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1mq64q | Has any country ever changed legal systems over a short period of time? | I'm looking for a switch from say common law to civil law. Has any country ever switched over to another legal system? Colonial changes I'd think were slower. | AskHistorians | {
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"The first thing that came to mind is the Japanese and Chinese changes of law that occurred at the turn of the last century, Specifically the adoption of German based civil law in China and the Meiji restoration in Japan."
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} | test_askh | Has any country ever changed legal systems over a short period of time?
I'm looking for a switch from say common law to civil law. Has any country ever switched over to another legal system? Colonial changes I'd think were slower. | [
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42z9sm | Was there ever discussion in Great Britain of retaking the American colonies after 1783, or was that considered permanently off the table? | AskHistorians | {
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"I know Cecil Rhodes dreamt of reintegrating it into the Empire whilst he was around in the 1800's although he wanted to do it by \"breeding an American elite of philosopher kings who would have the US rejoin the empire\" . \n\nBut then he also wanted the entire globe to be under English rule as well. He believed the Anglo-Saxon people were \"destined for greatness\" and that included America (And the other Anglo-Saxon nations). \n\nI don't know if that's exactly what you're looking for, but that's the view of one of the most famous British Imperialists in history from the 1800's."
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} | test_askh | Was there ever discussion in Great Britain of retaking the American colonies after 1783, or was that considered permanently off the table?
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1sl0fw | What effects did the Edict of Nantes have in 17th century Europe? | AskHistorians | {
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"The first impact of the Edicts of Nantes in 1598 was to put an end to the Wars of Religion, which had been tearing France apart since 1562.\n\nThis allowed France to focus externally, on European geo-politics, instead of internally on civil war.\n\nThe main external focus of French policy was to counter the Hapsburg threat. The Hapsburg Empire of Spain, Austria and the Low Countries, fueled by New World silver, was seen as an encircling danger by the French. \n\nCardinals Richelieu and Mazarin (who ran France for much of the 17th century) had two obsessions, to strengthen the central government, and to counter the Hapsburg threat.\n\nThe second main impact of the Edicts was that they facilitated France (now officially ‘neutral’ between Catholics and Protestants) joining the Protestant side in the 30 Years War. Which they did to counter the Hapsburgs¸ rather than to bolster the Protestants, but without the Edicts being in place, this would have been more difficult.\n\nStill, Richelieu and Mazarin were Catholic Cardinals, and they worked to erode the provisions of the Edicts. This was perhaps more in pursuit of their centralizing of power agenda, than an anti Protestant agenda, but perhaps not entirely. Particularly, Richelieu wanted to erode the “brevets” attached to the Edicts. These were clauses outside of the main Edicts, which granted the Protestants the right to maintain fortified and garrisoned towns as refuges. The brevets were not granted in perpetuity. They had to be renewed every 8 years. Little by little they were whittled away at until only two refuges were left (La Rochelle and Montauban). Then, in 1629 Richelieu abolished the brevets and besieged La Rochelle for 14 months before forcing the city to surrender. The Protestants had lost their refuges, not without a struggle, but without a general Civil War.\n\nIn 1648, the devastating 30 Years War was over with the Peace of Westphalia. The power of the Hapsburgs had been checked. Just as the 30 Years War was over, however, Cardinal Mazarin had to deal with new internal troubles in France. This was the revolt of the nobles against the increasing centralization of power known as “The Fronde”. This lasted from 1648 to 1653. By the end of the Fronde, the centralization of power in the France was complete.\n\nThe third impact of the Edicts of Nantes, was that it gave Richelieu and Mazarin the time, free from Religious Wars, to centralize power in France. It also ensured that the anti-centralization factions, (essentially the nobles) were divided (by Religion) and so less able to mount an effective opposition than if either religion had been stamped out earlier. Holding the neutral and power position between the two groups of religious rivals helped legitimize and enable the French government's centralization of power.\n\nIn 1661, Mazarin died, and Louis XIV, age 23 was able to take the helm of this centralized state and rule with unprecedented power. In 1685 he was confident enough to revoke the Edicts of Nantes and return France unequivocally to the Catholic fold. 400,000 Huguenots fled France, many to England. The Huguenots had been some of the most mercantile and productive citizens of France. Their departure probably weakened the French economy more than was apparent at the time, and strengthened that of England.\n\n\nIt might be said that the Edicts of Nantes bought France the time to counter the Hapsburg threat, centralize and build the nation, and set the stage for an era when France would be the dominant European power.\n\n\nIt might also be said that the Revocation of the Edicts of Nantes, weakened France, strengthened Britain, and set the stage for the eventual eclipse of French domination of Europe at the hands of the British.\n\n\nIt would take another 65 years, however, for the British challenge to become the dominant power in Europe to succeed.\n\n\nSources:\n\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
3
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes",
"http://www3.northern.edu/marmorsa/delinenotes16thfrance.htm",
"http://faculty.ucc.edu/egh-damerow/louis_xiv.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years'_War",
"http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france_1610_to_1715.htm"
]
} | test_askh | What effects did the Edict of Nantes have in 17th century Europe?
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3hlcug | [Help] book recommendations to spark my sisters interest in history! | Hi reddit, long time lurker. My 15 year old sister chose modern history (mostly 20th century) as a subject next year and while she says that history interests her, she doesn't seem too passionate about it. Any recommendations on books that might spark her interest?
Thanks so much in advance. She just needs that initial push and I know she'll kill the subject. | AskHistorians | {
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"It depends on whar she's interested in, but the Cartoon History of the World and World History: The Comic (Larry Gonick Zak Zabell), which were interesting for me to read as an adult. Otherwise, very readable books are Courtesans and Fishcakes, The World of Pompeii (John Dobbins, Peter Foss), Women in the Viking Age (Jesch), Medieval Children (Nicholas Orme), Humour in the Dutch Culture of the Golden Age (Rudolf Dekker), 1491 (Charles Mann), Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia (Stewart Lone)- those are the books which I love best and find most readable. I like social history and the whole daily lives of people type history...I'm terrible at dates and have no clue and little interest in military history though. Your sister probably has different interests but I can recommend a long list of books to do with medieval Europe's judicial system and criminals, a ton of stuff about Vikings and a fair amount of books on Slavic folklore throughout history. I doubt many people find it interesting (although there are some great historical fictions about the first subject) but if she does, ask away. \n\nWould she be interested in some historical fiction? Or some historical documentaries (or accurate enough movies set in the past)?",
"Lay reader here. Since you've had no replies for an hour, I thought I'd weigh in.\n\nThere's a sub-genre of books that people call \"biographies of things.\" They take one topic and expand on it. Essentially they're history books. There are so many good ones. I'll give you three:\n\nCod, by Mark Kurlansky\n\nScurvy, by Stephen R. Bown\n\nLesser Beasts, by Mark Essig",
"What is your sister interested in? Is she interested in the history of a particular country of the 20th century? A particular event? A particular individual? I think you need to give us more to go on than just 20th century history. :)"
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} | test_askh | [Help] book recommendations to spark my sisters interest in history!
Hi reddit, long time lurker. My 15 year old sister chose modern history (mostly 20th century) as a subject next year and while she says that history interests her, she doesn't seem too passionate about it. Any recommendations on books that might spark her interest? Thanks so much in advance. She just needs that initial push and I know she'll kill the subject. | [
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2kt7jh | It's the 1300's and I'm a 10 year old boy in a small French village that is about to be pillaged by an English lord's army. What is about to happen to my family and village? | What would happen to me? Would I be forcibly recruited into the enemy's army? Would I be killed?
What would happen to my Father, Mother, and Sister?
What would happen to my village?
Why would the enemy lord be doing this to us when we are simple peasants? | AskHistorians | {
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"I will answer what I can for you here. I will leave the rest up to others.\n\nIn regards to your village, it does depend upon what the lord is pillaging for. Something you have to realize, is that different soldiers and armies were paid differently. Many times, the soldiers were not paid much (if at all at the time) and they most certainly did not (always) care too much about reputation or honor. Soldiers got their main source of income and joy by plundering people and places. The spoils of war if you would. Now, there is a term for it, called the \"Tax of Violence\".[1] This basically meant that the soldiers would take things that they wanted from surrounding areas where the army camped and marched, and from whomever they so desired. It did not matter which side the peasants/populace were on or loyal to. This also means that it might even be a French army who takes your supplies!\n\nIf this lord is raiding for food and supplies, and not necessarily loot (although that is a byproduct). His main desire is grain, vegetables, livestock, things of that nature. He is taking them from you, not just because you are the \"enemy\", but because it is far cheaper to take something from your enemy, than it is to transport it from your homeland. This idea and practices dates back thousands of years, with even Sun Tzu writing about it in the *Art of War*. Sun Tzu writes about how 1 hundredweight of your grain is equal to 10 hundredweight of the enemy's (forgive me if the quote is off. I do not have my copy at hand right now) [3]. Also, in a sense, you are doing two things when you take food from an enemy and use it as your own. You gain something, and you set them back at the same time. Sort of like +100 food to you, and -100 food from the enemy, so it is really more of a 200 food swing (if that makes any sense). \n\nThat hopefully gives you a little insight into the \"why\" question, which is then going to set up into the \"What would happen to you and your family?\"\n\nWell, if you live through the initial attack, or they are satisfied with just taking things, then there are numerous instances of farmers attacking and killing soldiers as revenge. Simple tools like farming flails, clubs, hammers (blacksmith), or anything else that comes to hand, all can kill just as well as a sword or a spear. I am going to link you to a question from about 7 months ago, which I answered (though specifically looking into the usage of flails, but I do provide sources for the peasants revenge)[2]. Also, depending upon the size of the group attacking you, you village may resist completely.\n\nI hope that this helped answer some of your questions. \n\n\n[[1]Source](_URL_0_)\n\n[[2]Source](_URL_1_)\n\n[3] Sun Tzu, *The Art of War*"
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} | test_askh | It's the 1300's and I'm a 10 year old boy in a small French village that is about to be pillaged by an English lord's army. What is about to happen to my family and village?
What would happen to me? Would I be forcibly recruited into the enemy's army? Would I be killed? What would happen to my Father, Mother, and Sister? What would happen to my village? Why would the enemy lord be doing this to us when we are simple peasants? | [
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|
1aykxp | How accurate is the image of a King sitting upon his throne as villagers come up one at a time asking him to solve a dispute or rule on something? If this isn't true... where does this image come from? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"c91y922"
],
"text": [
"Someone else will have to cover other time periods and places, but in medieval England this is a fairly accurate portrayal.\n\nAs Huscroft writes in *Ruling England: 1042-1217*, \"...the king was expected to be both a lawgiver, obliged to keep good laws and abolish bad ones, and a judge with the task of giving judgments for, against and between his subjects.\"\n\nThe king's courts were the highest in the land and were usually concerned with loftier issues (disputes between nobles, etc.) though smaller matters could be heard, depending on the situation. Below these were local courts, headed by a magistrate or sheriff. These judged most of the smaller cases, though they could pass an issue up to higher courts if they felt it was outside their ability or jurisdiction.\n\nBy the 12th century, certain criminal activities could only be tried by the king or his appointed judges (not local magistrates/sheriffs). These include murder, treason, arson and rape. This development led to the idea of violating the 'king's peace' - the idea that a crime was no longer a simple matter between the offender and the victim, but was against society as a whole and therefore an offender could be tried by the crown even if the victim never sought a judgement."
],
"score": [
10
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | How accurate is the image of a King sitting upon his throne as villagers come up one at a time asking him to solve a dispute or rule on something? If this isn't true... where does this image come from?
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9diplj | How common are draw bridges? | Draw bridges seem to be a staple of the castle era. when my kids build sand castles they automatically add moats and draw bridges. But were they common? Building bridges seems hard enough. Building bridges on hinges as a security measure during the castle era seems like a huge undertaking. Did this happen a few times and entered into lore, or were draw bridges an actual pervasive thing? | AskHistorians | {
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"Probably not the best answer but...\n\nMoats (and therefore draw bridges) are seen more often in English castles where the ground was more level. This would add artificial height to the walls of the castle, and make it harder to assail. Castles throughout mainland Europe had better terrain advantages, such as being built on the side of a mountain, so moats and draw bridges are not seen frequently in those areas.\n\nDraw bridges were also not always \"draw-able.\" A simple wooden path to the portcullis could easily be set alight in the even of an attack, and serve just as well. There are also accounts of just large beams being laid across the gap and can be drawn back as needed. Much cheaper and easily replaceable. Larger (i.e. more expensive) castles in the later Middle Ages did have retractable, true drawbridges, but considering all of the reasons to now have them, the cost, and engineering of the time, they were not as common as we think, and more romanticized."
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} | test_askh | How common are draw bridges?
Draw bridges seem to be a staple of the castle era. when my kids build sand castles they automatically add moats and draw bridges. But were they common? Building bridges seems hard enough. Building bridges on hinges as a security measure during the castle era seems like a huge undertaking. Did this happen a few times and entered into lore, or were draw bridges an actual pervasive thing? | [
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2xjtty | Does the banality of evil apply better to Guards and workers at concertion camps? | From watching BBC Auschwitz The Nazis and the Final Solution, it seems that large amount were ordinary men and women.
It seems that giving them so much power made them steal money from the Nazis, rape and even write romantic notes to prisoners and get away with it. [1](_URL_0_)
Video by Calfronia Univreristy explaining what power does to the human in the brain:[2](_URL_1_)
| AskHistorians | {
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"The concept of the banality of evil originated with Hannah Arendt and although she eschewed the term philosopher, the \"banality of evil\" is a concept best employed as a philosophical way to understand history, not as a tool to interpret history. \n\nThe main problem with the banality paradigm is that it fosters a conceptualization of these perpetrators into a Manichean division between the apolitical bureaucrat and committed ideologues. This is something of a false dichotomy and falls apart when one examines the actual biographies of the individuals involved in the Holocaust. Michael Wildt's study of the RSHA, *An Uncompromising Generation*, shows how the SS's organization combined technically-minded bureaucrats who shared the radical racialist vision of National Socialism. Wildt demonstrates that both radicalism, which often eschewed formal logic and Enlightenment ideals, and bureaucratic professionalism worked synergistically within the RSHA rather than being at odds with each other. The extermination camps might have been designed rationally, but a number of accounts from survivors report that the actual operations had some of the very same cruelties and alcohol-fueled sadism that characterized the *Einsatzgruppen*.\n\nThat being said, Arendt shouldn't be put in the dustbin- I would argue *Eichmann in Jerusalem* is an important work to use when coming to grips with the history of genocide. Popular cultural constructions of evil often build upon othering and erecting between the nominally rational audience and the irrational acts of evil characters. Thus Nazis on screen and in cinema frequently behave in a monstrous and irrational manner in a way that suggests this was the totality of their lives. Arendt acts as a check on this othering. \n\nIf you're interested, Dan Stone's *Histories of the Holocaust* has a good chapter on the decision-making process and does an excellent job of surveying how historians have viewed the perpetrators.",
"Assuming you meant to say that Arendt's concept is more applicable to \"lesser\" Nazis than high ranking officers. The idea behind the banality of evil is that is generally and usually always applies to those existing within a certain ideology. I don't think it's any better applied to guards than it is to Eichmann, but they're both applicable. \n\nRead Eichmann in Jerusalem if possible. Origins of Totalitarianism first if you want a decent history and thorough understanding of Arendt's ideas."
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} | test_askh | Does the banality of evil apply better to Guards and workers at concertion camps?
From watching BBC Auschwitz The Nazis and the Final Solution, it seems that large amount were ordinary men and women. It seems that giving them so much power made them steal money from the Nazis, rape and even write romantic notes to prisoners and get away with it. [1](_URL_0_) Video by Calfronia Univreristy explaining what power does to the human in the brain:[2](_URL_1_) | [
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|
5dmxcb | Donald Trump is planning a "Victory Tour." Does this have any precedent in American politics? | [removed] | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"This submission has been removed because it involves current events. To keep from discussion of politics, we have a [20-year rule](_URL_0_) here. You may want to try /r/ask_politics or another current-events focused sub. For further explanation of this rule, feel free to consult [this Rules Roundtable](_URL_1_).\n\nThe underlying question is OK, but the commentary in the bosy of your submission is not appropriate for the sub, as it is just likely to spark debate of the current administration. Could you please edit it out, and we can consider restoring the question. Thanks."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/rules#wiki_no_current_events",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/45wqkl/rules_roundtable_5_the_current_eventsmodern/"
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} | test_askh | Donald Trump is planning a "Victory Tour." Does this have any precedent in American politics?
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|
2d8n9c | Suppose it's 1977 and you are the brother of someone who use to work in the Soviet embassy to the US and has just defected. (Assuming you still live in the USSR) what (if anything?) would happen to you? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cjn91vl",
"cjngl3n"
],
"text": [
"In 1978, the Soviet ambassador and representative to the UN Arkady Shevchenko defected to the US after spying for the CIA for 3 years.\n\nHis wife committed suicide 2 month afterwards. As a member of the Nomenclature, his son was put into protective custody of the KGB, but continued to work for the foreign ministry. Under Stalin he would have most likely being executed, but members of the party elite are far better protected under Brezhnev.",
"A popular Russian author and historian (though highly controversial) Vladimir Resun (pen name Victor Suvorov) used to be an intelligence officer in the GRU (Soviet military intelligence). He was stationed at the Soviet consulate in Geneva, Switzerland when after a botched operation he defected to the United Kingdom in 1978. He later wrote a semi-autobiographical work on fiction about his service and defection in a book called *Aquarium*. \n\nAnyway, Resun had a brother who was at the time also serving in the Soviet Army. From what I can tell, nothing especially bad happened to him, and he finished his service in the Army in 1991 at the rank of Lt. Colonel."
],
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5,
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} | {
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} | {
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} | test_askh | Suppose it's 1977 and you are the brother of someone who use to work in the Soviet embassy to the US and has just defected. (Assuming you still live in the USSR) what (if anything?) would happen to you?
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||
7y7m9h | Why and when did the 's' take on its shape in printed material? | So, I've read that the curious 'f'-shaped letter 's' that is so classic to 18th century printed material (is there a word for it?) was made because the 's' shape was too weak, and so the 'f'-shaped letter was used instead as it held up better. First, is this true? Second, when did it stop being is use and why?
What brings me to ask is that I'm reading some old Louisiana legislature and in all the English-language text, they use the 'f'-like symbol, but in all the French-language text, they use our modern 's'. Crazy! Now, I'm pretty sure this is a later reprint, but why reprint the text with two different 's' keys?
Anyway, just wondering if some print historian could answer my strange query. Was it some new invention in typing? A style change? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"due80xl"
],
"text": [
"The \"long S\" is a typographic style for the letter in the middle of words, while the \"short S\" is used at the end of the word. You can find some info from u/kookingpot in [this older thread](_URL_1_), and the indomitable u/Searocksandtrees also compiled a lot of older threads [here](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
13
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/3e1s8w/when_did_the_written_s_go_from_looking_like_an_f/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/34ybtr/what_is_the_cause_of_some_words_using_an_f_in/"
]
} | test_askh | Why and when did the 's' take on its shape in printed material?
So, I've read that the curious 'f'-shaped letter 's' that is so classic to 18th century printed material (is there a word for it?) was made because the 's' shape was too weak, and so the 'f'-shaped letter was used instead as it held up better. First, is this true? Second, when did it stop being is use and why? What brings me to ask is that I'm reading some old Louisiana legislature and in all the English-language text, they use the 'f'-like symbol, but in all the French-language text, they use our modern 's'. Crazy! Now, I'm pretty sure this is a later reprint, but why reprint the text with two different 's' keys? Anyway, just wondering if some print historian could answer my strange query. Was it some new invention in typing? A style change? | [
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4hkgbb | What is the history behind courses in meals? | In European and American dining it's traditional to have a small course, followed by a main dish, then a sweet dessert. When and how did this convention arise and why has it become so dominant that basically every restaurant menu in the US is divided this way? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"This style is technically called *service à la Russe* and, as the name suggests, Europe and America adopted it from Russia. Originally it would have comprised many courses delivered consecutively, although over time it has developed into the style we are familiar with today.\n\nPreviously, fine dining would have been *service à la Française*. In this style all the food being served is presented at the table in one go, primarily to show the abundance of the spread. The transition between these two styles began in Europe during the early 1800s.\n\n**Marie-Antoine Careme** (1784-1833) was the grandfather of French gastronomy and chef to the kings of Europe; he is one possible source of inspiration for the change. Having cooked for *Napoleon I of France* and *George IV of Great Britain*, Careme was subsequently employed for a short while by *Tsar Alexander I of Russia*. It is quite possible that he became more familiar with the Russian service style and it is often suggested that he played a role in its European introduction. Careme's influence is hard to overstate: it was on much of his work that *Auguste Escoffier* later formulated modern style cuisine. \n\n**Alexander Kurakin** (1752-1818) was an ambassador for Tsar Alexander during the early 1800s, first in Austria and then in France. His social circles included several people that Careme will have met and cooked for. Kurakin was a lavish and bombastic man who, while in Paris, may well have instigated the Russian service of his homeland instead of the local French service style. In any event, one of these two men (or both) were likely responsible for influencing the transition at its earliest stage.\n\nHope this helped! \n\nEdit: Formatting."
],
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3
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} | test_askh | What is the history behind courses in meals?
In European and American dining it's traditional to have a small course, followed by a main dish, then a sweet dessert. When and how did this convention arise and why has it become so dominant that basically every restaurant menu in the US is divided this way? | [
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45ato2 | Sailing Speeds | I'm currently writing some historical fiction and I'm wondering how fast people would have been able to sail in a typical galley during the Middle Ages. I understand that there would be a range--good wind, bad wind, etc. Does anyone have any thoughts?
Thanks!! | AskHistorians | {
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"This is an area of interest to me, but finding actual speeds is like digging a ditch with a teaspoon. You find a bit here, a bit there, and once in a great while, how many days it took to press on from one port to another. Due to the recreated ships, you can find out more hard data about Classical galleys in the Mediterranean and Norse ships crossing the Atlantic than about medieval ones.\n\nIn general, figure a Venetian galley, under sail with a quartering wind, does 12 kn. They did usually sail, and only took down the mast and rowed when battle offered, or when it was dead calm, or they had a contrary wind.\n\nRodgers says of Mediterranean galleys \"In the thirteenth century the ordinary galleys were about 128 feet long and 17 feet wide with a deep draft of 4.0 to 4.5 feet when they displaced about 130-145 tons. ... Each carried one mast which was usually struck when clearing for action.\" This would have about 120 rowers, free men who fought for the ship. Sizes ranged down to the \"vachette\" (little cow) with 8 oars (16-32 rowers), about 23 feet long and 6 feet wide.\n\nBesides the rowers were a captain, steersmen, officers, and an unspecified number of marines, especially crossbowmen.\n\nIn a 1313 Genoese law, merchant galleys of large size had to be manned with \"12 crossbowmen, 4 pilots, and 162 rowers and seamen, all armed with helmets, cuirasses, darts, swords, maces, and other weapons.\"\n\nIn 1203, Rodgers notes, it took a Venetian fleet under sail 31 days to sail 700 miles, though that includes 8 days at Abydos to wait for stragglers. So let's say 700 miles in 23 days. This is over open sea, not stopping each night along a coast, so it's 24 hr/day, meaning they covered 30-31 miles per day, which is kind of pitiful.\n\nIn 1284, the Genoese fleet sailed in pursuit of the Pisans, from Genoa to Porto Pisano in 5 days.\n\nSources: *Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Century* by Rodgers. He admits he uses some galleasses in the Spanish Armada as an excuse to be able to include the Armada Fight.\n\nGardiner, Robert (Editor) *The Earliest Ships: The Evolution of Boats into Ships*\n\nParker, Foxhall A., Commodore USN, *The Fleets of the World: The Galley Period*\n\nThis makes me want ebooks of Rodgers, so I can Search rather than eye-scan around the Crusader battles."
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} | test_askh | Sailing Speeds
I'm currently writing some historical fiction and I'm wondering how fast people would have been able to sail in a typical galley during the Middle Ages. I understand that there would be a range--good wind, bad wind, etc. Does anyone have any thoughts? Thanks!! | [
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|
8osf9p | When was the last time a canon was used in a naval battle? | I was listening to another podcast earlier and the guys were trying to figure out when or at what time frame it happened, but could not conclusively find anything. Are there any historical documents that detail when the final naval battles took place using canons and before transitioning to the more current form of cruise missiles, etc.?
For clarity,
I mean the traditional front-loaded canons that the majority of people think of when they think old wooden ship naval battles.
I would be interested in dates for other canon-like projectile systems (like you see on the big canons used on battleships) if you have them :) | AskHistorians | {
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"Depending on what you call a \"battle\", muzzle-loading cannons were being used to sink ships in earnest into the 20th century.\n\nAleko Lilius, in his *I Sailed with Chinese Pirates*, D. Appleton & Co., 1931, describes Chinese pirates still using such cannons. In particular, he describes the sinking of a rival pirate junk by such cannons. This took place in the 1920s.\n\nThe ship Lilius sailed on carried 12 smoothbore muzzle-loading cannons, and \"two rather modern ones\" (and modern small arms). The old muzzle-loading cannon were used instead of the modern guns when it was safe to do so - ammunition was cheaper and more readily available.",
"What do you mean by cannons? Are you asking about the traditional muzzle-loading smoothbore guns, or about naval artillery in general?"
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"url": []
} | test_askh | When was the last time a canon was used in a naval battle?
I was listening to another podcast earlier and the guys were trying to figure out when or at what time frame it happened, but could not conclusively find anything. Are there any historical documents that detail when the final naval battles took place using canons and before transitioning to the more current form of cruise missiles, etc.? For clarity, I mean the traditional front-loaded canons that the majority of people think of when they think old wooden ship naval battles. I would be interested in dates for other canon-like projectile systems (like you see on the big canons used on battleships) if you have them :) | [
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|
16o2jy | Not a kid, just a question - When was homework invented and who implemented it? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"c7xut82"
],
"text": [
"I'm not quite sure there is an actual answer for this. For a lot of history, those who were lucky enough to be educated would learn from personal tutors in their homes. In the Heian era, this is how all the social elite learned their assorted poetry and Chinese characters. Actual schools would not pop up until the Edo period, and often these *terakoya* would still [be held in a private residence, or sometimes a temple](_URL_0_). I don't know about Europe, but I believe that, at least in ancient times, it was the same."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terakoya"
]
} | test_askh | Not a kid, just a question - When was homework invented and who implemented it?
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6vzl4z | (13th century Italy) Can anyone guess to whom this passage is referring? | I stumbled upon this passage in a speech of Maria M. Stewart, the early 19th century American abolitionist, entitled "What If I Am a Woman?"
> In the thirteenth century, a young lady of Bologne devoted herself to the study of the Latin language and of the laws. At the age of 23 she pronounced a funeral oration in Latin in the great church of Bologne; and to be admitted as an orator, she had neither need of indulgence on account of her youth or of her sex. At the age of 26 she took the degree of doctor of laws, and began publicly to expound the Institutes of Justinian. At the age of thirty, her great reputation raised her to a chair, where she taught the law to a prodigious concourse of scholars from all nations. She joined the charms and accomplishments of a woman to all the knowledge of a man. And such was the power of her eloquence, that her beauty was only admired when her tongue was silence.
As far as I can tell, it's more or less a lift from a book called *Sketches of the history, genius, disposition, accomplishments, employments, customs and importance of the fair sex, in all parts of the world : interspersed with many singular and entertaining anecdotes.*
But the original book doesn't include a name. Does anyone with a more substantial understanding of 13th century Bologne have an educated guess? | AskHistorians | {
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"Well, the source you refer to is an early modern source, so right off the bat, I'm a bit sceptical that this woman even existed.\n\nI've checked out the source you quote and one of the first pages states the the purpose of the volume is:\n\n > To give a brief detail of the hiftory of the Fair Sex - to infpire them with a fenfe of their value and importance - to excite them to laudable pursuits...\n\nAll this is followed by references to 'authors consulted', many of whom just seem to be interested parties with myths, legends and accounts of varied veracity to share.\n\nThe fact that the original book does not include a name is quite telling. You see, it was a habit of some early modern authors to invent exemplary females from the middle ages in order to promote proto-feminist materials. Many medieval and early modern writers emphasised tradition and lineage as a sort of *de facto* authority. You can see this in the medieval work of Christine de Pisan.\n\nSo, although the first documented woman to graduate with a law degree in Bologna did so in the 18th century (1732), it benefited the author of this history of the \"fair sex\" to find or invent medieval antecedents. \n\nFrom what I understand of medieval universities (which, admittedly, is cursory since I work on medieval and early modern Scotland), these were men only zones. Of course, some women did achieve significant instruction in typically male subjects, but this would have been the result of private tutoring or careers as nuns.\n\nAlas, I haven't many specific sources to share on this one, but the following certainly reinforce the maleness of education:\n\nJordan, William Chester. Europe in the High Middle Ages. 1st American ed. New York: Viking, 2003.\n\nEpstein, Steven. An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000-1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.\n\nLilley, Keith. Urban Life in the Middle Ages, 1000-1450. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.\n\nNicholas, David. The Growth of the Medieval City from Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century. London: Longman, 1997.\n\nSwanson, R. N. The Twelfth-Century Renaissance. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999.\n\nCushing, Kathleen G. Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century: Spirituality and Social Change. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005.\n\nThen as far as women go, you can check:\n\nBitel, Lisa. Women in Early Medieval Europe, 400-1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.\n\nVan Houts, Elisabeth. Memory and Gender in Medieval Europe, 900-1200. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.\n\nFinally, I'm not sure whether her findings have been published widely, but Paula Findlen of Stanford University is working on just this subject and suspects that the unnamed exemplary women of the middle ages who are alleged to have had careers such as that of your quoted material are mostly fictitious.\n\nSorry to disappoint :("
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} | test_askh | (13th century Italy) Can anyone guess to whom this passage is referring?
I stumbled upon this passage in a speech of Maria M. Stewart, the early 19th century American abolitionist, entitled "What If I Am a Woman?" > In the thirteenth century, a young lady of Bologne devoted herself to the study of the Latin language and of the laws. At the age of 23 she pronounced a funeral oration in Latin in the great church of Bologne; and to be admitted as an orator, she had neither need of indulgence on account of her youth or of her sex. At the age of 26 she took the degree of doctor of laws, and began publicly to expound the Institutes of Justinian. At the age of thirty, her great reputation raised her to a chair, where she taught the law to a prodigious concourse of scholars from all nations. She joined the charms and accomplishments of a woman to all the knowledge of a man. And such was the power of her eloquence, that her beauty was only admired when her tongue was silence. As far as I can tell, it's more or less a lift from a book called *Sketches of the history, genius, disposition, accomplishments, employments, customs and importance of the fair sex, in all parts of the world : interspersed with many singular and entertaining anecdotes.* But the original book doesn't include a name. Does anyone with a more substantial understanding of 13th century Bologne have an educated guess? | [
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|
1j6db6 | Suggestions for WW2 related material for myself and my wife. | Hi everyone, I hope i'm not violating any rules with this post. My wife and I rarely bond over anything, but she has become interested in WW2, particularly the Holocaust. I want to get her more interested in learning about not just the Holocaust, but also the events leading up to Holocaust, the reasons for, etc. Can you suggest some books, movies, documentaries to get her started on? Something that is accessable for someone who doesn't read or watch a lot of history, but also isn't about just the American perspective of the war. Thank you. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The movie \"A Bridge Too Far\" based on the book \"A Bridge Too Far\" by Cornelius Ryan. The book's a great read too.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nJust check out that cast. If you were someone in the late 1970s you were probably in the movie.\n\nThe movie is highly faithful to its source material with just small changes for the screen. \n\nThe movie is about the failed Allied plan to \"end the war by Christmas\" in 1944, known as Operation Market Garden. The idea was to capture a series of bridges (paratroopers, gliders) and then use them to push into Germany (ground troops them push through using the bridges). The plan though could only work if all the bridges were captured and captured quickly.\n\nHowever, not all the equipment used was authentic due to the rarity of German WW2 tanks in the late 1970s. Post war tanks are used and are obvious if you know your tanks. A little sad since other movies, such as \"Kelly's Heroes\" and \"Saving Private Ryan\" were able to make quite good mock ups of German tanks and \"Kelly's Heroes\" is also a 1970's movie (well, released in 1970 but filmed in 1969)."
],
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"url": [
"http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075784/?ref_=sr_1"
]
} | test_askh | Suggestions for WW2 related material for myself and my wife.
Hi everyone, I hope i'm not violating any rules with this post. My wife and I rarely bond over anything, but she has become interested in WW2, particularly the Holocaust. I want to get her more interested in learning about not just the Holocaust, but also the events leading up to Holocaust, the reasons for, etc. Can you suggest some books, movies, documentaries to get her started on? Something that is accessable for someone who doesn't read or watch a lot of history, but also isn't about just the American perspective of the war. Thank you. | [
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|
28z2js | I recently came across my grandfathers WW2 service information and I have some questions. | I'm looking for detailed information about my grandfathers deployment during WW2. Any info or resources that I can use would be much appreciated.
Here's the info I found.
His name was James Daniel Mullen. He served in the Army Air Corps as an engineer. 1902-d Engineer Aviation Battalion to be exact. His service was from July of 43 (drafted)/ August 43 (active) to Feb 46 (discharged). I know that he was deployed to the Pacific and mentioned Okinawa as one of the places he was stationed. I don't know much more about what he did during the war. He passed some 15 years ago so I can't ask him, nor would I be terribly comfortable even if I could.
Thanks for your help. | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Corporal Mullen was a demolition tech in Third Platoon, Second Squad of Captain Max Froome's B-Company. \n\nThe 1902-d Battalion called itself \"The Wild Deuces,\" and [here is a battalion history](_URL_2_). NSFW, mind you, due to pictures of dead bodies and a bit of cheerful 1940s racism and one very enthusiastic plane mascot.\n\n[This is a brief essay](_URL_0_) by the commander of C Company. \n\nThe battalion was bombed regularly during its occupation of Iejima (Ie Shima), a small island near Okinawa. One of the highlights of their war was assembling to watch a Japanese delegation stop at the island in August 1945 while flying to meet General MacArthur in the Philippines, where they would make the final arrangements for Japan's formal surrender.\n\nIf you want to know more about the invasion and occupation of Iejima, [here is](_URL_1_) a detailed account.\n\nAs a demolition tech, your grandfather would have been one of the first ashore, to destroy beach obstacles with explosives. He would later have been called on to disarm or safely detonate suspected booby traps."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=4m-I5pdxBeMC&pg=PA377&dq=1902+Engineer+Aviation+Battalion&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TLWpU5-AE5SKqAaG2ICgAw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=1902%20Engineer%20Aviation%20Battalion&f=false",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=as1z7oezsrIC&pg=PA150&dq=ie+shima+1945&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TLapU-OuOoalqAbg6IDIAQ&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=ie%20shima%201945&f=false",
"http://digicom.bpl.lib.me.us/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1110&context=ww_reg_his"
]
} | test_askh | I recently came across my grandfathers WW2 service information and I have some questions.
I'm looking for detailed information about my grandfathers deployment during WW2. Any info or resources that I can use would be much appreciated. Here's the info I found. His name was James Daniel Mullen. He served in the Army Air Corps as an engineer. 1902-d Engineer Aviation Battalion to be exact. His service was from July of 43 (drafted)/ August 43 (active) to Feb 46 (discharged). I know that he was deployed to the Pacific and mentioned Okinawa as one of the places he was stationed. I don't know much more about what he did during the war. He passed some 15 years ago so I can't ask him, nor would I be terribly comfortable even if I could. Thanks for your help. | [
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|
1gj84m | SCOTUS ruled school prayer unconstitutional 50 years ago today. How was the Abington v. Schempp decision received? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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"As with most church-state issues in the United States, the public was split (with dissenters particularly vocal after the ruling was handed down). The role of religion and prayer in public schools remains a controversial issue even today, 50 years later. I know I continue to see articles on religious speeches at high school graduations, especially in late spring and early summer.\n\nIn Abington Township v. Schempp, the Supreme Court found school-sponsored Bible reading to be unconstitutional by a vote of 8-1. It was decided on the same day as a connected case, Murray v. Curlett, which also dealt with saying Bible verses and the Our Father (Lord's Prayer) in schools. Some background on the ruling: In Abington Township schools, students were not required to participate in the Bible readings and prayers -- but because they were read over the loudspeaker, or led by teachers, the court determined that this was school-sponsored prayer and thus violated the First Amendment. A distinction was made between *studying* the Bible as literature or part of an academic class, and public prayer, but this was a subtle difference that many critics often overlooked.\n\nAs we might expect, the ruling caused an uproar. One scholar wrote that, while \"fifty-six amendments dealing with prayer were introduced in 1962; 265 were offered in the wake of *Schempp*\" (*Religion and the Law in America*, p. 461). School prayer amendments continue to be introduced into Congress each year.\n\nOne of the primary targets of religious Americans' ire was Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist activist who Time magazine called \"the most hated woman in America\" in 1964. In 1963, she founded the civil libertarian organization American Atheists, and remained its president into the 1980s (AA continues to advocate for the separation of church and state, and is still a lightning rod for religious controversy).\n\nAn moderate editorial for The Nevada Daily Mail (July 25, 1963) noted that while dissenters were highly vocal:\n\n > \"The Supreme Court's decision that such religious practices do violate the Constitution has the endorsement of many, though far from all, religious organizations and leaders.\"\n\nPerhaps Nevada's residents weren't too concerned about the court cases. Just a few lines down in the editorial, the writer shifted topics and commented: \"It's nice for children to have pets until the pets start having children.\" (!)\n\nOn May 10, 1964, the New York Times responded to school prayer amendments introduced into Congress in response to Schempp and Murray:\n\n > \"It was easy for many outraged persons, in Congress, the pulpits and elsewhere, to denounce the Court. But the problems the Court actually had to consider in the school prayer cases do not permit simplistic answers.\"\n\nOn the other side of the issue, there was The Washington Evening Star's editorial (which anticipated the \"War on Christmas\" commentary we get from conservative pundits each December):\n\n > \"God and religion have all but been driven from the public schools. What remains? Will the baccalaureate service and Christmas carols be the next to go? Don't bet against it.\"\n\nOf course, these aren't necessarily representative samples. But it is interesting to look at newspaper editorials and other commentary on the case from 1963/64, just to see how little the public discourse surrounding these issues has changed."
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3
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} | {
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} | {
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} | {
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} | test_askh | SCOTUS ruled school prayer unconstitutional 50 years ago today. How was the Abington v. Schempp decision received?
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||
2ozfnw | Books to read . ( I don't know much about history ) | I just realized that I don't know much about history ! So I wanted to know about some books that would give me a good start .
| AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cmrway5"
],
"text": [
"Well, what are you looking for? You can start by taking a look [at our book list](_URL_0_) but you'll get better answers if you're more specific in what you're interested in reading about."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/books"
]
} | test_askh | Books to read . ( I don't know much about history )
I just realized that I don't know much about history ! So I wanted to know about some books that would give me a good start . | [
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b3c1oo | Reading recommendations for the Kingdom of Kongo? | I've long been fascinated by the KoK but never come across a comprehensive history. Recommendatioms with any scope and angle are welcome (whole era, focus on triangle trade, as part of a broader West African history, etc). | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"ej06tiw"
],
"text": [
"There has been a good deal written about the kingdom, and there is some very interesting research coming to press right now, products of the [KongoKing archaeology project](_URL_1_). Of the two listed there, _The Kongo Kingdom; origins and dynamics of an African polity_ will be much more historically focused and gives a broad overview of the kingdom's history.\n\nThe scholars who contribute to the book, John Thornton, Linda Heywood, Cecile Fromont, Igor Matonda, are eminent historians of the Kongo kingdom and Kongo diaspora in the Americas. Meanwhile, Pierre de Maret, Bernard Klist, Els Cranshof and Nicolas Nikis are well known archaeologists who were intimately involved in the project. Koen Bostoen is a linguist who co-directed the KongoKing project with Pierre de Maret.\n\nAlso, ~~UNC~~ Duke and University of Florida co-hosted a conference called the \"Kongo-Atlantic Dialogues\" which has been filmed and uploaded to youtube by [Benjamin Hebbelthwaite](_URL_2_)\n\nIf you are interested specifically in Kongolese in the Slave trade, Linda Heywood's _Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundations of the Americas, 1585-1660_ and the similarly titled _Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora_ and there is also the chapter \"Kongo and Dahomey, 1660–1815: African Political\nLeadership in the Era of the Slave Trade and Its Impact on\nthe Formation of African Identity in Brazil\" in _Soundings in Atlantic History_ she co-wrote with John Thornton.\n\nJohn Thornton has also written extensively about the Kongo Kingdom and the Kongolese diaspora in the Americas. You might start with his book _The Kongolese Saint Anthony_ about the Antonian movement in Kongo from 1684-1706 which sought to end a cycle of civil wars and related slaving. _Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic World_ gives a broader continental scope, but his expertise with Kongo means he gives the kingdom a good deal of attention. He has also written more specific journal articles and chapters, including one about Kongo urbanism in [Africa's Urban Past](_URL_0_) [though the articles coming out of the KongoKing project will alter some of his conclusions].\n\nHope this helps!"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=0IwMwBVfr0sC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://www.kongoking.net/publications-books.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIhKhlrNISc"
]
} | test_askh | Reading recommendations for the Kingdom of Kongo?
I've long been fascinated by the KoK but never come across a comprehensive history. Recommendatioms with any scope and angle are welcome (whole era, focus on triangle trade, as part of a broader West African history, etc). | [
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|
51vvo1 | Augustus' political affiliation? (Populares/Optimates) | What was Augustus' political bias?
Did his status as Princeps make him officially impartial in the Senate?
I would have thought his relationship with Caesar would make him "Populares"
Ave! | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"d7fjdt6"
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"text": [
"That's simply not how Roman politics worked. *Populares* and *optimates* were not political parties, factions, or affiliations. The *optimates* in particular don't really exist--*optimas*, and the more common *bonus* is a rhetorical term that is applied to pretty much whomever you want to apply it to at the given moment. It carries a baggage of class rather than status, and even then one can be included in the *boni* without being in the senatorial class--Cicero includes the *equites* in the category all the time and in many of his speeches the *plebs* are included in the category, so that one wonders who exactly *isn't* considered one of the *boni*. That the *optimates* are not indicative of a political mindset becomes immediately obvious. Cicero condemned repeatedly the indecision and constant internecine bickering about trivial matters that so absorbed the *nobiles*, whom he famously called privately *piscinarii*, \"fish-fanciers.\" Nor was *popularis* indicative of a political affiliation. A *popularis* was simply a politician who prioritized the power of the citizen assemblies over the political support of the senate. A politician could put on a *popularis* hat without having any previous record of populist actions, and could take it off again immediately--in fact this was the norm, even Cato did it during his tribunate. The *popularis* hat might even be worn in cases where the politician was trying to support something seemed decidedly unpopulist--Cicero depicted himself as a *popularis* when he shot down the Rullan agrarian bill (and as far as the urban poor was concerned he was probably acting in their interest--generally the rural plebs supported agrarian bills and the urban plebs opposed them and supported colonial foundations). Even Gaius Gracchus, supposedly one of the first *populares*, passed legislation weakening the powers of the tribunate and was quite staunchly aristocratic. Roman politics had no expectation that a politician stick to a consistent platform--the very idea of platforms would have been totally alien--and it had no expectation that a politician place himself in a \"conservative\" or \"progressive\" camp, provided that such terms would even make sense to a Roman (they probably wouldn't). For more on this see [this](_URL_1_) thread, and probably [this](_URL_0_) one.\n\nSuffice to say that the inability to categorize Augustus meet the same difficulties. He was a Caesarian, but that means almost as little as calling him a *popularis*--Antony was also a Caesarian. Antony shows how difficult the label *popularis* is. Antony was frequently accused of being a rabble-rouser, most notably when he started the riots at Caesar's funeral. But during his proconsular governorship of Italy Antony famously opposed the demagogue Dolabella, nearly causing mass rioting in the city and forcing Caesar to return prematurely to fix things up--a decidedly un-populist move. If we expect *populares* to support \"populist\" legislation (which I think we've seen we should absolutely not) then both Caesar's dictatorship and Augustus' entire career are hard to place. Both reduced the distributions of public grain (and Augustus made them essentially hereditary, and the privilege of a particular sub-class), both apparently abolished voluntary associations like the *collegia*. Neither were popular in their treatment of Italian land--Caesar's decemvirate was notoriously unpopular (and in 59 he and Pompey were booed in the theater) and Octavian took most of the blame for the bloody land distributions of the proscriptions, which benefited neither the urban nor rural plebs, only the Caesarian veterans. Octavian, while holding tribunician power, essentially did away with the tribunate and eventually with free elections in general, though a pretense was made until after his death. But simultaneously Octavian and Caesar were said to employ the power of the citizen voting body, or in Octavian's case the army, over the aristocracy--in 59 Caesar ignored the senatorial review (not in itself a crime, but certainly looked down on, and traditionally an action that got one labeled a *popularis*) and took his agrarian bill directly to the assemblies. One should not look for consistent *popularis* or...whatever the opposite of that would be (optimate simply doesn't cut it) action in a politician, because with all but no examples there was never any consistent action of that sort, nor was there an expectation of it"
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/410g4i/were_there_established_political_factions_in_the/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/358ic9/did_the_ancient_athens_or_the_roman_republic_have/"
]
} | test_askh | Augustus' political affiliation? (Populares/Optimates)
What was Augustus' political bias? Did his status as Princeps make him officially impartial in the Senate? I would have thought his relationship with Caesar would make him "Populares" Ave! | [
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4txtxd | I am reading a textbook that was originally published in 1928 (My Edition was reprinted in '42) and the author often uses 'æ' and 'ö' is this common? Did the usage of these charecters drop from the usual lexicon? or was this just unusual? | The textbook, if anyone is wondering is "A History of Canada", Third Edition, by Carl Wittke A. M. PH.D. | AskHistorians | {
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"Yes, these were formerly quite common. And as you suspect, have largely fallen out of use.\n\nThe two dots in this instance are called *diaeresis*. The mark always occurs with two vowels next to each other, and shows up above the second vowel. It signifies that the two vowels are each holding their own syllable / are not a glide. A common example of an English word which still gets it quite often is \"naïve\". The diaeresis tells us it's not pronounced like \"knives\" minus the s. Another common example is \"coöperate\" (not coo-perate). It's also not uncommon to see words split with a hyphen to mark the same thing, e.g. \"co-operate\".\n\nEnglish has never been much for diacritics (marks above/below/through letters) like façade, résumé etc. We don't have a habit of typing these and we're just as comfortable with ignoring them completely.\n\nLigatures (the connection of two letters into a single glyph) used to also be more common. In fact, you could say they were rampant. The short history is that, back in the days of Gutenberg-style printing presses, ligatures were incredibly useful as far as speeding up the physical act of typesetting a printed work. It was very costly to go through and place each letter by hand, so for the most common of these, ligatures were a great help. It wasn't just < æ > either. There's also < œ > , things like < ȣ > for < ou > , a connected < ij > (won't show as on your end as connected, depending on your fonts), plus a ligature which has now become a full letter in its own right, German's < ß > (a combination of < ſ > (the archaic long s) and < s > (ſs = ß), and, actually, < & > , which is itself just a stylised \"et\" (Latin for \"and\"). The most common today at least that I encounter is < fi > , which my iPhone is a pretty big fan of. If you look closely, there's a good chance you'll see a lot of connected < fi > glyphs.\n\nThis gets us to the question of why they fell out of fashion. In part, typewriters are to blame. As printing stopped being the domain of those with large printing presses and became something people could do at home, ligatures stopped being required or even convenient. Various shifts in style among publishers also had a role to play, in the same way that such shifts influenced English spelling. \n\nToday, it's more trouble to write \"encyclopædia\" or \"anæsthesia\" or \"diarrhœæ\" or \"manœuvre\" with the ligatures than without. The average computer user won't know how to type those letters, and if you use them, it's going to look intentionally archaic, and your spell-checker is just going to scold you about them anyway.",
"No, it is not unusual to encounter spellings like *coöperate*, *naïve*, *mediæval*, and *rôle* in books of this age.\n\nThey haven't entirely disappeared, either. *The New Yorker* notably continues to use a diaeresis in words like *coöperate* and *reëlect* as a policy of in-house style. In 1978, Hobie Weeks, an editor who had been at the magazine for fifty years, let it be known that he was on the verge of changing that style, already seen at that time as obsolete, and would be sending out a memo soon. Then he died."
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} | test_askh | I am reading a textbook that was originally published in 1928 (My Edition was reprinted in '42) and the author often uses 'æ' and 'ö' is this common? Did the usage of these charecters drop from the usual lexicon? or was this just unusual?
The textbook, if anyone is wondering is "A History of Canada", Third Edition, by Carl Wittke A. M. PH.D. | [
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|
3tkk66 | How much do we truly know about smuggling in Colonial America, and what are some things that we do not know for sure? | I am writing my end of term research paper on smuggling in Colonial America as it is the only thing I've truly been interested in during this semester in my Colonial America class. I am having trouble, however, determining an exact question to focus on and attempt to answer in my research paper. Also, any good recommended reading on this topic?
Thanks in advance! | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cx734zx"
],
"text": [
"With a very specific topic like that, the best way to look for sources is to think \"one step broader.\" It works best if you do this in multiple dimensions. So for smuggling in colonial America, you could look for information on:\n\n+ smuggling in the 17th-19th centuries\n+ merchants/trade in colonial America, especially sea trade\n+ smuggling, overseas trade in the British Empire ([this AMA](_URL_0_) with Greg O'Malley might be of interest)\n+ crime in colonial America\n\nYou can use the bibliography in the sources you find on those topics to see if there is much out there specifically on smuggling/black market trade. If not, you can pull apart the references in those books and articles, either direct or indirect. That should allow YOU to build up an idea of what scholars have said about smuggling, and decide whether you agree or disagree with their interpretations. That's a good way to write a history paper: bringing together what other people have said into a broader picture that doesn't exist yet, or disagreeing with earlier essays based on outside, additional evidence that shows their interpretation of the major evidence is wrong."
],
"score": [
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/3pcfaz/ama_the_atlantic_slave_trade_especially_human"
]
} | test_askh | How much do we truly know about smuggling in Colonial America, and what are some things that we do not know for sure?
I am writing my end of term research paper on smuggling in Colonial America as it is the only thing I've truly been interested in during this semester in my Colonial America class. I am having trouble, however, determining an exact question to focus on and attempt to answer in my research paper. Also, any good recommended reading on this topic? Thanks in advance! | [
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|
6975wj | How true is the claim that CNN was founded so just they could help Jimmy Carter win the 1980 Election? | r/the_donald said this [here.](_URL_1_)
Obviously, r/the_donald is biased and the claim was unsourced, but still, is there any truth in that claim that CNN was founded just so they could help Jimmy Carter win the 1980 Election? Probably not, but still, I don't know anything about CNN history so I can't verify this claim.
Thanks!
[(This was originally posted here but didn't get an answer)](_URL_0_) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"dh5genf"
],
"text": [
"CNN had been in the works for at least six months when their first broadcast went out in June of 1980. [Gallup polls from 1980](_URL_0_) show Carter with a commanding lead at the end of 1979/beginning of 1980, and slim lead in June, which diminished, then turned into a Reagan lead until Carter pulled ahead in August, and Carter held that lead until just before the election.\n\nThe claim linked, that CNN was founded \"in direct response to Reagan kicking Jimmy Carter's ass\", just doesn't hold up to the polling data. Reagan wasn't leading when CNN first began broadcasting, though he had been gaining.\n\nI'm not equipped to comment on Turner's personal motivations, but CNN was not founded in response to Reagan.\n\nSource: [_URL_1_](_URL_1_)"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://redd.it/689mm9",
"https://redd.it/5prt0x"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://content.gallup.com/origin/gallupinc/GallupSpaces/Production/Cms/POLL/t-dkcxx_tu6z010eqv-sdw.gif",
"http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4"
]
} | test_askh | How true is the claim that CNN was founded so just they could help Jimmy Carter win the 1980 Election?
r/the_donald said this [here.](_URL_1_) Obviously, r/the_donald is biased and the claim was unsourced, but still, is there any truth in that claim that CNN was founded just so they could help Jimmy Carter win the 1980 Election? Probably not, but still, I don't know anything about CNN history so I can't verify this claim. Thanks! [(This was originally posted here but didn't get an answer)](_URL_0_) | [
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|
20ucf6 | What are some post WWI/WWII treaties or policies that we may be surprised to learn still have legal backing? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cg71jlo",
"cg6yjk1",
"cg77xl5"
],
"text": [
"Part C in the top right of the USA immigration form probably applies here:\n\n_URL_0_",
"Im just questioning slightly further do you mean signed directly after ww1 and wwII or do you mean to encompass all treaties singed afterwards",
"German penal law puts a sentence on \"preparing a war of aggression\" ([Link in german](_URL_1_)), under sentence of 10 years jail (minimum) to life."
],
"score": [
14,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/ANzwx7r.jpg",
"http://dejure.org/gesetze/StGB/80.html"
]
} | test_askh | What are some post WWI/WWII treaties or policies that we may be surprised to learn still have legal backing?
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4du1pa | What is the most impressive history book you have ever read? | [removed] | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"d1uj9e0",
"d1ukldk",
"d1ukwdl"
],
"text": [
"*The Guns of August* Barbara Tuchman. Factual without being dry, pointed without much bias. If you're going to read one book about the Great War, this should be it.",
"Europe: A History by Norman Davies. I loved the grand narrative of Europe that he details from the Ice Age till the end of the Cold War. Great detail is given to all the classic great powers of Europe but also to those less well known and studied like Poland-Lithuania, Keivan Rus, Hungary, etc. The little side boxes were great, giving detail to niche subjects, people and events like the Oracle of Delphi, syphilis, inflation, and table etiquette (these are all off the top of my head). If you enjoy European history and want to try and grasp a larger picture than just Rome or France or Britian than this is the book for you.",
"This submission has been removed because it violates the [rule on poll-type questions](_URL_1_). These poll-type questions do not lend themselves to answers with a firm foundation in sources and research, and the resulting threads usually turn into monsters with enormous speculation and little focussed discussion. “Most”, “least”, \"best\" and \"worst\" questions usually lead to vague, subjective, and speculative answers. For further information, please consult [this Roundtable discussion](_URL_0_).\n\nFor questions of these types, we ask that you redirect them to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/48hjn0/rules_roundtable_6_the_no_polltype_questions_rule/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/rules#wiki_no_.22poll.22-type_questions"
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} | test_askh | What is the most impressive history book you have ever read?
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20887k | Here's a picture of neo-Nazi Lincoln Rockwell at one of Malcolm X's speeches. What was the reaction? what happen after? | Just click [The picture](_URL_0_) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cg0si4z"
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"text": [
"Rockwell was actually a fan of Malcolm X because Malcolm X supported (at the time at least) a separation of the races. Both felt that there could be no lasting peace or stability unless the whites and blacks were physically separated in different countries.\n\nRockwell referred to the Nation of Islam as \"Black Nazis\" who shared complementary ideologies in terms of their extreme distaste for all things involving race-mixing.\n\n**Edit for correction** : Additionally, Rockwell and his ANP went to more than 1 Nation of Islam rally in the early 1960s and Rockwell even spoke following ~~Malcolm X~~ *Elijah Muhammad* at one of them. Rockwell paid ~~Malcolm X~~ *Elijah Muhammad* the most supreme \"compliment\" calling ~~Malcolm X~~ *Elijah Muhammad* the \"Adolf Hitler of the black man\"\n\n\n*I will write up a more thorough comment when I'm not at work and have access to my research and citations.*\n\n\n**Source**: Wrote a thesis on the American Nazi Party but for one book in particular, check out [Hate by William Schmaltz](_URL_0_). It's an easier read but pretty comprehensive."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/n70RO.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books/about/Hate.html?id=Y39_IwAACAAJ"
]
} | test_askh | Here's a picture of neo-Nazi Lincoln Rockwell at one of Malcolm X's speeches. What was the reaction? what happen after?
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|
66tww3 | While talking with an old German WWII vet today, the man gave me a rather intersting tidbit of information that I'm hoping I can get some backstory on. | I was volunteering at a nursing home and saw a man sitting by himself playing a harmonica. I sat down and introduced myself, and after a little talking the man revealed he was in the middle of training to fight in the German Army in Romania when World War 2 came to an end.
He had many interesting tales (such as how he wtnessed a strafing run by an Allied fighter) but one thing I found very interesting. One man in the nursing home was singing an old tune on a piano, an African American man named Roger. The vet (who's name was Matt, short for Matthias) leaned over and said, "I remember the first time I saw a black man".
Now Matthias' accent is pretty thick, so I could only understand some of what he said, but he mentioned how they would follow the tanks and Matthias and his fellow soldiers were too afraid to shoot at them. He then mentioned their attire, looking for the word for what they would wear on their heads. Because he mentioned that they would follow the river, I figured that they might be of tribal origin, so I said "Leaves?" To which he replied "Ahhhh yes, leaves!"
Keeping in mind that I'm pretty sure Matthias stayed in Europe throughout the war, was Matthias in his old age (he is 94) recounting nonexistant memories? Or was this, perhaps, an actual occurence? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"dglf61u",
"dgld8tt"
],
"text": [
"OP, are you sure he didn't mean sticking leaves in a simple [helmet band](_URL_0_), [net](_URL_1_), [or cover](_URL_2_) for the purposes of camouflage?\n\nThe way you're phrasing the question is a little confusing to me, because it implies some sort of tribal head covering as opposed to a camouflage expedient",
"I just want to clarify/simplify your question possibly.\n\nAre you asking if it is possible that Matthias really did see African-Americans in Europe at or near the end of WW2 who were wearing leaves on their heads?"
],
"score": [
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.rangerjoes.com/Enhanced-Helmet-Band-2-Position-Coyote-Tan-P7482.aspx",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmet_cover",
"http://www.rangerjoes.com/MICH-Helmet-Cover-P7996.aspx"
]
} | test_askh | While talking with an old German WWII vet today, the man gave me a rather intersting tidbit of information that I'm hoping I can get some backstory on.
I was volunteering at a nursing home and saw a man sitting by himself playing a harmonica. I sat down and introduced myself, and after a little talking the man revealed he was in the middle of training to fight in the German Army in Romania when World War 2 came to an end. He had many interesting tales (such as how he wtnessed a strafing run by an Allied fighter) but one thing I found very interesting. One man in the nursing home was singing an old tune on a piano, an African American man named Roger. The vet (who's name was Matt, short for Matthias) leaned over and said, "I remember the first time I saw a black man". Now Matthias' accent is pretty thick, so I could only understand some of what he said, but he mentioned how they would follow the tanks and Matthias and his fellow soldiers were too afraid to shoot at them. He then mentioned their attire, looking for the word for what they would wear on their heads. Because he mentioned that they would follow the river, I figured that they might be of tribal origin, so I said "Leaves?" To which he replied "Ahhhh yes, leaves!" Keeping in mind that I'm pretty sure Matthias stayed in Europe throughout the war, was Matthias in his old age (he is 94) recounting nonexistant memories? Or was this, perhaps, an actual occurence? | [
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5wxzi9 | Can anyone point me to literature on the 'social history of physical space'? | An idea that I've been mulling over for some time now is examining the 'social history of physical space'. I dont know if this concept already has a name, but I would love if someone could point me in the direction of writings, books or papers, dealing with the concept.
What I mean by this is two fold. One angle I have been thinking about might best be illustrated by the notion of 'space' as a key element of social movements. From the Occupy movements attempts to stake out physical space within various cities, to the occupation of city squares in various mass uprisings, to the history of things like sit-ins placing a key emphasis on the holding of some particular space. In each of these examples the space itself may hold some tactical location but also takes on a symbolic role. The way I've been thinking about it is that these spaces become viewed as something of a physical manifestation of the movement itself.
Ive also been viewing it from a different perspective that was triggered by thinking deeper about a small part of a past project I worked on. In the US, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, cities were home to numerous large meeting halls that served as key community centers. Think turner halls, labor temples, and the halls of various halls owned by social and ethnic organizations. An extant example is Seattle's [Washington Hall](_URL_0_). One distinguishing thing for me is that the halls of this period frequently featured large auditoriums that played host to anything from community benefit balls to the lecture tours by radical, reactionary, or other political or academic speakers. These places still exist to some extent, but are much less central parts of the community. Lecture tours are far more likely to be hosted on university campuses today, for instance, than in the hall run by an immigrant ethnic organization. While I wouldnt be surprised to find a history of the organizations or individuals which owned and operated these halls, I am quite interested in thinking about the halls themselves as spaces for community building and the spread of knowledge and ideas.
I would greatly appreciate any tips the fine scholars of AskHistorians can provide. | AskHistorians | {
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"In the history of science there is a lot of study of physical spaces and the ways in which they encode different social/political/epistemic relationships. I doubt historians of science invented this approach, so if you went through the footnotes you'd probably find references to a larger literature on this. A place to look might be Peter Galison and Emily Thomson edited volume _The Architecture of Science_ (MIT Press, 1999).",
"I can provide some perspective from archaeology.\n\nThe books form Lefebvre and Hillier & Hanson which /u/bitparity pointed are excellent theoretical starting points. Both are tough reads in their own way- Lefebvre for his density and Hillier & Hanson for their preponderance of made up jargon.\n\nI would recommend approaching these theorists from some researchers who have employed their ideas. A lot of archaeologists in the American Southwest have used Hillier's \"spatial syntax theory\" to approach the complex, modular architecture in their region, and others have followed suit. It's a contrived approach, but it makes complex floor plans much more understandable. Some books and articles I can recommend on that employ spatial syntax:\n\n* *Historic Zuni Architecture an Society* by TJ Ferguson\n\n* \"Space syntax analysis of Central Inuit snow houses\" by Peter Dawson\n\n* \"The configuration of built space at Pataraya and Wari provincial administration in Nasca\" by Matthew Edwards\n\n* \"Approaching Social Practice through Access Analysis at Las Canoas, Honduras\" by Miranda Stockett\n\n* \"Space Syntax Analysis at the Chacoan Outlier of Guadalupe\" by Ruth VanDyke\n\nThese other books/articles use multiple scientific approaches. You can find most online somewhere.\n\n* *Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes* by Jerry Moore\n\n* \"Plaza life and public performance at the Early Horizon center of Caylán, Nepeña Valley, Perú\" by Helmer, Chicoine, and Ikehara\n\n* \"Spatial network analysis of a terminal prehispanic and early colonial settlement in highland Peru\" by Steve Wernke\n\n* *Hillforts of the Ancient Andes* by Elizabeth Arkush",
"You are probably going to look at works by David Harvey, who's a Marxist Geographer. His podcast/lectures on Das Kapital are great, and also incorporate aspects you're looking for, about the productive and exploitative capacity of space, as well as resistance. \n\nLess protest oriented, but good theoretical works which synthesize space and the social would be The Social Logic of Space by Hillier, and The Production of Space by Lefebvre, although I will warn you Lefebvre is very dense, like many other french marxist thinkers, and you may have to read summaries from other people just to kind of get his jist.",
"You will want to read Michel de Certeau's *The Practice of Everyday Life*, and perhaps also some of the theorists who informed him, such as Pierre Bourdieu and Michel Foucault."
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} | test_askh | Can anyone point me to literature on the 'social history of physical space'?
An idea that I've been mulling over for some time now is examining the 'social history of physical space'. I dont know if this concept already has a name, but I would love if someone could point me in the direction of writings, books or papers, dealing with the concept. What I mean by this is two fold. One angle I have been thinking about might best be illustrated by the notion of 'space' as a key element of social movements. From the Occupy movements attempts to stake out physical space within various cities, to the occupation of city squares in various mass uprisings, to the history of things like sit-ins placing a key emphasis on the holding of some particular space. In each of these examples the space itself may hold some tactical location but also takes on a symbolic role. The way I've been thinking about it is that these spaces become viewed as something of a physical manifestation of the movement itself. Ive also been viewing it from a different perspective that was triggered by thinking deeper about a small part of a past project I worked on. In the US, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, cities were home to numerous large meeting halls that served as key community centers. Think turner halls, labor temples, and the halls of various halls owned by social and ethnic organizations. An extant example is Seattle's [Washington Hall](_URL_0_). One distinguishing thing for me is that the halls of this period frequently featured large auditoriums that played host to anything from community benefit balls to the lecture tours by radical, reactionary, or other political or academic speakers. These places still exist to some extent, but are much less central parts of the community. Lecture tours are far more likely to be hosted on university campuses today, for instance, than in the hall run by an immigrant ethnic organization. While I wouldnt be surprised to find a history of the organizations or individuals which owned and operated these halls, I am quite interested in thinking about the halls themselves as spaces for community building and the spread of knowledge and ideas. I would greatly appreciate any tips the fine scholars of AskHistorians can provide. | [
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1oav6s | Why did the Forum Romanum fall into disuse? | From what I've heard, the forum was more or less abondoned to ruin. It seems strange to me that such an important, central, and traditionally rich site in a large and important city simply was abandoned? | AskHistorians | {
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"When the [aqueducts were destroyed](_URL_1_) by invading tribes the city center lost its water supply. The people living there were forced to relocate mostly to the [Campus Martius](_URL_0_), where plenty of water was still available."
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From what I've heard, the forum was more or less abondoned to ruin. It seems strange to me that such an important, central, and traditionally rich site in a large and important city simply was abandoned? | [
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|
1pst7b | What's the first know gambling game? | Horse racing, perhaps? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cd5o6pr"
],
"text": [
"One of the earliest ones I can think of was [knucklebones](_URL_2_), which the Romans called *tali* and the Greeks *astragaloi*. The Greeks ascribe the origin of knucklebones as a game to Palamedes in the Trojan War, but given the original materials used for knucklebones (the actual astragalus bone of a sheep or goat) the origin could conceivably be as old as the domestication of sheep, or slightly later.\n\nKnucklebones are one of those curious games which get mentioned in a *lot* of sources. Weirdly enough, I don't actually recall very many sources which mention betting on sporting events like chariot races, wrestling, etc. However, there are quite a few that speak of wasting coin on knucklebones or their later cousins, [dice](_URL_0_). (Photo from the last time I went to the British Museum, woo! The [album](_URL_1_) also has a lot of knucklebones from some cool materials found in both the Greek and Roman worlds.)"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Yfzq1Pz.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/a/xZGxF",
"http://archaeologicalmuseum.jhu.edu/the-collection/object-stories/archaeology-of-daily-life/childhood/knucklebones/"
]
} | test_askh | What's the first know gambling game?
Horse racing, perhaps? | [
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|
11hsj0 | Shields above doors? | A friend of mine and I are doing research into Masonic influence on American Society. Now, in the buildings we're documenting we're finding many of [these](_URL_0_). So I'm just curious, in general, what era was this type of ornamentation prevalent? Is there any specific symbolism with these shields? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"c6mo4rd"
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"text": [
"The shields were normally used as a way to see who owned what building in an era of feuding families in Italy. The shields were easy to recognize and were easy to associate with one family or another, this was especially important because even during the Ren. Period, illiteracy was still comparatively high (although not necessarily as high as Medieval Italy). Often state or high mercantile business was carried out in the parlors of the rich and you would have people lined up on benches around the block to talk with the family about one matter or the other. Over time the piece became associated with wealth and semi-wealthy families started adding them, in a palimpsest manner, as a purely decorative feature. Eventually architects used them to fill the negative space above a keystone, but had cause to leave them blank since often times they were designing buildings with no intended familial connection.\n\nSource: Architecture: Land Culture Practice by Mark Blizard\n\nThe guy is a insidious ass, but his lectures on Italy were interesting."
],
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
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"url": []
} | test_askh | Shields above doors?
A friend of mine and I are doing research into Masonic influence on American Society. Now, in the buildings we're documenting we're finding many of [these](_URL_0_). So I'm just curious, in general, what era was this type of ornamentation prevalent? Is there any specific symbolism with these shields? | [
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|
54dlcz | When were the antidepressants that are often used to do first prescribed? | And what was the specific diagnosis they were supposed to treat? How widespread was it?
Curious about things like SSRIs, benzodiazepine. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"d813g10"
],
"text": [
"I think your question is \"when were the antidepressants that are often prescribed *today* first prescribed?\" Correct me if I'm wrong.\n\nThe modern era of psychopharmacology really begins in the 1950s, when certain mood changes noted as side effects of some tuberculosis drugs were explored. This led to the first MAO inhibitors (rarely but occasionally still used these days). Further research led to the development of tricyclic antidepressants. Some of these are still in common use today. Amitriptyline was developed in 1961 and is still widely prescribed, but almost exclusively for its effects on nerve pain rather than its antidepressant properties. Fluoxetine (Prozac) was the first well-known SSRI drug and wasn't developed until the 1980s.\n\n[A rather dense and nerdy summary of the development of antidepressant medications](_URL_0_)\n\n[A less focused but much more readable article on both the history of antidepressant drugs and how these medications have influenced concepts of the physiology of depression](_URL_1_)"
],
"score": [
3
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136031/",
"http://mobile.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/magazine/the-science-and-history-of-treating-depression.html"
]
} | test_askh | When were the antidepressants that are often used to do first prescribed?
And what was the specific diagnosis they were supposed to treat? How widespread was it? Curious about things like SSRIs, benzodiazepine. | [
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|
2ufft6 | What was FDR's opinion on welfare? | His presidency was the start of the New Deal, my understanding is that he set up the basis for the welfare system in the Unites States. My friend and I were talking about this the other day and he mentioned a quote from FDR that sounded to be anti-welfare. I looked up the speech, and he sounds like he passed the New Deal, despite being opposed to the idea of a welfare state. Why did he create the New Deal and what was his long term plan for welfare in the United States?
The quote:
"The lessons of history, confirmed by the evidence immediately before me, show conclusively that continued dependence upon relief induces a spiritual and moral disintegration fundamentally destructive to the national fibre. To dole out relief in this way is to administer a narcotic, a subtle destroyer of the human spirit. It is inimical to the dictates of sound policy. It is in violation of the traditions of America. Work must be found for able-bodied but destitute workers."
[1935 Message to Congress](_URL_0_) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"co7wsjy"
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"text": [
"In reality, FDR was doing everything possible to provide help to people who needed it without fueling the perception that people were somehow livin' high off the government hog. This is a critical point which I think helps contextualize both your quote and question.\n\nWhen FDR comes into office, he's in the midst of a complete financial and economic collapse. His first 100 days in office are critical. He's basically doing two things. Trying to stop the bleeding (announcing a Bank Holiday) and put people back to work. This is where the alphabet soup programs get going (PWA, NRA, TVA, and many others). Some people criticize these projects as \"ditch digging\" but they actually accomplish a ton in building new roads, schools, parks, and airports. The financial system was outdated and needed reform. But more than that, people were struggling to get by (see the 1932 Bonus Army March, for instance). Some fixes are clear and obvious, but with other stuff he's simply throwing it against the wall to see what sticks. Many of his initial reforms are thrown out by the Supreme Court.\n\nAs far as a \"long term plan\" for welfare, I think FDR was more concerned with social security than unemployment benefits, per se. The Social Security Act is passed in 1935. It's a true life saver for the people who needed it. You can find photographs of people living in \"Hooverville\" style camps with their new social security numbers tattooed on their arm. But still, people at the time criticized the act as enabling free loading, so Roosevelt needed to combat this idea in his public appearances and fireside chats. \n\nStill, FDR was criticized by many for leading the country into deeper debt and giving money to people some thought were simply lazy and shiftless. People called him a \"traitor to his class,\" meaning he had somehow turned against his wealthy, elite background and upbringing. In oral histories, however, people who lived through these experiences sometimes share the notion that FDR basically prevented this country from entering into a period of violent revolution. \n\nBecause of this context, in basically every speech then, including the one you quote, FDR is trying to frame New Deal programs as anything BUT welfare. Work programs, retirement savings, you name it. Even though what desperately needs to happen to save the economic is to pump more money into it, the rich in this country have a powerful fear of giving \"free money\" to the poor. \n\nA relatively new book called The New New Deal by Michael Grunwald goes further into unpacking the analogies between the responses to the Great Depression and the present day situation."
],
"score": [
6
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14890"
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} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | What was FDR's opinion on welfare?
His presidency was the start of the New Deal, my understanding is that he set up the basis for the welfare system in the Unites States. My friend and I were talking about this the other day and he mentioned a quote from FDR that sounded to be anti-welfare. I looked up the speech, and he sounds like he passed the New Deal, despite being opposed to the idea of a welfare state. Why did he create the New Deal and what was his long term plan for welfare in the United States? The quote: "The lessons of history, confirmed by the evidence immediately before me, show conclusively that continued dependence upon relief induces a spiritual and moral disintegration fundamentally destructive to the national fibre. To dole out relief in this way is to administer a narcotic, a subtle destroyer of the human spirit. It is inimical to the dictates of sound policy. It is in violation of the traditions of America. Work must be found for able-bodied but destitute workers." [1935 Message to Congress](_URL_0_) | [
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|
59bhjs | My late grandfather was a paratrooper in WWII - 101st Airborne Divison ("Screaming Eagles") - Can you tell me more about these items I have from him [link in comments]? | [deleted] | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"d976h73",
"d984pb3"
],
"text": [
"The solid blue ribbon with the gold border is the Army Presidential Unit Citation Ribbon.\n\nThe ribbon with the multi-colored stripes and the bronze stars is the Europe-Africa-Middle East service ribbon.\n\nThe red ribbon with the rainbow edges is the WW2 victory ribbon.\n\nThe red ribbon with the white stripes is the good conduct ribbon.\n\nThe bronze oak leaf and bronze stars both indicate that the ribbon was earned an additional time.\n\nThe badge with the red trim, blue background, and white plane and parachute is his cap badge. The eagle badge was his shoulder insignia.\n\nI'm not 100% certain about the white and green parachute badge, but it looks like a garrison cap badge.",
"I'm actually from the area around Fort Campbell ,home to the 101st, and have interned at the military museum on post. Give the Don F. Pratt museum a call and they will give you a wealth of information. They may even be able to find some awesome stuff related to your grandfather!"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | My late grandfather was a paratrooper in WWII - 101st Airborne Divison ("Screaming Eagles") - Can you tell me more about these items I have from him [link in comments]?
[deleted] | [
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|
6u6a9o | I keep hearing that the out of Africa theory is being challenged, is this true? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Hi, while it's possible that you'll get an answer here, questions about events that took place during *prehistory* are worth x-posting to our sister sub /r/AskAnthropology. There are some anthropologists here, but there are more there, and with a greater focus on earlier time periods."
],
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} | {
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} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | I keep hearing that the out of Africa theory is being challenged, is this true?
| [
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4cnl81 | Some american states used intelligence tests to determine whether colored people should be sterilized. Was there any controversy around this practice? | AskHistorians | {
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"In mid-nineteenth century America, there were two competing theories of the origins of man: polygeny, which posited that different races had arisen from different ancestry, and monogeny, which held that all humans descended from a common ancestor. These theories originated in the eighteenth century, predating Darwinian theories of evolution by a century at least.\n\nFrom these theories of human origination, there evolved (pun very much intended) a slew of scientific rationales for the biological inequalities of men of different races. At the very bottom of the racial hierarchy ordained by these sciences were blacks.\n\nUnfortunately, but perhaps not unsurprisingly, these theories persisted, surviving Darwin (who was himself a firm believer in the inferiority of non-whites) and making their presence known in the latter half of the nineteenth century. In particular, theories of craniometry and phrenology, which purported to use measurements of the brain and skull to determine human traits such as criminality, perpetuated scientific racism. (See Daniel Pick's *Faces of Degeneration* for more information about the rise and fall of these disciplines).\n\nAll of this is to say that by the beginning of the twentieth century, scientific racism was alive and well in America.\n\nIf you'll permit me to digress for just a little longer from the question at hand, I want to point to another scientific history in America- that of *eugenics*. In the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, various states enacted laws prohibiting the marriage of so-called \"defectives,\" or those with mental handicaps ranging from \"feeble-mindedness\" and \"idiocy\" to epilepsy. These laws were followed by attempts to enact castration as a prevention of \"degeneracy\" (it was feared that degeneracy of the sort spread by the mentally handicapped would create a societal crisis of biblical proportions). In Indiana, in 1907, the first sterilization law in the United States was passed. Criminals, idiots, and rapists were to be sterilized upon recommendation from state-appointed \"experts.\" Within ten years, fifteen other states had enacted similar laws. (See Ian Robert Dowbiggin, *Keeping America Sane*)\n\nIn the first ten years of the twentieth century, a Frenchman named Alfred Binet published a number of works which together comprised an intelligence scale by which one's \"mental age\" could be determined. With a little tweaking by German psychologist William Stern, the *intelligence quotient* was conceived. [Please bear in mind that this is a necessarily abridged version of the history of intelligence testing, which was practiced in Europe and North America to a great extent even before its \"perfection\" by Binet.]\n\nRemember the states that enacted laws for the sterilization of those deemed unfit for reproduction? I.Q. represented an excellent measurement for mental fitness in the eyes of state legislators. They found an enthusiastic professional spokesman for the value of I.Q. testing in Henry Goddard, an American psychologist. Goddard had tested his theories of intelligence on immigrants at Ellis Island- exactly the kind of non-white, or at least non-American, stock that so threatened to \"degenerate\" American society. But most of these subjects were nominally white. Eastern European, perhaps, and not of Goddard's ideal stock, but \"white\" on even a contemporary scale nonetheless.\n\nIt was in the application of enthusiastically peddled intelligence theories such as Goddard's (but certainly not limited to those- I would be remiss if I didn't mention the influence of Charles Davenport and the Carnegie Institute's Cold Spring Harbor lab) that America's black population came under fire. \n\nMany states enacted their eugenics laws using intelligence testing and the I.Q. quotient as the measure of whether one was a \"moron\" and thus worthy of sterilization and, due to the already racist predisposition of the theory (how could it not be, given the history of scientific racism elaborated above?) blacks were over-represented in the segment of the population that was sterilized.\n[This article from the New York Times](_URL_0_) describes in harrowing detail the legacy of such sterilization programs in North Carolina, and some of the controversy which followed. Yet the article, published in 2011, does not represent a contemporary backlash against theories of eugenics and scientific racism. So were there any?\n\nPerhaps surprisingly, it was Christian dissenters who represented the loudest members of American society who opposed eugenic methods and the mistreatment of the mentally handicapped. In the late-nineteenth century it was Dorothea Dix who famously campaigned for the normalization of specialized asylums for the insane, and philanthropists of their ilk continued their campaign (at least in spirit) into the twentieth century. \n\nUnfortunately, it was not until after World War Two, when horrific stories of Nazi experimentation in extermination camps came to light, that Americans rejected their own eugenics programs en masse. Though there were certainly individuals, and even small campaigns, which spoke out against eugenics prior to 1945, it would be misleading to give them any great focus, as they were *not* representative of popular public opinion. It took the atrocities of the Nazis and the spectre of Dr. Mengele to truly turn public opinion. And even this does not mean that the American government abandoned its racist science-based policies. The horrific Tuskegee syphilis experiments continued unabated until 1972. (See *Tuskegee Truths*, a collection of essays, for more information) I'm sure there are even more examples. This is a history that we live with to this day. Victims of these policies still live among us. You need look no further than the NYT article cited above for a visceral reminder of this fact."
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} | {
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/10/us/redress-weighed-for-forced-sterilizations-in-north-carolina.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0"
]
} | test_askh | Some american states used intelligence tests to determine whether colored people should be sterilized. Was there any controversy around this practice?
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a82hxa | In Westerns, it's common to see wanted posters with a reward offered in lieu of an organized, coordinated effort by law enforcement to track criminals down; was this an accurate reflection of how the system worked, or a fictional convention? Who would usually be offering these bounties? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"While you're waiting for someone to answer your question in particular, you might be interested in perusing [the section of the FAQ on the historical accuracy of \"Wild West\" tropes.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/historically_accurate#wiki_..._are_.22wild_west.22_tropes.3F"
]
} | test_askh | In Westerns, it's common to see wanted posters with a reward offered in lieu of an organized, coordinated effort by law enforcement to track criminals down; was this an accurate reflection of how the system worked, or a fictional convention? Who would usually be offering these bounties?
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7wtj2k | When Versaille assembled in 1789 for the first time in 175 years, who represented the third estate? | Countries such as France and Sweden had estate parliaments. In France, commoners (everyone outside of the nobility and church) made up the third estate, while in Sweden, these were divided into the 3rd and 4th estate. How did one attend these assemblies? I'm assuming there was farmers present, how were they picked? Was it simply first come first serve, or was there some kind of process already established? | AskHistorians | {
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"The assembly was the Estates General; Versailles was the name of the palace where they met.\n\nRepresentatives to the Estates General of 1789 were elected by their respective estates, rather more freely and more democratically than elections for many a decade following. There were specific procedures devised for this call of the Estates General, but I don't know what the methods were for 1614. There was intense interest in procedures: for example, a major issue had been having the third estate equal the other two together, and the exact boundaries of elections became an issue for a bit. \n\nThe procedures were rather complicated. (Quelle surprise: it was ancien régime France, after all.) There were some exceptions for Dauphiné, Navarre, and Brittany. Other than them, and provisions for 8 cities, there were 234 constituencies each electing 2 clerical, 2 noble, and 4 third-estate representatives, each chosen by their respective estates.\n\nFor the third estate, all male taxpayer over 25 had the right to attend a primary assembly. But that primary assembly simply elected 2 delegates for each 100 households. The delegates elected in a constituency met in a second-level assembly to elect their 4 representatives. (Future elections had wealth requirements for participation. Or tax requirements; as I recall, in the Directory men tried to get tax breaks for their opponents so as to kick them out of politics.) Clergy and nobles were eligible to be elected as representatives, but few were. Because of time and distance for the second-level assemblies, and more so for the Estates General, and because none of it was paid (only the heights/depths of the Revolution provided pay for anyone), men who didn't have money and leisure couldn't proceed even to the second level, like peasants and artisans. Those who bothered to vote (in Paris, participation only got up around 25%) had some education and leisure and voted for those like themselves. Those elected tended to be those used to public speaking, meetings, and laws. So about two-thirds of those elected were connected to the legal profession in some way: lawyers, notaries, or judges. Only some 85 representatives were connected with mercantile pursuits.\n\nIf you're curious: the electors for the first estate were all of the beneficed clergymen + representatives elected by monasteries and chapters. For the second estate, the electors were all the nobles who had full transmissible nobility. (There were various types of nobility adhering to various offices: some ennobled permanently and at once; some required several generations to trigger full inheritable nobility.)\n\nSource: William Doyle, *The Oxford History of the French Revolution*, ch. 4."
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} | test_askh | When Versaille assembled in 1789 for the first time in 175 years, who represented the third estate?
Countries such as France and Sweden had estate parliaments. In France, commoners (everyone outside of the nobility and church) made up the third estate, while in Sweden, these were divided into the 3rd and 4th estate. How did one attend these assemblies? I'm assuming there was farmers present, how were they picked? Was it simply first come first serve, or was there some kind of process already established? | [
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4iplm5 | Sen. Chuck Grassley said in an interview: "Remember, everybody thought Reagan was going to take us down to defeat in 1980." How accurate is his recollection? | I do remember a certain disbelief when Reagan was elected, but I'm not sure exactly how widespread it was, or how much of an "it'll never happen - oh, it happened" moment it was. | AskHistorians | {
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"By May of 1980 (this point 36 years ago) it was clear Carter was in serious trouble. The humiliating failure of the attempted rescue of Iranian hostages in April 1980 coupled with the economic crisis and the feeble response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan combined to make Carter seem like an incompetent bungler. Reagan's hawkish rhetoric and right wing politics had led liberal Republican Congressman John Anderson, one of Reagan's primary rivals, to launch an independent bid, which Carter hoped would split the GOP. In the end, Anderson's support came heavily from Carter.\n\nAdditionally, the Democratic Party was disorganized and bitterly divided by Teddy Kennedy's primary challenge to Carter, which Kennedy kept up until the convention, trying to get delegates unpledged in an attempt to win on the convention floor. This divide left the left wing of the party, who had backed Kennedy, bitter and unenthusiastic about Carter.",
"There were indeed doubts about Reagan's electability in 1980. I don't feel that I can comment in detail about how widespread they were, but they pop up in news media from the time and in history books.\n\nFor example here is an NBC piece on the question of if Reagan can win: _URL_4_\n\nHere is an AP piece quoting Former President Ford saying that Reagan couldn't win: _URL_6_\n\nThe concerns about Reagan's electability were centered in the question of if Reagan was too conservative for the country. To understand why that would be a concern, we need to take a step back and look at the world of 1980.\n\nFrom 1948 to 1980 there had been six elected presidents (Ford was never elected and only served out Nixon's second term). Four of the six were Democrats (Truman, Kennedy, Johnson, Carter) and two were Republicans (Eisenhower and Nixon). All of them governed in what one might call the New Deal consensus. \n\nThat is to say they all supported efforts to build up the nation at home through federal government policies. Even Nixon, who often dreamed of undoing much of the progress of LBJ's Great Society, was basically content to operate within the New Deal consensus framework. \n\nRonald Reagan, who famously said things like [\"The nine most terrifying words in the English language are: I'm from the government and I'm here to help,\"] (_URL_3_)\n was a clean break from that tradition. Instead Reagan looked a lot like Barry Goldwater, whose 1964 nomination led to the worst defeat the Republican Party suffered in the post-World War 2 era. This was enough to concern some and hearten others that Reagan would similarly be defeated.\n\nTo be specific beyond just questions about the size and role of government, Reagan was saying things that had historically been associated with extremist groups. For example his support of 'states rights' was an echo of segregationists opposition to federal action on civil rights issues. \n\nSources:\n\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_\n_URL_5_\n_URL_2_"
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"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Before-Storm-Goldwater-Unmaking-Consensus/dp/1568584121",
"http://www.amazon.com/White-Protestant-Nation-American-Conservative/dp/0802144209",
"http://www.amazon.com/One-Man-Against-World-Tragedy/dp/1627790837",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhYJS80MgYA",
"https://static.nbclearn.com/files/higheredsa/site/pdf/3252.pdf",
"http://www.amazon.com/Presidential-Campaigns-George-Washington-Bush/dp/0195167163",
"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1696&dat=19800303&id=xHQ1AAAAIBAJ&sjid=_kYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6656,269794&hl=en"
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} | test_askh | Sen. Chuck Grassley said in an interview: "Remember, everybody thought Reagan was going to take us down to defeat in 1980." How accurate is his recollection?
I do remember a certain disbelief when Reagan was elected, but I'm not sure exactly how widespread it was, or how much of an "it'll never happen - oh, it happened" moment it was. | [
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9d9b4p | How accurate is the line "...badly injured seamen were thrown overboard." from Pratt & Biesty's "Man-of-War" which was the subject of the top /r/nostalgia post today? | Ahoy!
So, i've deliberately left out the part about throwing the dead overboard, which isn't as interesting or harrowing, but specifically looking to see if this was common at the time with [ships of the line](_URL_0_) to throw wounded overboard during battle. And was that a tradition that older navies like the Romans or Greeks would have also followed?
& #x200B;
Original post today:
[_URL_2_](_URL_3_)
& #x200B;
This is the 4th-down comment thread on that specific question:
[_URL_2_e5filws/](_URL_1_)
Thanks much :) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"e5ggvkz"
],
"text": [
"If not universal in every action for every nation across the age of fighting sail, we can say that yes it was a pretty damn common practice.\n\nWe can even recount specific instances where the dead, thought to be or virtually dead, or parts thereof were simply tossed over in order to let the living return to their grim business. We should also make distinction here, man with his leg cutoff but alert and conscious was likely to if possible be carried below to the surgeon if some men saw him or there was a break in the action. A man unconscious from blood loss, with an arm shot away or his stomach split, and seemingly dead was possibly still alive but not long for this world and could be tossed over and some saw dust tossed down to improve traction. \n\nThis would happen even when it was clear who the dead man was, there wasn't the time, space, or ability to preserve most bodies for transport home, and the decks needed to be cleared for action.\n\nFor instance early on at that great example of Trafalgar while *HMS Victory* was still working her way to the Allied line she received fire from several French and Spanish ships. Several shots hit her Quarterdeck where Nelson, Captain Hardy, and other senior officers stood. One of the dead was Nelson's own Secretary John Scott. The admiral is recorded to remark 'Is that poor Scott' as his splinter mangled body was tossed over but to return to matters at hand. Sure maybe his heart was still pumping when he went over but sailors and crews had a pretty good idea of what wounds and conditions had a good chance to live and clearly dead, or appearing so when a clear deck was needed meant over the side along with any other debris on deck.\n\nWe have the following account from a seaman, Samuel Leech, aboard *HMS Macedonian* when she engaged the *USS United States* in a single ship action in October 1812. He being one of the younger members of the crew was used as a powder monkey, who ran from the Magazine to his assigned gun and back to keep her supplied and firing. \n\n > A strange noise, such as I had never heard before, next arrested my attention; it sounded like the tearing of sails, just over our heads. This I soon ascertained to be the wind of the enemy's shot. The firing, after a few minutes' cessation, recommenced. The roaring of cannon could now be heard from all parts of our trembling ship, and, mingling as it did with that of our foes, it made a most hideous noise. By-and-by I heard the shot strike the sides of our ship; the whole scene grew indescribably confused and horrible; it was like some awfully tremendous thunder-storm, whose deafening roar is attended by incessant streaks of lightning, carrying death in every flash and strewing the ground with the victims of its wrath: only, in our case, the scene was rendered more horrible than that, by the presence of torrents of blood which dyed our decks. \n\n > **The cries of the wounded now rang through all parts of the ship. These were carried to the cockpit as fast as they fell, while those more fortunate men, who were killed outright, were immediately thrown overboard.** As I was stationed but a short distance from the main hatchway, I could catch a glance at all who were carried below. A glance was all I could indulge in, for the boys belonging to the guns next to mine were wounded in the early part of the action, and I had to spring with all my might to keep three or four guns supplied with cartridges. I saw two of these lads fall nearly together. One of them was struck in the leg by a large shot; he had to suffer amputation above the wound. The other had a grape or canister shot sent through his ankle. A stout Yorkshireman lifted him in his arms and hurried him to the cockpit. He had his foot cut off, and was thus made lame for life. Two of the boys stationed on the quarterdeck were killed. They were both Portuguese. A man, who saw one of them killed, afterwards told me that his powder caught fire and burnt the flesh almost off his face. In this pitiable situation, the agonized boy lifted up both hands, as if imploring relief, when a passing shot instantly cut him in two. **I was an eye-witness to a sight equally revolting. A man named Aldrich had his hands cut off by a shot, and almost at the same moment he received another shot, which tore open his bowels in a terrible manner. As he fell, two or three men caught him in their arms, and, as he could not live, threw him overboard.**\n\nFollowing the surrender of the British Frigate to her American foe he goes to help his wounded mates as best he can and recounts:\n\n > I now set to work to render all the aid in my power tothe sufferers. **Our carpenter, named Reed, had his leg cutoff. I helped to carry him to the after ward-room; but he soon breathed out his life there, and then I assisted in throwing his mangled remains overboard.** We got out the cots as fast as possible; for most of them were stretched out on the gory deck. One poor fellow, who lay with a broken thigh, begged me to give him water. I gave him some. He looked unutterable gratitude, drank, and died. It was with exceeding difficulty I moved through the steerage, it was so covered with mangled men and so slippery with streams of blood.\"\n\nSo through it all we have men who were clearly dead, and mortally wounded thrown to the sea, some with modern medicine may have survived, many probably not, but it is clear that the distinction is made that those wounds which to them stood a chance at survival would see a man sent to receive care for all the good it would do. \n\nThe full account is here: _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
22
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_the_line",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/nostalgia/comments/9d5liw/crosssection_books_from_the_90s/e5filws/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/nostalgia/comments/9d5liw/crosssection\\_books\\_from\\_the\\_90s/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/nostalgia/comments/9d5liw/crosssection_books_from_the_90s/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/nostalgia/comments/9d5liw/crosssection\\_books\\_from\\_the\\_90s/e5filws/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nelsonsnavy.co.uk/engagement.html"
]
} | test_askh | How accurate is the line "...badly injured seamen were thrown overboard." from Pratt & Biesty's "Man-of-War" which was the subject of the top /r/nostalgia post today?
Ahoy! So, i've deliberately left out the part about throwing the dead overboard, which isn't as interesting or harrowing, but specifically looking to see if this was common at the time with [ships of the line](_URL_0_) to throw wounded overboard during battle. And was that a tradition that older navies like the Romans or Greeks would have also followed? & #x200B; Original post today: [_URL_2_](_URL_3_) & #x200B; This is the 4th-down comment thread on that specific question: [_URL_2_e5filws/](_URL_1_) Thanks much :) | [
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10rprx | [Book Recommendations]: Military History of the War of 1812, emphasis on Jackson and Scott. | I have to take a class on the American Civil war for Grad school, but luckily was able to talk the professor into letting me write my paper on the military similarities between the war of 1812 and the American Civil war(I have little interest in furthering my knowledge of the American Civil War). While I am familiar with the political history my indepth military knowledge of the war is lacking. Specifically I am looking for an account of Jackson's role in the war with a heavy emphasis on the Indian campaigns, The Naval wars ( specifically on the great lakes and Britain's southern strategy), and anything yall could recommend regarding Winfield Scott's thinking and how or if his experiences in the war of 1812 reflected his Anaconda plan. THANKS
Edit : I have the *The Civil War of 1812* already | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Hi there,\n\nIf you're interested in specifically military history I'd recommend J. Hitsman's \"Incredible War of 1812\". It's a book entirely devoted to the military actions in the war of 1812. At times I found it a bit dry and lacking of political context, but I think its perfect for getting a general sense of battle outlines. \n\nAs for Andrew Jackson specifically, I'd say avoid Jackson biographies. They tend to deal with his time as president more then anything else. The book, \"The British at the Gates\" by Reilly is the best one I've found. Mostly about New Orleans, with some other Jackson information sprinkled in there. \n\nFor naval history, there is none better than \"Lords of the Lake\" by Robert Malcomson. In depth, more about great lakes, but excellent explanation of naval warfare that is specific to North America. I may be a bit biased as I had a privilege to meet the wonderful man, but he's as much of a great writer as he was a great person.\n\nAs for Winfield Scott, there are many routes you can go down. You may also want to read into his time south of the United States, but I'll stick to the War of 1812. Donald Graves wrote a book about the Battle of Lundy's Lane, not a huge Graves fan but it will do the trick. To me the most important thing for Scott is the Battle of Chippawa (HUGE victory on his behalf), but its hard to find a good source on that. Graves does go into some detail on Scott's drilling techniques and on his victories at Chippawa, so that's why I included his book. \n\nFirst Nations history can be a bit tricky. There's a book called His Majesty's Indian Allies that I would avoid at all costs. However, there is a book called the Iroquois in the War of 1812 that is really good. Goes over Iroquois culture, battles and roles, really well done. However, for Grad School, depending on how much you want to put into this, I'd recommend John Norton's Diary of the War of 1812. It's incredibly hard to find (just put back into print this year) but copies of it exist online. It is a contemporary diary that was designed for publication. It's extremely in depth, a first hand resource, and invaluable on the topic.",
"Millett & Maslowski's \"For the Common Defense\" chapters 4 & 5 might be a good starting point."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | [Book Recommendations]: Military History of the War of 1812, emphasis on Jackson and Scott.
I have to take a class on the American Civil war for Grad school, but luckily was able to talk the professor into letting me write my paper on the military similarities between the war of 1812 and the American Civil war(I have little interest in furthering my knowledge of the American Civil War). While I am familiar with the political history my indepth military knowledge of the war is lacking. Specifically I am looking for an account of Jackson's role in the war with a heavy emphasis on the Indian campaigns, The Naval wars ( specifically on the great lakes and Britain's southern strategy), and anything yall could recommend regarding Winfield Scott's thinking and how or if his experiences in the war of 1812 reflected his Anaconda plan. THANKS Edit : I have the *The Civil War of 1812* already | [
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2kz8uv | Are there any lost technologies that still have not been found today? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Concrete wasn't lost per se; the technology of modern concrete is significantly different from the Roman variety which owed much of it's strength to local volcanic ash. This is similar to 'Damascus Steel' which owed much of it's strength and quality not to technique but quality of supplies which, when they dried up, made further forging impossible. The techniques and knowledge of the use of these materials died out.\n\nAs for 'technologies' there is really nothing from the Ancient world that exists that we couldn't produce today; the only mysteries were exactly how some mechanisms worked. For example, Antikythera mechanism was a bit of a mystery at first, but once we worked out what it was for it was pretty clear. \n\nThe simplest fact is that most of the 'mysteries' of the ancient world, technology wise, are not really lost or misunderstood, so much as theory remains to be tested. This may surprise you, but not many places are going to authorize funding for large scale archaeological experiments to test theories on pyramid building or to build a full scale quinquereme. So multiple theories on many aspects of ancient technology exist that are yet to be tested on which one is the most likely true in practice.",
"Months ago there was [Lost skills feature](_URL_0_). Someone mentioned certain artisan skills, like specific leather shoe making.",
"Are there any medical technologies that have been 'lost'?"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
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} | test_askh | Are there any lost technologies that still have not been found today?
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8jlji9 | What is the Spanish/Portuguese people's general sentiment about the history before the reconquista? How is it taught in schools? | I'm not sure this question is allowed in the sub. If it violates any rules please let me know.
Edit: I had Islamic period in mind. | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Usually, since we were de facto Catholic nations until the mid 20th century at least, we have the intuitive view that we were living here and were pushed up by the moors and then returned and resettled the land. The moors are always viewed negatively and as outsiders, by the vast majority of the population. The reality, however, is that this was a feudal conflict where the whole of society was not involved in. The feudal lords lost their lands and the moors came in. The people remained for the most part, and in the short term benefitted, since most early moorish rulers weren't as strict as the visigothic elites (the almoravids and almohads were terrible though). Some, though probably not that many, converted to islam to escape some taxes and other things. There was some flourishing in agriculture, etc. Many people will acknowledge some good aspects of moorish rule, but virtually zero would wish it to have remained thus forever (like Morocco, etc). Probably because once christianity was dominant again (politically and militarily, it was always dominant religiously to the masses of people) the greatest period in our History started, the age of discoveries."
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} | test_askh | What is the Spanish/Portuguese people's general sentiment about the history before the reconquista? How is it taught in schools?
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|
1pmsr5 | Why was there a sudden peak in the use of the word "froth," according to google, in the 1920's? | Title sums up the question quite nicely. Was it a cultural thing? Why the sudden decline? Also, I couldn't find askhistoricallinguist, so please don't hate me if it's a little out of the norm. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"cd3y7ci",
"cd3xsms"
],
"text": [
"Booze, baby, Booze! It was the era of Prohibition and as such, it was the era of the cocktail, with experimentation happening in both speakeasies and hoity-toity establishments alike, such as the Algonquin Hotel. Many popular cocktails of the time were supplemented with egg whites, specifically for their ability to create a beautiful thick *froth.* Plus, the egg whites didn't add any flavors to the drink, just mouth-feel and texture. \n\n[Here are some cocktails that use egg whites,](_URL_0_) many of which you'll recognize. I would wager even money that's why \"froth\" was coming into increased usage. It probably fell off a bit as novelty drinks slowly waned into the 1960's.\n\nSource: I'm not an historian, but I was a professional bartender, and still remain an amateur alcoholic.",
"[Link to the graph the question refers to](_URL_1_)."
],
"score": [
19,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.chow.com/food-news/54866/10-raw-egg-cocktails/",
"https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=froth&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cfroth%3B%2Cc0"
]
} | test_askh | Why was there a sudden peak in the use of the word "froth," according to google, in the 1920's?
Title sums up the question quite nicely. Was it a cultural thing? Why the sudden decline? Also, I couldn't find askhistoricallinguist, so please don't hate me if it's a little out of the norm. | [
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|
39yz3i | Setting aside morality, from a purely legal standpoint how sound was the Supreme Court's ruling in the Dredd Scott case of 1857? | I remember in high school my AP US history teacher discussed Dredd Scott at great length, and concluded that while morally and politically disastrous, the Dredd Scott ruling was legally sound based on the laws and Constitution as they stood in 1857.
However, the [wikipedia article](_URL_0_) describes the decision as "universally denounced by scholars." Was my high school teacher completely wrong in his analysis? How does history view the decision? On what basis is the quality of the decision viewed? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"csargf0"
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"text": [
"The short answer is that yes, your high school teacher is wrong. Yet, it's not that simple. The dred Scott decision is one huge tangled mess of questionable jurisprudence mixed with racism, divisive politics, and unsound legal basis.\n\n\nNow at first I would say that the legal aspect as to why the decision was wrong (a legal question) is separate from what law scholars thought of the decision at the time (a historical question). Yet, I think this question belongs in this sub because the opinions that rebut this decision were actually contemporary to the case and are extremely tied to historical context of the framer's time and Taney's time. In other words, it's not merely that we, 150 years in the future, recognize that such a decision was bad legally and morally, but other law scholars of time, including a Supreme Court justice, did so too, and they used the same historical and legal arguments we would use today.\n\n\n[this paper by Robert Burt from Yale Law] (_URL_0_) is an excellent explanation of how wrong justice Taney was when he made the decision from a legal standpoint, though the moral angles aren't lost in the paper. It also contextualizes the decision with the opinion of other contemporary legal experts.\n\n\nSo to tackle the main points of the decision. First, Taney ruled that black couple were not citizens of the U.S. and so had no standing to sue in federal court. The problem was that many northern states had given citizenship to blacks, so Taney had to argue that state citizenship was separate from federal citizenship, and having one didn't mean you automatically had the other. Additionally, he argued from strict constructionist interpretation of the constitution that because the framers of the constitution did not originally intend on having black people be included as citizens of the us, they could never become citizens.\n\nIt was this point that justice Curtis attacked in his dissent. He didn't argue that state and federal citizenship weren't separate, but that the path to federal citizenship was through state citizenship. And that if a black person became a citizen of a state, he could then become a U.S. Citizen. He based this on a review of records that showed that, at the time of the ratification of the constitution, 5 of the original 13 states had already granted citizenship to blacks. This flies in the face of Taney's argument that the the framers of the constitution did not intend to have black people be citizens. \n\nIt's not that the framers expected the constitution to apply to black people, but when it was drafted, it already did because it didn't exclude them explicitly. The framers didn't expect that the constitution would interfere with slavery the way Scott was arguing it did because they hadn't foreseen the draconian measures the south would impose on its slaves and how central its protection would become to the unity of the nation. So Taney had to ask himself if the framers would've considered withholding citizenship from blacks explicitly if they had foreseen the context of slavery in 1857. And he reasoned that, because of how careful they had been to protect slavery in the constitution, they would have. In this point, it seems that historically, Taney might have been right, but legally still wrong.\n\n\nThe second point in Taney's decision was that the Missouri compromise was unconstitutional because the government cannot deprive people of property without due process. \n\nThis is both historically and legally a problem for Taney because the constitution explicitly allows for the federal government to create necessary rules and regulations towards property of the United States. This means that congress could ban slavery on territory that had not become a state yet, which is what the Missouri compromise did. Taney argued that this only applied to territory that belonged to the U.S. and wasn't a state at the time of ratification. This was historically and legally unfounded because there was nothing he could cite to give him this opinion. His opinion was based, again, on asking himself whether the framers had considered how central slavery would be to holding their new nation together in the future. In other words, he argued that the framers had intended the rules and regulations powers to apply only to non state territories at the time of ratification to solve a disputed that was contemporary to them, and because they could not have foreseen how legalization of slavery in new states would become of such overwhelming significance, the language in article IV section 3 that allows congress to ban slavery in territories only applied to those that existed at the time of ratification.\n\nAnd here we come to the real weakness in Taney's argument. The fugitive slave clause in article IV section 2 recognized the right of property of a master in a slave and the 5th amendment's property protections is directly in contradiction with article IV section 3. The framers hadn't solved this issue, and they had omitted the solution on purpose because they saw that slavery had to be protected, but couldn't admit in the constitution the idea of property in men. They had deliberately left this vague and opted for the future generations to solve it.\n\nThe problem Taney's ruling had was that he grabbed hold of this contradiction, a huge one at that, and opted to solve it for the side of slavery. This was wrong because of the constitution as properly understood in the context of the framers and applied to the context of 1857, it could not possibly answer that contradiction.\n\nCompare and contrast this to the way brown vs board of education was ruled. Both were litigated by parties that saw their defeat as intolerable. A decision in favor of either party will result in huge backlash. This is a very important dilemma to recognize under democratic principles. The only way out of it is war or long, introspective, and painful *public* discussion, not judicial review.\n\nTaney seems to have been completely oblivious this fact. He attempted to completely shut off all public discussion of the slavery issue by solving an unsolvable contradiction with stretched logic and unsound historical and legal reasoning. It's really important to understand what he did. If he had ruled the opposite way, it would've been just as bad.\n\nIn brown vs board, The court opined that the historical sources were inconclusive. In other words, they could not possibly interpret the framer's intent in the context of 1957's segregation laws. And the court was *honest* about this fact. In effect, the decision *unsettled* a dispute between two litigants that had been settled in favor of one of them already, and which the other found as intolerable. You see what I'm saying there? This decision restored the discussion of race relations to public discussion in a way that Taney sought to shut down.\n\n\nAnyway, I've rambled on forever, and I really suggest you take a look at that Yale law paper because it is very worth the time."
],
"score": [
48
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1801&context=fss_papers"
]
} | test_askh | Setting aside morality, from a purely legal standpoint how sound was the Supreme Court's ruling in the Dredd Scott case of 1857?
I remember in high school my AP US history teacher discussed Dredd Scott at great length, and concluded that while morally and politically disastrous, the Dredd Scott ruling was legally sound based on the laws and Constitution as they stood in 1857. However, the [wikipedia article](_URL_0_) describes the decision as "universally denounced by scholars." Was my high school teacher completely wrong in his analysis? How does history view the decision? On what basis is the quality of the decision viewed? | [
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|
6fayu5 | Unknown origin of postcard from WWII. | My grandmother showed me a letter from her father who was in the U.S. Navy in WWII. I need help figuring out where this postcard is from.
[here is the postcard that she gave me](_URL_0_) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"digvtpl"
],
"text": [
"This was Ginza Street in Mudanjiang, Manchuria, China. It was under Japanese occupation since 1931, hence the name \"Ginza\" after a district of Tokyo, and the city was called \"Botankou\" by the Japanese. That's the reading of the Chinese characters in Japanese. \n\nThe top of the postcard gives the location read right to left: Botankou, Ginza Avenue. (牡丹江 銀座 通り) (I've written it here left to right in the modern way)\n\nThe shop signs are in Japanese, and your great-grandfather mentions that a lot of the buildings aren't there anymore, so I guess this was a postcard left from its heyday as a shopping street. Here's a [1942 photograph of the same street](_URL_0_) from Wikipedia.\n\n**ETA:** I'm rather interested what your great-grandfather was doing there in September, since Mudanjiang a) is inland b) was liberated by the Soviet Union in August. \n\n**ETA 2:** This may help you with further research. the battle that took place in August is written as \"Mutanchiang\" in most sources, according to older transliteration rules. The battle was very destructive, no wonder a lot of the buildings were gone when your great-grandfather wrote your grandmother."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/5CBGt"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudanjiang#/media/File:Mdj-1942.jpg"
]
} | test_askh | Unknown origin of postcard from WWII.
My grandmother showed me a letter from her father who was in the U.S. Navy in WWII. I need help figuring out where this postcard is from. [here is the postcard that she gave me](_URL_0_) | [
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902bnz | What was Von Moltke thinking? | I have a question for all you WWI experts out there. Been reading a lot about the Great War after playing Battlefield I, visiting the National WWI Museum in Kansas City, and listening to Dan Carlin’s Blueprint for Armageddon. My question is:
What was Von Moltke and later Ludendorff’s rationale on sticking to the Schlieffen plan and that “the war could be won in France” with a decisive punch, specially after Great Britain’s entry into the war and the fiasco of the race to the sea and trench warfare? Why didn’t they set up minimal defenses in the West and knock Russia out earlier? Or did they try and I’m missing something? Did they not know GB was allied with Belgium and how that would turn out? I would have taken out Russia’s vastly underprepared and less technologically advanced army first and then dealt with the French. Thoughts?
TL/DR: Why Schlieffen plan even after bogged down in the West? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Both Germany and Britain were signatories to the pact which ensured Belgian neutrality (treaty of London 1839) which Germany later revoked so Germany was aware of the mutual defense agreement. \n\nIt is important to remember that Russia had the largest standing army and also the largest airforce going into the conflict, although it was rotten to the core, Russia is also huge so naturally it would've been hard to knock them out easily. As for the Western Front the whole 'minimal defense' idea you talk about was utilised later with the construction of the Hindenburg Line but it is also important to remember that France and Britain were able to bring huge amounts of forces to bear (in 1914, France more so) so the whole idea of a 'minimal defense' is practically unfeasible due to the sheer size of the French and British armies. If you need me to clarify just tell me, I'll also provide sources.",
"In more than a few parts it was the perception of Russian weakness that created the plan. After the Russo-Japanese war and the revolution of 1905, some planners had a feeling that Russia was not a threat for the immediate future, and that - therefore - it would be possible to concentrate on France, and perhaps knock it out in one blow.\n\nWhatever one might say about different plans, it seems to be right, that Russia was not an immediate threat. Germany deployed the bulk of its army on the western front and still managed to defend in the east.\n\nFor a deeper discussion - things that play into the thinking of planners are, perceived situation for the nation, and general culture for the armed forces in question.\n\nAs to whether they knew about what the UK would do, or not, it is not so easy to answer. On the surface, and objectively, it is possible that they did, and that they thought the plan would lead to victory anyhow. It is also possible that - social beings that we are - they went ahead with something that some felt was very stupid. Compare here with Japan and WWII. Were Japan had been successful earlier in the 20th century, against a far greater economy, Russia, but were more than a few understood that the western world could not be defeated, if it decided to fight the war to the end.\n\nFor an even deeper understanding, one has to read the different memoirs, which I have not done. It should be mentioned that translated memoirs might skip interesting parts and show a false picture of what a person really did. The writer in question might of course also write a story that is actually not true to how it was when it happened."
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} | test_askh | What was Von Moltke thinking?
I have a question for all you WWI experts out there. Been reading a lot about the Great War after playing Battlefield I, visiting the National WWI Museum in Kansas City, and listening to Dan Carlin’s Blueprint for Armageddon. My question is: What was Von Moltke and later Ludendorff’s rationale on sticking to the Schlieffen plan and that “the war could be won in France” with a decisive punch, specially after Great Britain’s entry into the war and the fiasco of the race to the sea and trench warfare? Why didn’t they set up minimal defenses in the West and knock Russia out earlier? Or did they try and I’m missing something? Did they not know GB was allied with Belgium and how that would turn out? I would have taken out Russia’s vastly underprepared and less technologically advanced army first and then dealt with the French. Thoughts? TL/DR: Why Schlieffen plan even after bogged down in the West? | [
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|
2y1k12 | Was John "Softsword"'s nickname a double meaning? | Being as blunt as possible, would individuals in the English kingdom have viewed this as a dick joke? He earned the nickname from his poor military acumen, but I was wondering if any evidence supported the idea that he was called this for non-military reasons as well. | AskHistorians | {
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"While I can't speak directly on the nickname, I can say that John was known to be sexually voracious, often sleeping with his Barons' wives, although he had no heirs. In 1204 he charged Joan de Neville 200 chickens for the right to sleep with her own husband Hugh (a member of the royal court) for a night, rather than with him.\n\n\nSo on balance I would argue that no the nickname does not have a sexual undertone. It certainly fits with the other jibes aimed at him, Lackland and 'Reynardie', or fox - like.\n\nDaniel Crook 'Hugh de Neville' in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"
],
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"url": []
} | test_askh | Was John "Softsword"'s nickname a double meaning?
Being as blunt as possible, would individuals in the English kingdom have viewed this as a dick joke? He earned the nickname from his poor military acumen, but I was wondering if any evidence supported the idea that he was called this for non-military reasons as well. | [
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|
3599w7 | How has France been able to hold on to some of its colonies up to this point? | Such as French Guyana, Caribbean islands, and South Pacific Islands | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"They’re no longer colonies—they’re integral parts of France, in the same way that Hawaii is part of the U.S."
],
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12
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} | {
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} | {
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} | test_askh | How has France been able to hold on to some of its colonies up to this point?
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|
24kyu4 | Have there been any King Matthews? | I'm interested for guessable personal reasons. But also, were people with certain names (Henry, John, Richard etc) just more likely to be king? Matthew has been a common name for a long time, but perhaps it hasn't been a aristocratic name. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"ch87zri"
],
"text": [
"I'm not a historian but I found Matthias Corvinus, a 15th century Hungarian and Croatian king, whose name if Anglicized would be Matthew. There was also a Holy Roman Emperor from the 17th century named Matthias. \n\nNot sure what the Wikipedia policy is here but I found them there: _URL_0_ and _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias,_Holy_Roman_Emperor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus"
]
} | test_askh | Have there been any King Matthews?
I'm interested for guessable personal reasons. But also, were people with certain names (Henry, John, Richard etc) just more likely to be king? Matthew has been a common name for a long time, but perhaps it hasn't been a aristocratic name. | [
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|
30zm13 | What is the scholarly consensus on whether Han or Greedo shot first? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"There is no scholarly debate on this largely due to the eyewitness account of Wuher, the bartender of the Mos Eisley Cantina where this event occurred. Wuher states that Greedo threatened Solo and Solo shot him from under the table. He was also quite upset that Solo only gave him a coin \"for the mess\" because most transactions are done using credit chips and a coin was almost pointless. He didn't press the issue because Solo seemed like a bit of a wild card and one of Solo's associates had cut the arm off one of his regulars, Ponda Baba, and his staff was \"already busy cleaning blood from the floor so what was the harm in cleaning a little more?\"\n\nWhen asked why he would not simply use a maintenance droid, Wuher becomes confrontational and kicks people out. He does admit that there is a holodisk recording of the event, but a powerful denier, strong in the Dark Side, has poorly edited and released copies of the altered version to make it seem as if Greedo shot first. This is an obvious fake as Solo's head moves unnaturally and there is no scorch mark on the wall where Greedo's shot allegedly hits. This edit is the source of the confusion.",
"Han shot first. It was only after Pro-Han revisionists examined the evidence that opinions shifted to Greedo."
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} | {
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} | {
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} | test_askh | What is the scholarly consensus on whether Han or Greedo shot first?
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||
11takx | so I like history, but i can't decide if it's major worthy | I'm attending Western Washington University in Bellingham Washington which has a wonderful history program and some awesome teachers. I took community college classes in high school and got pretty hooked on history with a certain teacher who inspired me to look into it more. My dilemma is that the more I think about it, I can't see anything other than teaching as a long term career that a history degree could do for me. I've considered a double major in history and PoliSci but any help or knowledge you historians have would be cool too hear when it comes to a history interested college student.
TL;DR: In college and like history but don't know if I should major in it if all it means is being a teacher after graduating. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"c6pf8xp"
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"text": [
"Well this is sort of why I switched majors, I started as a history and polisci major (just like you). I have always loved history, but I did not like the idea of teaching. There is of course a small possibility of being able to get into history research or some such, writing maybe? I decided to keep it as a hobby instead and switched to psychology. Hum I might get downvoted for saying this, whoopsie?"
],
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3
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} | {
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | so I like history, but i can't decide if it's major worthy
I'm attending Western Washington University in Bellingham Washington which has a wonderful history program and some awesome teachers. I took community college classes in high school and got pretty hooked on history with a certain teacher who inspired me to look into it more. My dilemma is that the more I think about it, I can't see anything other than teaching as a long term career that a history degree could do for me. I've considered a double major in history and PoliSci but any help or knowledge you historians have would be cool too hear when it comes to a history interested college student. TL;DR: In college and like history but don't know if I should major in it if all it means is being a teacher after graduating. | [
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|
3gkwwy | Did any nations from the 18th-early 20th century predict the rise of the United States? | AskHistorians | {
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"ctzllrt"
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"text": [
"Not a nation per se, but the French aristocrat Alexis de Tocqueville in *Democracy in America* predicted back in the 1830s that Russia and the United States would be the great powers of tomorrow, due to their growth and unmet potential.\n\nThe relevant quotation is as follows:\n\n\"There are now two great nations in the world which, starting from different points, seem to be advancing toward the same goal: the Russians and the Anglo-Americans. Both have grown in obscurity, and while the world’s attention was occupied elsewhere, they have suddenly taken their place among the leading nations, making the world take note of their birth and of their greatness almost at the same instant. All other peoples seem to have nearly reached their natural limits and to need nothing but to preserve them; but these two are growing…. The American fights against natural obstacles; the Russian is at grips with men. The former combats the wilderness and barbarism; the latter, civilization with all its arms. America’s conquests are made with the plowshare, Russia’s with the sword. To attain their aims, the former relies on personal interest and gives free scope to the unguided strength and common sense of individuals. The latter in a sense concentrates the whole power of society in one man. One has freedom as the principal means of action; the other has servitude. Their point of departure is different and their paths diverse; nevertheless, each seems called by some secret desire of Providence one day to hold in its hands the destinies of half the world.\"\n\n\nSource: ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, Democracy in America, ed. J. P. Mayer, trans. George Lawrence, vol. 1, part 2, Conclusion, final paragraphs, pp. 412–13 (1969). Originally published in 1835–1840."
],
"score": [
22
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | Did any nations from the 18th-early 20th century predict the rise of the United States?
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4hxk6g | What was the French motivation in creating the CFP franc? | [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) quotes a French finance minister saying that "In a show of her generosity and selflessness, metropolitan France, wishing not to impose on her far-away daughters the consequences of her own poverty, is setting different exchange rates for their currency." Is that really all there was to it, or was there some more selfish reason involved? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"tl:dr : Nah it's basically it. The franc was in a very bad state because of ww2, and it heavily impacted the pacific islands so France gave them their own money so they wouldn't be so dependant of the situation in France.\n\nDuring the middle of the 19th century, nothing really existed there in term of economy, a lot of people used troc as their primary method, and the other used a variety of different money including franc obviously but also a lot of other foreign currencies. Basically what they could get their hand on was used.\n\nSo France in 1905 decided to standardize the situation and franc became the main and almost sole currency used in these islands. But it meant they became dependant of the situation of the franc which was dependend itself of the situation in France thousand of km away from there. Which obviously became a problem during the second world war since the cash coming from France stopped traveling as far as the pacific and led to situation where some value were simply not in stock anymore so they had to print new value on older banknotes.. Which is not something you want to be forced to do.\n\nAfter the second world war, France is in a really bad state, and De Gaule devaluate the value of the Franc. Again the polynesian islands had to suffer from that decision since they are heavily dependent of the importation made from their neighbourgh and a weaker franc meant higher price overall. So in 1945 France decided to give them their own money, so they will be more independant and not as heavily impacted by the situation so far away from them. Overall it was a happily welcomed news in polynesie. \n\nNowadays, they are in talk for switching to the euro, but i don't have much information about that subject."
],
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2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFP_franc"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | What was the French motivation in creating the CFP franc?
[Wikipedia](_URL_0_) quotes a French finance minister saying that "In a show of her generosity and selflessness, metropolitan France, wishing not to impose on her far-away daughters the consequences of her own poverty, is setting different exchange rates for their currency." Is that really all there was to it, or was there some more selfish reason involved? | [
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2j3ovc | I'm a Frenchman in the year 1400, and I have an awful, awful ache in one of my teeth. I'd like to do something about it, what happens? | AskHistorians | {
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"Depending on the class and wealth of the individual, they would seek advice of a university taught doctor (often sponsored by the church), a local physician or perhaps a herbal doctor. At his point it is important to not that medical care in the medieval period varied... alot. \nFirst I will deal with the elite university doctors who would have been able to access the medical texts which due to their cost were few and far between. Only wealthy citizens are likely to be able to afford the treatments.\nA respected opinion of the time (and one that you will find in medical texts) was that toothache was caused by the imbalance of the four humours: fire, earth, water and air. A popular treatment to fix this would be bloodletting and also the inhalation of smoke from various herbs, dependent on which humour the physician thought was causing the imbalance. \nMost of the medical texts I have found advise against tooth pulling unless the pain is severe and it is the last course of action. \nIf the tooth had a fracture an early filling material had been invented (although it differs from doctor to doctor) an example I have found in Chirurgia Magna by Guy de Chauliac was composed of gall nuts, pig grease, mastic, myrrh, sulphur, camphor, beeswax, arsenic and asafoetida. This would be packed into the crack and the tooth wrapped in cloth. Advice of fasting and eating soft meat for the next 20 days was often given alongside.\nFalse teeth could also be created, most likely from cow bone, if a tooth was extracted and fixed in place by golden wire. Doctors would almost certainly try other herbal remedies as well as advising their patients to pray and carry charms.\n\nSome medical texts if you're interested: \nChirurgia magna attributed to Guy de Chauliac\nRosa Anglica Medicinae by John of Gaddesden\nCompendium of Medicine by Gilbertus Anglicus\n\nIf you were poorer you would likely go to a local physician, most of what they woulld base their practice on is passed down during apprentices or learned through talking with other physicians. Bloodletting again would be common but herbal remedies and tooth extraction would be alot more popular. The Physicians of Myddfai is a welsh collection of herbal and folklore remedies and I'm sure the French would have a simliar ideas. \nI'll copy a couple of extracts so you get an idea of what it entails.\n\n\"Get an iron nail and engrave the following words theron, + agla + Sabaoth + athanatos + and insert the nail under the affected tooth. Then drive it into an oak tree, and whilst it remains there the toothache will not return. But you should carve on the tree with the nail the name of the man affected with toothache, repeating the following: By the power of the Father and these consecrated words, as thou enterest into this wood, so let the pain and disease depart from the tooth of the sufferer. Even so be it. Amen\"\n\n\"whenever you wash, rub the inside of your ears with your fingers\"\n\n\"Take the leaves of sage (Salvia officinalis), powder with as much again of salt, and make it into balls. Bake them till they are burnt and powder. Let your teeth be rubbed frequently therewith. It will render the teeth clean, white, and sweet\"\n\nI hope this helps, medieval dentistry is quite hard to pin down and give an exact answer."
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} | test_askh | I'm a Frenchman in the year 1400, and I have an awful, awful ache in one of my teeth. I'd like to do something about it, what happens?
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3kpcix | Did Sparta ever have a realistic chance of regaining relevancy post-Leuctra? | AskHistorians | {
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"Yes, if they would be willing to commit to radical social reform.\n\nOnce they lost their empire and unequal allies, they were reduced to the status of \"just another city-state\". However, they controlled all of Lakonia, which meant they were still one of the richest states in mainland Greece. According to Aristotle, their land had the potential to support an army of 1,500 cavalry and 30,000 hoplites. Unfortunately, massive wealth accumulation in the hands of a smaller and smaller body of citizens meant that very little of this potential could actually be brought to bear.\n\nFor decades after Leuktra, Sparta tried to regain supremacy in the Peloponnese and to recover Messene. They failed because there were simply too few enfranchised citizens to fill out the ranks of the army; those who did not make the income requirement to gain citizen rights understandably didn't feel terribly committed to the Spartan cause.\n\nSparta was briefly resurgent in the late 330s BC, but the Macedonians soon smashed their rebellion, and the city-state was mostly passive for a century (as far as we can tell). Then came the reforms of Agis and Kleomenes. These kings actually redistributed the land, so that Sparta went from having 100 citizens to having 9,000. This gave them another day in the sun and a couple of notable victories before the Macedonians came down again and crushed them at Sellasia in 222 BC. King Kleomenes fled and died in Egypt. Sparta was never relevant again after that.",
"I found the quote from a book I was reading which made me ask this question: \"In view of his precarious position in Greece, where he had few possessions and many enemies (including a resurgent Sparta)...\" ('Diving the Spoils, the War for Alexander the Great's Empire' by Robin Waterfield', page 210, line 3)."
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} | test_askh | Did Sparta ever have a realistic chance of regaining relevancy post-Leuctra?
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||
bjfx3f | Some question about weapons | Hey, first how are you all? Second I'm working on a tabletop thing and I'm wanting to know of some potential candidates for weapons I can add. Namely European between the 1300s through the 1600s (big gap I know).
I have the usual suspects(Greatswords, halberds, axes, etc) but I was wanting to know of some other more unique options? I was wondering about examples of Two handed maces and single edged greatswords(best I could find was an exceptionally large messer.) I'd love to hear what y'all have to say, and examples in artwork or surviving items would also be appreciated. | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"em87idr",
"em81lgc"
],
"text": [
"So with regard to swords, please don't base your classification off D & D. It draws more from Victorian antiquarians than the middle ages. Look at the Oakeshott typology instead: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_) \n\nWith regards to the late middle ages in western Europe, generally two types of swords were in common use. The first is the arming sword - a roughly three foot long cut-and-thrust sword often worn as a sidearm. The second is the longsword - a two-handed fighting sword with an overall length of about 48 inches. Massive great swords were not nearly as common, and were mostly used in the Renaissance to break up pike formations. They're not really meant for fighting individuals.\n\nYou also have the estoc - a blunt sword with an acute point meant solely for thrusting in the gaps between armor.\n\nThere's not really any point in a two-handed mace, when a pollaxe or war hammer will do the job better.",
"[The Wallace Collection](_URL_6_), [Royal Armouries](_URL_6_), [The Ethnographic Arms and Armour site](_URL_6_), and[The Victoria and Albert Museum](_URL_5_) are good places to start.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n[Fagan Arms](_URL_5_) is a dealer, however they provide good provenance that will allow you to perform an extended search into the broad history of a weapon.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWelp my computer is having a fit BUT google 'Tobias Capwell book' and you'll find his published work. He's kind of a god to us weapons makers/collectors."
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakeshott\\_typology",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakeshott_typology",
"https://royalarmouries.org/collection/",
"https://www.faganarms.com/",
"https://wallacelive.wallacecollection.org/eMP/eMuseumPlus",
"https://collections.vam.ac.uk",
"http://vikingsword.com/ethsword/"
]
} | test_askh | Some question about weapons
Hey, first how are you all? Second I'm working on a tabletop thing and I'm wanting to know of some potential candidates for weapons I can add. Namely European between the 1300s through the 1600s (big gap I know). I have the usual suspects(Greatswords, halberds, axes, etc) but I was wanting to know of some other more unique options? I was wondering about examples of Two handed maces and single edged greatswords(best I could find was an exceptionally large messer.) I'd love to hear what y'all have to say, and examples in artwork or surviving items would also be appreciated. | [
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4gmc06 | Clubs? Time to go back to university! What is the history of university society culture, and dining clubs? | This might be a bit UK focussed, I am not sure if they are a thing outside of my borders. In the UK when you join university, there will be societies you can join. There is usually one for your course, and then societies for particular interests, such as sport, culture or ethnicity. I have a few questions about the origins of these groups.
So, as my question states, what is the history of university 'society culture' and how did it come to exist in universities? Why a university society instead of just a regular club? Was it the exclusivity? How long have societies such as these (not dining clubs, just standards societies, dining clubs I will touch on later) been a part of university life? Do we know what the earliest known university society was?
Dining clubs time. For those who are not aware, a dining club is similar to a society, however, they have selective membership usually based upon a common trait among its members, such as wealth or cultural capital. For example, current UK PM David Cameron was once a member, as are many of his cohorts, and the members of the club go quite deep, including high level businessmen, politicians and royals. Sometimes they are about drinking and rampages (such is the history of the Bullingdon club), other times they could be academic in nature. What is the history of university dining clubs? Historically, were they always elite in nature? Why did dining clubs seem to turn into fraternities and sororities in the US, but remain in the UK? Were these clubs originally started as a sort of leisure activity for the elite while at university, or were they instead started as a means by which the elite can make other high level contacts? | AskHistorians | {
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"I don't think dining clubs \"turned into\" franternaties in the United States.\n\nFraternities in the United States are generally reckoned to start with Phi Beta Kappa in 1781 at the College of William and Mary. That said, FBK functioned almost more like a combination between a academic honors club and secret society in it's early years. \n\nIt's Phi Beta Kappa that, during the early 19th century creates most of the element now recognized as common to most American fraternities and sororitites -- the Greek-letter name, a Greek motto, an oath of secrecy, a badge, an initiation ritual, a seal, and a secret handshake.\n\nThe transformation of American \"Greek\" organizations into their modern focus as a residences and social centers mostly happend Most of other American fraternities in existence today can be traced to the big land-grant colleges created after the civil war.\n\nBritish-style dining clubs don't exist at most American universities. The main exception is Princeton, which does have an extensive collection of private \"eating clubs\" of similar to the British instituion of a similar name. Until the early 1980s, Princeton explicitly banned \"Greek life\" style fraternaties. Although a few eating clubs (or similar entities) exist at other old prestigious schools like Harvard and Yale, only at Princeton does more than half the student body belong to an eating club."
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} | test_askh | Clubs? Time to go back to university! What is the history of university society culture, and dining clubs?
This might be a bit UK focussed, I am not sure if they are a thing outside of my borders. In the UK when you join university, there will be societies you can join. There is usually one for your course, and then societies for particular interests, such as sport, culture or ethnicity. I have a few questions about the origins of these groups. So, as my question states, what is the history of university 'society culture' and how did it come to exist in universities? Why a university society instead of just a regular club? Was it the exclusivity? How long have societies such as these (not dining clubs, just standards societies, dining clubs I will touch on later) been a part of university life? Do we know what the earliest known university society was? Dining clubs time. For those who are not aware, a dining club is similar to a society, however, they have selective membership usually based upon a common trait among its members, such as wealth or cultural capital. For example, current UK PM David Cameron was once a member, as are many of his cohorts, and the members of the club go quite deep, including high level businessmen, politicians and royals. Sometimes they are about drinking and rampages (such is the history of the Bullingdon club), other times they could be academic in nature. What is the history of university dining clubs? Historically, were they always elite in nature? Why did dining clubs seem to turn into fraternities and sororities in the US, but remain in the UK? Were these clubs originally started as a sort of leisure activity for the elite while at university, or were they instead started as a means by which the elite can make other high level contacts? | [
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2mpuoe | Just finished reading the novel, Gabriele's Story, and it got me thinking. | African Americans involvement in the westward expansion and the 'old west' in general is something that we hear nothing about. What was it like then for African Americans, particularly in the late 1800s? BTW the book (fiction) is worth a read if you want a really great, not so predictable 'old west' tale. | AskHistorians | {
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"The West could be a place of opportunity for African Americans. One should never lose sight of the fact that racism was the norm in the nineteenth century, and the West was no exception, but the worst of the racist venom tended to be directed against Chinese immigrants and Native Americans. African Americans were few in the number, and so society could afford to treat them with a little more generosity.\n\nIn Virginia City, Nevada, for example, with a population that never exceeded 25,000 and hovered around 15k to 20k, African Americans never numbered significantly above 100. We excavated Virginia City's Boston Saloon, which was an African-American establishment, and when compared with the three other saloons we excavated, we found it had the best crystal and the best cuts of meat. Documents associated with the African American experience shows they attended integrated schools and were generally treated with a certain amount of respect. Keeping in mind that racism was the general rule.\n\nA good source for this is Kelly Dixon's Boomtown Saloons or my book Virginia City: Secrets of a Western Past (2012)."
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} | test_askh | Just finished reading the novel, Gabriele's Story, and it got me thinking.
African Americans involvement in the westward expansion and the 'old west' in general is something that we hear nothing about. What was it like then for African Americans, particularly in the late 1800s? BTW the book (fiction) is worth a read if you want a really great, not so predictable 'old west' tale. | [
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|
alm62f | What does the following newspaper excerpt mean for free black people (more context in the description): "[The County Judge] gives notice that all free blacks must be dealt with according to law, unless they come forward and give bonds to leave the State." | I'm currently gathering info on one county judge for an independent research project that will then become a book. The excerpt comes from a Texas newspaper from 1848 from a growing region of the state.
I'm not quite sure what this means in the context of free black people before the Civil War, as it's out of my area of expertise. Any help is much appreciated! | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"effozmu"
],
"text": [
"The Constitution of the Republic of Texas removed the rights of citizenship from free blacks, which they had previously enjoyed under Mexican rule. \n\nIn 1840, Texas passed a law which noted that any free black person who entered Texas should be arrested and sold into slavery for one year. If they could not come up with a $1000 bond conditioned on leaving Texas, they would be enslaved for life. \n\nAny free blacks already living in Texas were given two years to leave Texas, or else they would be subject to similar arrest and enslavement.\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.texasslaveryproject.org/sources/LawsOfTexas/display.php?f=TSP0155.xml"
]
} | test_askh | What does the following newspaper excerpt mean for free black people (more context in the description): "[The County Judge] gives notice that all free blacks must be dealt with according to law, unless they come forward and give bonds to leave the State."
I'm currently gathering info on one county judge for an independent research project that will then become a book. The excerpt comes from a Texas newspaper from 1848 from a growing region of the state. I'm not quite sure what this means in the context of free black people before the Civil War, as it's out of my area of expertise. Any help is much appreciated! | [
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|
al5o97 | American intellectual property theft in the 19th century | I came across an interesting article today which draw parallels between the rise of the 19th century American economic juggernaut and China in the modern day (_URL_0_)
The article focuses primarily on the finished cotton textiles industry, claiming that propionate to GDP, the British industry was “three times the size of the entire U.S. automobile sector today.”
It also tells the tale of intellectual property thieves Francis Cabot Lowell and Samuel Slater.
What was the reaction amongst both the American and British public to these stories / tactics?
Follow-up questions, how did the American government justify their actions and why did Parliament not take offensive steps (economic or military) against the US because of the theft? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"efdre9w"
],
"text": [
"Not to discourage other replies but you may be interested in comments on [this earlier post](_URL_0_) about American capitalism and intellectual property rights in the 19th century, including comments by u/Bacarruda, u/Bodark43 and myself, which touches on similar matters to your question."
],
"score": [
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/12/06/we-were-pirates-too/amp/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/a7ojob/is_the_claim_that_american_capitalism_was_built/"
]
} | test_askh | American intellectual property theft in the 19th century
I came across an interesting article today which draw parallels between the rise of the 19th century American economic juggernaut and China in the modern day (_URL_0_) The article focuses primarily on the finished cotton textiles industry, claiming that propionate to GDP, the British industry was “three times the size of the entire U.S. automobile sector today.” It also tells the tale of intellectual property thieves Francis Cabot Lowell and Samuel Slater. What was the reaction amongst both the American and British public to these stories / tactics? Follow-up questions, how did the American government justify their actions and why did Parliament not take offensive steps (economic or military) against the US because of the theft? | [
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|
1t3brk | Looking for some information about this ''noah's ark'' site. | I found an article online, and was wondering if anybody had anymore information about it, could tell me how reliable this is etc...
[Article](_URL_0_) | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"ce40zll",
"ce3wrp2",
"ce43yci",
"ce40ad1",
"ce45ejr"
],
"text": [
"This is completely bogus. The findings on \"Mount Ararat\" are actually the remains of a pilgrimage site built by monks. This stuff was built between 400-1400 CE (my apologies for such a wide date range, I just can't remember the specifics off of the top of my head). \n\nIt's important to bear in mind that the account of Noah and the worldwide flood is mythology. It is not an historical account of something that actually took place. Flood stories are common throughout the ancient Near East (e.g., Gilgamesh, Sumerian King List). Any claims to have \"found THE ark\" are bogus and sensational. Nothing more.",
"I've heard about this story about Ron Wyatt as well, in several Christian magazines. But I've never encountered any mention in a serious historical work and [Jstor](_URL_2_) is silent as well. \n\nI found this article on a blog which sheds a bit light on this \"adventurer\", as Wikipedia categorizes him\n_URL_1_\n\nAccording to this deathbed interview, Wyatt not only claimed to have found the Ark, but also the Ten Commandments, the Crucifixion site among other things.\n\nHis \"followers\" have built a museum: _URL_0_\n\nThere a lot of red flags there.\n\nEdit: Accidentally missed a word.",
"The image itself is just a basaltic lava flow as covered in an article on ['arkeology'](_URL_5_ ) and which seems to be the basaltic flows shown in these photographs [here](_URL_3_) and [here](_URL_4_).\n\nThe oval rock section that is described as the 'ark' is typical of the area and certainly isn't the remains of any supposed ship. It certainly wouldn't fossilize into anything that looks like that as it was made of exposed organic materials. The theory that anchors were used to orient a ships direction in a storm is ridiculous as early Mediterranean mariners would never sail during a storm(notwithstanding other issues).",
"I dug around, and a better site to go through historically would probably be [this one](_URL_7_), which covers the claims about his noah's ark site in a bit more detail, including supposed archeological evidence.\n\nThe coordinates on google maps are [here](_URL_6_).\n\nThere's not a lot of sources provided, and most of their evidence seems undated. There's no dating on the rivet that was supposedly found, for example.",
"Even creationists think this guy is a phony._URL_8_"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sunnyskyz.com/good-news/470/Noah-s-Ark-Has-Been-Found-Why-Are-They-Keeping-Us-In-The-Dark-#.UqzqyiRM_Bc.facebook"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.wyattmuseum.com/",
"http://jonah135588.wordpress.com/2008/10/22/deathbed-confession-of-ron-wyatt-discoverer-of-the-ark-of-the-covenant/",
"http://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22ron+wyatt%22&acc=off&wc=on&fc=off",
"http://i2.squidoocdn.com/resize/squidoo_images/590/draft_lens2019117module65418481photo_1256684466noahs_ark_1960.jpg",
"http://i2.squidoocdn.com/resize/squidoo_images/590/draft_lens2019117module25457712photo_1238900948Original_Cap_ILHAN_Durupinar_1959.JPG",
"http://ncse.com/cej/2/4/arkeology-new-science-support-creation",
"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=39+26'26.32\"N+/+44+14'04.54\"+E&ie=UTF-8&ei=xZSwUqS5KYjQ2AXF-ICYCQ&ved=0CAoQ_AUoAg",
"http://www.viewzone.com/noahx.html",
"http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/cm/v14/n4/special-report-amazing-ark-expose"
]
} | test_askh | Looking for some information about this ''noah's ark'' site.
I found an article online, and was wondering if anybody had anymore information about it, could tell me how reliable this is etc... [Article](_URL_0_) | [
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|
1cwijw | What was the biggest man-made loss of life in single day in history? | AskHistorians | {
"a_id": [
"c9kne6c"
],
"text": [
"The largest I can think of is the Firebombing of Tokyo (Operation Meetinghouse) which killed about 100k people with some estimates placing it up to 200k killed. \n\nThe raid occurred on the night of the 9th/10th of March, 1945. \n\nThat was during WW2. For comparison, if we take 70 million deaths during WW2, an average day in WW2 was about 32k dead."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | What was the biggest man-made loss of life in single day in history?
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8fucgx | Hi, I was hoping that someone would be able to tell me what it was like for a deserter of the First Crusade when has returned home to the West? Particularly if there are records or any non elite members of society... or perhaps any information on William the Carpenter and other minor characters? | AskHistorians | {
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"In Western Europe there are very few specific records on non-elite members of society during the 11th and 12th centuries, even members of the lower elite such as knights are very rarely mentioned apart from a few lines in a chronicle, or a legal document.\n\nWith that being said Crusaders who had abandoned the First Crusade before it reached Jerusalem were typically convinced to go on another Crusade to atone for deserting the Crusade. Indeed many members of the Crusade of 1101, such as Stephen the Count of Blois were deserters of the First Crusade. Stephen had deserted the First Crusade alongside William the Carpenter in July 1098. Stephen was pressured into re-joining the crusade by Saint Adela, who was his wife. \n\nHugh the Count of Vermandois was the son of King Henry I of France, he was also a relative of William. Hugh had deserted the first crusade and he went on the Crusade of 1101 alongside Stephen where they both died.\n\nWilliam the Carpenter was the Viscount of Melun, and distantly related to the French royal family, so we have some information about him. William deserted the crusade on two occasions, the first desertion happened in January 1098, when he deserted alongside Peter the Hermit. They were captured by Tancred and brought back to the Crusade soon after his desertion. The only punishment he seems to have received was Bohemond of Antioch publicly insulting him.\n\nWilliam's second desertion happened in July 1098 when he deserted alongside Stephen. During this desertion they met Emperor Alexios I on the road, and they convinced him that the Crusade was hopeless.\n\nDespite these desertions William seems to continue functioning as a normal member of society, he joined the Crusade of 1101. Williams name was on a petition to King Baldwin in 1101, and he took part in the siege of Ascalon in 1102.\n\nPeter the Hermit who had briefly deserted alongside William also retained some level of prominence. Peter became Prior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was a very prominent church, that had many relics associated with the death of Jesus."
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} | test_askh | Hi, I was hoping that someone would be able to tell me what it was like for a deserter of the First Crusade when has returned home to the West? Particularly if there are records or any non elite members of society... or perhaps any information on William the Carpenter and other minor characters?
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u4oom | What was the US Government's reaction to the Dust Bowl? | Obviously now there is an infrastructure in place to protect and support victims of natural disasters, but what was the protocol back then? | AskHistorians | {
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"The New Dealers generally to a regional approach to problem solving, hence the TVA and the Colombia River projects in the PNW. The Dust Bowl was treated similarly, with regional solutions though at times it was also incorporated into broader national programs like the supply controls of the AAA. The most direct solution would have been in the efforts of Hugh Hammond Bennet, the first director of what become the Soil Conservation Service (today the NRCS). The SCS promoted a range of solutions on the southern plains, including things like countour plowing, planting wind breaks-- including a proposal to plant a wall of trees from Mexico to Canada --water projects, production controls, etc. Bennett's writings from the era are really useful. The Resettlement Administration helped address dislocated persons, including those who were sent to settle the Matanuska valley in Alaska. mother New Deal programs helped as well, such a rural electrification and of course a variety of direct relief programs, including the CCC for youth.\n\nTake a look at Tim Eagan's The Worst Hard Time for a nice narrative history, or Donald Worster's The Dust Bowl for a more direct critique of the policy and economics of the Dust Bowl."
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} | test_askh | What was the US Government's reaction to the Dust Bowl?
Obviously now there is an infrastructure in place to protect and support victims of natural disasters, but what was the protocol back then? | [
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bh9auu | What did America do after the dust bowl | Today I was learning about the dust bowl, which horribly affected my state(Oklahoma). And during several road trips , dad tells me that most of the lakes I see aren't natural. Is this related, if so, what else did the U.S do to prevent another dust bowl. | AskHistorians | {
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"Agricultural practices changed in part by necessity. I can only speak to my experiences growing up on a wheat farm in Kansas with the generation that survived still around to tell us about it.\n\nThe weather in the 1920's had some impact on what happened later in the 1930's. In the 1920s there was a good amount of rain and the farms were booming to the point that they were able to farm parcels of land that during normal cycles would be difficult at best. Often after harvest the preparation for next years crops involved plowing the stubble. This churning of the topsoil was seen as a need practice to help control weeds and to increase the speed of the breakdown of the organic material that would feed next years crops. The downside of this is the exposure/loss of the moisture trapped in the soil. Additionally there was a heavy push for growing cash crops (wheat primarily in the area I grew up in) and the incentive to rotate crops or fallow (a season without crops) fields was a good deal lower. So the topsoil started to lose it's reserve of moisture (and often it's cultures of beneficial microbes) while calamitously being stressed by growing more crops than before. \n\nOne of the first lessons learned while the dust was still flying was that rows of drought resistant trees could help protect fields from the harsh winds and even help hold some moisture by collecting snow drifts. The next lesson learned was the idea of leaving stubble for cover during fallow years. Crop rotation now included a different variety of plants that grew at different cycles meaning that often you could still get 3 crops every 4 years. Marginal ground were more selectively cultivated. The concept of planting to prevent erosion along with other soil conservation techniques began to come into play.\n\nThere were massive soil conservation educational campaigns that persisted for over 50 years (as I remember them as a kid in the 1980s). Many of the farm ponds were dug well before the 1930s as I remember hearing about what years ponds dried up after the \"dirty 30's\". Yes many lakes were added but many of those were not put in directly after the 30's, one close to my family farm wasn't put in until the late 70's. Often these were put in with some flood control in mind which seems opposite of what you would think. Indeed most of the bigger man made lakes in my area of Kansas really aren't used for agriculture at all. \n\nNow often you will hear of zero-till or no-till crops where the soil is not disturbed at all between plantings and weed control comes in the form of the stubble/straw covering the soil during the fallow times and herbicide. The equipment can now plant in the somewhat harder solid without the need for a series of implements to be drug over them to prep the field for planting. Additionally the varieties of crops have evolved greatly via selective breeding and now with some very targeted genetic engineering (not necessarily modifications, but targeted breeding to get the right gene expressions desired) that have resulted in plants that can yield more grain with less waste and better tolerances for drought and disease. \n\nThere have been some similar droughts and dry times in the area since the 1930's. In 1988 some areas saw a return of the dust storms. I asked survivors of the Dust Bowl how the storms of 88 compared because to me as a child they seemed very bad to me. All of them said that the 88 storms were mild in comparison. Since then there was a stretch where many of the Dust Bowl records were broken, but the improvements to how the land is/was farmed prevented the disasters of the Dust Bowl from returning."
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} | test_askh | What did America do after the dust bowl
Today I was learning about the dust bowl, which horribly affected my state(Oklahoma). And during several road trips , dad tells me that most of the lakes I see aren't natural. Is this related, if so, what else did the U.S do to prevent another dust bowl. | [
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|
af1ilk | Do animals have historical agency? | Can we define cod, cattle, or capybaras as active agents in historical processes, or are humans unique in this sense? | AskHistorians | {
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"text": [
"Timothy Mitchell's book *Rule of Experts* has a well-known chapter that makes a semi-serious argument that mosquitoes have to be understood as agents in the history of mosquito-borne diseases, riparian agriculture, etc. In this, Mitchell is working a bit off an idea that is associated with the critical theorist of science Bruno Latour, referred to as actor-network theory, which also tries to understand environments, objects, animals and institutions as \"agents\" in an active sense.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere is also a considerable body of historical work at this point on relationships between animals (both domesticated and wild) and human communities that tries to understand those relationships as ones that humans did not control in some masterful sense. A good deal of this examines the shift in cultural and intellectual thought in early modern Europe from everyday or folkloric frameworks that saw animals as possessing responsibility and agency for their actions and saw animals as being subject to human punishment. Robert Darnton's *The Great Cat Massacre* discusses one famous instance of this; Patrick Phillips' *Medieval Animal Trials* mentions many such examples. Jon T. Coleman's *Vicious* brings some of this perspective into a discussion of why early European settlers in North America killed wolves in such large numbers.\n\nIn fact, many human societies have seen animals as possessing some form of will, intention or agency, whether quite literally ascribed to actual, real animals, or through mythological or religious visions. Many spiritual practices referred to as \"animism\" have seen agency or intentionality as widely distributed not just through animals but the entire natural world, including plants, rocks, water and other natural systems.\n\nSo this is at least a widely distributed idea in human history, including in the present day. What are the obstacles to seeing animals as agents? Fundamentally, the problem here is the distinctive modern, Enlightenment-inspired understanding of agency that is so powerful in contemporary political and legal systems. \"Agency\" is itself a pretty messy and frequently underdefined or underspecified term. It can be a polite synonym for the modern vision of individuals as conscious, self-willed, self-ruling, autonomous actors who are responsible for all of their actions and who rationally decide to do whatever it is that they do. It can mean something far vaguer that implies both action and some conception of intention to act but doesn't necessarily rest on such a specific conception of mind, consciousness and individuality. Sometimes when we talk about agency, we also are talking about the conditions that allow (or prohibit) human action--so we can speak or less or more agency, or \"giving back\" someone their agency, or complain of situations that restrict or repress agency.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nFor this reason, to talk about animals having agency is inextricably tied to implying that animals not only act but intend to act; that they are in some sense or another aware of their actions. Here you slip from r/AskHistorians to r/AskPhilosophy in a substantial way, because I don't think any historian is ever going to provide unimpeachable evidence of the self-conscious intent of an animal to act in a particular fashion, whether that's a household dog, a mosquito, or a medieval pig that has destroyed the grain stocks of a peasant village. I think it is within the purview of historians to suggest that animals act in ways that are responsive to human action, that those actions are unpredicted and uncontrolled by human action, and thus are in some sense autonomous \"agents\" in the unfolding of change over time, independently of human agency. If you have an interest in the next step, which is appraising animals as intentional or conscious or self-aware, you have to jump to a slightly different epistemological and methodological conversation."
],
"score": [
12
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | test_askh | Do animals have historical agency?
Can we define cod, cattle, or capybaras as active agents in historical processes, or are humans unique in this sense? | [
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