of madness in the world around us, and I want people to be happy." She started to work with Mirwais Ahmadzaï with whom she had previously developed her eighth album Music (2000). However, that collaboration did not suit Madonna's musical direction. According to Madonna, "[Producer] Mirwais is also very political, seriously cerebral and intellectual. All we did was sit around, talking politics all the time. So, that couldn't help but find its way into the music. I think there's an angry aspect to the music that directly reflects my feelings at the time." Hence after recording tracks with Mirwais, Madonna decided to stop the project and start fresh. It was then that she turned to Stuart Price who had served as musical director on her two previous concert tours and co-wrote one song on American Life. In 2004, after the release of American Life, Madonna began working on two different musicals: one tentatively called Hello Suckers and another one with Luc Besson, who previously directed the music video for her single "Love Profusion", which would portray her as a woman on her deathbed looking back on her life. Madonna collaborated with Patrick Leonard, Ahmadzaï and Price to write new songs, the latter being assigned to pen disco-influenced songs sounding like "ABBA on drugs". However, Madonna found herself dissatisfied with the script written by Besson and scrapped it. Hence Madonna and Price decided to use the compositions for the album instead. According to Madonna, it was easy for her to shift from her previous album's sentiments, since she included those political views in her documentary I'm Going to Tell You a Secret. She elaborated: > I was running back and forth, literally, from the editing room with [the documentary's director] Jonas Akerlund to working with Stuart, who was also mixing the music in the film. We were together, non-stop, all of us. Cutting 350 hours of film down to two hours. There are a lot of serious aspects to the movie. I needed a release. When I would go to Stuart's, and we'd go up to his loft, it was like, 'Honey, I want to dance.' I wanted to be happy, silly and buoyant. I wanted to lift myself and others up with this record. So, yes, the new album was a reaction to all the other stuff I was doing, which was very serious in nature. I hope that doesn't imply that I wanted to make a superficial record, because it's not. I want people to smile when they hear this record. I wanted it to put a smile on my face, too. ## Recording The first three songs that were written for the album were "Hung Up", "Sorry" and "Future Lovers" In an interview with Billboard, Madonna commented that the recording process was a give-and-take situation. According to her, Price used to stay up all night working on the songs. This was helped by the fact that he is a DJ and is used to staying awake all night. This gave Madonna the chance to work on other aspects of the compositions. She noted the fact that she and Price had opposite characteristics, which helped in their collaboration. The songs were mainly recorded at Price's home. Madonna said: > We did a lot of recording at his house. I'd come by in the morning and Stuart would answer the door in his stocking feet - as he'd been up all night. I'd bring him a cup of coffee and say, 'Stuart, your house is a mess, there's no food in the cupboard.' Then I'd call someone from my house to bring food over for him. And then we'd work all day. We're very much the odd couple. She further elaborated that their camaraderie was also because they had toured together for Madonna's Re-Invention World Tour. Hence Madonna reflected that her relationship with Price was more of a brother-sister kind than the formal collaborations she was accustomed to during the recording process. ## Music and lyrics Confessions on a Dance Floor is primarily a dance-pop, nu-disco, EDM, album, which is structured like a nightly set composed by a DJ. The music starts light and happy, and as it progresses, it becomes intense, with the lyrics dealing more about personal feelings, hence "Confessions". According to Madonna, "[t]his is the direction of my record. That's what we intended, to make a record that you can play at a party or in your car, where you don't have to skip past a ballad. It's nonstop." Madonna used samples and references of music by other disco artists. In the album's first song, "Hung Up", she sampled ABBA's 1979 hit "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", for which she wrote a personal letter to songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus, who permitted Madonna to use the track. References of other disco-influenced acts, including Pet Shop Boys, Depeche Mode, and Daft Punk, were also used on the album, as were the disco hits of Parisian DJ Cerrone. The album has a song called "Forbidden Love", which is different from the same-titled song from Madonna's sixth studio album Bedtime Stories. Regarding sampling herself and her own song names, Madonna commented: > "I did all of that on purpose, [...] I mean, if I'm going to plagiarize somebody, it might as well be me, right? I feel like I've earned the right to rip myself off. 'Talent borrows, genius steals,' [...] "Let's see how many other clichés I can throw in there. That's exactly it. I was only hinting early on, but then I tell it like it is. It's like, now that I have your attention, I have a few things to tell you." A pulsating rhythm is present in the song "Isaac", which is regarded as the only song close to a ballad on the album. However, the song was heavily criticized by a group of Israeli rabbis who commented that Madonna was committing a blasphemy with their religion. They said that the song was about sixteenth-century Kabbalah scholar Yitzhak Luria. In reality, the song was named after the featured vocalist Yitzhak Sinwani, who sang portions of the Yemenite Hebrew poem Im Nin'alu in the track, as well as references to the Biblical story of Abraham and Isaac. Initially, Madonna toyed with the idea of calling the song "Fear of Flying", since the idea behind the composition was to let go. In the end she decided to just call it "Isaac", after the English version of Sinwani's name. Regarding the song's development and the condemnation of the rabbis, Madonna said: > "You do appreciate the absurdity of a group of rabbis in Israel claiming that I'm being blasphemous about someone when they haven't heard the record, right? And then, everyone in the media runs with it as if it's the truth. And that's a little weird. But what's even weirder is that the song is not about Isaac Lurier [sic], as the rabbis claim. It's named after Yitzhak Sinwani, who's singing in Yemenite on the track. I couldn't think of a title for the song. So I called it "Isaac" [the English transliteration of "Yitzhak"]. It's interesting how their minds work, those naughty rabbis. [...] He's saying, "If all of the doors of all of the generous peoples' homes are closed to you, the gates of heaven will always be open." The words are about 1,000 years old. [...] [Yitzhak] is an old friend of mine. He's never made a record. He comes from generations of beautiful singers. Stuart and I asked him to come into the studio one day. We said, "We're just going to record you. We don't know what we're going to do with it." He's flawless. One take, no bad notes. He doesn't even need a microphone. We took one of the songs he did and I said to Stuart, "Let's sample these bits. We'll create a chorus and then I'll write lyrics around it." That's how we constructed it." The lyrics of the songs on the album incorporate bits of Madonna's musical history and are written in the form of confessions. "Hung Up" contains lyrics from Madonna's 1989 duet with Prince called "Love Song", from the Like a Prayer album. "How High" continues the themes of two songs from Madonna's eighth studio album Music, namely "Nobody's Perfect" and "I Deserve It". The lyrics of "Push" thank the person who challenged her to expand her limits and also incorporate elements of the Police's song "Every Breath You Take". Other tracks like "Sorry" include the title word in ten different languages (several of which are non-idiomatic). In "I Love New York" (written at the time of American Life), she praises the city where her career began and replies to negative comments made by George W. Bush. Elsewhere, Madonna sings about success and fame ("Let It Will Be") and the crossroads of past, present and future ("Like It or Not"). ## Promotion On November 4, 2005, Madonna opened the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards with her first performance of "Hung Up". She emerged from a glitter ball to perform the song, while wearing a purple leotard and matching leather boots. During the next days, Madonna performed "Hung Up" on TV shows such as Wetten, dass..? in Germany, and Star Academy in France, as well as on the Children in Need 2005 telethon in London. In order to promote the album's release, Madonna appeared on Parkinson. She played a number of songs from the album at London's Koko Club and G-A-Y as part of a promo tour to support the album. In December, Madonna travelled to Japan, where "Hung Up" was performed on TV show SMAP×SMAP and her concert at Studio Coast. On February 8, 2006, Madonna opened the 48th Grammy Awards, by pairing up with the fictional animated band Gorillaz. The band appeared on the stage via a three dimensional technique which projected their holograms on the stage. They performed their song "Feel Good Inc." while rappers De La Soul made a guest appearance. Madonna then appeared on the stage and started performing the song while interchanging places with the hologram figures of the band. She was later joined by her own group of dancers and the performance was finished on the main stage rather than the virtual screen. Another performance of "Hung Up" came on April 30, 2006 during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio, California. A remix only album titled Confessions Remixed was also released in limited vinyl editions. In Japan, Confessions on a Dance Floor – Japan Tour Special Edition (CD+DVD) was released on August 23, 2006. It reached number 27 on the Oricon weekly albums chart and stayed on the chart for 12 weeks. The album received further promotion from the Confessions Tour which began in May 2006. The tour grossed over US \$194.7 million, becoming highest-grossing tour ever for a female artist, at that time. Additionally, the tour received the "Most Creative Stage Production" at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards, as well as "Top Boxscore" from the Billboard Touring Awards. ### Singles "Hung Up" was released as the album's lead single on October 17, 2005. The song received critical appreciation amongst reviewers, who suggested that the track would restore the singer's popularity, which had diminished following the release of her 2003 album American Life. Critics claimed that it was her best dance track to date and have compared it to other Madonna tracks in the same genre. They also complimented the effective synchronization of the ABBA sample with Madonna's song. "Hung Up" became a worldwide commercial success, peaking atop the charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the Guinness Book of World Records along with the album. In the United States it became her 36th top ten hit, tying her with Elvis Presley. The corresponding music video was a tribute to John Travolta, his movies and dancing in general. Directed by Johan Renck, the video featured Madonna dancing in a ballet studio in a pink leotard, which she left to go to a gaming parlour to dance with her backup dancers. It also featured the physical discipline parkour. "Sorry" was released as the second single from the album on February 6, 2006. The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics who declared the track as the strongest song on Confessions on a Dance Floor. It achieved commercial success, topping the singles charts in Italy, Spain, Romania and the United Kingdom, where it became Madonna's 12th number one single. Elsewhere, the song was a top ten hit in more than a dozen countries around the world. However, in the United States, the song was less commercially successful due to underplay on radio, but managed to reach the top of Billboard's dance charts. "Get Together" was released as the third single from the album by Warner Bros. Records on May 30, 2006. The decision was spurred by the fact that "Get Together" was the third most downloaded song from the album. It was also released to coincide with the start of Madonna's Confessions Tour. Critics complimented Madonna's ability to turn cliché comments into pop slogans with the song. The song became a success on the United States dance charts, but failed to enter the Hot 100. It reached the top ten in countries such as Australia, Canada, United Kingdom and Italy, and peaked at number one in Spain. "Jump" was released as fourth and the final single from the album on September 11, 2006. Critics complimented the song and its empowerment theme. The song peaked inside the top ten of the charts in some European countries, while reaching the peak position in Italy and Hungary. In the United States, "Jump" charted in several Billboard dance charts but failed to chart on the Hot 100. ## Critical reception Confessions on a Dance Floor received acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 80, based on 28 reviews. Keith Caulfield from Billboard commented that Confessions is a "welcome return to form for the Queen of Pop." Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented that Confessions is the first album where Madonna sounds like a veteran musician since she created the record for "the dance clubs or, in other words, Madonna's core audience." Alan Braidwood from the BBC commented that "[t]his is the most commercial album Madonna has made in 15 years and it's magic." David Browne from Entertainment Weekly noted that for "all its pretenses of being giddy and spontaneous, though, Confessions is rarely either." Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said that the album "may be a return to core values, but there's still a bravery about Confessions on a Dancefloor. It revels in the delights of wilfully plastic dance pop in an era when lesser dance-pop artists – from Rachel Stevens to Price's protege Juliet – are having a desperately thin time of it." Peter Robinson from Observer Music Monthly declared that the album ranks alongside Madonna's other albums like True Blue (1986) and Like a Prayer (1989). He credited producer Stuart Price for the album, noting that "Confessions clearly wouldn't exist without Madonna, but it's Price who steals the show." Stephen M. Deusner from Pitchfork noted that with the album "Madonna again reinvents herself, and it appears she's nearly lapped herself." According to Deusner, the music also makes her appear young. However he felt that the first half of the album till "I Love New York" was strong, while the second half "loses its delicate balance between pop frivolity and spiritual gravity." Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine stated that the album is "Madonna's most purely beat-driven album since her self-titled 1983 debut" and "easily her finest effort since Ray of Light." Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times called the album "exuberant". Christian John Wikane from PopMatters commented that the album "proved that Madonna, approaching 50 years-old, is a vital force in the ever-expansive landscape of popular music." Joan Morgan from The Village Voice noted that "[w]ith Confessions on a Dance Floor, Madonna at long last finds her musical footing. Easily dance record of the year, Confessions is an almost seamless tribute to the strobe-lit sensuality of the '80s New York club scene that gave Madge her roots, which she explores with compelling aplomb." Josh Tyrangiel from Time magazine commented that "In dance music, words exist to be repeated, twisted, obscured and resurrected. How they sound in the moment is far more important than what they mean, and Madonna knows that better than anyone. Confessions on a Dance Floor is 56 minutes of energetic moments. It will leave you feeling silly for all the right reasons." Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was impressed with the album and said that "Madonna, with the help of Price, [...] has succeeded at creating a dance-pop odyssey with an emotional, if not necessarily narrative, arc — and one big continuously-mixed F you to the art-dismantling iPod Shuffle in the process." He compared the album to Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue's studio album Light Years (2000), saying "Comparisons to Light Years, Kylie Minogue's own discofied comeback album from 2000, are inevitable". Alan Light from Rolling Stone declared that the album illustrated that "Madonna has never lost her faith in the power of the beat." However, he opined that "Confessions on a Dance Floor won't stand the test of time like her glorious early club hits, but it proves its point. Like Rakim back in the day, Madonna can still move the crowd." ## Commercial performance The album sold about 3.6 to 4 million copies worldwide during the first-week of release. Despite being released late in the year, Confessions on a Dance Floor was ranked by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) as the sixth biggest-selling album of 2005 worldwide, with sales of 6.3 million. Worldwide sales of the album stand at 10 million copies, and is considered to be one of the best-selling albums of the 21st century as well one of the best-selling by women. In the United States, the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 350,000 copies in its first week. It became her sixth number one album on the chart and the third consecutive album to debut at the top, following Music (2000) and American Life (2003). On December 14, 2005, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of one million copies. As of December 2016, the album has sold over 1.734 million copies in America, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The album also debuted at the top of the charts in Canada, with first-week sales of 74,000. It was present on the chart for a total of 46 weeks and received a quintuple platinum certification from Music Canada (MC) for total shipment of 500,000 copies in the country. Confessions on a Dance Floor enjoyed commercial success in Latin American countries. The album earned a gold certification in Chile and Brazil for the sales of 10,000 and 50,000 copies respectively. As of 2006, Confessions on a Dance Floor moved 80,000 units in Brazil. In Mexico, it received a platinum certification from AMPROFON for sales of 100,000 copies. In Argentina, the album became in one of the highest-certified albums of all time with five-time platinum from Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (CAPIF) for total shipment of 200,000 units. The album was also successful in Asia-Pacific countries. In Australia, Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart for the issue dated November 21, 2005, and was present for a total of 33 weeks within the top 50 of the chart. It was certified two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) denoting shipments of 140,000 copies. It debuted at number five on the New Zealand albums chart, and was certified platinum by Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ) for shipment of 15,000 copies. The same peak position was attained on the Oricon charts in Japan, where the album was certified double platinum for shipment of 500,000 copies by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). In Hong Kong, the album was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the IFPI for becoming one of ten biggest-selling international album for 2005. The album found its biggest reception in Europe, where topped the European Top 100 Albums chart for four weeks and was certified quadruple platinum by IFPI for shipping a total of four million copies across the continent. In the United Kingdom, Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with first-week sales of 217,610 units, her highest ever in the country. It became Madonna's ninth number-one album, and has sold 1,360,000 copies as of November 2020, according to the Official Charts Company, while being certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). That same week, the first single from the album, "Hung Up", topped the singles chart. The album became the fifth consecutive Madonna album to top the chart. In Ireland, the album debuted and peaked at number three. In France, the album debuted at position 113 on the albums chart, jumping to the top of the chart the next week. According to Paris Match, Confessions on a Dance Floor sold 650,000 copies in the first two months in France, and was later certified diamond by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). Actual sales in France stand at between 800,000 and 900,000 units. In Italy, Musica e dischi reported sales of 400,000 copies during the 2005–2006 period, more than any other album by an international act and behind only Eros Ramazzotti's Calma apparente, Luciano Ligabue's Nome e Cognome and Io canto by Laura Pausini. Across Europe, the album peaked at number one in Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. ## Accolades Madonna won the Best International Female Solo Artist at the 2006 BRIT Awards. She also won World's Best Selling Pop Artist and Best Selling U.S. Artist at the 2006 World Music Awards for the album. She was nominated for five awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards for the music video of the album's first single, "Hung Up". Madonna also got nominated for Best Album of the Year, Best Pop Video, and Best Female Artist at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006. She also won a Grammy Award in the category of "Best Dance/Electronic Album" at the 2007 ceremony. The album peaked at number one in 40 countries, earning a place in the Guinness World Records for topping the record charts in the most countries. Rolling Stone ranked Confessions on a Dance Floor as the twenty-second top album of 2005. NME also placed it at number 29 on the magazine's list of the 50 best albums of 2005. Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine ranked the album at the third position on his list of the top ten albums of 2005. The same magazine considered the album the 38th best one from the 2000s. Three critics writing for Stylus Magazine also included Confessions on a Dance Floor in their year-end lists of the best albums of 2005. Q Magazine named the record the 26th best one of 2005. On their ranking of the best albums from 2005, The Observer listed the album at number 26. By the end of the 2000s, Slant Magazine placed the album at number 38 on their list of "The 100 Best Albums of the Aughts". In 2015, Confessions on a Dance Floor was ranked third on "The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time" by Vice magazine. ## Legacy Mike Nied from Idolator praised Confessions on a Dance Floor as one of the most influential pop albums of the decade and dubbed Madonna as a "timeless trendsetter" and "creative genius". According to Michael Arceneaux from NBC News, it is "arguably her last great, impactful album; it's the last time she still felt truly forward-thinking, even if it looked back sonically." Christopher Rosa from VH1 called it her "best album to date" and explained that is a "near-perfect pop record" and "her most natural reinvention". It was ranked as the third best dance album of all-time by Vice magazine—the highest peak by a female performer. The magazine staff commented: "This is the album all her subsequent albums is compared to; for its enduring relevance and how it redefined Madonna as an artist, it should be". Author Sancho Xavi from El País noted that the album started the disco revival during the 21st century and popularized the revivals concept of others musical genres during the first decade. Justin Myers from the UK Official Charts Company commented: "An 'imperial phase' is when a pop star is at the pinnacle of their career, shifting stacks of records, having big hits, selling out arenas, owning the radio and being generally unavoidable and untouchable. Many pop acts barely manage one. Thanks to this album, Madonna claimed her third. How many popstars can honestly say that?" Calling her the "Mother of Reinvention", Jim Schembri from The Age wrote a detailed article of Madonna's impact with Confessions on a Dance Floor: > [The album] went straight to No. 1 everywhere except Mars. So too did the first single, "Hung Up", the video for which is on every time you turn on the TV. [Madonna] has reclaimed her place in the pop firmament with unrivaled ferocity. And she is a sterling example of pop survival. In a firmament that eats up artists like popcorn and where chart success is as fleeting as Jessica Simpson's attention span, Madonna remains an inspiring, intimidating beacon of permanence. Her longevity has thrived on her ability to continually reinvent herself by reading the winds of pop culture and taking her cue from there. With the Confessions on a Dance Floor era, Madonna broke several world records and the album resuscitated her music sales and popularity, after the critical and commercial disappointment of American Life. At that time, Madonna became the best-selling female artist in the European market and the fifth best-selling artist overall with a quadruple platinum award by the IFPI, equivalent of 4 million copies sold across the continent. In the United Kingdom, Confessions on a Dance Floor became one of the fastest selling albums ever, with first week sales of 217,610 copies according to the Official Charts Company. Also, Madonna earned a place in the Guinness Book of World Records as the "oldest artist to simultaneously top the UK singles and album charts". Album's influence has been noted on other works, including Dua Lipa's 2020 album, Future Nostalgia, and Kim Petras's 2022 EP, Slut Pop. ## Track listing Sample credit - "Hung Up" samples "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" recorded by ABBA and written by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus. ## Personnel Credits adapted from the album's liner notes. - Madonna – lead vocals, backing vocals, producer - Stuart Price – producer, keyboard, synthesizer, vocoder, programming, sequencing, sampling - Roberta Carraro – keyboard, bass, drums, harmonica - Yitzhak Sinwani – additional vocals on "Isaac" - Monte Pittman – guitar - Magnus "Mango" Wallbert – programming - Steven Klein – photography - Giovanni Bianco – art direction, graphic design - Grubman Indursky – legal documents - Guy Oseary – management - Angela Becker – management - Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing (Olympic Studios and Record Plant Studios, Los Angeles) - Stuart Price – mixing ("Forbidden Love"); recording ("How High" and "Like It or Not") (at Murlyn Studios, Stockholm and Shirland Road); "Future Lovers" (at Mayfair Studios) - Alex Dromgoole – assistant engineer - David Emery – second assistant engineer - Antony Kilhoffer – second assistant engineer (at Record Plant, Los Angeles) - Brian "Big Bass" Gardner – mastering (at Bernie Grundman Mastering) ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Decade-end charts ### All-time charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales ## Release history ## See also - List of best-selling albums by women - List of best-selling albums of the 21st century - List of best-selling albums in Argentina - List of best-selling albums in France - List of best-selling albums of the 2000s in the United Kingdom - List of European number-one hits of 2005 - List of European number-one hits of 2006 - List of number-one albums in Norway - List of number-one albums of 2005 (Australia) - List of number-one albums of 2005 (Canada) - List of number-one albums of 2005 (Portugal) - List of number-one albums of 2005 (Poland) - List of number-one albums of 2005 (U.S.) - List of number-one electronic albums of 2005 (U.S.) - List of number-one electronic albums of 2006 (U.S.) - List of number-one hits of 2005 (France) - List of number-one hits of 2005 (Germany) - List of number-one hits of 2005 (Italy) - List of works by Stuart Price - Top selling singles and albums in Ireland 2005

Clark Thomas Rogerson

American mycologist (1918–2001)

Clark Thomas Rogerson, (2 October 1918 – 7 September 2001), was an American mycologist. He was known for his work in the Hypocreales (Ascomycota), particularly Hypomyces, a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi. After receiving his doctorate from Cornell University in 1950, he went on to join the faculty of Kansas State University. In 1958, he became a curator at The New York Botanical Garden, and served as editor for various academic journals published by the Garden. Rogerson was involved with the Mycological Society of America, serving in various positions, including president in 1969. He was managing editor (1958–89) and editor-in-chief (1960–65) of the scientific journal Mycologia. ## Biography C.T. Rogerson was born on October 2, 1918, in Ogden, Utah, to parents Elijah Knapp Rogerson (1899–1956) and Mable Crissie Clarke Rogerson (1897–1987). Upon graduating from high school in 1936, he enrolled in Weber Junior College (since renamed to Weber State University) for the following two years. Rogerson then attended Utah State University, where he had hoped to work under the supervision of botanist Bassett Maguire, but settled instead for the only available studentship with plant pathologist B.L. Richards. Rogerson received his Bachelor of Science from Utah State University in 1940. Soon after, he was drafted into the army, and spent three years (1942–1945) in the Pacific Theater of World War II. He served as a technical sergeant in laboratory and pharmacy at an army evacuation hospital, and cared for internees released in the Philippines near the war's end. During his war years, Rogerson made collections of plants, fungi, slime molds, and butterflies that he sent to Cornell or to the Smithsonian Institution. After the war finished, Rogerson continued studying fungal systematics and started a doctoral program with Harry Morton Fitzpatrick at Cornell University; noted mycologist Richard Korf was another of Fitzpatrick's graduate students at the time. Under Fitzpatrick, Rogerson studied Hypomyces fungi and their anamorphs. Fitzpatrick committed suicide in 1950, and Donald S. Welch replaced him as Rogerson's advisor for the last few months of his doctoral program. Rogerson received his doctorate from Cornell in 1950. That year, he joined the faculty of Kansas State University as an assistant professor, but he would ultimately advance to associate professor. While at Kansas, he worked on the identification of fungi, and published nearly 20 papers on fungal taxonomic novelties, aeromycology (the fungal flora of air), and plant diseases caused by fungi. In 1958, the director of The New York Botanical Garden, William Jacob Robbins, recruited Rogerson for the position of Curator of Cryptogamic Botany. Rogerson became Senior Curator in 1967 and Senior Curator Emeritus at his retirement in 1990. As curator of cryptogamic botany, Rogerson "was directly responsible for all accessions and loans of ferns and mosses, as well as of fungi and lichens, until about 1965 when, first a bryologist and later a pteridologist were added to the cryptogamic staff." At the Garden, he also continued his study on the taxonomy of the Ascomycetes, especially of Hypomyces, a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi, and the fungal diversity of New York and Utah. Additionally, he served as editor of the Garden's publications: Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden (1963–88), North American Flora (1963–88), and Flora Neotropica (1969–83). While at the Garden, Rogerson was also an adjunct professor of biology at Columbia University and at the Herbert H. Lehman College of the City University of New York. During his tenure at the Garden, Rogerson was also a deeply involved member of the Mycological Society of America (MSA). He served as managing editor (1958–89) and editor-in-chief (1960–65) of the scientific journal Mycologia. He was vice-president (1967), president elect (1968), and president of the MSA (1969), and secretary-treasurer of the society from 1973 to 1974. He has served as historian of the Mycological Society of America from 1960 to 1990. Rogerson was a generous donor to MSA student travel awards. He died in Ogden on September 7, 2001. ## Mycological contributions Rogerson added many thousands of records of fungi, mainly from Utah, to the Garden herbarium, where his specimens are available for study by systematists. Rogerson assisted in the formation of the three major amateur mushroom groups in the New York City area: the New York Mycological Association, the New Jersey Mycological Association, and the Connecticut-Westchester Mycological Association (COMA). He helped amateur mycologists correctly identify fungal specimens during his weekends. "In return, amateur mycologists provided him with many specimens of fungicolous Hypomyces." In 1970, Rogerson presented a detailed history of the Hypocreales and reviewed changes in the circumscription of the order up to that time. His publication included keys to the genera of both the Hypocreales and Clavicipitales, followed by a list of genera, each with the literature citation of the original descriptions and type species. He included 115 genera in the Hypocreales. ### Taxa described - Cladobotryum arnoldii Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Cladobotryum hughesii Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Cladobotryum succineum Rogerson & Samuels 1992 - Cylindrosporium campicola Rogerson & R. Sprague 1959 - Hypocrea avellanea Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1976 - Hypomyces amaurodermatis Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Hypomyces badius Rogerson & Samuels 1989 - Hypomyces boletiphagus Rogerson & Samuels 1989 - Hypomyces cervinigenus Rogerson & Simms 1971 - Hypomyces chlorinigenus Rogerson & Samuels 1989 - Hypomyces lanceolatus Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Hypomyces leotiicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Hypomyces melanocarpus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971 - Hypomyces melanochlorus Rogerson & Samuels 1989 - Hypomyces microspermus Rogerson & Samuels 1989 - Hypomyces mycogones Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Hypomyces mycophilus Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Hypomyces papulasporae Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Hypomyces papulasporae var. americanus Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Hypomyces pergamenus Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Hypomyces porphyreus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971 - Hypomyces pseudopolyporinus Rogerson & Samuels 1986 - Hypomyces stephanomatis Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Hypomyces succineus Rogerson & Samuels 1992 - Hypomyces sympodiophorus Rogerson & Samuels 1993 - Merugia Rogerson & Samuels 1990 - Merugia palicoureae Rogerson & Samuels 1990 - Nectria albidopilosa Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Nectria discicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Nectria discophila Rogerson & Samuels 1985 - Nectria phialotrichi Rogerson & Samuels 1992 - Podostroma eperuae Rogerson & Samuels 1992 - Sympodiophora polyporicola Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1981 ## Mycological lineage Clark T. Rogerson belongs to the Dudley mycological lineage, which can be traced back to Anton De Bary, a famous German mycologist. William Russell Dudley was Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at Cornell University from 1883 to 1892, and received mycological training from De Bary in 1887. Joseph Charles Arthur, George Francis Atkinson, and Mason B. Thomas studied under Dudley. Thomas went to Wabash College, where he would influence Harry Morton Fitzpatrick to study mycology. Fitzpatrick received his Ph.D. in 1913 at Cornell under tutelage of Atkinson. Rogerson studied under Fitzpatrick at Cornell from 1946 to 1950. Contemporary to Rogerson was fellow student Richard P. Korf, another prominent mycologist. Students of Rogerson include Robert L. Shaffer (Kansas State; M.A.), Susan Carey Canham (Columbia University; Ph.D.), Anna F. Doyle (Columbia University; Ph.D.), Gary J. Samuels (Columbia University; Ph.D.), and Rosalind Lowen (Lehman College; Ph.D.). Katia F. Rodrigues and Priscila Chaverri (Penn State; Ph.D.) studied under Samuels. The Rogerson sublineage continues to expand under Chaverri at the University of Maryland. ## Honors and memberships Rogerson received several awards and honors during his career: - 1969: President of the Mycological Society of America - 1980: North American Mycological Association (NAMA) award for contributions to amateur mycology - 1981: Award from the Mycological Society of America in appreciation for service to the Society as Historian, Secretary-Treasurer, Vice-President, and President and as Managing Editor and Editor-in-Chief of Mycologia - 1981: The Connecticut-Westchester Mycological Association (COMA) named their annual four-day mushroom foray after C.T. Rogerson in appreciation of his commitment to education and the development of amateur mycology. - 1984: New York Botanical Garden Distinguished Service Award for outstanding contribution to the advancement of Horticulture and Botany - 1985: COMAndation for outstanding service to COMA - 1989: A commemorative publication celebrating the 70th birthday of C.T. Rogerson (Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 49: 1–375). - 2004: The Mycological Society of America established the Clark T. Rogerson student research and travel award. Rogerson was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Bergen Swamp Preservation Society, and the Utah Academy of Sciences. ### Eponymous taxa - Rogersonanthus B.Maguire & B.M.Boom (1989) - Rogersonia Samuels & Lodge (1996) - genus of fungi - Clonostachys rogersoniana Schroers (2001) - Golovinomyces rogersonii U.Braun (1996) - Pseudocercospora rogersoniana U.Braun & Crous - Pseudocosmospora rogersonii C. Herrera & P. Chaverri - Trichoderma rogersonii Samuels (2006) - Zelleromyces rogersonii Fogel & States (2001) ## Publications Rogerson wrote 65 research publications and several bibliographic publications. - 1950\. Rogerson CT, Muenscher WC. "The vegetation of Bergen Swamp VI. The fungi." Proc Rochester Acad Sci 9:277–314. - 1951\. King C, Rogerson CT. "Tomato late blight in Kansas". Plant Dis Rep 35:120. - 1952\. Rogerson CT, Shaffer RL. "Underwoodia in Kansas". Mycologia 44:582. - 1952\. Shaffer RL, Rogerson CT. "Notes on the fleshy fungi of Kansas". Trans Kansas Acad Sci 55:282–286. - 1952\. Walker EA, Rogerson CT, Jenkins AE. "Additional collections of plantain scab and violet scab from several North Central states". Plant Dis Rep 36: 331–332. - 1953\. Elmer OM, Shields IJ, Rogerson CT. "Oak wilt in seven Kansas counties". Plant Dis Rep 37:44. - 1953\. Rogerson CT. "Kansas mycological notes: 1951". Trans Kansas Acad 56:53–57. - 1954\. Rogerson CT, King CL. "Stem rust of Merion bluegrass in Kansas". Pl Dis Reporter 38:57. - 1954\. Rogerson CT. "Kansas mycological notes: 1952". Trans Kansas Acad 57:280–284. - 1954\. Slagg CM, Rogerson CT. "A tuckahoe found in Kansas". Trans Kansas Acad 57:66–68. - 1956\. Rogerson CT. "Kansas mycological notes: 1953–54". Trans Kansas Acad 59:39–48. - 1957\. Pady SM, Johnston CO, Rogerson CT. "Stipe rust of wheat in Kansas in 1957". Plant Dis Rep 41: 959–961. - 1957\. Rogerson CT. "Diseases of grasses in Kansas: 1953–55". Plant Dis Rep 40:388–397. - 1957\. ———. "Verticillium-wilt in Kansas". Plant Dis Rep 41:1053–1054. - 1958\. ———. "Diseases of grasses in Kansas: 1956–1957". Plant Dis Rep 42:346–353. - 1958\. ———. "Kansas aeromycology I. Comparison of media". Trans Kansas Acad 61:155–162. - 1958\. ———. "Kansas mycological notes: 1955–1956". Trans Kansas Acad 60:370–375. - 1958\. ———. "Kansas mycological notes: 1957". Trans Kansas Acad 61:262–272. - 1958\. Sprague R, Rogerson CT. "Some leafspot fungi on Kansas Gramineae". Mycologia 50:634–641. - 1959\. CL, Pady SM, Rogerson CT, Ouye L. "Kansas aeromycology II. Materials, methods, and general results". Trans Kansas Acad 62:184–199. - 1959\. Kramer CL, Pady SM, Rogerson CT. "Kansas aeromycology III. Cladosporium". Trans Kansas Acad 62:200–207. - 1959\. Luttrell ES, Rogerson CT. "Homothallism in an undescribed Cochliobolus and in Cochliobolus kusanoi". Mycologia 51:195–202. - 1959\. Willis WW, Rogerson CT, Carpenter WJ. "An evaluation of several fungicides for control of root rot of croft lilies". Plant Dis Rep 43:745–749. - 1960\. Hall CV, Dutta SK, Kalia HR, Rogerson CT. "Inheritance of resistance to the fungus Colletotrichum lagenarium in watermelons". Proc Am Soc Hort Sci 15:638–643. - 1960\. Kramer CL, Pady SM, Rogerson CT. "Kansas aeromycology IV. Alternaria". Trans Kansas Acad 62: 252–256. - 1960\. ———, ———, ———. "Kansas aeromycology V: Penicillium and Aspergillus". Mycologia 52:545–555. - 1960\. ———, ———, ———. "Kansas aeromycology VIII: Phycomycetes". Trans Kansas Acad 63:19–23. - 1962\. Anchel M, Silverman WB, Valanju N, Rogerson CT. "Patterns of polyacetylene production I. The diatretynes". Mycologia 54:249–257. - 1962\. Rogerson CT. "Coral mushrooms". Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 12:52–54. - 1962\. Swarup G, Hansing ED, Rogerson CT. "Fungi associated with sorghum seed in Kansas". Trans Kansas Acad 65:120–137. - 1965\. Rogerson CT. "Bibliography". In: Munz PA, Onagraceae (ed.). N Am Flora II 5:232–265. - 1965\. ———. "Bibliography". In: Yuncker TG, Cuscuta (ed.). N Am Flora II 4:41–48. - 1965\. ———. "Stinkhorn fungi". Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 15:214–215. - 1966\. ———. "Dedication and preface" In: Mycologia index volumes 1–58, 1909–1966. The New York Botanical Garden: New York. Pp. vii–xv. - 1967\. Kramer CL, Haard RT, Rogerson CT. "Kansas mycological notes, 1955–1964". Trans Kansas Acad 70:241–255. - 1968\. Rogerson CT. Preface. In: Mycologia index, volumes 1–58, 1909–1966. ix–xv. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. - 1969\. ———. "The cryptogamic herbarium. Algae and fungi". Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 19:14–19. - 1970\. Hodges CS Jr, Warner GM, Rogerson CT. "A new species of Penicillium". Mycologia 62:1106–1111. - 1970\. Rogerson CT. "The Hypocrealean fungi (Ascomycetes-Hypocreales)". Mycologia 62:865–910. - 1971\. ———, Mazzer SJ. "Two new species of Hypomyces from Michigan". Michigan Bot 10:107–113. - 1971\. ———, Simms HR. "A new species of Hypomyces on Helvella". Mycologia 63:416–422. - 1973\. ———. "Fred Jay Seaver, 1877–1970". Mycologia 65:721–724. - 1973\. ———. "New names and new taxa of fungi proposed by Fred Jay Seaver (1877–1970). 1–42". Unpublished manuscript. The New York Botanical Garden. - 1973\. ———. "Publications of Fred Jay Seaver, 1877–1970. 1–21". Unpublished manuscript, The New York Botanical Garden. - 1976 [5 Jan 1977]. Carey ST, Rogerson CT. "Taxonomy and morphology of a new species of Hypocrea on Marasmius". Brittonia 28:381–389. - 1976\. Rogerson CT, ed. "Commemorating the 70th Birthday of Dr. Josiah L. Lowe". Mem New York Bot Gard 28:24. - 1977\. Hervey A, Rogerson CT, Leong I. "Studies of fungi cultivated by ants". Brittonia 29:226–236. - 1977\. Malloch D, Rogerson CT. "Pulveria, a new genus of Xylariaceae (Ascomycetes)". Can J Bot 55:1505–1509. - 1978\. ———, ———. "Fungi of the Canadian boreal forest region: Catulus aquilonius gen. et sp. nov., a hyperparasite on Seuratia millardetii". Can J Bot 56: 2344–2347. - 1978\. Rogerson CT. "Bibliography and index (Compositae tribe Mutisiae, tribe Senecioneae, tribe Vernoniaea)". N Am Flora II, 10:203–245. - 1981\. Berthier J, Rogerson CT. "A new North American species: Physalacria cryptomeriae". Mycologia 73: 643–648. - 1981\. Carey ST, Rogerson CT. "Morphology and cytology of Hypomyces polyporinus and its Sympodiophora anamorph". Bull Torrey Bot Club 108:12–24. - 1981\. Rossman AY, Rogerson CT. "A new species of Hypomyces (Hypocreaceae) with phragmosporous ascospores". Brittonia 33:382–384. - 1983\. Barr ME, Rogerson CT. "Two new species of Loculoascomycetes". Mycotaxon 17:247–252. - 1983\. Carey ST, Rogerson CT. "Arnoldiomyces clavisporus, the anamorph of Hypomyces polyporinus". Bull Torrey Club 110:224–225. - 1983\. Nair MSR, Carey ST, Rogerson CT. "Illudoids from Omphalotus olivascens and Clitocybe subilludens". Mycologia 75:920–922. - 1984 [May 1986]. Samuels GJ, Rogerson CT. "New ascomycetes from Amazonas". Acta Amazonica 14(1/2 Suppl.):81–93. - 1984\. Buck WR, Rogerson CT. "Bibliography. Sphagnopsida, Sphagnaceae". N Am Flora II 11:161–175. - 1984\. Rogerson CT, Thiers BM. "Fungi from the A.O. Garrett Herbarium, University of Utah (UT)". Brittonia 36:293–296. - 1984\. Samuels GJ, Rogerson CT, Rossman AY, Smith JD. "Nectria tuberculariformis, Nectriella muelleri, Nectriella sp., and Hyponectria sceptri: low-temperature tolerant, alpine-boreal fungal antagonists". Can J Bot 62:1896–1903. - 1984\. ———, ———. "Nectria atrofusca and its anamorph, Fusarium staphyeae, a parasite of Staphylea trifolia in Eastern North America". Brittonia 36:81–895. - 1985\. Illman WI, Rogerson CT, White GP. "Disposition of Stilbum rhizomorpharum under Pseudographiella". Mycologia 77:662–665. - 1985\. Rogerson CT, Samuels GJ. "Species of Hypomyces and Nectria occurring on discomycetes". Mycologia 77:763–783. - 1986\. Barr ME, Rogerson CT, Smith SJ, Haines JH. "An annotated catalog of the pyrenomycetes described by Charles H. Peck". Bull New York State Mus Nat Hist 459:1–74. - 1986\. Rogerson CT. "[Review of] Microfungi on land plants. An identification handbook, by Martin B. Ellis and J. Pamela Ellis". Bull Torrey Club 113:61. - 1988\. Samuels GJ, Barr ME, Rogerson CT. "Xenomeris saccifolii and Gibbera sphyrospermi, new tropical species of the Venturiaceae (Fungi, Pleosporales)". Brittonia 40:392–397. - 1989\. Rogerson CT, Samuels GJ. "Boleticolous species of Hypomyces". Mycologia 81:413–432. - 1989\. ———, ———. "Polyporicolous species of Hypomyces". Mycologia 85:231–272. - 1989\. Samuels GJ, Rogerson CT. "Endocreas lasiacidis and Sinosphaeria lasiacidis, new tropical ascomycetes". Stud Mycol 31:145–149. - 1990\. Rogerson CT, Harris RC, Samuels GJ. "Fungi collected by Bassett Maguire and Collaborators in the Guayana Highland, 1944–1983". Mem New York Bot Gard 64:130–164. - 1990\. Samuels GJ, Doi Y, Rogerson CT. "Hypocreales". Mem New York Bot Gard 59:6–108. - 1990\. ———, Rogerson CT. "Some Ascomycetes (Fungi) occurring on tropical ferns". Brittonia 42:105–115. - 1990\. ———, Rogerson CT. "New Ascomycetes from the Guayana Highland". Mem New York Bot Gard 64:165–183. - 1991\. ———, Rossman AY, Lowen R, Rogerson CT. "A synopsis of Nectria subgen. Dialonectria". Mycol Pap 164:1–48. - 1992\. Rogerson CT, Samuels GJ. "New species of Hypocreales (Fungi, Ascomycetes)". Brittonia 44:256–263. - 1993\. ———, Stephenson SL. "Myxomyceticolous fungi". Mycologia 85:456–469. - 1994\. ———, Samuels GJ. "Agaricolous species of Hypomyces". Mycologia 86:839–866. - 1995\. Braun U, Rogerson CT. "Phytoparasitic hyphomycetes from Utah (USA)—II". Sydowia 47:141–145. - 1995\. ———, Rogerson CT. "Phytoparasitic Hyphomycetes from Utah (USA)". Mycotaxon 46:263–274. - 1996\. Rogerson CT, Samuels GJ. "Mycology at The New York Botanical Garden (1895–1995)". Brittonia 48:389–398. - 1999\. Barr ME, Rogerson CT. "Some loculoascomycete species from the Great Basin, USA". Mycotaxon 71:473–480. - 1999\. Rossman, Samuels GJ, Rogerson CT, Lowen R. "Genera of Bionectriaceae, Hypocreaceae, and Nectriaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes)". Stud Mycol 42:1–248.

Hardlight

British mobile game developer owned by Sega

Hardlight (stylised as HARDlight) is a British video game developer founded by Sega and based in Leamington Spa, England. Revealed in January 2012, it is focused on mobile games for smartphones and became part of Sega Europe. Founded by Sega employee Chris Southall, Hardlight initially began work on research and development for handheld video game consoles, but soon shifted to mobile games after being asked by Sega as part of an initiative to increase mobile game development outside of Japan. Hardlight has since developed several mobile games in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Crazy Taxi video game series. In 2019, Hardlight was more closely integrated into parent Sega Europe. Hardlight's games have received numerous downloads, with Sonic Dash having been downloaded millions of times. ## History Hardlight was founded by Chris Southall, a former Codemasters employee who also helped to found Sega Racing Studio and revealed by Sega in January 2012. After working with Sega Racing Studio, Southall worked in Sega technical support areas along with a team, and served as chief technology officer for Sega Europe. According to Southall, Sega's desire for more development of mobile games led to Hardlight's foundation. The initial studio was in Dorridge, Solihull, in the West Midlands. Shortly after its formation, Sega announced that Hardlight was in development on a PlayStation Vita action-adventure game, to be released in late 2012. Hardlight also performed some research and development work for the Nintendo 3DS. According to studio manager Sion Lenton, Hardlight employed 21 employees at this time, in addition to contracted staff, and had a goal of remaining small for the moment. By September 2012, Hardlight had completed a port of Viking: Battle for Asgard for PC. Sega would make the decision to focus more on mobile games in the west, having had success in Japan. Hardlight was asked to shift its focus to developing games for iOS and Android systems. Their first project was a remake of Sonic Jump, which had originally been developed for the T-Mobile Sidekick and released in 2005. Southall called development of the remake "an interesting learning process". Hardlight relocated its studio around that time to Leamington Spa, a town with a community of video game developers in the area. By the time of Sonic Jump's launch in October 2012, the studio was working on developing titles in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Crazy Taxi series. Although initially faced with difficulty deciding which to develop, Sega Sammy Holdings president and chief operating officer (COO) Haruki Satomi saw a demo of Sonic Dash and liked it so much that he insisted it be developed. Sonic Dash was initially scheduled for a Christmas 2012 release, but would not be released until March 2013. The studio's next title was Crazy Taxi: City Rush. The concept for developing a mobile Crazy Taxi game came from the original Sega AM3 producer, Kenji Kanno. Hardlight worked with Kanno on design aspects for the game. Subsequently, Hardlight released Sonic Dash 2: Sonic Boom and Sonic Jump Fever. After these releases, all of which were casual games, Hardlight began looking at developing a more strategy-oriented game involving multiplayer. After some discussions with Sonic Team, Hardlight began working on Sonic Forces Speed Battle, to tie in with the upcoming 2017 release of Sonic Forces. While development of the game began with a small team of three or four developers, up to 28 were involved with the project as the game closed in on its release. In April 2019, Hardlight was integrated more closely into Sega Europe, structuring it as one of five "pillars" alongside Creative Assembly, Sports Interactive, Relic Entertainment, and Amplitude Studios. In the same announcement, Sega emphasized that Hardlight would continue its focus on mobile games. Neall Jones, formerly of Codemasters, Traveller's Tales, and Eidos Interactive was announced to be the studio's new director; Southall and operations head Harinder Sangha departed for Sumo Digital. Jones anticipated that the studio's staff will double over time. He also expressed a belief in more intellectual property for PCs and consoles will see more releases for mobile devices. Hardlight developed ChuChu Rocket! Universe and Sonic Racing—a port of Team Sonic Racing—for Apple Arcade, which were released on the service's launch date of September 19, 2019. Production of ChuChu Rocket! Universe took approximately eight months starting with a team of 15 people that doubled in size over time. In designing the game, a sequel of the 1999 Dreamcast game ChuChu Rocket!, Hardlight had to redesign the game in full 3D. According to director Paul Twynholm, testing of the game had to occur internally because the game could not be soft launched for Apple Arcade. Twynholm acknowledged a desire to bring back Sega franchises in future Hardlight releases. By June 2015, Sonic Dash had been downloaded over 100 million times across multiple different platforms, and had 14 million players per month. By November 2017, Sonic Dash's download count was over 300 million. Within its first five days of release, Sonic Forces Speed Battle had been downloaded 1.3 million times, and reached 2 million downloads within its first two weeks. According to Southall in a November 2017 interview, Hardlight was continuing to work on updates for Sonic Dash, Sonic Dash 2, and Crazy Taxi: City Rush. In a February 2020 interview, Jones expressed the studio's surprise at the longevity of Sonic Dash, having been downloaded more than 350 million times and earned more than \$10.1 million. He spoke on the implementation of new features to keep the game interesting, as well as additions such as a baby Sonic from the Sonic the Hedgehog film. ## List of games ## See also - Three Rings Design - Demiurge Studios - Two Point Studios

Grand Street station (IND Sixth Avenue Line)

New York City Subway station in Manhattan

The Grand Street station is an express station on the IND Sixth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of Grand Street and Chrystie Street at the border of Chinatown and the Lower East Side, it is served by the D train at all times and the B train on weekdays. Opened on November 26, 1967, this station was one of two added as part of the Chrystie Street Connection. The station has two tracks and two narrow side platforms, located approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) below ground. In the original plan for the station, this would have been a four-track, two-island platform station, with a transfer to the Second Avenue Subway. The fourth phase of the Second Avenue Subway, if built, would include new platform(s) connecting to the existing platforms. ## History ### Construction The station was built as part of the Chrystie Street Connection between the Sixth Avenue Line and the Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridges. The Chrystie Street Connection was first proposed in 1947 as the southern end of the Second Avenue Subway (SAS), which would feed into the two bridges, allowing Sixth Avenue Line trains to access the Jamaica, Fourth Avenue, and Brighton lines in Brooklyn. The New York City Board of Estimate voted in September 1951 to construct the Second Avenue Subway and several related lines for \$500 million. The next year, the New York City Board of Transportation (BOT) indicated that it would award contracts for the construction of an 890-foot-long (270 m) section of tunnel between Hester and Delancey Streets, including a station at Grand Street, as part of the SAS project. Work had been expected to begin in mid-1952 but was delayed because of engineering difficulties. By 1954, the BOT's successor, the New York City Transit Authority, had asked the city for \$37.3 million to begin constructing the Chrystie Street Connection. In mid-1957, the New York City government solicited bids from contractors to construct the various parts of the connection. One of the contracts was for the construction of a station at Grand and Chrystie Streets, serving trains to and from the Manhattan Bridge. Because there was a large number of senior citizens living near that intersection, the station was originally planned to contain many ramps and "a minimum of steps". That October, the Board of Estimate approved an initial \$10.2 million for the connection. A groundbreaking ceremony for the connection took place on November 25, 1957. The connection was projected to cost \$100 million and provide capacity for 52,000 more riders an hour between Brooklyn and Manhattan. In 1960, New York City Transit allocated \$23 million for the installation of new signals in the Chrystie Street tunnels and six other locations in the subway system. Construction of the station started in 1962, and the entire seven-block length of Chrystie Street was closed until 1964. By March 1964, the new connection was expected to be completed within the next year. Later that year, the tracks in the new connection were laid. In contrast to subway tracks on existing lines, which contained wooden cross ties, the new tracks were installed on rubber pads attached to the concrete track bed, thereby dampening noise from trains. Lighting, power and signal equipment for the Chrystie Street tunnel had been installed by January 1965. At that time, the project was projected to be completed in 1967, with the portion involving the opening of the Grand Street station to be finished in 1966. ### Opening and use The first part of the connection, including the Grand Street station, opened on November 26, 1967, when the link between the Sixth Avenue Line and the Manhattan Bridge north tracks opened. The connection was fully opened on July 1, 1968, with the opening of the 57th Street station and the opening of the connection between the Sixth Avenue Line and the Williamsburg Bridge. With the connection completed, the most significant service changes ever carried out in the subway's history were introduced. Upon this station's opening the routes of the B and D were rerouted via the new connection. BB trains were relabeled the B, and began to run to Coney Island via the Chrystie Street Connection, the Manhattan Bridge north tracks, Fourth Avenue Line express tracks, and the West End Line. D trains were rerouted from the Culver Line to run to Coney Island via the new Sixth Avenue express tracks, the Chrystie Street Connection, the Manhattan Bridge north tracks, and the Brighton Line. ### Manhattan Bridge closures The north Manhattan Bridge tracks were closed for repairs from April 1986 to December 1988. During this time, this station was served by the Grand Street Shuttle to the Sixth Avenue Line, and there was no subway service from the station to Brooklyn. The Grand Street Shuttle also operated when the north tracks were closed again from April to November 1995; the closure caused nearby vendors' business to decline. A third entrance was added in 1999 to accommodate the station's growing ridership, which in turn was spurred by the growth of the Chinese population in New York City. At the time, the Grand Street station was one of two subway stations in Manhattan's Chinatown, with subway service running directly to the Chinatowns in Brooklyn. The MTA proposed closing the Manhattan Bridge's northern tracks again in 2000, running a shuttle between Broadway–Lafayette Street and Grand Street. Many Chinese New Yorkers expressed opposition to the plans, as there would no longer be direct subway service between Grand Street and Brooklyn. The New York Times wrote that many of the station's 27,000 daily riders were "Chinese- Americans who live in Brooklyn, come for fresh fish and produce, herbal medicines and household supplies", and that community members feared a decline in business when the Manhattan Bridge's north tracks closed. The Grand Street Shuttle began operating again when the north tracks were closed in July 2001. The MTA also agreed to operate a shuttle bus to the Canal Street station when the bridge's northern tracks were closed in 2001. Regular service was restored in February 2004. ## Station layout The station has two tracks and two narrow side platforms, located approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) below ground. They are column-less, except at staircases, and have a blue trim line with "GRAND ST" in white sans-serif font on it at regular intervals. In the original plan for the station, this would have been a four-track, two-island platform station; the Second Avenue Subway would have served the outer tracks while the Sixth Avenue Line served the inner tracks, providing a cross-platform interchange between these two lines. Although the connection only served Sixth Avenue Line trains, it was essentially the first part of the Second Avenue line that had been constructed. There is a sole mezzanine at the center of the station which has two staircases to each platform, a turnstile bank, token booth, and access to the street exits.On the Brooklyn-bound side, there is a small sign reading "Change Radio Channel to B1", indicating that train operators must change the channel on the route destination box from B2 (IND) to B1 (BMT) before crossing the Manhattan Bridge. Southbound trains leaving this station cross over the north side of the bridge and arrive at DeKalb Avenue or Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center (via the DeKalb Avenue bypass tracks). As the tracks curve onto the bridge, trackways from Canal Street on the Manhattan Bridge branch of the BMT Broadway Line are visible. The north side of the bridge originally led to that station before the current alignment was completed in 1967. ### Artwork A painted frieze called Trains of Thought by Andrea Gardner and Sally Heller was installed at the mezzanine and platforms in the late 1990s as the "Creative Stations" program sponsored by the Lower Manhattan Cultural Council. It features red clay models of R62s and R62As mounted on wood. ### Exits There are three staircase exits: two going up to the northeastern corner of the intersection of Grand and Chrystie Streets, and one going up to the northwestern corner. The station originally only had the two street stairs to the northeastern corner of the intersection, but due to growing ridership over the years—mainly by commuters from various Brooklyn neighborhoods to Manhattan's Chinatown—the third staircase to the northwestern corner was added in 1999. ## Second Avenue Subway plans In addition to connecting the BMT Nassau Street and IND Sixth Avenue Lines, as well as the Sixth Avenue Line to the Manhattan Bridge, the Chrystie Street Connection is one of the few completed sections of the SAS. The Grand Street station was built to serve as a transfer point between the Sixth Avenue and Second Avenue lines. The connection was built this way because the original 1960s plans for the SAS had Second Avenue and Sixth Avenue Line trains sharing two island platforms in a four-track layout, with connections from the Second Avenue Line to the Sixth Avenue Line and the Manhattan Bridge. Because Second Avenue Subway construction was halted in 1975, this station has only served Sixth Avenue Line trains since its opening. As part of the contemporary Second Avenue Subway construction, a new station is planned for construction below the current station during the fourth and final phase of the project; Phase 1 of the project on the Upper East Side opened on January 1, 2017, with Phase 2 in planning and two other phases with no funding commitments. During modern planning, it was considered to utilize the cross-platform provision, known as the "Shallow Chrystie Option", or to place the tracks under Forsyth Street one block east (the Forsyth Option), both of which could tie into an existing tunnel near the Chatham Square station site south of Canal Street. This tunnel, known as the Confucius Plaza Tunnel, was built in the 1970s along with several sections in Upper Manhattan used for Phases 1 and 2 of the SAS. Both these options would require extensive usage of cut-and-cover construction methods, creating large amounts of disturbances to the local community, environmental issues, and possibly requiring the demolition of existing structures. Current plans, however, have the Second Avenue platform to be built below the current one, though a free transfer will still be provided. The "Deep Chrystie Option", as the selected proposal is called, would instead place the Second Avenue Subway platform below the Sixth Avenue Line tracks, to create the least amount of community disturbance by utilizing tunnel boring machines. Cut-and-cover methods would be utilized only at the station site. The current platforms would be widened to create space for staircases to a new intermediate mezzanine between the two levels. This new mezzanine level will also include a new fare control area with staircases, escalators and elevators leading to two new station entrances/exits, with one on either side of Grand Street between Chrystie and Forsyth Streets. Although the Second Avenue Subway platform and the new entrances/exits would be ADA accessible, it is currently unknown if the Sixth Avenue Line platforms will also become ADA accessible. However, the widening of the platforms and additional entrances would likely trigger ADA requirements for adding elevators. To the north of the station, the Second Avenue Subway tunnels would curve to travel under Sara D. Roosevelt Park rather than directly below the Sixth Avenue Line tunnels under Chrystie Street, to avoid steel piles and other obstructions dating from the construction of the Chrystie Street Connection. To the south, the unused tunnel between Pell and Canal Streets could be used as an ancillary facility with the new passenger-service tunnels located beneath and slightly to the west.

Curious (Hayley Kiyoko song)

2018 single by Hayley Kiyoko

"Curious" is a song by American singer-songwriter Hayley Kiyoko, from her debut studio album Expectations (2018). It was released as the album's third single on January 11, 2018 by Empire/Atlantic Records. Kiyoko co-wrote "Curious" with Lisa Vitale, Brandon Colbein, Jakob Hazell and Svante Halldin, while Jack & Coke (Halldin and Hazell) produced the song. The dance-pop, R&B and synth-pop track details Kiyoko confronting an ex-girlfriend she believes is dating a man to mask her true feelings for Kiyoko. Its title adopts "curious", a term used within the LGBT community to express casual same-sex experimentation, as Kiyoko demands the truth about the authenticity of her love interest's new relationship. Kiyoko wrote the track based on a past relationship with a closeted woman, as well as various romantic experiences with women who were unsure about their sexuality, hoping the song would encourage open dialogue among queer individuals. "Curious" has earned acclaim from music critics, who praised its production, subversive themes and Kiyoko's confident delivery, often deeming it one of Expectations' strongest tracks; some media publications have ranked the single among the best of 2018. Despite limited radio airplay, "Curious" peaked at number 40 on Billboard's US Mainstream Top 40 chart. A music video for "Curious" was released the same day as the single, which Kiyoko co-directed with James Larese. Actress Tereza Kacerova co-stars as Kiyoko's former love interest, who she encounters at a house party Kacerova's character is attending with her new boyfriend (Henry Zaga). Critics praised the video's visuals, choreography and Kiyoko's direction, as well as its sensual depiction of a lesbian relationship. Kiyoko has performed "Curious" live several times, including on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, at the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards and during her Expectations Tour. Kiyoko also performed "Curious" with singer Taylor Swift during the latter's Reputation Stadium Tour (2018). ## Background and writing "Curious" was written by Hayley Kiyoko with Lisa Vitale, Brandon Colbein, Jakob Hazell and Svante Halldin. The track was produced by songwriting duo Jack & Coke, which consists of co-writers Hazell and Halldin. Describing herself as very selective when it comes to choosing her collaborators, Kiyoko described working with Jack & Coke as largely incidental because "there’s only a few guest producers on the album" and believes that both artists' strengths can be heard via their production throughout the track. "Curious" covers several of Kiyoko's past relationships with women, as she openly identifies as gay, during which she wanted to clarify that their feelings for each other were genuine as opposed to simply fun. "Curious" is partially based on true events about Kiyoko's "dalliance with a girl on the down-low". Admitting that she shares a personal connection with every song she writes, Kiyoko revealed that "Curious" specifically pertains to "that feeling of learning self-respect and ... walk away from a game". The singer believes any listener would find the situation addressed in the song relatable, claiming everyone has encountered similar dilemmas "where someone's playing games ... In the dating game, the world is difficult, because people don't communicate, or they communicate but then their actions speak louder than words." Regarding the song's title, Kiyoko explained that the term "curious" "has always had a negative connotation to me" because she finds curious people to be "unsure" about themselves. Believing that everyone longs "to be with someone who knows what they want and ... who they are", Kiyoko attempted to implement such themes into both the song and her album in general. Kiyoko found writing "Curious" an enjoyable process because it "was this ... cheeky fun song where I got to call out" a partner's indecision. Kiyoko claims she knew "Curious" would be a "big song" once she finished recording it, elaborating, "this is what we are looking for. This is what we were missing, is something that’s still honest but really has that backbone of strength, and undeniable hook." Kiyoko insists that her intention behind writing "Curious" was not to "break the mold (sic)", but simply convey "facts from my life" and encourage open conversation among other queer individuals, explaining, "It’s like, 'Hey, this was a situation I was in and it was effed up. Here you go. Have you been in that same situation? Let’s start a dialogue about it.” "Curious" was released as the third single from Kiyoko's debut album Expectations on January 11, 2018 via Empire Distribution and Atlantic Records, to several digital music retailers and streaming services. The single was also distributed to pop and hot adult contemporary radio formats throughout the United States. ## Music and lyrics "Curious" is a dance-pop, R&B, and synth-pop song, performed over a "bright", synth-pop beat, the bassline of which Rolling Stone likened to a "bouncing-ball". Incorporating electropop and power pop elements with "rubbery" synths, the song lasts three minutes and twelve seconds. Despite seemingly simple instrumentation and refrains, its chorus features a targeted, "rapid-fire" delivery and biting, "faux-casual" lyrics, during which Kiyoko adopts a fast speech pattern and confrontational tone, as her combination of confusion and frustration surfaces. Over a "flirty dance chorus", Kiyoko demands answers from a former partner who has moved on by pursuing a relationship with a man. Kiyoko's website similarly wrote that the song "shuffles from a wild beat towards a shimmering refrain hinging on her charismatic delivery". Simon Miraudo of Student Edge observed that the track exploits the singer's "favourite kind of chorus": "a speedy, trilled lyrical run-up to the song title, delivered deliberately on an isolated and sparse musical bed", followed by "sudden sonic emptiness" reminiscent of an ellipsis in a text conversation. The New York Times music journalist Jon Pareles wrote that the track "rotates through three chords and a hollow beat with a lot of echo in its empty spaces". Despite featuring similar production to previous singles “Feelings” and “Sleepover”, the song's demeanor and Kiyoko's performance are more confident and empowered overall. NPR claims that "When Kiyoko ... assures her love interest not to worry, you know she means it. She's not going to be destroyed by their return to a played-out heteronormativity". Vice writer Avery Stone wrote that "Kiyoko calls out her love interest for being hot-and-cold", citing the track as an example of the album's themes about navigating difficult relationships with girls unable to commit. According to Billboard's Abby Jones, the song "depicts Kiyoko's frustrations with a former love interest who" is now dating a man, neurotically questioning her purpose within the love triangle. The song's lyrics suggest that Kiyoko is curious to know if the relationship between her ex-girlfriend and her new boyfriend is as serious as the one they once had. Despite being Expectations' most upbeat song, its lyrics nonetheless "carry the same weight" as its other tracks, which USA Today's Patrick Ryan described as "a deceptively bouncy anthem about gay individuals who stay in straight relationships to mask their true feelings". Featuring lyrics about a girl who struggles to accept her feelings for Kiyoko and dates a man to mask their history, Kiyoko confronts her ex about the latter's alleged bi-curiosity. Kiyoko asks her love interest "Are we just friends? You say you wanted me — but you’re sleeping with him", which Spin's Anna Gaca believes "flip[s] the narrative to set up a classic Hayley Kiyoko situation". Questioning if her "ostensibly hetero friend is queer-baiting her", Breanna Belken of The Daily Dot wrote that the singer's lyrics "address the confusion and uncertainty queer women and girls face when pursuing a love interest, in this case a woman who is ambivalent about their relationship." The Guardian's Michael Cragg summarized "Curious" as a song "about being a straight girl’s secret," which he claimed Kiyoko delivers "with a knowing wink". Stone identified its hook as "I’m just curious ... Is it serious?”, which Pitchfork contributor Laura Snapes believes Kiyoko sings with "icy mocking" as the word "curious" adopts a double meaning. The New Statesman writer Myfanwy Craigie elaborated that the title "playfully sets up expectations of a song about bicuriosity" before "our expectations are undercut and 'Curious' is really about her flirtation with a girl who has a boyfriend", ironically questioning the seriousness of her new relationship. Lindsay King-Miller of Lenny Letter agreed that the hook's "feigned nonchalance ... reveals more depths of emotion than a hundred heartbroken torch songs." Snapes found the song's chorus similar to "New Rules" (2017) by Dua Lipa, while likening its "pin-sharp barbs" to singer Lorde, particularly its chorus "Did you take him to the pier in Santa Monica? Forget to bring your jacket/Wrap up in him ‘cause you wanted to?”, which is a tongue-twister performed in double time. Describing the song as "razor-edged", Rolling Stone's Suzy Exposito opined that few "lines cut as cleanly" as the chorus. King-Miller compared "Curious" to "He’ll Never Love You", another track from Expectations that similarly details a love triangle between Kiyoko competing against a man for the same woman's affections. Meanwhile, Audrey Bowers of Study Breaks likened the track to Kiyoko's "What I Need", a song "about how frustrating it is dating a straight woman because what she needs is for her partner to be sure about their relationship". Lauren Mullineaux of The 405 identified "Curious" as one of the album's most blatant queer song examples. Billboard critic Alexa Shouneyia ranked the lyrics "Calling me up, so late at night/ Are we just friends?/ You say you wanted me, but you're sleeping with him" the album's second most queer lyric, in which the singer "cheekily nods to bi-curiosity." Idolator's Mike Wass found the song's message "about self-respect and knowing when to walk away when someone you care about is playing games" to be empowering. ## Reception ### Critical response "Curious" has garnered acclaim from music critics. In January 2018, Time's Raisa Bruner recommended "Curious" among "5 Songs You Need to Listen to This Week", describing it as a vulnerable "frothy pop confection" the author believes is more socially conscious than Katy Perry’s "I Kissed a Girl" (2008). Gay Times' Nick Levine called the track "super-catchy". The Guardian's Michael Cragg reviewed the song as an excellent "electropop belter", throughout which Kiyoko does "what she does best", while Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic called it "an endearing gem that chronicles a girl-likes-girl-likes-guy triangle". Abbey Perrin of Affinity Magazine welcomed "Curious" as the single "we’ve all been waiting for", praising Kiyoko's "smooth, effortless vocals". Perrin also observed that although its production "stays true to her earlier releases", the single "features a more confident and empowering vibe [from] Kiyoko [who] stands her ground ... which is refreshing as we have never really seen this from her before." Several critics cited the track among the album's strongest. Highlighting the track, Spin's Anma Gaca described "Curious" as "Expectations at its best". Laura Snapes of Pitchfork praised the song's lyrics as "a perfectly turned kiss-off", hailing its "brilliant" chorus. Kara Bowen, writing for The Ithacan, crowned the single "the album’s pop pinnacle", while Grammy.com editor Nate Hertweck credits "Curious" with "put[ting] [Expectations] on the map". Recognizing the album's overall theme about subverting expectations, Vice's El Hunt cited "Curious" as a standout track and particularly strong example, explaining, "you almost expect an experimentation pop bop that treats lesbianism as a bit of harmless dabbling" until hearing "a Britney Spears-flavored slab revolving around a more universal scandal". The Harvard Crimson's Allison J. Scharmann agreed that the song is a standout track "bound to have you dancing and singing the hook ... in the exact same tone as Kiyoko for a week after your first listen." Jon Pareles, music critic for The New York Times, named "Curious" "a smart gender twist" on "the classic jealousy song". Michelle Dreyer, contributing to Study Breaks, observed that although Kiyoko had been releasing music for several years, "Curious" helped many music fans recognize her talent, while BroadwayWorld predicted the single will initiate "another stellar year for" the singer. Idolator critic Mike Nied wrote the song "has become something of a breakout moment for" Kiyoko, expecting the single to "easily find a place on the Hot 100 with the right promotional push." Gemma Samways of the Evening Standard hailed the track as a "slick, smart pop song ... that should pave the way to greater stardom." ### Accolades Rolling Stone ranked "Curious" the 32nd best song of 2018, with contributor Amanda Charchian believing its chorus demonstrates that Kiyoko is "not above upending the whole structure (musical, romantic, social and otherwise) should things come to that point." NPR ranked "Curious" 2018's 49th best song (out of 100), about which author Marissa Lorusso wrote despite the "joy that comes from reading 'Curious" as a teasing, catchy twist on the homophobic narratives that queer love is a frivolous phase or a sinful path chosen on purpose ... instead, you could just get lost in the song's ultra-glossy production, high-energy chorus and sheer danceability." Billboard's Nina Braca described "Curious" as a "ridiculously catchy" track that boasts the year's most important question: "Did you take him to the pier in Santa Monica/ Forget to bring a jacket, wrap up in him cause you wanted to?" Seventeen's Megan Lasher included the song in her "Ultimate 2018 LGBTQ Pride Playlist", calling it "too catchy to not listen to it at least once a day" and predicting its popularity during pride parades. Elite Daily ranked the song the third best break up song of 2018, for which author Hannah Schneider said Kiyoko "flipped the script on the age-old song about how a person's ex is seeing someone else" by "exud[ing] simultaneous confidence and vulnerability, that is simply contagious." Describing "Curious" as "extremely catchy," Marianna Rappa of Her Campus deemed the song a "gay anthem" and one of Kiyoko’s most popular songs. The Eagle's Dilpreet Raju agreed that "Curious" is among Kiyoko's most popular songs. Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass crowned the song "One Of The First Great Pop Songs Of 2018", hailing it as a "great addition to the canon of LGBT pop songs with its unusually honest and all-too relatable lyrics", while Rolling Stone wrote that the single "placed her at the forefront of an apologetically queer pop movement". "Curious" is Kiyoko's most popular and successful single to-date, reaching number 40 on the US Mainstream Top 40 chart and peaking at number 35 on the US Dance/Mix Show Airplay. However, Alexandra Pollard of The Guardian argued that Kiyoko and the song's popularity "bypassed traditional commercial success", observing that the single had only been played once on the radio station Radio 1, as of February 22, 2018. ## Music video ### Background and synopsis The music video for "Curious" was released the same day as the single, January 11, 2018. Before the release, Kiyoko spent several weeks uploading cryptic photographs to her social media accounts. The singer premiered the video on both MTV's Total Request Live and her own YouTube channel. Kiyoko co-directed the video with James Larese. Actress and model Tereza Kacerova co-stars as Kiyoko's love interest, while actor Henry Zaga plays Kacerova's boyfriend. Kacerova had never kissed another girl prior to her role in the video, throughout which other friends and bandmates of Kiyoko were cast. Kiyoko opted to use all-male backup dancers because she had always longed to be in a boy band, comparing the final product to the work of boy band NSYNC. Kiyoko said the video is based on her own life, confirming that she often finds herself pursuing relationships with women who have yet to admit their attraction to women. The singer wanted the video to depict a "cheeky" autobiographical story about "dating a girl and having her say all these things. And then her showing up with another guy". Struggling with her sexuality, Kiyoko's love interest proceeds to be affectionate with her exclusively in private, "so in the music video you see her kind of coming back to me but only in secret. And I'm kind of over it. And I'm just like, hey, you need to respect me 24/7." She described the video as "very close to my life"; Kiyoko wrote a video treatment intending to convey the song's message about "knowing when to walk away when someone you care about is playing games ... in a fun and tongue-in-cheek way", hoping viewers would identify with its message. The cast and crew found filming the opening scene stressful because the sun had begun setting at the same time, forcing them to rush and film the entire sequence in 10 minutes. The music video revolves around Kiyoko encountering and seducing a former girlfriend at a house party that the latter's new boyfriend is also attending. Kiyoko's love interest initially arrives at the party accompanied by a young man, although she is obviously interested in Kiyoko who ignores her at first. Shots of the two women gazing at each other from across the room are interspersed with flashbacks of their past time together, confirming both their lingering feelings for each other and their former romantic involvement. Towards the end of the video, the girl leads Kiyoko into the bathroom, where they proceed to make out. Kiyoko whispers the song's "curious" hook into the girl's ear, pausing abruptly to ask one final time if she is serious about her new relationship. These scenes are interspersed with sequences of the singer lying on a floor surrounded by several women who caress her body sensually, as well as dance breaks for which she is dressed in sweatpants and a loose-fitting Hawaiian shirt. Kiyoko then defiantly walks away from the girl midway, foregoing the casual hook up and leaving her in the bathroom in favor of returning to the party alone, establishing that Kiyoko is no longer playing games. The video ends implying that Kiyoko has moved on from their "toxic back-and-forth" relationship permanently before her question is answered. Kiyoko explained that "It took me a long time to" become comfortable walking away from situations similar to what her music video character encounters, but believes "It’s important to showcase ... because it’s important to encourage learning self-respect. Games are fun, but at a certain point, it’s like, ‘Okay, when am I compromising myself?". ### Reception Autostraddle's Mey Valdivia Rude proclaimed that the video "cements" previously conceived notions about Kiyoko's talent, describing "Every scene" as "hot in a different queer way." The author concluded, "It’s like Kiyoko is using every muscle in body and move in her repertoire to drag queerness to the front of her entire music career. It’s a beautiful thing to see and so is this video." HuffPost contributor Noah Michelson appreciated that "The camera doesn’t pan away from the action, nor does the scene play as fuel for some cheap male masturbatory fantasy", describing the singer as "completely in control both on- and off-screen". Glenn Garner of Out wrote that the video helps establish the single's parent album as "a win for gay girls everywhere", while The Fader's Sydney Gore described the visual as "a beautifully shot commentary on the dynamics of queer love and the complicated laws of same-sex attraction." The 405's Lauren Mullineaux identified the video as "where my love affair with Hayley Kiyoko began." Samantha Puc of TheTempest.co reviewed the piece as "definitely NSFW" but "unapologetically queer from start to finish, and the female gaze is refreshing and appreciated." Sam Manzella, writing for NewNowNext.com, branded the video "as provocative as you’d expect" from Kiyoko. BroadwayWorld wrote that "Curious" "showcases Hayley's confidently slick dance moves". Analyzing the video, Bust contributor Katie O'Brien observed that Kiyoko appears to be "playing with and flipping the prototypical male gaze by placing herself in the on-camera positions one might typically see a man in", in addition to having her backup dancers consist entirely of men (a decision echoed in live performances of the song). Writing for TMRW Magazine, George Griffiths credits the video's success and popularity online with helping establish "Curious" as "a true viral cross-over success", describing it as a "brilliant" and "evocative" piece that boasts the year's "best dance routine". Within a few hours of release, the music video accumulated over 200,000 views, and more than one million views by January 17, 2018. The video amassed nine million views within three months of release, and 13.7 million by August 2018. As of 2020, the video has reached more than 26 million views on YouTube. ## Live performances Kiyoko sang "Curious" on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on April 3, 2018, the same evening as her 27th birthday. The performance was part of Kimmel's concert series sponsored by Mercedes-Benz and served as Kiyoko's late-night television debut. Accompanied by four male backup dancers, Kiyoko performed hip-hop choreography, in front of a live band. Idolator's Mike Nied praised Kiyoko's "strong live vocal[s]", "fierce choreography" and "seemingly bottomless energy." In August 2018, Kiyoko performed the song at the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards, at which she had been nominated for Best New Artist and won the ceremony's Push Artist of the Year. Patrick Crowley of Billboard wrote Kiyoko demonstrated her performance skills by showcasing "signature dripping-in-swagger dance moves", accompanied by backup dancers. Singer Taylor Swift invited Kiyoko to sing "Curious" during the Foxborough, MA stop of her Reputation Stadium Tour (2018) at Gillette Stadium. Swift had previously defended Kiyoko from fans who misinterterpred the latter's comments about facing homophobia in the music industry, in which she compared herself to Swift who frequently sings about men without facing criticism about unoriginality. Kiyoko had originally planned on attending Swift's concert while in Boston performing with Panic at the Disco. Swift asked Panic at the Disco's management if Kiyoko would perform "Curious" at her next show, to which she agreed. The singers only blocked their performance during soundcheck earlier the same day, during which their strong chemistry was noted. The performance, which was kept secret from Swift's audience, included dancers and pyrotechnics. The duet was Kiyoko's first stadium performance, after which she thanked Swift on Instagram. Sam Manzella of NewNowNext.com reviewed the duet as "show-stopping". Fans of both singers reacted positively on social media. The Los Angeles Times' Ilana Kaplan wrote that the duet indicated Kiyoko's growth as a celebrity. Kiyoko considered the performance beneficial to the LGBT community, elaborating that the duet surpassed solely Swift's gesture: "I think for her demographic and for what she does, that was a very important moment. That’s why I feel like that was just a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity". Kiyoko performed the song throughout her European Encore Tour, an extension of the European leg of her Expectations Tour (2018-2019). Reviewing her performance at London’s O2 Forum Kentish Town in February 2019, Lewis Corner of Gay Times identified "Curious" as the song on which "she gears into full superstar mode", describing it as "a sparkly example of everything we love about pop music." The Strand Magazine's Sophie Perry wrote that Kiyoko "gave it all she had in every dance move and lyric, with the crowd’s energy responding ten-fold." Gemma Samways of the Evening Standard found the singer a "at her best when keeping the rock cliches at arm’s length," citing "Curious" as an example. ## Chart performance ## Release history

FIFA World Cup Trophy

Award for victors of the FIFA World Cup

The World Cup is a solid gold trophy that is awarded to the winners of the FIFA World Cup association football tournament. Since the advent of the World Cup in 1930, two different trophies have been used: the Jules Rimet Trophy from 1930 to 1970 and thereafter the FIFA World Cup Trophy from 1974 to the present day. The current trophy is one of the most expensive trophies in sporting history and is valued at \$20,000,000. The first trophy, originally named Victory, but later renamed in honour of FIFA president Jules Rimet, was made of gold plated sterling silver and a lapis lazuli base. It depicted Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Brazil were awarded the trophy in perpetuity following their third title in 1970, prompting the commissioning of a replacement. The original Jules Rimet Trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered. The subsequent trophy, called the "FIFA World Cup Trophy", was introduced in 1974. Made of 18 karat gold with bands of malachite on its base, it stands 36.8 centimetres high and weighs 6.175 kilograms (13.61 lb). The trophy was made by the Stabilimento Artistico Bertoni company in Italy. It depicts two human figures holding up the Earth. The current holders of the trophy are Argentina, winners of the 2022 World Cup. ## Jules Rimet Trophy The Jules Rimet Cup was the original trophy of the FIFA World Cup. Originally called "Victory", but generally known simply as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, it was renamed in 1946 to honour the FIFA President Jules Rimet, who in 1929 passed a vote to initiate the competition. It was designed by French sculptor Abel Lafleur and made of gold-plated sterling silver on a lapis lazuli base. In 1954 the base was replaced with a taller version to accommodate more winner's details. It stood 35 centimetres (14 in) high and weighed 3.8 kilograms (8.4 lb). It comprised a decagonal cup, supported by a winged figure representing Nike, the ancient Greek goddess of victory. The Jules Rimet Trophy was taken to Uruguay for the first FIFA World Cup aboard the Conte Verde, which set sail from Villefranche-sur-Mer, just southeast of Nice, in June 1930. This was the same ship that carried Jules Rimet and the footballers representing France, Romania, and Belgium who were participating in the tournament that year. The first team to be awarded the trophy was Uruguay, the winners of the 1930 World Cup. During World War II, the trophy was held by 1938 champion Italy. Ottorino Barassi, the Italian vice-president of FIFA and president of FIGC, secretly transported the trophy from a bank in Rome and hid it in a shoe-box under his bed to prevent the Nazis from taking it. The 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden marked the beginning of a tradition regarding the trophy. As Brazilian captain Hilderaldo Bellini heard photographers' requests for a better view of the Jules Rimet Trophy, he lifted it up in the air. Every Cup-winning captain ever since has repeated the gesture. On 20 March 1966, four months before the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England, the trophy was stolen during a public exhibition at Westminster Central Hall. It was found seven days later wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a suburban garden hedge in Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood, South London, by a black and white mongrel dog named Pickles. As a security measure, The Football Association secretly manufactured a replica of the trophy for use in exhibitions rather than the original. This replica was used on occasions up until 1970 when the original trophy had to be handed back to FIFA for the next competition. Since FIFA had explicitly denied the FA permission to create a replica, the replica also had to disappear from public view and was for many years kept under its creator's bed. This replica was sold at an auction in 1997 for £254,500, when it was purchased by FIFA. The high auction price, ten times the reserve price of £20,000–£30,000, was led by speculation that the auctioned trophy was not the replica trophy but the original itself. Testing by FIFA confirmed the auctioned trophy was a replica. Soon afterwards FIFA arranged for the replica to be lent for display at the English National Football Museum, which was then based in Preston but is now in Manchester. The Brazilian team won the tournament for the third time in 1970, allowing them to keep the real trophy in perpetuity, as had been stipulated by Jules Rimet in 1930. It was put on display at the Brazilian Football Confederation headquarters in Rio de Janeiro, in a cabinet with a front of bullet-proof glass. On 19 December 1983, the wooden rear of the cabinet was opened by force with a crowbar and the cup was stolen again. Four men were tried and convicted in absentia for the crime. The trophy has never been recovered, and it is widely believed to have been melted down and sold. Only one piece of the Jules Rimet Trophy has been found, the original base, which FIFA had kept in a basement of the federation's Zürich headquarters prior to 2015. The Confederation commissioned a replica of their own, made by Eastman Kodak, using 1.8 kilograms (4.0 lb) of gold. This replica was presented to Brazilian military president João Figueiredo in 1984. ## New trophy A replacement trophy was commissioned by FIFA for the 1974 World Cup. Fifty-three submissions were received from sculptors in seven countries. Italian artist Silvio Gazzaniga was awarded the commission. The trophy stands 36.5 centimetres (14.4 in) tall and is made of 6.175 kilograms (13.61 lb) of 18 karat (75%) gold, worth approximately US\$161,000 in 2018. Its base is 13 centimetres (5.1 in) in diameter containing two layers of malachite. Chemist Sir Martyn Poliakoff claims that the trophy is hollow, because if it were solid gold, the trophy would weigh 70–80 kilograms (150–180 lb) and would be too heavy to lift. This is easy to understand since 18 k gold is an alloy made of 18 parts of gold, 5 parts of silver and 1 part of copper with a mean density of 15.6 g/cm³. The trophy weighs 6175 g, this amount of alloy is just a volume of 390 cm³ or, in other words, would be a cube with a side of 7.3 cm, and the World Cup is clearly larger. This argumentation proves that the World Cup is indeed hollow. Moreover, its original manufacturer, who is the same that makes the official replicas, confirmed this characteristic. Produced by Bertoni, Milano in Paderno Dugnano, it depicts two human figures holding up the Earth. Gazzaniga described the trophy thus, "The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory". The trophy has the engraving "FIFA World Cup" on its base. After the 1994 FIFA World Cup, a plate was added to the bottom side of the trophy where the names of winning countries are engraved, names therefore not visible when the trophy is standing upright. The original trophy is now permanently kept at the FIFA World Football Museum in Zurich, Switzerland. It only leaves there when it goes on its FIFA World Cup Trophy Tour. It is present at the Final draw for the next World Cup, and on the pitch at the World Cup opening game and Final. The FIFA World Cup Trophy Tour was inaugurated for the 2006 FIFA World Cup competition. The Cup used to be kept by the winning team until the final draw of the next tournament, however, that is no longer the case. Instead the winners of the tournament receive a bronze replica which is gold-plated rather than solid gold. Likewise, three-time winners keep the replica instead of the original cup. Germany became the first nation to win the new trophy for the third time when they won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Argentina became the second nation to achieve this feat following their win in Qatar at the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The inscriptions state the year in figures and the name of the winning nation in its national language. For example, "1974 Deutschland" or "1994 Brasil". In 2010, the name of the winning nation was engraved as "2010 Spain", in English, not in Spanish. This was corrected in the new plate made after the 2018 World Cup. As of 2022, twelve winners have been engraved on the base. The plate is replaced each World Cup cycle and the names of the trophy winners are rearranged into a spiral to accommodate future winners. ### Eventual replacement Since the base of the trophy only has space for new engravings to be made up until the 2038 World Cup, a new trophy will eventually be made for the 2042 World Cup. ## Winners Historic list of all holders of the trophy (winners of the FIFA World Cup). Jules Rimet Trophy - – 1958, 1962, 1970 - – 1930, 1950 - – 1934, 1938 - – 1954 - – 1966 FIFA World Cup Trophy - / – 1974, 1990, 2014 - – 1978, 1986, 2022 - – 1982, 2006 - – 1994, 2002 - – 1998, 2018 - – 2010

Don Getty

Premier of Alberta from 1985 to 1992

Donald Ross Getty OC AOE (August 30, 1933 – February 26, 2016) was a Canadian politician who served as the 11th premier of Alberta between 1985 and 1992. A member of the Progressive Conservatives, he served as Energy Minister and Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs Minister in the government of Peter Lougheed before leaving politics for the private sector in 1979. He returned to politics six years later to contest the leadership contest resulting from Lougheed's retirement. He defeated two other candidates, and became Premier November 1, 1985. As Premier, Getty was faced with an economic slowdown and falling energy prices, which hit Alberta's petroleum-dominated economy hard. Faced with mounting government deficits and increasing unemployment, he cut social spending and intervened with government money to prevent businesses from failing. Several of these interventions backfired in high-profile fashion, failing at their intended objective and costing scarce public funds as well. While some analysts argue that Getty's fiscal program laid the groundwork for Ralph Klein's later balancing of the provincial budget, on Getty's departure from office the government's debt had reached \$11 billion, setting the stage for his successor to characterize the Getty years as an era of wasteful and excessive spending. His efforts at strengthening Alberta's presence in Canada initially appeared more successful, as he won the agreement of Canada's other first ministers in including elements of Senate reform in the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords, but these efforts came to naught when both accords were rejected—the second by the Canadian public, including a majority of Albertans. Getty was also facing political problems within Alberta, including a defeat in his home riding of Edmonton-Whitemud in the 1989 election (leading to a successful by-election in Stettler, vacated by a P.C. MLA) and leadership machinations from some of his own ministers. In light of this, he resigned the Premiership in 1992. Before entering politics, Getty had been a quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League. He passed for more than eight thousand yards over his ten-year career, and was put on the team's Wall of Fame in 1992. ## Early life Don Getty was born on August 30, 1933, in Westmount, Quebec, the son of Beatrice Lillian (Hampton) Getty (1910–1973) and Charles Ross Getty (1909–1974). His father had dropped out of McGill University's medical school due to the Great Depression and worked a variety of jobs—sometimes more than one at a time—to support his wife, three sons, and two daughters. Getty's childhood was spent in Verdun, Toronto, Ottawa, London, and Agincourt, sharing a three-room apartment with his seven-member family in the last. Returning for London in time for high school, he became an accomplished athlete (drinking eggnog to gain enough weight to play football) and was elected students' council president. Sports were his passion, and he was an especially great fan of the Montreal Canadiens and of Toronto Argonauts running back Royal Copeland. ### Football After graduating, Getty enrolled to study business administration at the University of Western Ontario, where he became a football star and a member of The Kappa Alpha Society. He quarterbacked the Western Ontario Mustangs to Eastern Collegiate Union Championships in 1954 and 1955, and was awarded the Claude Brown Memorial Trophy as the outstanding athlete at UWO in 1955. He also played basketball, and was part of championship teams in that sport in 1952, 1953, and 1954. A week after his 1955 graduation, he married Margaret Mitchell, his high school sweetheart. The Edmonton Eskimos had offered Getty a professional contract, so the newlyweds drove out west in an old blue Buick. While still playing football, Getty was hired by Imperial Oil in 1955. He worked for Midwestern Industrial Gas Limited, beginning in 1961 as Lands and Contracts Manager with a promotion to Assistant General Manager following in 1963. In 1964 he founded his own company, Baldonnel Oil and Gas Company, before entering the world of finance as a partner with Doherty, Roadhouse, and McCuaig investments in 1967. ### MLA and cabinet minister In 1965, Getty was approached by fellow Eskimos veteran and Progressive Conservative leader Peter Lougheed to run in the 1967 provincial election. Getty agreed to run in Strathcona West, and defeated incumbent Social Crediter Randolph McKinnon by more than one thousand votes. He entered the Legislative Assembly of Alberta as one of six newly elected P.C.s. Four years later, in the 1971 election, Getty was re-elected by more than 3,500 votes in the new riding of Edmonton-Whitemud and was appointed Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs in the new Lougheed majority government. With Getty and the government both re-elected by increasing margins in the 1975 election, Lougheed appointed him Minister of Energy. In this capacity Getty partially continued his responsibility for relations with the federal government, as energy policy was a major sticking point between the two governments (at one point, federal Energy Minister Donald Macdonald called Getty "dripping with venom"). Getty did not seek re-election in the 1979 election. ### Hiatus from politics and leadership fight While out of politics, Getty became the head of an investment firm and sat on the boards of a number of corporations, including the Royal Bank of Canada, Sparrow Energy, Nortek Energy and Celanese Canada. However, when Lougheed stepped down from the Progressive Conservative leadership in 1985, Getty entered the contest to replace him and immediately became the favourite. At an October convention, Getty won a second ballot victory against Minister of Municipal Affairs Julian Koziak and former legislator Ron Ghitter. ## Premier Getty was appointed Premier November 1, 1985. He returned to the legislature just over a month later, winning a by-election in his old riding of Edmonton-Whitemud. As Premier for nearly seven years, Getty presided over some of Alberta's toughest economic times. His time in office was characterized by attempts to reduce the government's budget deficit and interventions calculated to stabilize the economy during the recession of the 1980s. When Getty became Premier he left his predecessor's cabinet completely intact. ### Budget deficit After Getty won the party leadership, Lougheed told him to expect a budget deficit of \$2.5 billion in his first year in office, though the figure turned out to be \$2.1 billion. Things got worse the next year as a drop in energy prices led to the oil-rich province running a deficit of \$3.4 billion, as energy revenues fell by \$3 billion. Getty's Treasurer, Dick Johnston, reacted by raising taxes by \$1 billion and cutting program spending by 6.3%, including decreases of 3% in grants to schools, universities, municipalities, and hospitals. In 1990, due to these measures, Johnston predicted that the government would be in surplus by the 1995 fiscal year. By 1992, program spending was growing at a rate of 2.3% annually, among the lowest rates in Canada. In fact, when adjusted for population growth and inflation, government spending fell over Getty's term in office, with non-health care program spending 40% lower in 1993 than it had been in 1986 (health spending had remained approximately constant over the same period). Even so, Getty entered the premiership with no public debt and left with the public debt at \$11 billion. ### Economic intervention Getty's government was faced with a combination of a general economic malaise and falling oil prices. The slowdown in the energy sector contributed to a decrease in capital spending, which reduced demand for labour in the construction industry by 50% between 1980 and 1985. Many workers left the province, which suppressed real estate prices and hurt financial institutions; two Albertan banks, the Canadian Commercial Bank and the Northlands Bank, failed in September 1985. Credit unions were facing similar troubles, and the Lougheed government had, in its last days, injected \$100 million into the industry. Getty's response to these issues was interventionist. During his first budget, he targeted spending at the province's struggling agricultural sector, including a \$2 billion loan program meant to address high interest rates. His government tried to stimulate the energy sector by making loan guarantees to Husky Oil (\$380 million) and Syncrude (\$200 million) for new and expanded capital projects. The government also provided a \$55 million guarantee—in addition to a \$20 million loan—to Peter Pocklington's Gainers meat-packing plant; when Pocklington defaulted on the loan, the government seized, and eventually closed, the plant. This incident and others contributed to a perception that Getty's administration was willing to spend public money to support large businesses, but that it was indifferent to the struggles of labour (the Gainers loan had initially been made after the government brokered a labour settlement favourable to the plant's management). In 1986 the price of oil bottomed at \$US10 a barrel. Getty responded by providing the oil industry with \$250 million in incentives and royalty cuts. By the end of 1986 Alberta had granted another nine-month cut from 12% to 1% in royalties at the Suncor oilsands. Most damaging to the government's reputation was the failure of the Principal Group, an Edmonton-based trust company. Its investment subsidiaries were ordered shut down June 30, 1987, by court orders obtained at the instigation of Provincial Treasurer Dick Johnston. The parent company went bankrupt August 10 amid accusations of fraud. A court-ordered investigation led by Bill Code found that the company was in trouble as early as 1980 and, though subsequent economic downturns hurt it, "it would not have been profitable in any event". It also found that Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Connie Osterman had disregarded 1984 warnings from a regulator in her department that the company was likely insolvent. Though Osterman was fired shortly after the report's release, Getty's immediate offer of an \$85 million settlement to investors further hurt the government's reputation in areas of business. A similar incident stemmed from the 1992 privatization of Alberta Government Telephones (AGT). NovaTel, a cellular subsidiary of AGT, had made a number of financing deals with local companies in the late 1980s, and many of these deals were collapsing just as the government was prepared to sell AGT. At the last moment, the government removed NovaTel from the AGT share offering. NovaTel's liabilities eventually cost the government more than \$600 million. ### Intergovernmental and constitutional affairs As a former Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs, Getty had strong views about constitutional matters, and about Senate reform in particular. He made the cause the centrepiece of Alberta's constitutional policy going into the Meech Lake Accord discussions. The Accord's final version included a provision whereby the Prime Minister would continue to recommend senatorial appointments to the Governor-General, but would have to make their recommendations from lists provided by the provincial governments. Once it became apparent that the Meech Lake Accord would fail, Getty's government introduced the Senatorial Selection Act, which provided for an election process whenever there was a vacant Senate seat for Alberta. However, Getty's favoured candidate, Progressive Conservative Bert Brown, was soundly defeated by Stan Waters of the upstart Reform Party of Canada, which opposed Meech Lake and favoured aggressive senate reform. Though Prime Minister Brian Mulroney opposed the legislation, he eventually recommended Waters for appointment to the Senate. Getty was still more successful at pursuing senate reform during the negotiations for the Charlottetown Accord, when he won the addition of a Triple-E Senate to the package, against Mulroney's opposition. However, the Charlottetown Accord failed after a national referendum in which a majority of Canadians, including 60.2% of Albertans, rejected it. In 1991, Getty's Progressive Conservatives formally severed ties with the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, which was becoming increasingly unpopular under Mulroney. Getty also broke with Mulroney on a number of issues other than Senate reform, including the new federal Goods and Services Tax, which he fought unsuccessfully against implementing. His government also implemented legislation, against Mulroney's express wishes, that made English the only official language of Alberta. Despite these steps, Getty remained a supporter of the federal Conservatives (and not the Reform Party, to which many provincial P.C.s were defecting), whose unpopularity rubbed off on him. Getty's government also made progress on aboriginal land claims in the northern part of the province. In addition to creating Canada's first Métis land base in 1989, Getty took the lead in an ultimately unsuccessful effort to negotiate a settlement between the federal government and the Lubicon Cree. ### Political style In contrast to his predecessor, who was actively involved in most elements of his government, Getty preferred to set the government's broad direction and leave lower-level details to his ministers. Ralph Klein, while serving as Environment Minister under Getty, commented that "If you are a minister, you run that portfolio yourself" and expressed an appreciation for the freedom that the Premier gave his cabinet. Al Adair, who served in two different portfolios under Getty, described this approach in his memoirs as "you make the decisions, you run your department, but make mistakes and you're gone". Lisac credits him for knowing when to intervene and when not to, but Adair felt that his approach led to ministers working too much in isolation. Getty was a private, reserved person, which, combined with his tendency to delegate to ministers, sometimes gave the impression of an uncaring aloofness. During the Principal Group affair, which he left primarily in the hands of Treasurer Dick Johnston and Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister Elaine McCoy, a photographer captured a shot of Getty playing golf while his press secretary had said that he was "working out of the office". This was typical of his strained relationship with the media, which Adair attributed to the Premier's awkwardness and the media's unfairness. Although Getty governed with fairly large majorities during his tenure, they were nowhere near as large as the ones Lougheed enjoyed. His first election as premier saw the return of the provincial Liberals to the legislature after being shut out for 15 years. That same election saw the Alberta NDP pick up 16 seats in the legislature. In contrast, during his last two terms, Lougheed never faced more than six opposition MLAs in total. ### Decline and retirement Getty called the 1989 election less than three years into his 1986 mandate to take advantage of the economic optimism prevalent in the province, partly as a result of the Canada-U.S. free trade agreement. While the P.C.s made spending promises including paving all of the province's secondary highways, the Liberals under new leader Laurence Decore stressed dealing with the deficit. The overall result was respectable for the government, as it won a sixth term in government with a net loss of only two seats. However, Getty was defeated in his own riding by Liberal Percy Wickman. Brian C. Downey resigned his seat in the rural central Alberta riding of Stettler to allow Getty to run in a by-election, which he won handily. He built a home in the riding on Buffalo Lake, and was later accused of arranging for the lake to be risen so it would be better-suited for fishing (though Adair claimed that the arrangements had been in place since 1979, when he had been Minister of Recreation, Parks and Wildlife). Getty's relationship with his own party was often stormy. Shortly after he lost his riding in 1989, a group of Calgary Conservatives, including party budget director Jack Major and Getty's old leadership rival Ron Ghitter, began making plans to force party renewal, with or without Getty. They felt that the party was perceived as being tired, directionless, arrogant, and deaf to urban concerns, and that it was in political trouble in the crucial battleground of Calgary. At the 1989 party convention, recently retired cabinet minister Marvin Moore, who had organized Ghitter's 1985 leadership campaign, advocated for a leadership review; after a speech by Getty, the convention voted to refer the recommendation to a committee for months of study. Cabinet ministers, including Treasurer Dick Johnston and Education Minister Jim Dinning, began to consider leadership bids in the event that Getty retired or was pushed out. In 1992, as the national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord and the release of a report on the NovaTel incident loomed, Getty decided to leave politics. In his last months, he deliberately refrained from taking measures that he knew would be popular, such as shrinking cabinet, in order to leave them for his successor. After a party leadership election chose Ralph Klein to succeed him, Getty resigned as party leader December 5 and as Premier several days later. ### Political legacy As Premier, Klein positioned himself in contrast to Getty, asserting that the government had "a spending problem", and stating that he had become Premier at a time of "uncontrolled spending". Given Klein's aggressive spending cuts, which shaped the political climate of Alberta for much of the 1990s, Getty's legacy with respect to public finances has been criticized. However, Kevin Taft, writing four years before entering politics, challenged this view, asserting that Getty was running "the tightest government in Canada". Besides its management of the deficit, Getty's government is remembered for the creation of Family Day. For the most part, however, Getty dropped quickly from the public view and public memory. Lisac suggests that this is because, unlike his predecessor and successor, he lacked a central message: > Lougheed had booming prosperity and a constant fight for provincial rights against the federal government. Klein was to be associated with balanced budgets and paying down debt. Getty never had an effective central story to tell. ## Professional football career Getty played 10 seasons with the Edmonton Eskimos as a quarterback. For the first part of his career, he backed up Jackie Parker and filled in for him when he was moved to running back. Eskimos coach Pop Ivy surprised many observers when he started Getty at quarterback in the third game of the 1956 western final (which was a three-game series at the time) during the 44th Grey Cup, with Parker at running back. However, it bore results as Parker tied the record for most touchdowns scored in a Grey Cup game, at three. Getty also handed the ball to Johnny Bright for two touchdowns and scored two himself on quarterback keeps from the one-yard line, as the Eskimos won their third consecutive championship over the Montreal Alouettes by a score of 50–27. He continued with Eskimos until 1963, and also made three appearances in the 1965 season. Getty was one of the most successful Canadian-born quarterbacks in the history of the Canadian Football League and sits at third on the all-time passing yardage list of Canadian quarterbacks, behind Russ Jackson and Gerry Dattilio, with nearly nine thousand yards. He was declared the outstanding Canadian player in the Western Interprovincial Football Union in 1959, and was the runner up (to Jackson) for the Schenley Award as the league's most outstanding Canadian player the same year. He was placed on the Eskimos' Wall of Honor in 1992. ### Career statistics ¹Until and including the 1958 season, a tackle for a loss on a passing play was registered as a rushing attempt. ## Retirement and death Getty kept a low profile after leaving politics. He assumed several corporate directorships and spent time with his grandchildren. Unlike Lougheed, he rarely commented on political matters. He was appointed as an Officer to the Order of Canada in 1998. In July 2008, after Ed Stelmach announced \$2 billion in funding to industry to develop carbon capture technology, Getty's company sought some of the funding to bury carbon dioxide in salt caverns near Two Hills. On February 26, 2016, Getty died of heart failure at the age of 82 in Edmonton, following years of declining health. ## Honours He was appointed as an Officer of the Order of Canada on 21 October 1998. He was appointed as a Member of the Alberta Order of Excellence in 1999. He received the Canadian version of the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal in 1977, the 125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal in 1992, the Canadian version of the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in 2002 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012. In 2012 he was inducted into the London Sports Hall of Fame in London, Ontario, in recognition of his achievements in Canadian football. On 19 November 2013 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Alberta. ## Electoral record ### As party leader \* Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election. ### As MLA ### Party leadership contest

Mowi

Norwegian seafood company

Mowi ASA, formerly known as Marine Harvest ASA (until January 1, 2019), (Pan Fish prior to February 6, 2007), is a Norwegian seafood company with operations in a number of countries around the world. The company's primary interest is fish farming, primarily salmon, the operations of which are focused on Norway, Scotland, Canada, the Faroe Islands, Ireland and Chile. The group has a share of 25 to 30% of the global salmon and trout market, making it the world's largest company in the sector. Mowi also owns a 'value added processing' unit, which prepares and distributes a range of seafood products, and a number of smaller divisions. The company assumed its current form as a result of massive expansion in 2006, when Pan Fish ASA conducted an effective three-way merger with Marine Harvest N.V. and Fjord Seafood. The group is headquartered in Bergen and is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange where it is a constituent of the benchmark OBX Index. ## History ### Constituent companies #### Marine Harvest The first company to use the name Marine Harvest was founded in Lochailort, Scotland by Unilever in 1965 at the outset of the Atlantic salmon farming industry. Unilever had been developing farming methods at a research facility there. The company began operations in Chile in 1975, where fishmeal raw material, originally supplying the chicken protein farming industry, started developing alternative markets in salmon and shrimp proteins. In 1992, Unilever sold the business to Lord's Hanson and White, together with Ground Round restaurants, Tommy Armour golf clubs and a tuna processor in Long Island California. Marine Harvest International (MHI) IPO on the Amex made it the first pure aquaculture play on the global stock markets. Two years later Booker Plc took the company private with the MHI shrimp division, in Ecuador, being sold to Pronaca (an Ecuadorian feed company). With ownership of the company passing to Booker plc it was merged with Booker's aquaculture subsidiary, McConnell Salmon. After deciding to divest Marine Harvest McConnell so as to concentrate on its core cash and carry business in 1998, Booker eventually succeeded in finding a buyer in July 1999. The Dutch-based nutrition firm Nutreco acquired the unit for £ 32.7 million, adding it to its fish food and salmon farming unit. Nutreco's initial attempt to further expand into the fish farming sector by acquiring the seafood arm of Norsk Hydro was blocked on the recommendation of the United Kingdom Competition Commission in late 2000, but the deal was approved in March 2001 after Nutreco agreed not to acquire Hydro Seafood's Scottish assets. Nutreco retained the name Marine Harvest for the unit's fish farming operations, and established interests in the emerging farmed cod, halibut, yellowtail and barramundi markets. In May 2005, Nutreco merged its fish-farming operations with the salmon, trout, halibut, tilapia, cod, sturgeon and caviar businesses of Stolt-Nielsen, creating a new stand-alone company, again named Marine Harvest. Nutreco held a 75% stake in the joint venture, with Stolt taking the remainder. #### Pan Fish Pan Fish Holding AS was founded in 1992 with a strategy to acquire many fish farms domestically and abroad. By 1997 the firm had made numerous acquisitions and opted to list on the Oslo Stock Exchange as Pan Fish ASA. However, the company had borrowed heavily to finance its rapid growth—by the end of 2001, debts had reached over NOK 4.7 billion. When the market price of salmon collapsed in 2001, Pan Fish encountered extreme financial difficulties, posting a heavy loss in 2002, and having to sell off assets in order to repay creditors. A major refinancing operation implemented in late 2002 coincided with the dismissal of the entire board of directors, including founder and CEO Arne Nore. The company slowly recovered over the following years, returning to profitability in 2005. #### Fjord Seafood Fjord Seafood has its origins in Torgnes Invest, a company founded in June 1996 which initially operated a single fish farm in the Norwegian town of Brønnøysund. Expansion over the following four years was aggressive—by September 2000, when Fjord Seafood (as it was now called) listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange, the company's portfolio comprised 60 ongrowing concessions, of which 50 were wholly owned, as well as a number of smolt and broodstock farms, slaughterhouses and processing factories. Fjord continued to conduct mergers and acquisitions - the purchase of Belgian fish-processing company Pieters N.V. in November 2000 was swiftly followed by the addition of ContiSea, the seafood joint-venture of ContiGroup and Seaboard Corporation. As with Pan Fish, poor market conditions saw Fjord's share price worsen dramatically in 2001, and with it the ability to pay off its debts. The company's future was only secured thanks to a NOK 700 million bail out from major shareholders that September. Attempts to grow the company through merger and acquisitions were also frustrated—a planned merger with the aquaculture businesses of Domstein (then the biggest shareholder of Fjord) and state-controlled Cermaq was aborted in June 2002 after opposition from parties including ContiGroup and Seaboard, who controlled over 20% of shares between them. Nevertheless, Fjord stabilised its financial position through restructuring and cost-cutting measures. ### Merger Moves toward consolidation in the aquaculture sector were sparked by the activity of shipping magnate John Fredriksen, Norway's richest man before abandoning his citizenship of the country in 2006. Fredriksen's first major move into the industry came in the second quarter of 2005, when Domstein's 24% stake in Fjord Seafood was sold to his investment vehicle Geveran Trading. Around the same time, Pan Fish announced that two companies indirectly controlled by Fredriksen had acquired a combined 48% of the company's outstanding shares. In October of that year, with salmon prices high, Fjord submitted an offer for a majority stake in Cermaq to the Norwegian Government, which was preparing it for a public listing. However, as with the first merger attempt in 2002, Fjord failed in its bid—this time the offer was rejected by the Government. Fredriksen's efforts to effect change finally bore fruit in March 2006, as Geveran Trading succeeded in purchasing Marine Harvest from its joint owners for €881 million, before immediately turning ownership over to Pan Fish. Geveran also sold its stake in Fjord Seafood to Pan Fish simultaneously. With its remaining shares purchased by Pan Fish, Fjord Seafood de-listed from the Oslo Stock Exchange on 6 July 2006. With regulatory hurdles in the United Kingdom and France cleared, the Marine Harvest group was brought under the control of Pan Fish by the end of 2006. To allow the merger to go ahead, the sale of the former Pan Fish Scotland division was agreed with the regulatory authorities. After an initial deal to sell the unit to Norskott Havbruk, owners of rival company Scottish Sea Farms, was called off in July 2007, Pan Fish Scotland was spun off into a separate publicly traded entity, Lighthouse Caledonia, that November. Geveran Trading held a 28% stake in the company upon completion of the merger, a shareholding which has since increased to almost 30% as of March 2009. #### Change in identity With the creation of a much enlarged company complete, the Pan Fish management announced a complete change in its identity in December 2006. The firm's new brand was chosen to reflect each of its three main constituents: "Marine Harvest" was again revived as the new name for the company, and the Fjord Seafood slogan "excellence in seafood" and a reworked version of the Pan Fish motif were also included in the new logo. Atle Eide, CEO of Pan Fish from 2003, continued in his position, but resigned in September 2007 for personal reasons. Eide was replaced on an interim basis by Leif Frode Onarheim, before the CEO position was filled permanently by former GE Healthcare executive Åse Aulie Michelet in March 2008. Michelet was unexpectedly removed from her position in March 2010 and was replaced by former Lerøy Seafood CEO Alf-Helge Aarskog. In recent years Marine Harvest has also purchased Morpol. In November 2019, Mowi appointed Ivan Vindheim as its new CEO, replacing Aarskog. ## Operations Mowi produces Atlantic salmon, halibut and white fish. The company has an integrated value chain, with the company making its own broodstock in freshwater, followed by growth and maturing in seawater, harvesting, manufacturing in processing plants and distribution. Production peaked in 2015 at 420,148 metric tonnes (gutted weight) of salmonids with figures for more recent years being slightly lower Brand names used are Delifish (smoked fish from Chile), Ducktrap (smoked, in the United States), Clare Island Organic Salmon (from Ireland), Donegal Silver Salmon (from Ireland), Kendall Brook (salmon), Kritsen (smoked, in France), La Couronne (smoked, in Belgium), Pieters (distribution), Sterling White Halibut (from Norway), Xalar (salmon oil from Norway). ### Production locations #### Europe In Norway, in addition to the corporate headquarters in Bergen and sales offices, Marine Harvest operates about 100 seawater sites along the coast. These are supplemented with 28 freshwater sites, two broodstock plants (in Bjugn and Askøy), two hatcheries (in Øygarden and Rørvik) and four processing plants in (Eggesbønes, Herøy and Ryfisk and Ulvan). In Scotland, Mowi operates 25 sea farms, plus three hatcheries (in Lochailort, Finfish and Inchmore), four freshwater loch sites, a harvest station in Mallaig and a processing plant in Fort William. Head office is in Rosyth and all produce is atlantic salmon. There is also a processing plant located in Rosyth. In the Faroe Islands, Marine Harvest operates fresh water sites in Hellur, and seawater sites in Oyndarfjørður, Haldarsvík, Hósvík and Kollafjørður. Produce is Atlantic salmon. In Ireland, Mowi operates one broodstock plant, two hatcheries, three fresh water sites, twelve seawater sites, three processing plants, all but four seawater sites in County Donegal, the latter being in County Mayo. Output is Atlantic salmon. Mowi also runs a salmon farm in Castletownbere and Inishfarnard. #### America In Chile, Mowi operates 53 seawater and 22 fresh water sites, in addition to four processing plants (in Calbuco, Chiloé, Puerto Montt and Santiago). Regional head office is located in Puerto Montt, and output is salmon, trout, coho and salar. In British Columbia, Canada, Mowi operates two processing plants, seven hatcheries and 37 seawater sites near five towns in British Columbia: Campbell River, Port McNeill, Port Hardy, Quatsino and Klemtu. Produce is atlantic salmon. In Atlantic Canada, New Brunswick and Newfoundland, Mowi purchased one hatchery and two fishing licenses in New Brunswick and a processing plant along with seven fishing licenses in Newfoundland in February 2017. ### Processing and sales In France, processing and distribution plants are located in Boulogne-sur-Mer, Challans, Lorient, Châteaugiron, Dunkerque, Poullaouen and Landivisiau. These support an extensive sales force throughout the country. In Belgium, processing and distribution plants are located in Bruges and Ostend. In the Netherlands, there is one processing plant in Lemmer. Additional European sales offices are located in Bologna, Italy, and Madrid, Spain. In the United States, one processing plant is located in Maine, Another plant in Arlington (Texas) with a plant and sales offices in Miami. In Asia, sales offices are located in Singapore; Beijing, China; Tokyo, Japan; Taipei, Taiwan, and Busan, South Korea. ## Criticisms Mowi has been criticised for destroying a large part of the weir Murray's Cauld on the Ettrick Water in Selkirk, Scotland, through what has been claimed to be inaction. The company sold its nearby fish farm to a local businessman for £1 in July 2008, who has since been permitted to commence repair work on the weir. Mowi's operations have been severely affected in the south of Chile, where millions of fish have died by the disease infectious salmon anemia. The rapid propagation of the virus has motivated the enterprise to sell some of its facilities, firing more than a thousand employees, with the aim of moving its installations further south to the Aisén Region. Parasitic, viral and fungal infections are all disseminated when the fish are stressed and the centres are too close together, and a spokesman for Marine Harvest recognized that his company was using too many antibiotics in Chile and that fish pens were too close, contributing to the dissemination of the ISA virus. Norwegian scientist Are Nylund has suggested that Marine Harvest introduced the ISA virus to the region by importing infected eggs from Norway. In January 2017 Private Eye reported that Mowi had been depositing large quantities of the insecticide azamethiphos into Scottish waters to control sea lice in salmon. The Global Alliance Against Industrial Aquaculture called for the drug to be banned, citing risks to other species. Mowi had been responsible for the majority of an estimated 400 kg of the insecticide placed into Scottish waters in 2016. In April 2019 Irish minister for marine Michael Creed discontinued a fish farm licence held by Mowi in County Kerry for overstocking On February 18, 2020 Mowi Scotland assistant manager Clive Hendry was crushed between workboat Beinn Na Caillich and a large barge while attempting to cross between them. He was seriously injured; a colleague grabbed his oilskin and lifejacket but he slipped out of them into the water where he drowned. The Marine Accident Investigation Branch criticised Mowi's safety processes, and recommended they employ marine experts to advise their senior management, and implement a safety management system that complied with the International Safety Management Code.

Stranger in Moscow

1996/1997 single by Michael Jackson

"Stranger in Moscow" is a song by American singer-songwriter Michael Jackson from his ninth studio album, HIStory (1995). The song was released as the sixth and final single worldwide on November 4, 1996 by Epic Records. It was not released in the United States until much later on July 7, 1997. The track was written in September 1993, while on the Dangerous World Tour stop in Moscow. An early version of the track's chord structure appears in the video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3; according to conflicting accounts, Jackson and his team composed music for the game before leaving the project or choosing to stay uncredited for their work. The song's music video depicts the lives of six individuals, including Jackson, who are left isolated and disconnected from the world around them. "Stranger in Moscow" charted highly in the top 10 of numerous countries music charts worldwide, including Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Italy, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. However, it only peaked at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Jackson's lowest peaking on the chart. The song was performed on the HIStory World Tour in 1996–1997. The song has been covered a few times by other artists. ## Background "Stranger in Moscow", like several other HIStory tracks, was Jackson's response to recent events in his personal life. In 1993, the relationship between Jackson and the press soured entirely when he was accused of child sexual abuse. Though not charged with a crime, Jackson was intensely scrutinized by the media during the criminal investigation. Complaints about the coverage and media included using sensational headlines and headlines that implied guilt, accepting stories of Jackson's alleged criminal activity and leaked police material in exchange for money, deliberately using unflattering pictures of Jackson, and a lack of objectivity. The coverage upset Jackson, and damaged his health; Jackson's health had deteriorated such that he canceled the remainder of his Dangerous World Tour and went into rehabilitation. The media showed him little sympathy. The Daily Mirror held a "Spot the Jacko" contest, offering readers a trip to Walt Disney World if they could correctly predict where the entertainer's next appearance would be. A Daily Express headline read, "Drug Treatment Star Faces Life on the Run", while a News of the World headline accused Jackson of being a fugitive. These tabloids also falsely alleged that Jackson had traveled to Europe to have cosmetic surgery that would make him unrecognizable upon return. Geraldo Rivera set up a mock trial, with a jury made up of audience members, even though Jackson had not been charged with a crime. ## Music "Stranger in Moscow" is an R&B ballad with a tempo of 67 beats per minute, making it one of Jackson's slowest songs. Guitars were played by Steve Lukather while keyboards, synthesizers and bass are credited to David Paich and Steve Porcaro. Jackson used Russian imagery and symbolism to underscore the track's sense of fear and alienation. It concludes with a narrative, spoken in Russian, by a KGB interrogator (Ed Wiesnieski). The narrative, translated into English is, "Why have you come from the west? Confess! To steal the great achievements of the people, the accomplishments of the workers..." ## Writing The song is based on the credits theme of the 1994 video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3, which Jackson and his tour keyboardist Brad Buxer were hired to compose for. According to Buxer, Jackson called him to his hotel room in Moscow during the Dangerous World Tour. Thinking he wanted to hear his new game cues, Buxer played several songs on the piano in the room, including the Sonic the Hedgehog 3 credits theme cue. Buxer and Jackson worked together on developing the chords and changes for the rest of the song over an hour and a half. While the track is an example of the collaborative process between the two, only Jackson received writing credit on the record, and Buxer did not push for credit. Conflicting accounts state that Jackson either dropped out of the Sonic the Hedgehog 3 project following the sexual abuse allegations around this time or, chose to be uncredited in-game because of his dissatisfaction with the limitations of the Sega Genesis sound chip. Originally, HIStory was planned as a greatest hits album, with a few new tracks. However, Jackson and his collaborators were so pleased with the result of "Stranger in Moscow" that they decided to give HIStory a full studio album as the second disc. ## Critical reception "Stranger in Moscow" received praise from music critics and producers. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted of HIStory, "Jackson produces some well-crafted pop that ranks with his best material... 'Stranger in Moscow' is one of his most haunting ballads". Tom Molley of the Associated Press described it as an "ethereal and stirring description of a man wounded by a 'swift and sudden fall from grace' walking in the shadow of the Kremlin". Longtime collaborator Bruce Swedien, has described "Stranger in Moscow" as one of the best songs Jackson had ever done. Fred Shuster of the Daily News of Los Angeles described it as, "a lush, pretty minor-key ballad with one of the album's catchiest choruses". Chris Willman of Los Angeles Times stated: > "Stranger in Moscow", is a step removed from the focused paranoia of much of the rest of the album, more akin to the deeper, fuzzier dread of a past perennial like "Billie Jean". Jackson imagines himself alone and adrift in a psychic Russia, pre-glasnost, hunted by an unseen KGB: "Here abandoned in my fame / Armageddon of the brain", he sings in the somber, constricted verses, before a sweeping coda kicks up four minutes in and the stalkee suddenly breaks his cool to wail about a desolate, inconsolable loneliness. Here, in this song, is the real genius—and probably real personhood—of Michael Jackson. A reviewer from Music Week rated it five out of five, picking it as Single of the Week. The reviewer added, "More melodic than most of HIStorys new, uptempo tracks, this has a somewhat old-fashioned feel, being closer in spirit to Rock With You than Scream. It isn't quite vintage Jacko, but the song is irresistible." The magazine's Alan Jones stated that the Todd Terry remix "works like a dream, and guarantees Jackson another substantial hit." Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated, "The ballads are lavishly melodic. 'Stranger In Moscow', with odd lyrics like 'Stalin's tomb won't let me be,' has a beautiful chorus for the repeated question 'How does it feel?' ". Further praise came in 2005 when it was felt that the song had successfully portrayed "eerie loneliness" and was characterized as beautiful by Josephine Zohny of PopMatters. Rod Temperton, one of Jackson's songwriters from earlier in his career, believes that "Stranger in Moscow" is Jackson's best song. James Hunter of Rolling Stone commented: > [Jackson is] angry, miserable, tortured, inflammatory, furious about what he calls, in "Stranger in Moscow", a "swift and sudden fall from grace"...HIStory feels like the work of someone with a bad case of Thriller nostalgia. Occasionally this backward focus works to Jackson's advantage: On "Stranger in Moscow" he remembers the synth-pop '80s while constructing wracked claims of danger and loneliness that rival any Seattle rocker's pain. Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times described "Stranger in Moscow" as "a pretty ballad interspersed with sounds of rain." David Sinclair from The Times viewed it as "a dolorous ballad". ## Music video The song's accompanying music video, directed by photographer Nick Brandt, and filmed in Los Angeles, is focused around six unrelated people living in isolation in a cityscape on a dark, cloudy day while the rest of the world moves around them in slow motion (introducing the so-called 'bullet time' effect). The first half of the video introduces these figures. Five of the figures are: a bald man looking down at the city from his apartment window, a middle-aged woman sitting alone in a coffee shop, a homeless man lying on the damp street, a well-dressed man feeding pigeons, and a teenage boy ostracized from a street game of baseball. The sixth figure is Jackson himself, seen walking the city streets while he sings. Special effects are used to show birds and wasps flying, glass breaking and coffee spilling, all in slow motion. In the second half of the scenario, heavy rain descends on the city and the citizens try to flee, all again seen in slow motion. From the safety of shelter, the six "strangers" watch everyone's futile attempts to avoid the sudden change in weather. Eventually, they decide to go outside, where they look up at the sky and allow the rain to soak them. The video ends with Michael whipping his hair. During this scene, a soft Russian voice is heard, a reference to Moscow. The music video also appears on Jackson's video albums HIStory on Film, Volume II and Michael Jackson's Vision. It was published on YouTube in October 2009. The video has amassed more than 69 million views as of November 2022. Jackson's biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli has stated that the video is based on Jackson's real life. He used to walk alone at night looking for new friends, even at the peak of his musical popularity. The 1980s saw him become deeply unhappy; Jackson, as a teenager, explained in an interview, "Even at home, I'm lonely. I sit in my room sometimes and cry. It's so hard to make friends... I sometimes walk around the neighborhood at night, just hoping to find someone to talk to. But I just end up coming home." ## Live performances The song was performed during HIStory World Tour (1996-1997). ## Track listing - UK CD single (6633525) 1. "Stranger in Moscow" (Album Version) - 5.43 2. "Stranger in Moscow" (Tee's Radio Mix) - 4.21 3. "Stranger in Moscow" (Tee's In-House Club Mix) - 6.53 4. "Stranger in Moscow" (TNT Frozen Sun Mix- Club) - 6.49 5. "Stranger in Moscow" (Tee's Freeze Radio) - 3.45 6. "Stranger in Moscow" (TNT Danger Dub) - 7.21 7. "Stranger in Moscow" (Tee's Light AC Mix) - 4.24 - US 12" single 1. "Stranger in Moscow (Hani's Num Club Mix)" – 10:15 2. "Stranger in Moscow (TNT Danger Dub)" – 7:21 3. "Stranger in Moscow (Basement Boys 12" Club Mix)" – 8:18 4. "Blood on the Dance Floor (T&G Pool Of Blood Dub)" – 7:34 - US CD single''' 1. "Stranger in Moscow (Tee's Radio Mix)" – 4:21 2. "Stranger in Moscow (Charles Roane's Full R&B Mix)" – 4:40 3. "Stranger in Moscow (Hani's Num Radio Mix)" – 3:50 4. "Stranger in Moscow (Tee's In-House Club Mix)" – 6:54 5. "Stranger in Moscow (Basement Boys 12" Club Mix)" – 8:18 6. "Stranger in Moscow (Hani's Extended Chill Hop Mix)" – 6:01 7. "Off the Wall (Junior Vasquez Remix)" – 5:14 ## Personnel As per the liner notes of The Ultimate Collection'': - Lead and Background vocals by Michael Jackson - Guitar: Steve Lukather - Keyboards, Synthesizers & [Synth] bass: David Paich - Keyboards & Synthesizers: Steve Porcaro - Keyboards & Synthesizers, programming (uncredited): Brad Buxer - Michael Jackson Beatbox samples in intro spliced/edited by Andrew Scheps ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Cover versions - British singer Leona Lewis did a live rendition at the Michael Forever – The Tribute Concert - Kevin Parker released a cover by his Australian psychedelic rock music project Tame Impala on SoundCloud on March 12, 2014. - The American rock band Santana have covered the song in their concerts and the cover was uploaded on Youtube on March 30, 2020. - The Struts covered the song for their unplugged EP “Unplugged at EastWest.”

HMS Andromeda (1897)

British Diadem-class protected cruiser

HMS Andromeda was one of eight Diadem-class protected cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the 1890s. Upon completion in 1899, the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet where she helped to escort a royal yacht during its cruise through the Mediterranean Sea. After a refit, she was assigned to the China Station in 1904 and returned home three years later to be reduced to reserve. Andromeda was converted into a training ship in 1913 and remained in that role under various names until 1956. That year she was sold for scrap and broken up in Belgium, the last Pembroke-built ship still afloat. ## Design and description The Diadem class was designed to protect British merchant shipping from fast cruisers like the Russian Rurik and were smaller versions of the Powerful class. The ships had a length between perpendiculars of 435 feet (132.6 m), a beam of 69 feet (21.0 m) and a draught of 25 feet 6 inches (7.8 m). They displaced 11,000 long tons (11,000 t). The first batch of Diadems were powered by a pair of four-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, which were designed to produce a total of 16,500 indicated horsepower (12,300 kW) and a maximum speed of 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph) using steam provided by 30 Belleville boilers. They carried a maximum of 1,900 long tons (1,930 t) of coal and their hulls were sheathed with copper to reduce biofouling. Their complement numbered 677 officers and ratings. The main armament of the Diadem-class ships consisted of 16 quick-firing (QF) QF 6-inch (152 mm) guns. Four of these were on the forecastle and in the stern, all protected by gun shields. The remaining dozen guns were in armoured casemates on each broadside. The ships carried 200 rounds per gun. Protection against torpedo boats was provided by a dozen QF 12-pounder 3 in (76 mm), 12-cwt guns, for which 300 rounds per gun was provided, and 3 QF 3-pounder 1.9 in (47 mm) Hotchkiss guns. In addition, the ships carried a pair of Ordnance QF 12-pounder 8-cwt landing guns for use ashore. The ships were also armed with a pair of submerged 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes. The sloped armoured deck ranged in thickness from 2.5 to 4 inches (64 to 102 mm) on the flat and slopes, respectively. The casemates were protected by 6 inches of Harvey armour while the gun shields had 2 to 4.5 inches (51 to 114 mm) of armour. The conning towers were protected by 12-inch (305 mm) walls and their roofs were 2 inches thick. The tubes protecting the ammunition hoists were also 2 inches thick. ## Construction and career Andromeda was the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy and was laid down on 2 December 1895 by Pembroke Dockyard. The ship was launched on 30 April 1897 by Lady Scourfield, wife of Sir Owen Scourfield Bt. She was fitted out at Pembroke Dock until 5 September 1898 and sailed later that month to Portsmouth Dockyard for completion. Upon completion on 5 September 1899, she was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet. In March 1900 she did a month's cruise of Italian and Spanish ports. In March 1901 the ship was one of two cruisers tasked to escort the ocean liner HMS , commissioned as a royal yacht for the World tour of the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (later King George V and Queen Mary), from Gibraltar to Malta, and then to Port Said. Captain Christopher Cradock was appointed in command on 24 March 1902, and from 11 June that year Andromeda served as flagship of the Cruiser Division of the Mediterranean Fleet. In May 1902 she visited Palermo to attend festivities in connection with the opening of an Agricultural Exhibition by King Victor Emmanuel, and the following month the ship was in Gibraltar for a coronation fête. Andromeda and other ships of the division visited Argostoli in early October 1902. She returned home later that year and paid off at Portsmouth on 29 December, then transferred to the dockyard for a lengthy refit. Andromeda was assigned to the China Station in 1904 and returned home three years later. The ship was reduced to reserve at Chatham Dockyard upon her return, but transferred to Devonport Dockyard shortly afterwards. In 1907 Lieutenant Quentin Crauford was authorised by the Admiralty to create an experimental radio station to broadcast to the fleet in Chatham – and this was the first wireless broadcast of music and speech for the purpose of entertainment in Britain.Andromeda was assigned to the 9th Cruiser Squadron of the new reserve Third Fleet in 1912. The following year the ship was converted to a boys' training ship and renamed Powerful II on 23 September 1913. She was later renamed Impregnable II in November 1919 and finally, HMS Defiance on 20 January 1931, when she became part of the torpedo school. The ship was sold for scrap in 1956 and arrived at Burgt, Belgium, on 14 August to begin demolition.

Dawn of the Dead (2004 film)

2004 film by Zack Snyder

Dawn of the Dead is a 2004 action horror film directed by Zack Snyder in his directorial debut, with a screenplay by James Gunn. A remake of George A. Romero's 1978 horror film of the same name, it stars an ensemble cast that includes Sarah Polley, Ving Rhames, Jake Weber, and Mekhi Phifer. Scott Reiniger, Tom Savini, and Ken Foree from the original film also make cameo appearances. Set in Milwaukee, the film follows a group of survivors who take refuge in an upscale suburban shopping mall during a zombie apocalypse. Producers Eric Newman and Marc Abraham developed the film rather as a "re-envisioning" of the original Dawn of the Dead, aiming to reinvigorate the zombie genre for modern audiences. Newman and Abraham bought the rights from co-producer Richard P. Rubinstein (who produced the original), and hired Gunn to write the script, which adopted the original's basic premise but is oriented around the action genre. Intent on making the remake a straight horror, Snyder took over to direct with the goal of keeping every aspect of the production as grounded in reality as possible. Filming took place from June 9 to September 6 of 2003, on location in Toronto, Ontario, Canada where a now-defunct shopping mall that was slated for demolition was used. The special makeup effects for the film were created by David LeRoy Anderson, and the music was composed by Tyler Bates in his first collaboration with Snyder. The film was released on March 19, 2004, by Universal Pictures; it topped the box office in its United States opening weekend, and ended its theatrical run grossing \$102.3 million worldwide against a budget of \$26 million. Reviews were generally favorable, citing improvements over the original in terms of acting, production values, and scares while finding it lacking in character development, excessively gory, and indifferent to Romero's preoccupation with consumerism. Retrospective reviews have called Dawn of the Dead Snyder's best film and placed it among the best zombie and horror films ever made. A spiritual successor, Army of the Dead, was released on May 14, 2021. ## Plot After finishing a long shift as a nurse, Ana returns to her suburban neighborhood and her husband, Luis. Caught up in a scheduled date night, they miss an emergency news bulletin. The next morning, a neighborhood girl, Vivian, enters their bedroom and kills Luis, who immediately reanimates as a zombie and attacks Ana. She flees in her car, crashes, and passes out. Upon waking, Ana joins police sergeant Kenneth Hall, electronics salesman Michael, petty criminal Andre and his pregnant wife, Luda. They break into a nearby mall and are attacked by a zombified security guard, who scratches Luda. Three living guards — C.J., Bart, and Terry — make them surrender their weapons in exchange for refuge. They split into groups to secure the mall. On the roof, they see another survivor, Andy, who is stranded in his gun store across the zombie-infested parking lot. The next day, a delivery truck carrying more survivors enters the lot, pursued by zombies. C.J. and Bart wish to turn them away but are overruled and disarmed. The newcomers include Norma, Steve Marcus, Tucker, Monica, Glen, Frank and his daughter, Nicole. Another woman is too ill to walk; she is wheeled inside via wheelbarrow, only to die and reanimate. After she is killed, the group determines the disease is passed by bites. Andre leaves to see Luda, who has kept her scratch hidden from the group. They realize that Frank has been bitten and is a potential threat. After some debate, Frank elects to be isolated. When he dies and turns, Kenneth shoots him. Kenneth and Andy start a friendship by way of messages written on a whiteboard; romance also buds between Ana and Michael, and Nicole and Terry. When the power goes out, C.J., Bart, Michael and Kenneth go to the parking garage to activate the emergency generator; they find a friendly dog and worry about a breach. Zombies attack and kill Bart, forcing the others to douse the zombies in gas and set them ablaze. Meanwhile, Luda — tied up by Andre — gives birth and dies. She reanimates as Norma checks on the couple. When Norma kills the zombified Luda, Andre snaps; they exchange gunfire and both are killed. The others arrive to find a zombie baby, which they kill immediately. The group decides to fight their way to the local marina and travel on Steve's yacht to an island on Lake Michigan. They reinforce two shuttle buses from the parking garage for their escape. To rescue Andy, the group straps supplies onto the dog, Chips, and lower him into the parking lot; the zombies have no interest in him. Chips enters Andy's store safely, but a zombie follows through the dog door. Nicole, fond of Chips, crashes the delivery truck into the gun store, where she is trapped by a zombified Andy. Kenneth, Michael, Tucker, Terry, and C.J. reach the gun store via the sewers, kill Andy, and rescue Nicole. They grab ammunition and go back to the mall; along the way, Tucker breaks his legs, and C.J. shoots him out of mercy. Once inside, they are unable to lock the door, forcing an evacuation via the buses. While navigating through the city, Glen loses control of a chainsaw, accidentally killing himself and Monica; blood splatters on the windshield, causing their bus to crash. While C.J., Kenneth, and Terry look for survivors, Ana kills the zombified Steve and retrieves his boat keys. At the marina, C.J. sacrifices himself so the others can escape. Michael reveals a bite wound, killing himself as Ana, Kenneth, Nicole, Terry, and Chips flee on the yacht. Footage from a camcorder found on the boat shows Steve's escapades before the outbreak and concludes as the group runs out of supplies, arrives at an island, and is attacked by a swarm of zombies. The camcorder drops, leaving their fate unknown. ## Cast Additional members of the cast include stuntman Ermes Blarasin as the bloated woman, Natalie Brown as a CDC reporter, and dog actor Blu as Nicole's adopted pet dog Chips. Director Zack Snyder cameos as a soldier battling zombies at the United States Capitol during the film's title sequence, as do Scott Reiniger, Tom Savini, and Ken Foree (who were in the original film) as a general, sheriff, and televangelist, respectively. ## Production ### Development Plans to remake 1978's Dawn of the Dead were conceived by producer Eric Newman, a fan of zombie films who cited the George A. Romero horror film as the best in this genre. With the remake, Newman and producer Marc Abraham wanted to reinvigorate the zombie genre for modern audiences as well as "make the old fans happy and make a lot of new fans". Newman and Abraham bought the rights to Dawn of the Dead from its producer and rights holder Richard P. Rubinstein, who was reluctant at first as he was "concerned that somewhere along the way a studio would sanitize Newman's vision for producing a version with 'attitude'", but that it was "Marc Abraham's long track record in keeping the creative integrity of the studio distributed films he has produced intact that gave me reason to say 'yes'". Newman hired James Gunn to write the script, and the studio brought Gunn in despite not wanting to deliver them a signal idea for the film beforehand. Gunn, who had been a fan of the original since he was a young boy, had turned down the offer until he "kind of saw generally what [the film] could be". The producers conceptualized the remake as more of a "re-envisioning" which would work in some references to the original but would primarily work on its own terms. Co-producer Eric Newman cited Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1978), The Thing (1982), and The Fly (1986) as influences on the remake, considering these to be "amazing updates" as well as "great movies that add to rather than diminish the original films". By way of respect to Romero's film, the producers cast the original's Tom Savini, Scott Reiniger, and Ken Foree in cameos; and incorporated visual references to Gaylen Ross and James A. Baffico. In writing the script, Gunn retained the original's basic premise of a group of survivors taking refuge in a mall during the zombie apocalypse, but gave it a plot that was more action-oriented. To develop the plot, he declined to write a treatment in favor of a discovery writing method whereby he would devise hypothetical situations which would ultimately force the characters to evacuate the mall. He chose to leave the origin of the zombie outbreak ambiguous to encourage diverse viewpoints, scientific or otherwise, on how it really came about and reflect upon those accordingly. The script was given uncredited rewrites by Michael Tolkin and Scott Frank; co-producer Richard P. Rubinstein said Tolkin further developed the characters while Frank provided some of the bigger, upbeat action scenes. Gunn revealed he had received internet backlash over the film due to his past screenwriting credit on Scooby-Doo (2002), believing him to be unqualified for the job. However, film critic Harry Knowles, initially an opponent of the remake, read Gunn's script and gave it a positive response on his website Ain't It Cool News, which Gunn said helped eliminate doubts cast upon him by fans of the original. #### Theme With Dawn of the Dead, Gunn wanted to explore the human condition as well as tell a wholly different story about redemption. He elaborated on the redemptive theme of the film in an interview with IGN during a press junket for Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed released that same year: > I think that in the end, Dawn of the Dead is about redemption because it's about a bunch of people who have lived certain lives, who have maybe not been the best people, and suddenly they have everything that they've used to define themselves: Their careers, their churches, their jobs, their families are stripped away. They're gone. They start at nothing and they have to become who they really are in the face of all that and some of the people are redeemed and end up becoming good people and some of them are not redeemed and they end up, you know, not redeemed. And that's what kind of drove me throughout the story, was it was a story about redemption. I also think that there's a lot about how people survive and what people turn to in the face of such tragedy. The tragedy in this case being flesh-eating zombies. And really it's a group coming together to work as a community who wouldn't otherwise work together. So there is that foundation of love, that basic message, within even Dawn of the Dead... ### Pre-production Zack Snyder chose to direct the remake as his first feature film because it gave the television commercial director "a reason to care about every shot". Not wanting his version inevitably compared to George A. Romero's, he concurred with the producers on reimagining the latter film as opposed to doing it as a "remake", which, in his view, would have entailed re-shooting Romero's script. For that matter, he aimed to make his film a straight horror that was "as serious as a heart attack" and keep every aspect of its production as grounded in reality as possible. His approach included previsualizing the film with storyboards and introducing the concept of running zombies, which he said was his "fresh, new way" of giving it a sense of verisimilitude and rendering zombies as if they were real threats, especially when they attack in hordes. Gunn supported this concept, believing that the danger presented by running zombies would increase the stakes much higher than it would with lumbering zombies like those in the original. Snyder would also maintain Gunn's decision not to reveal the origin of the zombie outbreak, believing it was "obvious that in this fallen society, you wouldn't know where the whole plague started". #### Set design In searching for a suitable upscale mall location for the film, production designer Andrew Neskoromny looked for existing malls that were scheduled for demolition. His search yielded no results until he found the now-defunct Thornhill Square shopping mall in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, which measured approximately 45,000 square feet (1.0 acre). Dubbed the "Crossroads Mall", the crew completely redid the mall over an eight-week period, adding an expensive water feature near the entrance, 14 stores, parking structures, and warehouse areas. Since Snyder wanted the stores palpable in terms of design and stood not merely as storefronts, Neskoromny's team accordingly built them as actual retail stores complete with merchandise. These stores were given fake names, since only two major retail brands agreed to be featured in the film. #### Makeup effects The special makeup effects for the film were created by David LeRoy Anderson, with assistance from his actress wife Heather Langenkamp. Prior to accepting the job from Universal Studios' then-executive James D. Brubaker, Anderson had been in a two-year hiatus from working as a makeup effects artist to operate his company DLA Silverwear. Anderson completed his test makeups for the film over a four-week period, and then he and his team traveled to the Toronto set and set up their makeup effects lab next to the mall. Since the filmmakers had decided that the zombies in the film would become more decomposed over time, Anderson accordingly researched on the appearance of decay following human death, looking through several medical books, war footages, and crime scene photographs showing graphic images of trauma victims in order to properly depict this appearance; he broke down the look of decomposition into three stages: > The first stage looks like someone who was just in the ER – pale, with lots of fresh blood. The second stage has moist wounds but the skin is beginning to break down. There is a lot of discoloration and mottling, mostly blues and greens. The third stage is the most intense, with the skeletal form coming through. The wounds are dried-up, the skin is sloughing off and colors are oily blacks. Headshot effects were achieved through various methods, such as bullet hit squibs that were covered in prosthetic scalps and attached to the back of the actor's head to be detonated. Concerned about the risk thereof, Anderson developed an alternative method in which his team would attach wires to the scalps and yank them with a remote-controlled "air ratchet system", lending a similar gruesome effect as with the squibs sans potential harm. ### Filming and post-production #### Principal photography Filming began on June 9, 2003, on location in various parts of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Hundreds of zombie extras had to be constantly available for the entire shoot. To handle the volume of willing extras, Anderson and his team built a large "factory" where painted extras would stay put until they are spoken for by either the main or second unit film crew. They built various makeup rooms for the artists to work in: one consisted of camper trailers where they would apply detailed prosthetic makeups to extras playing "hero zombies", a special type of zombie; and the other consisted of tents where they would produce painted masks for extras playing background zombies. Extras playing foreground zombies were painted with plain palette makeups in Anderson's mall lab. The makeup artists were given his concept images to work on as references. According to Anderson and Heather Langenkamp, the most extras they ever had in a given day sat between 200 and 400, with a total of 3,000 makeups completed when filming ended on September 6, 2003. #### Visual effects and title sequence The visual effects for the film were provided by Canadian VFX studio Mr. X Inc., with its president Dennis Berardi serving as the film's co-VFX supervisor. The production shot scenes for which Snyder wanted as many as 4,000 live-action zombies, which Berardi created rather as a combination of practical zombies and CG zombies which he built as 3D models with Autodesk Maya. One such scene involved tens of thousands of zombies at the mall's parking lot, which was shot with motion-control passes whose green screen elements of 200 extras, combined with the CG zombies, were later composited to create a "digital crowd simulation that looks realistic". Kyle Cooper designed the title sequence for the film, using real human blood. #### Music The score for Dawn of the Dead was composed by Tyler Bates, his first for a horror film. Bates became involved with the film after he was recommended to it by its music supervisor, G. Marq Roswell, who learned he made little money from his work on Mario Van Peebles's film Baadasssss! (2003), on which Roswell also served as music supervisor. The studio was not convinced with hiring Bates because they felt he was not an established composer at the time, but director Zack Snyder insisted on him, and he was ultimately hired. In scoring the film, Bates avoided taking cues from the original's music by the band Goblin, finding its style to be incompatible with what Snyder had filmed. Bates's score combines elements of electronic music and 20th-century orchestra, which was influenced by the works of composers adept at creating dissonance, such as Béla Bartók and Krzysztof Penderecki. Bates employed these musical choices with the intention of making the audience "very, very uncomfortable". Milan Records released Bates's score in physical format for the first time on October 23, 2012, a week after the record label released it digitally via iTunes Store and Amazon Music. The album comprises 31 tracks, all of which were composed by Bates. Bates's work on Dawn of the Dead also marked the beginning of a frequent collaboration between him and Snyder; he would later compose for the director on 300 (2006), Watchmen (2009), and Sucker Punch (2011). ## Release ### Box office Dawn of the Dead was marketed with its 10-minute opening sequence that was broadcast on cable television four nights before its theatrical release. Released on March 19, 2004, the film grossed \$26.7 million in its United States opening weekend, claiming the No. 1 spot The Passion of the Christ formerly held for three consecutive weekends. Dawn of the Dead ended its theatrical run grossing \$102.3 million worldwide (against a budget of \$26 million), with a gross of \$59 million in the United States and Canada and \$43.3 million in other territories. Variety reported, "Some 63% of Dawn [audiences] were under age 25, with 57% of patrons male. Hispanic moviegoers comprised 21% of its supporters and African-Americans 14%." The release of Dawn of the Dead in the U.S. nearly coincided with that of Shaun of the Dead, another zombie film distributed by Universal Pictures. In a February 2004 Variety report, a spokesman at Universal revealed that the studio had greenlit Shaun of the Dead "with the condition that Dawn of the Dead would be released here in the U.S. first" in order to avoid this conflict. Dawn of the Dead was screened out of competition at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival. ### Home media Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released Dawn of the Dead on DVD, Blu-ray, and digital with director Zack Snyder's unrated director's cut of the film, which Snyder described as longer, gorier, and more character-driven than the theatrical version. Bonus features found on the DVD and Blu-ray are Snyder and co-producer Eric Newman's audio commentary; the featurettes Attack of the Living Dead, Raising the Dead, Drawing the Dead, Splitting Headaches, Surviving the Dawn, and Andy's Lost Tape; deleted scenes with optional commentary with Snyder and Newman; and the film's theatrical trailer. On Halloween of 2017, Shout! Factory's horror sub-label Scream Factory released a two-disc collector's edition Blu-ray of Dawn of the Dead, which contains the film's theatrical version and the director's cut. The Blu-ray, which is said to have been "derived from the digital intermediate archival negative", contains bonus features found in previous releases in addition to new and exclusive ones featuring interviews with actors Ty Burrell and Jake Weber, screenwriter James Gunn, and makeup effects artists David LeRoy Anderson and Heather Langenkamp. A 4K Ultra HD collector's edition Blu-ray from Scream Factory with extras ported over from the label's previous release was released on January 31, 2023. ## Reception ### Theatrical Dawn of the Dead garnered strong reviews upon its release, with critics praising it as a worthy remake of the original as well as a decent entry in the zombie genre. Lisa Schwarzbaum praised Zack Snyder's direction in a "killer feature debut", and Roger Ebert gave it a positive review and said that anyone paying to see it is guaranteed to get their money's worth. Abundant praise was also given to the film's opening sequence; an otherwise negative review from The Hollywood Reporter called it "pulse-poundingly good". While some said the film exuded better acting, production values, and scares than the original, others felt its horror was not on par with that of the latter film. Another criticism was the lack of dark humor of the original, although many found the scene in which a couple of male characters shoot zombified celebrity look-alikes with a sniper rifle to be funny, among other jokes; The Hollywood Reporter cited it as some of the film's "moments of inspired audacity". Despite the general praise, some critics felt the film had downplayed key elements of its predecessor. Ebert and Variety argued that whereas George A. Romero had exploited the shopping mall location to satirize consumer culture and a range of sociopolitical issues, Snyder had used it merely as a convenient setting for his characters. The Hollywood Reporter and Chicago Tribune complained that the film was content to indulge in bloody zombie killings at the expense of any nuance that was once present in the original, leaving the audience rather numbed and "less mercifully handled, even at the end-credits". In contrast, Manohla Dargis opined that Romero's consumerist metaphor has lost its significance in the years since the original's release, "with the politics of consumption now an established academic field and shopping now considered a statement of identity", and attributed the film's appeal not to its bloody violence "but [to] the filmmakers' commitment to genre fundamentals". IGN praised the film's tonal shift, calling it a "calculated risk that paid off". While Schwarzbaum and Dargis complimented James Gunn's script as "sharp" and propulsive, respectively, others took issue with what they believed to be a lack of plot and character developments. The Chicago Tribune thought the characters were clichéd and about as dumb as the undead, though sympathized with the "tragic" dilemma faced by Mekhi Phifer's character. Conversely, James Berardinelli said that although there were moments in which the characters did show a lack of common sense, "it's inevitable that most of them end up as one-dimensional throw-aways whose sole purpose is to increase the body count", and that "not many people go to a horror film looking for character development and drama". Likewise, Ebert was personally not on board with the characters' "risky" plan to escape from the mall in lieu of awaiting the zombies' natural death, though remarked that "taking chances makes for good action scenes". Both Ebert and Berardinelli found the subplots of the Phifer and Ving Rhames characters to be "touching", with the latter critic saying that these were "handled with a deft hand". Among the cast, which was praised as "superlative" and "respectable", Sarah Polley garnered the most attention from critics such as Schwarzbaum and the Chicago Tribune: she was described as a "perfect against-type heroine" with a "nice anxious stare". IGN was dismayed that least attention was given to Phifer's "naturally charismatic presence" with such a large cast, though felt that Rhames was effective as Polley's "quietly authoritative foil" and praised Jake Weber's performance in a "thankless role". ` Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.` ### Retrospective In 2005, George A. Romero spoke briefly of how dissatisfied he was with Dawn of the Dead during an interview with actor Simon Pegg for Time Out. Romero said that although the remake could pass for a good action film, he felt it was aimless and "more of a video game" for that matter, as well as maintained that he was "not terrified of things running at me". Numerous publications have named Dawn of the Dead as Zack Snyder's best film. Revisiting the film on its 15th anniversary in 2019, Joe Lipsett wrote the following verdict for Bloody Disgusting: > Fifteen years later, Dawn of the Dead completely holds up. The film's flaws are mostly at the character level, though having a dumb zombie baby and a few undeveloped red shirts in the mix is hardly a deal breaker. The action – particularly the opening scene and the propane explosion climax – in addition to the fantastic special effects makeup, the brief flirtation with found footage, and the reverence for its source text while introducing something new makes 2004's Dawn of the Dead one of the best remakes on the market. Likewise, Dawn of the Dead has appeared on several lists of the top zombie films, including number 3 by Rolling Stone (2012), number 12 by Empire (2020), by Collider (2021), and number 17 by IndieWire (2022); as well as the best horror films of the decade, including number 3 by Dread Central (2010), number 8 by Bloody Disgusting (2009), number 52 by IGN, and number 55 by Rolling Stone (2020). The film made review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes's lists of "The 20 Scariest Opening Scenes in Horror Movie History" (at number 6), "The 25 Best Horror Movie Remakes" (at number 9), "The 30 Essential Zombie Movies" (at number 13), and "18 Memorable Horror Remakes". In a June 2018 article for The Hollywood Reporter, Richard Newby opined that Dawn of the Dead helped revitalize the zombie genre along with 28 Days Later at a time when the United States "was ripe for the re-emergence of zombie movies" following the September 11 attacks, which he believes to have contributed to Americans' "increased fear of biological weapons, fervent mass militarization and the burrowing question of who exactly are the people we call our neighbors". Likewise, author Stephen King, in the forenote of the 2010 edition of his book Danse Macabre, saw what he believed to be Snyder's subtext conveying the horrors induced by terrorist attacks, drawing parallels between the zombie apocalypse and a post-9/11 America. King described Dawn of the Dead as "genius perfected" in terms of its standing in the zombie genre. South Park creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone and South Korean filmmaker Yeon Sang-ho consider themselves to be fans of the film, and cited it as an influence upon their works "Night of the Living Homeless" and the Train to Busan series, respectively. ### Accolades ## Spiritual successor On March 25, 2007, Variety announced that Warner Bros. Pictures would produce a new zombie film from a screenplay written by Joby Harold, based on an original idea conceived by Snyder. In a statement, Snyder said that he wanted the film to feel similar to Dawn of the Dead and 300 and that it would center around a father in Las Vegas "who tries to save his daughter from imminent death in a zombie-infested world". At the time, Wesley Coller was attached to executive produce, with Snyder and his wife Deborah Snyder producing through Cruel & Unusual Films (now known as The Stone Quarry). Snyder got the idea during Dawn of the Dead's production and wanted to explore a new evolution of the zombies. The film is not a sequel to Dawn of the Dead but rather a spiritual successor. Snyder realized that he needed a new origin story to develop the plot and create a new incarnation of the living dead. He titled the project Army of the Dead as a tribute to the works of George A. Romero. After languishing for several years in development hell, the distribution rights to the film were acquired by Netflix in 2019, and Snyder began shooting that same year. Army of the Dead had a week-long limited theatrical release starting May 14 prior to its wider Netflix release on May 21, 2021. ## See also - List of American films of 2004 - List of zombie films - Night of the Living Dead (1990 film): a remake of Romero's 1968 film of the same name

Cyber Danganronpa VR: The Class Trial

Virtual reality adventure video game

is a free-to-play virtual reality tech demo in the Danganronpa series, developed and published by Spike Chunsoft for the PlayStation 4 for use with the PlayStation VR virtual reality headset. It was produced by Yoshinori Terasawa at Spike Chunsoft, who was inspired to create the game after playing Bandai Namco Entertainment's Summer Lesson. The game was released in Japan on October 13, 2016, and worldwide in March 2017. The game is a tech demo where the player aims to uncover who was behind a murder in a "class trial" from the first game in the series, Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc. It was well received by critics, who enjoyed its visuals. ## Gameplay Cyber Danganronpa VR is a virtual reality tech demo in which the player plays through the fourth "class trial" from the adventure game Danganronpa: Trigger Happy Havoc, where the player aims to uncover who was behind the murder of Sakura Ogami; unlike the original game, which uses 2D cutouts for characters, Cyber Danganronpa VR uses 3D models. The player character's classmates give testimonies, which appear as words; if the player notices something in the testimony that seems suspicious, they can refute the words by shooting them with "truth bullets". To do this, the player needs to turn their head toward the character who testified, and press a button on the DualShock 4 controller. The game takes around ten minutes to play through, and ends with a first-person sequence where the character Monokuma executes the player. ## Development and release Cyber Danganronpa VR was announced and shown at the Animation-Comic-Game Hong Kong fair in July 2015 by Sony Interactive Entertainment, as a tech demo for their virtual reality headset PlayStation VR. The tech demo was developed by Spike Chunsoft, and was their first PlayStation 4 project. According to producer Yoshinori Terasawa, he was inspired to create the game by Bandai Namco Entertainment's PlayStation VR title Summer Lesson. The reason for making a game based on Trigger Happy Havoc rather than the spin-off shooting game Danganronpa Another Episode: Ultra Despair Girls was that other companies could create virtual reality shooting games, and that the developers wanted to create something that only they could make. Terasawa decided to make the punishment sequence play out from a first-person perspective to make the player feel horror, but also included Monokuma to lighten the mood. To be able to complete the tech demo quickly, the developers made use of the game engine Unreal Engine 4. The tech demo was released digitally for the PlayStation 4 on October 13, 2016 in Japan and Hong Kong; it was made available freely for PlayStation Plus subscribers, with no release announced for players without a subscription. The Hong Kong release was made available in English, with English voice overs; Spike Chunsoft announced in October 2016 that they were working towards releasing that version in the West. It was released in North America on March 7, 2017, and in Europe on March 10. ## Reception Hardcore Gamer's Edward Dang was positive to the tech demo, and hoped that it would lead to virtual reality releases of complete Danganronpa games. Jordan Devore at Destructoid thought that the game did not look exciting based on off-screen footage, but noted that this often is the case for virtual reality games, and thought that it "could be the start of something neat". Chris Carter, also writing for Destructoid, enjoyed the tech demo and called it worth playing, but not something to get excited over due to its short length. Aki Otsuki at 4Gamer.net recommended the game, and said that experiencing the punishment sequence in virtual reality was horrifying. Famitsu liked the immersion given by the virtual reality and the 360-degree movements. Hiroaki Mabuchi at IGN Japan said that the new environment graphics were a great reproduction of their Trigger Happy Havoc counterparts, and that the mysterious atmosphere suited Danganronpa well.

St. John's Orphanage

Decommissioned orphanage in Australia

St. John's Orphanage, sometimes referred to as the Goulburn Boys Orphanage, is a decommissioned orphanage located on Mundy Street in Goulburn, a town located in New South Wales, Australia. The architect of the building is EC Manfred. The foundation stone was laid and blessed on 17 March 1912 by Bishop John Gallagher of Goulburn, who also blessed the building during its opening ceremony in late 1913. It is two storeys high, and several extensions were added to the building throughout its early history. The orphanage amalgamated with St. Joseph's Orphanage for girls in 1976, and the remaining orphans were placed into group homes. As a result, the orphanage was closed in 1978 and rented out to the Youth with a Mission Base until they left in 1994. Since then, the orphanage has remained abandoned. Run by the Sisters of Mercy and the Catholic Church until its closure, the orphanage housed males from the ages of 5 to 16 initially. Its capacity was intended to be 100 children, but this peaked to more than 200 during the Second World War. By the 1970s, the orphanage began taking in female orphans from St. Joseph's because of declining numbers of males. Until its closure, the orphanage took in more than 2,500 individuals for various reasons. Only four per cent of those who stayed there were actually orphans. The orphanage's residents were given a religious education, and were trained in agriculture. Accounts by former residents state that they suffered severe beatings and punishments, and that they were issued a single set of clothing that was rarely washed. Another claims that some residents endured sexual abuse and rape, not only by the staff, but by older boys, and the caretaker. However, others state that the nuns were tough but fair and remained in contact with them. The orphanage is currently owned by businessman John Ferrara who has proposed a number of redevelopments on the site, including the building's restoration. The building has been heavily vandalised, and a series of fires have destroyed much of its infrastructure. Ghost tours have been conducted in the building. It has been heritage listed by the Goulburn Mulwaree Council. ## Location St. John's Orphanage is located in the southern suburbs of Goulburn, a town in New South Wales. According to the Goulburn Evening Penny Post, the orphanage looks over one of the finest views of the town. The main front part of the building faces north, and the entrance gates are located on Mundy Street. The southern side of the lot connects off Combermere Street. The total size of the lot is 24,000 square metres (2.4 hectares or 5.9 acres). ## Architecture ### Exterior, interior and surroundings The building is two storeys high and includes an attic and basement. All walls are made of brick, some of which are hollow (mainly the external ones). The roof tiles are red, and the balconies have iron railings. The exterior design is plain struck brickwork, reassured by red bricks and cut stone. The entrance block is located on the westerly end of the front. Because of a sudden fall in the land, the pavement is several feet above the natural surface which necessitated a flight of stone steps towards the entrance. The main doors to the building have two windows alongside them and form a porch. The easterly end of the building has a balcony and a verandah, which are both 3.04 metres (10.0 ft). Away from the building, a milking shed is present. In addition, 3 hectares (7.4 acres) of land was purchased, which contained an ample field suitable enough for all types of gardening. ### Interior The entrance hall is 2.45 metres (8.0 ft) with a tiled floor. The reception room is located on the right-hand side of the entrance hall. A moulded archway leads to the staircase hall, with the stairs being at right angles to the entrance doors. Rooms and areas that can be accessed from this hallway include the cellar, a sitting room which is 3.65 by 3.04 metres (12.0 by 10.0 ft) in size, a children's study room that is 6 metres (20 ft) by 6 metres and a children's refectory that is 9.1 metres (30 ft) by 6 metres. A back door leads to verandahs that are found at the back of the building that allow access to various other rooms. A second staircase, surrounded by brick walls, can act as an escape route in case of a fire. The staircase floor is the colour of cement and is made out of hardwood with iron risers. The staircase also provides access to the chapel room, which is 6.7 metres (22 ft) by 6 metres. Other rooms on the ground floor include a clothes room, a 6 by 5.5-metre (18 ft) community room, a 6 by 4.2-metre (14 ft) kitchen, a 2.13-metre (7.0 ft) by 2.1-metre pantry and a 7.6-metre (25 ft) by 3.65-metre lavatory. Bathrooms and shower bathrooms are fitted with hot and cold showers that are controlled from the lavatory. The laundry is 6.4 by 3.3 metres (21.0 by 10.8 ft) with copper and tubs; the laundry also has a heater that supplies the whole building with hot water. The block which contains the sanitary requirements for the building is connected by a covered way and is well ventilated by air shafts, latticed doors, and louvres. Underground, a brick, cemented tank was built to collect and store rainwater. The second floor of the building contains a number of dormitories: a large, 18.2-metre (60 ft) by 6-metre dormitory is present with a 3-metre-wide (9.8 ft) balcony on one side and a 1.83-metre (6.0 ft) wide balcony on the other. A smaller, 9.1-metre by 6-metre dormitory is also present, as well as a 6-metre by 4.2-metre isolating room. Four bedrooms were designated for the Sisters of Mercy who were in charge of the building; these rooms were 3.65 metres by 3.04 metres and 3.96 metres (13.0 ft) by 2.74 metres (9.0 ft) respectively. The Sisters also had their own private bathroom. Almost every room in the building had a fireplace, surrounded by either bricks or a marble mantel and cement shelf. The ceilings on both floors are 3.96 metres high, and the whole building is fitted with electric light. The ceiling on the second floor is made out of plaster, whereas the ceiling on the first floor is made out of stamped steel. ## History ### Background and planning In 1905, an orphanage located nearby Kenmore Asylum was proposed at a general meeting of parishioners to replace an older orphanage that had been operating for more than 25 years on Clinton Street. The orphanage, which had catered to girls only, cared for approximately 50 girls per year, and the 0.2-hectare (0.49-acre) of land on which it was situated proved insufficient for the orphans. Thus, 24.28-hectare (60.0-acre) of land was purchased in nearby Kenmore for the proposed orphanage. Shortly after, the foundation stone was laid and blessed on the site. EC Manfred was the building's architect, and the contractors were Messrs. King and Armstrong. It was described as "severely simple Gothic" and cost £6,000 to build. All of the girls from the old orphanage were removed, and boys aged eight and older were moved there and waited for a permanent home. An effort was made for people from Albury, Cootamundra, Wagga Wagga, Young and other places to take charge of the orphanage, but this was unsuccessful. Instead, the orphanage was established in Goulburn. ### Opening ceremony On 17 March 1912, the foundation stone of the orphanage was laid and blessed by Bishop Gallagher of Goulburn. However, the orphanage was not opened officially until December 1913, when the opening ceremony was held on a Sunday afternoon, and the building was opened and blessed by Bishop Gallagher. The ceremony attracted a large audience, many of whom were not members of the Catholic Church. By 3:30 p.m., the Australian Light Horse Band began marching towards the orphanage from a cathedral on Verner Street. The priests and the bishop brought up the rear walking behind several Catholic acolytes. While many attendees remained at the orphanage, hundreds walked along with the procession. Children who had marched with the procession were divided and formed a guard of honour. The bishop, who was accompanied by Father Cahill, entered the building and preceded to bless it; a crucifix was subsequently placed in the main dormitory of the building. After the blessing, the bishop addressed the attending crowd from the front verandah, and discussed the use of the building. In addition, the Bishop went on to say that Pagan civilisations consign orphans to death or slavery: > The scarcely less cruel civilisation of our age, too, often handed them over to the State, and through the State to secular education, without consolations of religion, or hopes of blessed immortality. But within the bosom of the Catholic Church, God, who tempered the wind to the shorn lamb, took compassion on the outcast and the orphan of the Catholic faith. Catholic generosity, aided by a spirit of philanthropy, charity, genuine and Christian altruism, which still happily reigned throughout the Australian Commonwealth, would not permit orphans to perish of hunger, thirst, or nakedness, even though the Governments refused to assist them because they went to confession or formed upon their breasts the Sign of the Cross, or offered prayer to God. ### Later history and closure The orphanage was run by the Sisters of Mercy and the Catholic Church until its closure in 1978. Shortly after opening, the orphanage experienced an increased demand for admission leading to the construction of a west wing and chapel in 1919. However, it remained unfurnished for some time due to lack of funding, and the Sisters of Mercy subsequently refused admission. A new wing for the building was constructed in 1924 dedicated to the memory of Bishop Gallagher. The new wing was opened and blessed by Reverend J. Barry; additional classrooms and dormitories were built, being 18.2 m (60 ft) by 7.6 m (25 ft) in size, followed by furnishing, painting and connection of sewer lines. The total cost was approximately £2,676. In 1932, a milking shed and hall were built, and in 1938 new additions to the orphanage were added, costing £2,575. This included a modification and extension to the south wing. The orphanage endured minor damage in 1943 when a fire broke out just after midnight and destroyed quantities of firewood and two panels of fencing. Throughout its 66 years of operating, the orphanage took in approximately 2,500 individuals. Approximately four per cent of all boys who stayed there were orphans, whereas the remainder had living parents; most of them either came from poor or troubled families who were unable to afford to look after them. The orphanage also took in child migrants. Only boys from the ages of 5 to 16 were taken care there. However, the Sisters of Mercy sometimes took in families in need or individuals who were 3 years old or younger. One of the Sisters of Mercy's aims was to keep brothers together if possible, and if they had sisters, they would be housed at the St. Joseph's Orphanage. Although the building could only house up to 100 boys, the capacity rose to between 140 and 250 boys during the Second World War, far above the suitable capacity of the building. In 1975, the orphanage began taking in girls from the St. Joseph's Orphanage due to declining numbers of boys, and, in 1976, amalgamated with the orphanage; this formed the St. John's Home, which would close in 1987. After 66 years in operation, the building closed in 1978. The remaining orphans were put into group homes. The Sisters of Mercy continued to care for these orphans until those homes closed in 1981. From 1979 to 1994, the building was leased to the Youth with a Mission Base, where people travelled from overseas to pursue discipleship training courses. The building has since been abandoned and left to deteriorate. In 2007, a proposal was made by former orphanage resident Jim Luthy to erect a memorial in Victoria Park for "all children who lived all or part of their lives" in a Goulburn orphanage or a church institution. ## Daily routine and life A school day at the orphanage would start at 6:00 a.m. with many morning chores to be completed, predominately cleaning. A mass would be held at 7:15 a.m., and breakfast would follow. Boys at the orphanage would then go to school. All boys over 14 were given a religious education at the Brother's Cathedral School, whereas the younger boys attended the infants' school at the Convent. All boys were also trained in technical education. Before leaving, the orphanage trained the boys in all classes of agriculture. This was so the boys were well educated and had the knowledge to become sufficient farmers when they left the orphanage. At the end of the day, the boys would play sports, boxing, or other leisure activities, or have hockey or rugby league training if the weather was suitable. Weekends revolved mainly around sports. Field hockey, rugby league, and other sports were commonly played during the winter time. The boys of the orphanage had a well-known reputation in Goulburn for their sports abilities; boys who participated in tournaments and games usually did well, winning many trophies. The orphanage also had a football team. Sometimes, the boys would hold fetes or participate in annual concerts and operettas, where they would sing and dance. Although all of the orphanage's residents were given a dose of Epsom salts once a week in the morning, some former residents have given accounts of brutal punishments and mistreatment. One states that because there were 200 boys and only 12 toilets, some would defecate in the urinals, drains, on the grass, or in their pants. As a result, the boys would receive beltings for doing this. Another account by a boy who stayed at the orphanage states that when he arrived there, he was separated from his brother and was given a set of clothes to wear despite having his own. Anyone who did not comply would receive a belting. The boys were issued no underwear and clothes were washed only once a week. Beatings were common, and not just for punishment; sometimes it may have been more for mental scarring. Other accounts claim there were beatings, and repetitive rape, not only by the staff but also by older boys and the orphanage caretaker. Despite this, some former residents say the nuns were "tough but fair" and they were fed three meals a day. Some even stayed in contact with their caregivers once they left. ## Status The orphanage is currently abandoned, but the lot is owned by Australian businessman John Ferrara, who bought the orphanage and its surrounding grounds for \$450,000 in 1999. Goulburn Ghost Tours has previously run ghost tours inside the orphanage, hoping to discourage vandals and youth from damaging the building. It is described as being a part of "Australia's Bermuda Triangle of haunted places", which includes Kenmore Asylum and St. Joseph's Orphanage. An occasional caretaker was also in place until the Catholic Church sold the building. The orphanage site is listed as a heritage conservation area under Goulburn Mulwaree Council's Local Environment Plan, which recognises its significance as a former boy's institution run by the Sisters of Mercy and the Catholic Church. The social and community values of the building are also recognised. ### Redevelopment and restoration At present, the orphanage has been heavily vandalised, with surrounding residents regularly calling the police because the sounds of windows smashing and people entering without permission can be heard and seen frequently. Small grass fires around the building have also been reported. Restorations have been considered by the Goulburn City Council. The council is holding Ferrara accountable for allowing damage at the orphanage, while he has come up with many development projects for the lot. As a result, city council has not issued Ferrara any development permits until restoration work to the orphanage is complete. Ferrara has proposed a number of redevelopments for the orphanage itself, and its surroundings. In 2004, he proposed a plan to redevelop the lot and building into 63 residential units. The proposed redevelopment was known as Glebe Gardens. Ferrara planned the construction of gardens and pools on the vacant grounds, but the front of the complex would face no development. Although the development application was approved by the city council, the plans were dropped because the costs to redevelop the lot were too great. In 2009, work began to revamp the orphanage and convert it into a retirement village, with trees being cleared to construct a retaining wall. Two-metre-high walls were going to be built to keep vandals out and to prevent further damage. He also stated that he was going to the fix up the orphanage once the proposed townhouses were under construction. In 2012, Ferrara proposed a new project to build 76 units and homes in seven stages; these stages would have spanned three to four years. Ferrara undertook a joint venture with Peter Madew, who was to assist with funding and the management needed for the construction. They also proposed restoration efforts to the orphanage, which included painting, repairing holes in walls, and replacing windows. They also planned to restore the front garden, commence general landscaping, construct a recreation area, and build a number of units in the orphanage itself; an indoor swimming pool was proposed for construction in the courtyard. However, Madew claimed that restoration of the orphanage would "cost millions". Ferrara later announced that he would not go ahead with the redevelopment, but instead lodge a new plan: this plan would foresee the construction of 18 new dwellings on the lot. This was objected to by the council should the building remain in its current deteriorating state. Ferrara responded by stating he would commit funds from his profits towards the building's restoration, at a cost of least \$1.5 million. In late 2013, Ferrara proposed another development on the lot which would see the construction of 15 residential units. However, the Goulburn Mulwaree Council has demanded that Ferrara must schedule repairs to the orphanage before any approval can be granted. In response, Ferarra pledged to spend \$250,000 on restoration works, covering downpipe, guttering, and roof repairs, as well as window replacements and external painting. In November 2015, a fire, believed to have been left unattended by squatters, ignited the roof just before 4:00 p.m. It took approximately six hours to extinguish the fire, during which 80% of the roof was damaged. Much of the roof collapsed, exposing the timber frame skeleton, and some rooms were completely destroyed. Moments before the building caught on fire, there were unconfirmed reports that a loud bang was heard. The Goulburn Heritage Group stated that they were "upset and sickened" by the fire, and Ferrara responded by saying that he was disappointed, and that the building was not insured. Ferrara has stated that he will try to preserve the building, and estimates the damage costs at \$4 million to \$5 million. In 2016, another fire occurred in a building at the rear of the main structure, causing extensive damage. The building, which was revealed to be the old hall built in 1932, was deemed not salvageable; it was subsequently scheduled for demolition. Following the fire, the council ordered Ferrara to secure both the site and loose building materials such as roof iron. The fire was treated as suspicious, as witnesses claim that two people wearing backpacks were running from the building just before the fire occurred. Following the second fire, a third fire occurred in the building, in which a large portion of the building was completely destroyed. ## See also - Orphanage - Foster care in Australia

Pepsiman (video game)

1999 Endless runner developed and published by KID for the PlayStation

is an action video game developed and published by KID for the PlayStation. It was released in Japan on March 4, 1999, and is based on the eponymous Japanese superhero mascot for the American carbonated soft drink Pepsi. It focuses the player on avoiding obstacles by running, dashing, and jumping, while Pepsiman automatically runs forward through each of the game's stages. The game was made on a low budget, prompting the decision to make videos in-between stages that show a man drinking Pepsi, as they were cheap to produce. The game also features 3D cutscenes, for which the future visual novel writer Kotaro Uchikoshi created 3D models. While an American publisher did look into acquiring the rights to publish the game in the United States, it remained a Japan-exclusive game. Reviewers frequently compared Pepsiman to other games, including Crash Bandicoot, and commented on its simplicity and its price, which was thought to be low. A writer for Complex included it on a list of company-branded games that "didn't suck", commenting that it is not a bad game as long as the player can tolerate the large amount of advertisement in it. According to Uchikoshi, the game did not sell well. ## Gameplay Pepsiman is an action game that consists of four stages, each divided into smaller segments, and each involving the superhero Pepsiman saving a person who is dehydrated, such as a military man in the middle of a desert, by giving him a can of Pepsi. The first three stages are based on real locations, San Francisco, New York City and Texas. The last one takes place in Pepsi City. The game is played from a third-person perspective, with Pepsiman automatically running forward through the stages, sometimes running through homes and other buildings. The player takes control of Pepsiman himself, aiming to dodge obstacles, such as cars, construction cranes, and people, as well as Pepsi-branded obstacles, including a Pepsi truck. The player does this by using four different moves: running, dashing, jumping, and super-jumping. The player gains points by collecting Pepsi cans. In some stages, Pepsiman's head becomes stuck inside a steel drum, which inverts the controls, and in some, he rides on a skateboard, which requires to player to avoid all obstacles. Throughout each stage is a number of checkpoints; if Pepsiman gets hit by obstacles too many times, the player is required to restart from the latest checkpoint. Each stage ends with Pepsiman being chased by an object, such as a giant Pepsi can. In between stages, the player is shown videos of an American man (played by Mike Butters) drinking Pepsi and eating chips and pizza as he watches Pepsiman. ## Background and development Pepsiman is based on Pepsi's mascot of the same name, which was created for Pepsi's Japanese branch. The character, whose fictional backstory says he used to be a scientist who transformed into a superhero after coming into contact with "Holy Pepsi", was featured in Japanese Pepsi commercials and in the Japanese version of the video game Fighting Vipers; he became popular in Japan, spawning related characters such as Lemon Pepsiman and Pepsiwoman, and Pepsi decided to promote the character with a video game. The game was developed by the Japanese video game developer KID. It was made on a low budget, which led to the decision to make the low-cost video scenes of actor Mike Butters drinking Pepsi. The game also uses 3D event scenes, which were modeled by Kotaro Uchikoshi, who would later be a scenario writer for visual novels at KID. This was Uchikoshi's first job; he had been hired to plan video game adaptations of board games, but ended up being part of the development of Pepsiman instead, which was already in progress when he joined KID in 1998. The game was released in Japan by KID for the PlayStation on March 4, 1999; while an American publisher was looking into acquiring the rights to publish the game in the United States, it remained Japan-exclusive. Despite this, the game is entirely in English, not Japanese (although with Japanese subtitles for dialogue). According to Uchikoshi, the game did not sell well. In 2019, the game was featured in an episode of James Rolfe's comedy web series Angry Video Game Nerd, in which Butters reprised his role from the game's cutscenes. The soundtrack for the game received a vinyl release in 2020 by the European label Chipped Records. ## Reception Writers for Famitsu called the game "super-simple", comparing it to Metro-Cross and Paperboy, and calling it a simplified version of Crash Bandicoot. Others have made similar comments. A reviewer for IGN also compared it to Crash Bandicoot, described the gameplay as "simplistic [and] route memorization-based", and said that the thing the game would be remembered for was its "extremely bizarre premise". They still felt that the game was not bad, and that it was worth the price, which they noted was low. James Mielke at GameSpot called the game a "nifty little distraction", and said that the gameplay was similar to the "old-school gaming dynamics of yesteryear". He commented on the low price, but said that it was difficult to find imports of it. Gamers' Republic magazine rated the game a B−. Gamers' Republic later listed the game in their 1999 Video Game Buyers Guide and Y2K Preview as one of the best games to import from Japan that year. In 2011, Allistair Pinsof at Destructoid reviewed the game, calling it a mix between Paperboy and Muscle March in terms of the complexity and pace, and compared the gameplay to Crash Bandicoot. He found it to be "such a gloriously twisted, charming spectacle" that it would be difficult not to like it; he said that the main reason to play the game is "the sheer lunacy" of it, saying that the game is "obsessed" with America, and portrays Americans as "unhygienic hillbillies" in a manner that makes it unclear if it is a self-aware parody or not. He concluded that the game is funny, but not great, and that the ridiculous premise and its large amount of small details make the game "charmingly brain-dead". In 2013, Justin Amirkhani at Complex included the game in a list of company-branded video games that "didn't suck", saying that while the game's graphics had not aged well, it was mechanically very similar to Temple Run, which Amirkhani called his favorite iOS game. He concluded that Pepsiman is not a bad game for people with quick reflexes, as long as they can stand the high amount of advertising within the game; he claimed that Pepsiman was the advergame with the largest amount of "logos-per-second". In 2015, Retro Gamer magazine listed it as number 18 on their list of "The 20 Greatest PlayStation Games You've Never Played". In 2016, Pepsiman was featured in the semi-annual video game speedrun charity Games Done Quick, and has become a beloved staple. The Summer Games Done Quick 2016 run was by theboyks. It was also run by theboyks in Summer Games Done Quick 2018, and by TheFlyingMarlin in Summer Games Done Quick 2023.