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term-explanation

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Explain the archaeological field term given below in as much detail as possible, exporting only the explanation and nothing else.

Gathering of sample data based on informal criteria or personal judgment; it does not allow evaluation of how representative the sample is with respect to the population (compare with probabilistic sampling).

nonprobabilistic sampling

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Any perspective which emphasizes the functions of customs or social institutions. In anthropology it refers especially to the perspectives of either B. Malinowski (regarded as a ‘purer’ functionalist) or A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (a structural-functionalist).

functionalism

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Durkheim’s term for the collective understandings which people within a given society share (French, conscience collective).

collective conscience, collective consciousness

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Jakobson’s term for the structural relations between p, t, and k as representing a system defined according to relative loudness and pitch (cf. vowel triangle).

consonant triangle

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The period required for one-half of a radioactive isotope to decay and form a stable element; this decay rate, expressed as a statistical constant for each isotope with a specified range of error, provides the measurement scale for radiometric dating.

half-life

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Nonportable archaeological remains that cannot be recovered from matrix without destroying their integrity.

feature

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Descartes's principle of the separation of mind and matter (and mind and body) that enabled scientists to view matter as something separate from themselves that could be investigated by reason.

Cartesian dualism

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Official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants its various stakeholders to believe.

stated goal

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Cross-cultural regularities at one point in time; the spatial baseline of the New World culture history approach synthesis proposed by Willey and Phillips (1958) (compare with tradition).

horizon

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a collection of the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, used to supplement the revelations contained in the Qur’an.

Hadith

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An individual who plunders archaeological sites to find artifacts of commercial value, at the same time destroying the evidence that archaeologists rely on to understand the past (compare with antiquarian and archaeologist).

looter

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A procedure for providing new employees with basic background information about the firm.

employee orientation

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A change or development, such as from simple to complex. Usually this change is regarded as gradual (cf. revolutionist).

evolution

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Measurement of magnetic alignments within undisturbed features, such as hearths and kilns; comparison is then made to known schedules of past magnetic alignments within a region to yield an absolute age for the feature.

archaeomagnetic dating

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A formal statement of an organization's primary values and the ethical rules it expects its employees to follow.

code of ethics

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a doctrine enunciated by Montesquieu in the eighteenth century that separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers serve to limit and control each other.

separation of powers

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Previously learned behaviors of observers are prompted by the actions of models.

response facilitation

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A theory of cultural evolution that sees each society pursuing an individual evolutionary career shaped by accumulated specific cultural adaptations, rather than seeing all societies as pursuing the same course (compare with unilinear cultural evolution).

multilinear cultural evolution

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Allows two or more people to share a single full-time job.

job sharing

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Systematic application of behavioral learning principles to facilitate adaptive behaviors.

behavior modification (therapy)

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A type of kinship terminology in which the father’s sister’s daughter is called by the same term as the father’s sister, or more generally one in which ego calls several members of his or her father’s matrilineal kin group by the same term (cf. ‘Omaha’ terminology).

‘Crow’ terminology

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Converting a message into symbols.

encoding

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Any approach which emphasizes historical or diachronic aspects of culture or society.

historicist

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A leader who dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation.

autocratic style

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A term occasionally used by Radcliffe-Brown to mean ‘social anthropology’.

comparative sociology

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According to Le ́vi-Strauss, those kinship systems based on categories between which marriage is prescribed (e.g., the category of the cross-cousin) (cf. complex structures).

elementary structure

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A field of inter-disciplinary research – archaeology and natural science – is directed at the reconstruction of human use of plants and animals, and how past societies adapted to changing environmental conditions.

environmental archaeology

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A pay system in which an individual’s compensation is contingent on performance.

variable pay

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great landowners who became the ruling class in the Roman Republic.

patrician

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Knowledge of how to do something: employ algorithms and rules, identify concepts, solve problems.

procedural knowledge

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Social standing and prestige reflecting the ability of an individual to acquire an established position in society as a result of individual accomplishments.

achieved status

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The study and analysis of fossil pollen as an aid to the，reconstruction of past vegetation and climates.

palynology

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a policy of aggressive military preparedness; in particular, the large armies based on mass conscription and complex, inflexible plans for mobilization that most European nations had before World War I.

militarism

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A method used to date rocks up to thousands of millions of years old, though it is restricted to volcanic material no more recent than c. 100,000 years old. One of the most widely used methods in the dating of early hominin sites in Africa.

Potassium-Argon(K-Ar) Dating

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Doctrine postulating that mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt to their environments.

functionalism

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A plan whereby employees workdays are built around a core of mid-day hours, such as 11:00 A.M. to 2:00 P.M.

flextime

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Translating visual and symbolic conceptions of events into behaviors.

production

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According to the art historian, Ernst Gombrich, style is “any distinctive and therefore recognizable way in which an act is performed and made.” Archaeologists and anthropologists have defined “stylistic areas” as areal units representing shared ways of producing and decorating artifacts.

style

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Psychological theory of perception and learning stressing the organization of sensory experiences.

gestalt psychology

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An increased commitment to a previous decision despite evidence it may have been wrong.

escalation of commitment

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a policy adopted by the United States in the Cold War. Its goal was to use whatever means, short of all-out war, to limit Soviet expansion.

containment

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Responding differently, depending on the stimulus.

discrimination

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the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously; a problem of the late medieval church.

pluralism

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A specialized type of corporation that has the regular characteristics of a C corporation but is unique in that the owners are taxed as a partnership as long as certain criteria are met.

S corporation

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Referring to the ideas of Michel Foucault (cf. discourse).

Foucauldian, Foucaultian

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The procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and the kind of person who should be hired for it.

job analysis

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Turner’s term for an unstructured realm of ‘social structure’, where often the normal ranking of individuals is reversed or the symbols of rank inverted. This sense of ‘community’, he said, characterizes rites of passage.

communitas

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A term used for the portable art of the Ice Age, comprising engravings and carvings on small objects of stone, antler, bone, and ivory.

mobiliary art

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large landed estates in the Roman Empire (singular: latifundium).

latifundia

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A term used in systems thinking to describe a response in which changing output conditions in the system stimulate further growth in the input; one of the principal factors in generating system change or morphogenesis.

positive feedback

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Dividing work activities into separate job tasks.

work specialization

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The process of starting new businesses, generally in response to opportunities.

entrepreneurship

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Deposits formed of a yellowish dust of silt-sized particles blown by the wind and redeposited on land newly deglaciated, or on sheltered areas.

loess sediment

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Classificatory term in linguistics, referring to a group of language families showing sufficient similarities to suggest that they are genetically related (e.g. the Nostratic macrofamily, seen by some linguists as a unit embracing the Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic,Altaic, and Kartvelian language families).

macrofamilies

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the mass slaughter of European Jews by the Nazis during World War II.

Holocaust

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An incorrect rule for solving a mathematical problem.

buggy algorithm

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A method of bonding metals together, for instance silver with copper or copper with gold.

plating

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Mary Douglas’ term for the ‘dimension’ of constraint on individuals as members of groups (cf. grid, grid/group analysis).

group

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Someone who acts as a catalyst and assumes the responsibility for managing the change process.

change agent

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A complex concept involving the way people talk or write about something, the body of knowledge implied, or the use of that knowledge, such as in structures of power (e.g., in the work of Foucault). The term can also have the meaning (as in linguistics) of units of speech longer than a sentence.

discourse

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Identifying attributes, generalizing them to new examples, and discriminating examples from nonexamples.

concept learning

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Theories positing that development consists of changes in mental structures.

structural theories of development

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Constructivist perspective stating that knowledge derives from interactions between persons and their environments.

dialectical constructivism

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A type of inductive reasoning in which one obtains knowledge by formulating and testing hypotheses through hands-on experiences.

discovery learning

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Lévi-Strauss’ term for a type of marital exchange between kin groups where ‘exchanges’ of women are in one direction only, for example where a son may marry into the same kin group as his father but a daughter may not. It is a logical consequence of men marrying mothers’ brothers’ daughters (cf. delayed direct exchange, direct exchange).

generalized exchange

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An aspect of drama or culture characterized by emotion,passion, and excess (cf. Apollonian).

Dionysian

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First of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, encompassing birth to roughly age 2.

sensorimotor stage

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Listing each job's basic tasks, along with key points, in order to provide step-by-step training for employees.

job instruction training

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Copying the observed behaviors and verbalizations of others.

imitation

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A job classification system like the class system, although grades often contain dissimilar jobs, such as secretaries, mechanics, and firefighters. Grade descriptions are written based on compensable factors listed in classification systems.

grade

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A term used in systems thinking to describe the process by which changes in one field of human activity (subsystem) sometimes act to promote changes in other fields (subsystems) and in turn act on the original subsystem itself. An instance of positive feedback, it is thought by some to be one of the primary mechanisms of societal change.

multiplier effect

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Use of a conditioned stimulus to condition a new, neutral stimulus by pairing the two stimuli.

higher-order conditioning

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The doctrine which holds that knowledge is derived from experience rather than from prior reasoning (cf. rationalism).

empiricism; empiricist

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Storage of information in memory.

retention

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a legislature with two houses.

bicameral legislature

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The analysis of ‘grid’ and ‘group’ constraints in the style of Mary Douglas.

grid/group analysis

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Representing knowledge through motor responses.

enactive representation

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Operant conditioning: A theory of learning that says behavior is a function of its consequences.

operant conditioning

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the belief that if the Communists succeeded in Vietnam, other countries in Southeast and East Asia would also fall (like dominoes) to communism; cited as a justification for the U.S. intervention in Vietnam.

domino theory

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Cognitive style referring to the extent that one is dependent on or dis- tracted by the context in which a stimulus or event oc- curs. Also called global and analytical functioning.

field dependence and independence

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The overall impact of employer practices that result in significantly higher percentages of members of minorities and other protected groups being rejected for employment, placement, or promotion.

adverse impact

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A forecasting technique for determining future staff needs by using ratios between, for example, sales volume and number of employees needed.

ratio analysis

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Problem-solving strategy in which one generates (thinks of) a possible problem solution and tests its effectiveness.

generate-and-test strategy

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Among the Kachin of Burma, the two social formations, gumlao being egalitarian and gumsa being hierarchical.

gumlao, gumsa

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A situation in which a decision maker has neither certainty nor reasonable probability estimates available.

uncertainty

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In its widest sense, the ideas of Claude Lévi- Strauss and his admirers. In a narrower sense, the perspective within anthropology which emphasizes structures of the human mind rather than structures in the minds of members of particular cultures or people from particular culture areas (cf. British structuralism, Dutch structuralism).

French structuralism

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Organizations that are pursuing opportunities, are characterized by innovative practices, and have growth and profitability as their main goals.

entrepreneurial venture

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Brain lobe responsible for processing information relating to memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, and creativity; also contains the primary motor cortex regulating muscular movements.

frontal lobe

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In Bourdieu’s terminology, the culturally defined system of knowledge and social action made up of ‘dispositions’ or choices available to individuals (see also dispositions).

habitus

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Perceived cause of an outcome.

attribution

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Theory postulating that all information is represented in long-term memory in verbal codes.

unitary theory

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The study of linguistic divergence between two languages, based on changes in a list of common vocabulary terms and the sharing of common root words (see also glottochronology).

lexicostatistics

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A feature deliberately built to provide a setting for one or more activities, such as a house, storeroom, or burial chamber (compare with cumulative feature).

constructed feature

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a political order characterized by mass political parties and universal male and (eventually) female suffrage.

mass politics

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The process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one already knows.

elaboration

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The co-occurrence of an artifact with other archaeological remains, usually in the same matrix.

association

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A subdiscipline of geography, concerned with the study of the form and development of the landscape, it includes such specializations as sedimentology.

Geomorphology

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Personality trait model that includes extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.

Big Five model

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in Nazi Germany, special strike forces in the SS that played an important role in rounding up and killing Jews.

Einsatzgruppen

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Groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel.

work council