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] | 137,100 | this price reduction is possible because of a " wider range of options and configurations that come with the expansion of Volt production for sale nationally . " The price will drop to US $ 34 @,@ 995 including destination charges for the 2014 model year .
Due to the capacity of the Volt 's battery pack it qualifies for the maximum US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit as specified in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 . The federal tax credit phases out over a one @-@ year period after the manufacturer has sold at least 200 @,@ 000 vehicles in the U.S. Several states also have additional incentives or rebates available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles for qualifying buyers . The 2011 Volt price including all available regular production and premium options is US $ 44 @,@ 600 , including destination charges and before tax credits or any subsidies . For the 2012 model year the price of the Volt with all available options is US $ 46 @,@ 265 before tax credits or any subsidies available .
Although the Volt 's retail price is higher than its main competitor , the 2011 Nissan Leaf , the lease payment for the Volt is almost the same as its competitor , except that the Leaf has a lower initial payment . General Motors explained that " the apparent disparity between the Volt 's sticker and lease prices is a reflection of the company 's calculation that the vehicle will maintain a very high residual value after three years — significantly higher than that of the LEAF . "
The price for the home charging units is US $ 490 plus installation costs . The Voltec is a home @-@ charging unit built by SPX for Volt owners . It is a 240 @-@ volt ( Level II ) charger , and , according to General Motors , can replenish the Volt 's batteries in about four hours . Consumer Reports has advised buyers to budget up to US $ 2 @,@ 000 , as many older homes may need a substantial electrical upgrade because the U.S. National Electrical Code requires that the charger have its own dedicated 220 @-@ volt , 30 @-@ amp circuit . Early buyers can benefit from the federal tax credit available for charging equipment .
The 2011 Volt was not submitted for application to the California Air Resources Board 's ( CARB ) Clean Vehicle Rebate Project rebate and therefore was not required to meet the 10 @-@ year 150 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty requirement for enhanced advanced technology partial zero @-@ emissions vehicles ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) . The Volt team explained that for the launch General Motors decided to go with a common national package which includes an 8 @-@ year 100 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty . For this reason owners of the 2011 Volt did not qualify for California 's rebates and free access to use carpool lanes even when traveling solo . A third package , scheduled for 2013 , is under development with an E85 flex @-@ fuel engine . General Motors engineering team commented that " introducing two or three packages of an entirely new technology set and platform at the same time wasn 't an option . "
In February 2012 General Motors began deliveries of a low emission version destined for California that features a new low emissions package that allows the 2012 Chevrolet Volt to qualify as an enhanced , advanced technology – partial zero emissions vehicle ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) and have access to California ’ s high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) . The new standard California version of the Volt features a modified engine and exhaust components . The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air @-@ injection pump that " streams ambient air into the exhaust stream to increase its ability to remove pollutants . " Owners of a 2012 Volt with the low emissions package are eligible to apply for one of 40 @,@ |
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] | 137,101 | 000 available HOV lane stickers issued to vehicles that qualify as a California AT @-@ PZEV . The permits are handed out on a first @-@ apply , first @-@ served basis . Additionally , the new low emissions package makes the 2012 Volt eligible for owners to receive up to US $ 1 @,@ 500 in state rebates through the state ’ s Clean Vehicle Rebate Project ( CVRP ) . This incentive is in addition to the federal government ’ s US $ 7 @,@ 500 tax credit . Only the 2012 Volts manufactured after February 6 , 2012 , are fitted with the low emission package and sold as standard models in California . Other states where the Volt has solo driving access to HOV lanes are Florida , Georgia , New York and Virginia .
U.S. sales
Since sales began in December 2010 , a total of 98 @,@ 558 Volts have been sold in the country through June 2016 . The Volt ranked as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the United States until February 2015 , when it was surpassed by the all @-@ electric Nissan Leaf in March 2015 . Cumulative Volt sales passed Leaf sales in March 2016 , and became once again the best selling plug @-@ in car in the American market .
The top 10 selling states during the first quarter of 2012 were California , Michigan , Florida , Illinois , Texas , New York , Minnesota , Ohio , North Carolina and Maryland . California is the leading market and accounted for almost 23 % of Volt sales during this quarter , followed by Michigan with 6 @.@ 3 % of national sales . In California the leading regional markets are San Francisco , Los Angeles , and San Diego , all metropolitan areas notorious for their high congestion levels and where free access to high @-@ occupancy lanes for solo drivers has been a strong incentive to boost Volt sales in the state .
Resale value
In May 2011 Kelley Blue Book ( KBB ) projected the 2011 Chevrolet Volt resale value at just over US $ 17 @,@ 000 after 36 months , the length of a typical lease , which represents 42 % of the car 's US $ 41 @,@ 000 suggested retail price ( MSRP ) . KBB explains that even though the residual value seems low , the projection considers that the first 200 @,@ 000 Volts sold will qualify for a US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which effectively reduces the MSRP to US $ 33 @,@ 500 , making the US $ 17,000represent 51 % of its original value after the tax credit . In comparison , KBB notes , the 2011 Toyota Prius has a projected residual of 46 % after 36 months . KBB 's estimate assumed gasoline price will be around US $ 4 per gallon in 2014 . For 2012 , Kelley Blue Book expected the Volt to retain 42 % of its original value after 3 years and 27 % after 5 years . Based on these figures , in November 2011 KBB awarded the Volt with the 2012 Best Resale Value Awards in the plug @-@ in electric car category . KBB explains that the residual value for the Volt is lower than the market 35 @.@ 5 % average due to the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which lowers the transaction price and pushes down the residual value .
Consumer Reports ' analysis show that many Chevrolets lose about half of their purchase price after three years of ownership , and if the Volt depreciates the same , US $ 17 @,@ 000 seems a reasonable estimate . However , Consumer Reports have noted that fuel @-@ efficient hybrids and diesel models often depreciate far less than most vehicles , which might increase the Volt 's resale value after three years above the US $ 17 @,@ 000 estimate . Additionally , if gasoline prices |
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] | 137,102 | continue to rise or if the tax credits expire , the demand for used Chevrolet Volts could quickly increase , raising their market value . On the other hand , if the next @-@ generation Volt ’ s battery has twice the capacity and cost less , as General Motors has claimed , the first generation Volts will be obsolete when the new ones come out in 2015 . Considering these assumptions , Consumer Reports considers that " at this point we believe it ’ s still unclear how the Volt will fare . "
Pecan Street demonstration project
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project at the Mueller neighborhood in Austin , Texas . The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug @-@ in electric car owners , and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same , which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug @-@ in cars return home in the evening . As of June 2013 , the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone thanks to GM 's commitment to match the federal government 's US $ 7 @,@ 500 rebate incentive , which halves the purchase price of the Volt .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Chevrolet began taking orders in May 2011 and deliveries began in September 2011 in major cities only . During 2012 the Volt was the best selling plug @-@ in car in Canada , outselling all other PEVs combined . Despite a 24 % reduction from 2012 sales , the Volt continued as the top selling PEV in the Canadian market in 2013 , and again in 2014 with 1 @,@ 521 units . As of December 2015 , the Volt continued to rank as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Canada . Since September 2011 , a total of 6 @,@ 387 Volts have been delivered in Canada through May 2016 . The monthly sales record was set in May 2016 with 270 deliveries .
The suggested retail price ( MSRP ) for the 2012 Chevrolet Volt starts at CA $ 41 @,@ 545 ( US $ 42 @,@ 423 in June 2011 ) which excludes any charges , fees , and optional equipment and before any available subsidies or incentives for qualifying buyers . In the Canadian market , the Volt is offered in one standard trim level with two option packages , a Premium Trim Package and a Rear Camera and Park Assist Package . Some provinces are offering Government incentives including Ontario , Quebec ( both at CA $ 8 @,@ 500 US $ 8 @,@ 680 ) and British Columbia has announced their new LiveSmart BC program in which the Chevrolet Volt qualifies for a CA $ 5 @,@ 000 incentive / rebate as well as CA $ 500 towards charging equipment .
= = = Europe = = =
The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera ( known as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom ) , was unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2009 and also was exhibited at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show . Opel developed the battery control modules for the Ampera at the Opel Alternative Propulsion Center Europe in Mainz @-@ Kastel , Germany . The production version of the Ampera was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show . The Ampera is assembled at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant , Michigan .
The main differences between the Volt and the Ampera are in their styling . The Ampera has a distinctive front and rear fascia , with a large cut @-@ out in the rear bumper . The Opel Ampera features more stylized alloy wheels as standard , and the side skirts are body @-@ colored rather than black . In the inside there are only minor differences and both versions share the same exact powertrain and battery pack . A key operational difference was that the Ampera has four drive |
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] | 137,103 | modes , one more than the 2011 / 12 model year Volt . The additional option is " City Mode " , which adapts battery management to the needs of commuter travel . City mode or " battery hold " engages the range @-@ extender immediately , allowing to save the energy currently stored in the battery , and when switched off , the range @-@ extender stops and the Ampera is then able to use the energy saved in the battery for pure electric driving , for example for traveling urban areas or restricted zones , such as the European low emission zones or to allow the Ampera to qualify for an exemption of the London congestion charge The 2013 model year Volt included the " Hold Drive " button to allow drivers to conserve battery @-@ pack energy for use at a particular time of their choice .
Sales
General Motors production target for 2012 was to manufacture 10 @,@ 000 Amperas for sale in Europe , 6 @,@ 000 destined for Opel and 4 @,@ 000 for Vauxhall in the UK , plus an additional 2 @,@ 000 Volts were to be made available for the region . The carmaker targeted the Ampera for business fleet market and local government agencies , where Opel has a strong customer base , while the Volt is aimed at retail customers . According to Opel , by June 2011 around 5 @,@ 000 customers across Europe had reserved an Ampera , with fleet or business customers representing 60 % of reservations , and a total of 7 @,@ 000 orders were received by March 2012 , with Benelux , Germany and the United Kingdom as the top markets in terms of orders .
The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place on November 30 , 2011 , to the U.S. Embassy in France . Distribution of the Opel Ampera to dealerships began in December 2011 , but deliveries to customers were delayed until February 2012 because Opel decided to wait until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk after a crash . Since May 2012 the Vauxhall Ampera is available through the Zipcar carsharing club in London , Bristol , Cambridge and Oxford .
The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units and captured a 21 @.@ 5 % market share of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . As of October 2013 , the Ampera held a market share of almost 10 % of European registration of plug @-@ in electric cars since 2011 . The market share in the Netherlands was 40 % and 10 % in Germany . Ampera sales fell 40 % in 2013 to 3 @,@ 184 cars , and within the plug @-@ in hybrid segment , the Ampera was surpassed in 2013 by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV ( 8 @,@ 197 ) , Volvo V60 plug @-@ in ( 7 @,@ 437 ) , and the Prius plug @-@ in ( 4 @,@ 314 ) . In 2013 the Ampera ranked eighth among Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicles , and its market share fell to about 5 % . During the first five months of 2014 , only 332 units had been sold , down 67 % from the same period in 2013 . In July 2014 , Opel announced that due to the slowdown in sales , the Ampera will be discontinued after the launch of second generation Volt , and between 2014 and 2018 , Opel plans to introduce in Europe a successor product in the electric vehicle segment . Ampera sales totaled 939 units in 2014 , and only 215 units during the first nine months of 2015 .
As of December 2015 , Opel / Vauxhall Ampera sales totaled almost 10 @,@ |
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] | 137,104 | 000 units since 2011 , with the Netherlands as the leading market with 5 @,@ 031 Amperas registered , followed by Germany with 1 @,@ 542 units , and the UK with 1 @,@ 250 units registered by the end of June 2015 . The Netherlands is also the top selling Volt market in Europe with 1 @,@ 062 units registered through December 2014 , > out of about 1 @,@ 750 Volts sold through 2014 .
Pricing
In February 2011 Opel announced that the Ampera was to be offered for a uniform price throughout the Eurozone at € 42 @,@ 900 ( US $ 56 @,@ 920 in May 2012 ) including VAT , but prices by country may vary due to the trim levels that will be offered in each market . The Chevrolet Volt also has a uniform price that starts at € 41 @,@ 950 ( US $ 55 @,@ 660 in May 2012 ) including VAT . The Opel Ampera is eligible to several subsidies and tax breaks available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles in several European countries .
In the UK , the Vauxhall Ampera starts at GB £ 37 @,@ 250 ( US $ 60 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before discounting the GB £ 5 @,@ 000 Plug @-@ in Car Grant The Chevrolet Volt will also be available in the UK at a cost of GB £ 33 @,@ 545 ( US $ 54 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before the government grant . All Volts in the UK will come standard with leather interior .
= = = China = = =
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt in Shanghai under its Chinese name of 沃蓝达 ( Wo Lan Da ) in September 2010 . The first Volts , out of the 10 @-@ vehicle demonstration fleet , arrived in China by late December 2011 . The demonstration program is taking place in Beijing , Tianjin and Shanghai .
The Volt went on sale in China by late 2011 with pricing starting at CN ¥ 498 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 78 @,@ 300 as of August 2012 ) and sales are limited to eight Chinese cities : Beijing , Shanghai , Hangzhou , Suzhou , Wuxi , Guangzhou , Shenzhen and Foshan . GM explained that 13 dealerships were selected in the eight cities , and they were chosen because these " cities have more elites who are inclined to try new technologies and lead the fashion tide . "
However , according to General Motors , in a move illegal under WTO rules the Chinese government refused the allow Chevrolet Volt owners access to up to US $ 19 @,@ 300 in government subsidies available for plug @-@ in vehicles unless GM had agreed to transfer intellectual property to a joint venture with a Chinese automaker for at least one of the Volt ’ s three core technologies : electric motors , complex electronic controls , and power storage devices , whether batteries or a fuel cell . General Motors negotiated with the Chinese government to let the Volt qualify for the subsidies without the technology transfer , but as of November 2011 , the subsidies were available only for electric cars made by Chinese automakers . As a result of the high import duties , General Motors reported in August 2012 that sales are minimal , those of a very low @-@ volume car . According to LMC Automotive , a total of 18 Volts have been sold in China through June 2012 .
In March 2012 , General Motors announced that an agreement was signed with the China Automotive Technology and Research Center ( CATARC ) to manage the Volt demonstration fleet in Beijing and to gather feedback from the fleet usage for one year . The demonstration Volts were scheduled to be delivered in April 2012 . |
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= = = Other markets = = =
Australia
Deliveries of the Holden Volt in the Australian market began in December 2012 , and the first Volt was delivered to the U.S. Ambassador in Canberra . Pricing starts at A $ 59 @,@ 990 ( around US $ 62 @,@ 598 ) . In November 2011 the first Holden Volt arrived in Australia for a series of evaluation tests . Holden has announced that the Volt underwent numerous modifications to better suit it to Australian roads , although the test vehicles are left @-@ hand drive .
The Holden Volt is available to purchase through 49 select Holden dealerships throughout metropolitan and rural Australia , with 18 in Victoria , 11 in New South Wales , 9 in Queensland , 7 in Western Australia and 4 in South Australia . A total of 80 Holden Volts were sold during 2012 , and 101 units in 2013 . A total of 246 Holden Volts had been sold in the country by mid April 2015 , with the stock of the first generation almost empty . General Motors announced that it will not build the second generation Volt in right @-@ hand @-@ drive configuration , so the Volt will be discontinued in the country when the remaining stock is sold out .
Brazil
General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars . If successful , General Motors would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel , as most new Brazilian cars are flex @-@ fuel .
Japan
In December 2010 , General Motors announced plans to introduce the Volt in limited numbers into Japan in 2011 for technology and market test purposes . Exports for retail sales will depend on the results of this trial .
Mexico
The second generation Volt was released for retail customers in December 2015 . Pricing starts at 638 @,@ 000 pesos ( ~ US $ 36 @,@ 880 ) , and it is available in Mexico City , Monterrey , Guadalajara , Querétaro , and Puebla .
New Zealand
The Holden Volt will be released in New Zealand through three dealerships , with one in Auckland , Christchurch and Wellington . Deliveries are scheduled to begin by late 2012 and pricing starts at NZ $ 85 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 71 @,@ 930 ) .
= = = Global sales = = =
Combined global Volt / Ampera sales passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in October 2015 . The Volt family of vehicles ranks as the world 's all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in hybrid , and it is also the second best selling plug @-@ in electric car ever , after the Nissan Leaf , which has sold 200 @,@ 000 units worldwide by early December 2015 . The Volt / Ampera family was the world 's best selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 31 @,@ 400 units sold . The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units , representing a market share of 21 @.@ 5 % of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . However , during 2013 Ampera sales fell 40 % , and the declining trend continued during 2014 and 2015 .
As of March 2016 , global Volt / Ampera family sales totaled over 110 @,@ 000 units since its inception in December 2010 , including almost 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe up to December |
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] | 137,106 | 2015 . As of May 2016 , Chevrolet Volt sales are led by the United States with 96 @,@ 621 units delivered , followed by Canada with 6 @,@ 387 units , and the Netherlands with 1 @,@ 062 Volts registered through December 2015 , together representing 99 % of global Volt sales . Out of the 9 @.@ 989 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through December 2015 , 5 @,@ 031 were registered in the Netherlands , 1 @,@ 542 in Germany , and 1 @,@ 279 in the UK by the end of September 2015 , together representing 78 % of Ampera sales .
The following tables present retail sales of the Volt and Ampera variants through December 2015 for the top selling national markets by year since deliveries began in December 2010 . Demonstration vehicles allocated to dealerships are not included in retail sales reports while they are used for test drives .
= = Related concept cars = =
Cadillac Converj
The Cadillac Converj is a plug @-@ in hybrid concept car first unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show which incorporated the propulsion system from the Chevrolet Volt , including the Voltec powertrain . In August 2011 , General Motors announced its decision to produce the Converj as the Cadillac ELR . The first 2014 ELRs rolled off the production line in late May 2013 . These were pre @-@ production units destined for testing purposes and production for retail customers started at the end of 2013 . The ELR was released to retail customers in the U.S. in December 2013 .
Volt MPV5
At the 2010 Auto China show General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt MPV5 Concept . The Volt MPV5 is a plug @-@ in crossover hybrid and has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and an electric range of 32 miles ( 51 km ) . The MPV5 integrates design elements from the Volt , with a body style very similar to the Chevrolet Orlando and four inches larger than its predecessor , Chevrolet HHR .
Opel Monza Concept
The Opel Monza Concept is a four @-@ seat coupe plug @-@ in hybrid concept car with gullwing door unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show . The concept shares the same basic plug @-@ in hybrid setup as the Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera , but using a turbocharged 1 L 3 @-@ cylinder natural gas @-@ powered engine as its range extender instead of General Motors ’ current 1 @.@ 4 L gasoline engine . According to Opel , this concept is the role @-@ model for the next generation of Opel cars , and because of its modular chassis design , future cars based on it would be able to accommodate gasoline , diesel or electric power .
= = Controversies and criticism = =
= = = EPA fuel economy testing = = =
In 2008 , General Motors was concerned about how the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) would test the Volt to determine its official fuel economy rating . The controversy centered on whether , by including a gasoline engine , the Volt should be classified as a hybrid rather than an electric car as claimed by General Motors . If tested with the same EPA tests used by other hybrids , the Volt 's EPA fuel economy rating would be around 48 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 58 mpg @-@ imp ) due to the current EPA test for hybrids disallowing vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power . General Motors stated that the Volt is an entirely new type of vehicle which the EPA 's current fuel economy tests were not suited to rate and that a new test should be |
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] | 137,107 | devised for this emerging class of hybrid @-@ electrics . General Motors also advocated for a more simplified mpg calculation method to take into account the range of a plug @-@ in hybrid while running solely on electricity . Because the Volt can travel 40 miles ( 64 km ) on batteries alone , GM argued that most drivers with a daily commute of less than that distance would drive only in electric mode , so long as they recharged their vehicle at work or at home overnight .
The EPA official rating issued in November 2010 included separate fuel economy ratings for all @-@ electric mode and gasoline @-@ only mode , with an overall combined city / highway gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . To address the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges , EPA also included in the Volt 's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios driven between a full charge , and a never @-@ charge scenario . According to this table the Volt 's fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 40 L / 100 km ; 202 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) if driven 45 miles ( 72 km ) between full charges . Also , in recognition of the multiple operating modes that a plug @-@ in hybrid can be built with ( all @-@ electric , blended , and gasoline @-@ only ) , for the new fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in model year 2013 , EPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug @-@ in hybrids . One label is for extended @-@ range electric vehicles , like the Chevy Volt , with two modes : all @-@ electric and gasoline @-@ only ; and a second label for blended mode that includes a combination of all @-@ electric , gasoline and electric operation , and gasoline only , like a conventional hybrid vehicle .
= = = EPA fuel economy rating = = =
In August 2009 , General Motors released its estimated city fuel economy rating for the Volt of 230 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ; 280 mpg @-@ imp ) of gasoline plus 25 kWh / 100 mi ( 560 kJ / km ) of electricity using the EPA 's proposed method for evaluating plug @-@ in hybrids . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a statement clarifying that the " EPA has not tested a Chevy Volt and therefore cannot confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM . " In July 2010 , GM explained that their estimate was based on a formula that had not been officially approved and that they had been awaiting the EPA 's decision on how the equivalent fuel economy of plug @-@ in hybrids would be estimated .
The official EPA rating was issued in November 2010 and became the agency 's first fuel economy label for a plug @-@ in hybrids . The EPA rated the 2011 Volt combined fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) in all @-@ electric mode , and 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) in gasoline @-@ only mode , for an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . The label also shows the combined city @-@ highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode expressed in traditional energy consumption units , rating the Volt at 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 160 km ) .
= = = Production cost and sales price = = =
In 2009 , the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry said |
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"▁="
] | 137,108 | that " GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced , “ green ” powertrain development . In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota , GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt . " and that " while the Chevy Volt holds promise , it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline @-@ fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially viable . " A 2009 Carnegie Mellon University study found that a PHEV @-@ 40 will be less cost effective than a HEV or a PHEV @-@ 7 in all of the scenarios considered , due to the cost and weight of the battery . Jon Lauckner , a Vice President at General Motors , responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a 7 miles ( 11 km ) electric range and that the study 's cost estimate of US $ 1 @,@ 000 per kWh for the Volt 's battery pack was " many hundreds of dollars per kilowatt hour higher " than what it costs to make today . "
In early 2010 , it was reported that General Motors would lose money on the Volt for at least the first couple of generations , but it hoped the car would create a green image that could rival the Prius .
After the Volt 's sales price was announced in July 2010 , there was concern expressed of the launch price of the Volt and its affordability and resulting popularity , especially when the federal subsidies of US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion were taken into account in the development of the car .
General Motors CEO Edward Whitacre Jr. rejected as " ridiculous " criticism that the Volt 's price is too expensive . He said that " I think it 's a very fair price . It 's the only car that will go coast to coast on electricity without plugging it in , and nobody else can come close . " Despite the federal government being the major GM shareholder due to the 2009 government @-@ led bankruptcy of the automaker , during a press briefing at the White House a Treasury official clarified that the federal government did not have any input on the pricing of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt .
There have also been complaints regarding price markups due to the initial limited availability in 2010 of between US $ 5 @,@ 000 to US $ 12 @,@ 000 above the recommended price , and at least in one case a US $ 20 @,@ 000 mark up in California . Even though the carmaker cannot dictate vehicle pricing to its dealers , GM said that it had requested its dealers to keep prices in line with the company ’ s suggested retail price .
In May 2011 the National Legal and Policy Center announced that some Chevrolet dealers were selling Volts to other dealers and claiming the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit for themselves . Then the dealers who bought the Volts sell them as used cars with low mileage to private buyers , who no longer qualify for the credit . General Motors acknowledged that 10 dealer @-@ to @-@ dealer Volt sales had taken place among Chevrolet dealers , but the carmaker said they do not encourage such practice .
In September 2012 , Reuters published an opinion / editorial article where it claimed that General Motors , nearly two years after the introduction of the car , was losing US $ 49 @,@ 000 on each Volt it built . The article concluded that the Volt is " over @-@ engineered and over @-@ priced " and that its technological complexity has put off many prospective buyers , due to fears the car may be unreliable . GM executives replied that Reuters ' estimates were significantly flawed as they also allocated the vehicle 's research and development program costs only against the number of Volts sold in the United States ( as of August 2012 ) , instead of spreading the total costs over the entire lifetime of the model , as well as including those units sold in Europe and other countries . GM explained that the investments will pay off once the innovative technologies of the Volt are applied across multiple current and future products .
= = = Battery pack fire risk = |
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] | 137,109 | = =
In June 2011 a Volt that had been subjected by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) to a 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) side pole impact crash test followed by a post @-@ impact rollover , caught fire three weeks later in the test center parking lot , burning nearby vehicles . The battery was found to be the source of the fire . After the fire , both Chevrolet and the NHTSA independently replicated the crash test and a subsequent vehicle rotation procedure to test for any fluid leakage , but in their first attempt they could not reproduce the conditions under which the battery pack ignited . The NHTSA said it had " concluded that the crash test damaged the Volt ’ s lithium @-@ ion battery and that the damage led to a vehicle fire that took several weeks to develop . " In further testing of the Volt 's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011 , two of the three tests resulted in thermal events . One battery pack was rotated 180 degrees within hours after it was impacted and began to smoke and emit sparks after rotation . In the other case , the battery pack that was crashed @-@ tested one week earlier and that had been monitored since the test caught fire . The NHTSA then took an uncommon step on November 25 , 2011 and opened a formal safety defect investigation " without any data from real @-@ world incidents " to examine the potential risks involved from intrusion damage to the battery pack in the Chevrolet Volt . After the initial Volt fire , the NHTSA examined the Nissan Leaf and other plug @-@ in electric vehicles and said its testing “ has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt . ”
As a result of this investigation , GM announced that it would offer any new GM car in exchange to any Volt owner who has concerns while the federal investigation was taking place . In December 2011 , the company said that if necessary they were prepared to recall all the vehicles and repair them upon determination of the cause of the fires , and also announced they would buy back the car if the owner was too afraid of the potential for a fire . GM 's CEO also said that it may be necessary to redesign or make changes to the battery pack depending on the recommendations from federal officials . As of December 1 , 33 Volt owners in the U.S. and 3 in Canada had requested a loaner car . As of December 5 , General Motors reported that a couple dozen Volt owners had requested the carmaker to buy back their cars , and the company had already agreed to repurchase about a dozen . Before the carmaker agrees to buy back each vehicle , other options are explored as GM primarily wants to provide loaner cars , but " if the only way we can make them happy is to repurchase it , then we will , " a GM spokesman said . General Motors explained that the buy back price includes the Volt purchase price , plus taxes and fees , less a usage fee based on how many miles the car has been run . As of January 5 , 2012 , GM reported that around 250 Volt owners had requested either a loaner vehicle or a potential buyback .
The NHTSA also said it was working with all automakers to develop postcrash procedures to keep occupants of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe . Additionally , NHTSA advised to be aware that fires may occur a considerable amount of time after a crash . General Motors said the first fire would have been avoided if GM 's protocols for deactivating the battery after the crash had been followed . These protocols had been used by GM since July 2011 but were not shared with the NHTSA until November 2011 . In another statement the carmaker stated that they “ are working with other vehicle manufacturers , first responders , tow truck operators , and salvage associations with the goal of implementing industrywide protocols . ”
Customer deliveries of the Opel Ampera in Europe were delayed until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk to make sure the vehicle is safe . However , deliveries of the first Chevrolet Volts in Europe began in France in November 2011 . Deliveries of the Vauxhall Ampera in the UK continued as scheduled for May 2012 . Opel Ampera deliveries began in February 2012 . |
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] | 137,110 |
Battery enhancements
On January 5 , 2012 , General Motors announced that it would offer a customer @-@ satisfaction program to provide modifications to the Chevrolet Volt to reduce the chance that the battery pack could catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident . The carmaker described the modifications as voluntary enhancements and stated that neither the car nor the battery was being recalled . General Motors determined the June fire was the result of a minor intrusion from a portion of the vehicle into a side section of the battery pack . This intrusion resulted in a small coolant leak inside the battery of approximately 50 mL ( 1 @.@ 8 imp fl oz ; 1 @.@ 7 US fl oz ) . When the vehicle was put through a slow roll , where it was rotated at 90 @-@ degree increments , holding in each position for about five minutes , an additional 1 liter ( 0 @.@ 22 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 26 U.S. gal ) of coolant leaked . With the vehicle in the 180 degrees position ( upside down ) , the coolant came in contact with the printed circuit board electronics at the top of the battery pack and later crystallized . Three weeks later this condition , in combination with a charged battery , led to a short circuit that resulted in the post @-@ crash fire .
General Motors explained the modifications will enhance the vehicle structure that surround the battery and the battery coolant system to improve battery protection after a severe crash . The safety enhancements consist of strengthening an existing portion of the Volt ’ s vehicle safety structure to further protect the battery pack in a severe side collision ; add a sensor in the reservoir of the battery coolant system to monitor coolant levels ; and add a tamper @-@ resistant bracket to the top of the battery coolant reservoir to help prevent potential coolant overfill . The additional side safety structural pieces have a total weight of 2 to 3 lb ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 36 kg ) , and their function is to spread the load of a severe side impact away from the battery pack , reducing the possibility of intrusion into the pack .
During December 2011 , GM conducted four crash tests of Volts with the reinforced steel and upgraded cooling system , resulting in no intrusion to the battery and no coolant leakage . On December 22 , 2011 , the NHTSA also subjected a modified Volt to the same test that led to the original fire , with no signs of the damage that is believed to have been the cause . The NHTSA said “ the preliminary results of the crash test indicate the remedy proposed by General Motors today should address the issue of battery intrusion ” though its investigation remained open . General Motors declined to say how much the modifications would cost .
All 12 @,@ 400 Chevrolet Volts produced until December 2011 , including all Amperas in stock at European dealerships , were scheduled to receive the safety enhancements . Since production was halted during the holidays , the enhancements were in place when production resumed in early 2012 . Sales continued , and dealers modified the Volts they had in stock . General Motors sent a letter to Volt owners indicating that they could schedule the service appointment to protect their batteries beginning in the last week of March 2012 . General Motors also decided to replace the 120 @-@ volt charging cords in most of the nearly 10 @,@ 000 Volts sold since late 2010 . The new cords were enhanced to add durability , and some of the chargers built after February 5 have the new cords .
NHTSA findings
On January 20 , 2012 , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration closed the Volt 's safety defect investigation related to post @-@ crash fire risk . The agency concluded that " no discernible defect trend exists " and also found that the modifications recently developed by General Motors are sufficient to reduce the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts . The NHTSA also said that " based on the available data , NHTSA does not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles pose a greater risk of fire than gasoline @-@ powered vehicles . " The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to increase awareness and identify appropriate safety measures |
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] | 137,111 | regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community , law enforcement officers , tow truck operators , storage facilities and consumers .
House of Representatives hearing
The chairman of the Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs , Stimulus Oversight and Government Spending , U.S. Representative Jim Jordan held hearings on January 25 , 2012 , to investigate why the NHTSA opened a formal investigation only five months after the first postcrash battery fire occurred in June . The subcommittee of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform wanted to determine if government officials , including from NHTSA , purposely held back information on the Volt fire for political reasons . Both Daniel Akerson , General Motors CEO , and David L. Strickland , NHTSA administrator , denied any wrongdoing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
The Volt has received awards from multiple organizations :
U.S. organizations
2009 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal at the Washington Auto Show for " a bold and far @-@ reaching approach that promises to bring an exceptionally fuel efficient model to consumers at reasonable cost . "
2011 Car and Driver Ten Best Cars . For the first time ever Car and Driver magazine included an electrically powered car among its 10 best .
2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year . The magazine commented that " In the 61 @-@ year history of the Car of the Year award , there have been few contenders as hyped – or as controversial – as the Chevrolet Volt . "
2011 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal . The magazine editors explained that " This award welcomes a new genre of mass @-@ production electric vehicles to the consumer market , with the Volt as the first @-@ ever electric vehicle to take top prize . "
2011 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine . The editors commented that the Volt " ... is genuinely an all @-@ new car , in the most simplistic sense as well as in the greater notion that the Volt is unlike any vehicle we have ever driven . "
2011 North American Car of the Year announced at the 2011 North American International Auto Show . Forty @-@ nine American and Canadian automobile writers chose the Volt . The nominees were judged based on " innovation , design , safety , handling , driver satisfaction and value " .
Listed among the 2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy .
Listed among the 2011 Best Green Cars by Mother Earth News .
2011 Edison Award - Gold in the Transportation Category , Personal Transportation Segment .
2012 Best Resale Value Award in the category of electric cars by Kelley Blue Book .
2011 The Volt ranked first in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2011 Annual Auto Survey , with 93 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again . The magazine noted that the Volt had been on sale for just a few months at the time of the survey , and also clarified that the survey took place before the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration investigation regarding the Volt 's battery fire risk .
2012 Total Cost of Ownership Award in the electric car category , granted by Kelley Blue Book for the lowest projected costs during initial five @-@ year ownership period in its category .
2012 The Volt ranked first , for a second year in a row , in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2012 Annual Auto Survey , with 92 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again .
2016 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal ( awarded to the second generation Volt ) . The Chevrolet Volt is the first model to receive this award more than once .
International organizations
2009 Festival Automobile International awarded the Grand Prize for Environment to the Volt .
2011 World Green Car announced at the 2011 |
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] | 137,112 | New York Auto Show .
2012 International Engine of the Year Award in the category of Green Engine , shared by the Opel Ampera and the Chevrolet Volt for their 1 @.@ 4 L engine @-@ based extended @-@ range electric powertrain .
European organizations
2011 Overall Winner of What Car ? Green Awards , granted by the UK magazine to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2011 Top Gear 's " Green Car of the Year 2011 " to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2012 Car of the Year in Denmark . In October 2011 , 18 Danish motor journalists chose the Opel Ampera as " Car of the Year 2012 " by a wide margin , despite being more expensive than the family cars the award usually goes to .
2012 European Car of the Year , shared by the Chevrolet Volt and the Opel / Vauxhall . The Ampera / Volt became the first car developed in the U.S. to win this European award .
2013 Green Mobility Trophy . Readers of Auto Zeitung in Germany awarded the Opel Ampera the throphy and named the mid @-@ size sedan the best electric vehicle .
Rest of the world organizations
2012 Drive 's Green Innovation Award to the Holden Volt , as part of the Australia 's Drive Car of the Year Awards .
= = = Reviews and test drives = = =
The following tables summarize the results of long @-@ term tests reported by specialized media .
Notes :
1 . ^ The EPA run tests used a reproducible methodology to produce results that can be compared between vehicles and test sites . The remainder of the results were obtained using un @-@ controlled driving cycles and are comparable neither to each nor between different vehicles .
= Arthur , Prince of Wales =
Arthur Tudor ( 20 September 1486 – 2 April 1502 ) was Prince of Wales , Earl of Chester and Duke of Cornwall . As the eldest son and heir apparent of Henry VII of England , Arthur was viewed by contemporaries as the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor . His mother , Elizabeth of York , was the daughter of Edward IV , and his birth cemented the union between the House of Tudor and the House of York .
Plans for Arthur 's marriage began before his third birthday ; he was installed as Prince of Wales two years later . He grew especially close to his siblings Margaret and Henry , Duke of York , with the latter of whom he shared some tutors . At the age of eleven , Arthur was formally betrothed to Catherine of Aragon , a daughter of the powerful Catholic Monarchs in Spain , in an effort to forge an Anglo @-@ Spanish alliance against France . Arthur was well educated and , contrary to modern belief , was in good health for the majority of his life . Soon after his marriage to Catherine in 1501 , the couple took up residence at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire , where Arthur died six months later of an unknown ailment . Catherine would later firmly state that the marriage had not been consummated .
One year after Arthur 's death , Henry VII renewed his efforts of sealing a marital alliance with Spain by arranging for Catherine to marry Arthur 's brother Henry , who had by then become Prince of Wales . Arthur 's untimely death paved the way for Henry 's accession as Henry VIII in 1509 . The potential for a question as to the consummation of Arthur and Catherine 's marriage , was much later ( and in a completely different political context ) exploited by Henry VIII and his Court to cast doubt on the validity of Catherine 's union with Henry , eventually leading to the separation between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church .
= = Infancy = =
In 1485 , Henry Tudor became King of England upon defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth . In an effort to strengthen the Tudor claim to the throne and emphasise his family 's Welsh , that is to say Romano @-@ British , ancestry , Henry had royal genealogists trace his lineage back to the ancient British rulers and decided on naming his |
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] | 137,113 | firstborn son after the legendary King Arthur . On this occasion , Camelot was identified as present @-@ day Winchester , and his wife , Elizabeth of York , was sent to Saint Swithun 's Priory ( today Winchester Cathedral Priory ) in order to give birth there . Born at Saint Swithun 's Priory on 20 September 1486 at about 1 am , Arthur was Henry and Elizabeth 's eldest child . Arthur 's birth was anticipated by French and Italian humanists eager for the start of a " Virgilian golden age " . Sir Francis Bacon wrote that although the Prince was born one month premature , he was " strong and able " . Young Arthur was viewed as " a living symbol " of not only the union between the House of Tudor and the House of York , but also of the end of the Wars of the Roses . In the opinion of contemporaries , Arthur was the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor .
Arthur became Duke of Cornwall at birth . Four days after his birth , the baby was baptised at Winchester Cathedral by the Bishop of Worcester , John Alcock , and his baptism was immediately followed by his Confirmation . John de Vere , 13th Earl of Oxford , Thomas Stanley , 1st Earl of Derby , William FitzAlan , 16th Earl of Arundel , Queen Elizabeth Woodville and Cecily of York served as godparents ; the latter two carried the prince during the ceremony . Initially , Arthur 's nursery in Farnham was headed by Elizabeth Darcy , who had served as chief nurse for Edward IV 's children , including Arthur 's own mother . After Arthur was created Prince of Wales in 1490 , he was awarded a household structure at the behest of his father . Over the next thirteen years , Henry VII and Elizabeth would have six more children , of whom only three – Margaret , Henry and Mary – would reach adulthood . Arthur was especially close to his sister Margaret ( b . 1489 ) and his brother Henry ( b . 1491 ) , with whom he shared a nursery .
On 29 November 1489 , after being made a Knight of the Bath , Arthur was appointed Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester , and was invested as such at the Palace of Westminster on 27 February 1490 . As part of his investiture ceremony , he progressed down the River Thames in the royal barge and was met at Chelsea by the Lord Mayor of London , John Mathewe , and at Lambeth by Spanish ambassadors . On 8 May 1491 , he was made a Knight of the Garter at Saint George 's Chapel at Windsor Palace . It was around this time that Arthur began his formal education under John Rede , a former headmaster of Winchester College . His education was subsequently taken over by Bernard André , a blind poet , and then by Thomas Linacre , formerly Henry VII 's physician . Arthur 's education covered grammar , poetry , rhetoric and ethics and focused on history . Arthur was a very skilled pupil and André wrote that the Prince of Wales had either memorised or read a selection of Homer , Virgil , Ovid , Terence , a good deal of Cicero and a wide span of historical works , including those of Thucydides , Caesar , Livy and Tacitus . Arthur was also a " superb archer " , and had learned to dance " right pleasant and honourably " by 1501 . { { sfn | Gunn | Monckton | 2009 | p = 9 } 00 }
= = Childhood = =
The popular belief that Arthur was sickly during his lifetime stems from a Victorian misunderstanding of a letter from 1502 ; on the contrary , there are no reports of Arthur being ill during his lifetime . Arthur grew up to be unusually tall for his age , and was considered handsome by the Spanish court : he had reddish hair , small eyes , a high @-@ bridged nose and resembled his brother Henry , who was said to be " extremely handsome " by contemporaries . As described by historians Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton , Arthur had an " amiable and gentle " personality and was , overall , a " delicate lad " .
In May 1490 Arthur was created warden of all the marches towards Scotland and the Earl of Surrey was appointed as the Prince 's deputy . |
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] | 137,114 | From 1491 , Arthur was named on peace commissions . In October 1492 , when his father travelled to France , he was named Keeper of England and King 's Lieutenant . Following the example of Edward IV , Henry VII set up the Council of Wales and the Marches for Arthur in Wales , in order to enforce royal authority there . Although the council had already been set up in 1490 , it was headed by Jasper Tudor , Duke of Bedford . Arthur was first dispatched to Wales in 1501 , at the age of fifteen . In March 1493 , Arthur was granted the power to appoint justices of oyer and terminer and inquire into franchises , thus strengthening the council 's authority . In November of that year , the Prince also received an extensive land grant in Wales , including the County of March .
Arthur was served by sons of English , Irish and Welsh nobility , such as Gearoid Óg FitzGerald , 9th Earl of Kildare , who had been brought to the English court as a consequence of the involvement of his father , Gerald Fitzgerald , 8th Earl of Kildare , in the crowning of pretender Lambert Simnel in Ireland during Henry VII 's reign . Other servants were Anthony Willoughby , a son of Robert Willoughby , 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke , Robert Radcliffe , the heir of the 9th Baron FitzWalter and Maurice St John , a favourite nephew of Arthur 's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort . He was brought up with Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas , the son of powerful Welsh nobleman Thomas ap Rhys , Gruffydd grew quite close to Arthur and was buried in Worcester Cathedral upon his death in 1521 , alongside the Prince 's tomb .
= = Marriage = =
Henry VII planned to marry Arthur to a daughter of the Catholic Monarchs , Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , in order to forge an Anglo @-@ Spanish alliance against France . It was suggested that the choice of marrying Arthur to Ferdinand and Isabella 's youngest daughter , Catherine ( b . 1485 ) , would be appropriate . The Treaty of Medina del Campo ( 27 March 1489 ) provided that Arthur and Catherine would be married as soon as they reached canonical age ; it also settled Catherine 's dowry at 200 @,@ 000 crowns ( the equivalent of £ 5 million in 2007 ) . Since Arthur , not yet 14 , was below the age of consent , a papal dispensation ( i.e. , waiver ) allowing the marriage was issued in February 1497 , and the pair were betrothed by proxy on 25 August 1497 . Two years later , a marriage by proxy took place at Arthur 's Tickenhill Manor in Bewdley , near Worcester ; Arthur said to Roderigo de Puebla , who had acted as proxy for Catherine , that " he much rejoiced to contract the marriage because of his deep and sincere love for the Princess " .
In a letter from October 1499 , Arthur , referring to Catherine as " my dearest spouse " , had written :
" I cannot tell you what an earnest desire I feel to see your Highness , and how vexatious to me is this procrastination about your coming . Let [ it ] be hastened , [ that ] the love conceived between us and the wished @-@ for joys may reap their proper fruit . "
The young couple exchanged letters in Latin until 20 September 1501 , when Arthur , having attained the age of 15 , was deemed old enough to be married . Catherine landed in England about two weeks later , on 2 October 1501 , at Plymouth . The next month , on 4 November 1501 , the couple met each other for the first time at Dogmersfield in Hampshire . Arthur wrote to Catherine 's parents that he would be " a true and loving husband " ; the couple soon discovered that they had mastered different pronunciations of Latin and so were unable to communicate . Five days later , on 9 November 1501 , Catherine arrived in London .
On 14 November 1501 , the marriage ceremony finally took place at Saint Paul 's Cathedral ; both Arthur and |
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] | 137,115 | Catherine wore white satin . The ceremony was conducted by Henry Deane , Archbishop of Canterbury , who was assisted by William Warham , Bishop of London . Following the ceremony , Arthur and Catherine left the Cathedral and headed for Baynard 's Castle , where they were entertained by " the best voiced children of the King 's chapel , who sang right sweetly with quaint harmony " .
What followed was a ceremony laid down by Arthur 's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort : the bed was sprinkled with holy water , after which Catherine was led away from the wedding feast by her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . She was undressed , veiled and " reverently " laid in bed , while Arthur , " in his shirt , with a gown cast about him " , was escorted by his gentlemen into the bedchamber , while viols and tabors played . The Bishop of London blessed the bed and prayed for the marriage to be fruitful , after which the couple were left alone . This is the only public bedding of a royal couple recorded in Britain in the 16th century .
= = Death = =
After residing at Tickenhill Manor for a month , Arthur and Catherine headed for the marches in Wales , where they established their household at Ludlow Castle . Arthur had been growing weaker since his wedding , and although Catherine was reluctant to follow him , she was ordered by Henry VII to join her husband . Arthur found it easy to govern Wales , as the border had become quiet after many centuries of warfare . In March 1502 , Arthur and Catherine were afflicted by an unknown illness , " a malign vapour which proceeded from the air " . While Catherine recovered , Arthur died on 2 April 1502 at Ludlow , six months short of his sixteenth birthday .
News of Arthur 's death reached Henry VII 's court late on 4 April . The King was awoken from his sleep by his confessor , who quoted Job by asking Henry " If we receive good things at the hands of God , why may we not endure evil things ? " He then told the king that " [ his ] dearest son hath departed to God " , and Henry burst into tears . " Grief @-@ stricken and emotional " , he then had his wife brought into his chambers , so that they might " take the painful news together " ; Elizabeth reminded Henry that God had helped him become king and " had ever preserved him " , adding that they had been left with " yet a fair Prince and two fair princesses and that God is where he was , and [ they were ] both young enough " . Soon after leaving Henry 's bedchamber , Elizabeth collapsed and began to cry , while the ladies sent for the King , who hurriedly came and " relieved her " .
On 8 April , a general procession took place for the salvation of Arthur 's soul . That night , a dirge was sung in St Paul 's Cathedral and every parish church in London . On 23 April , Arthur 's body , which had previously been embalmed , sprinkled with holy water and sheltered with a canopy , was carried out of Ludlow Castle and into the Parish Church of Ludlow by various noblemen and gentlemen . On 25 April , Arthur 's body was taken to Worcester Cathedral via the River Severn , in a " special wagon upholstered in black and drawn by six horses , also caparisoned in black " . As was customary , Catherine did not attend the funeral . The Earl of Surrey acted as chief mourner . At the end of the ceremony , Sir William Uvedale , Sir Richard Croft and Arthur 's household ushers broke their staves of office and threw them into the Prince 's grave . During the funeral , Arthur 's own arms were shown alongside those of Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd and Brutus of Troy . Two years later , a chantry was erected over Arthur 's grave .
= = Legacy = =
Shortly after Arthur 's death , the idea of betrothing the now @-@ widowed Catherine to the new heir , Henry , had arisen ; both the King and Isabella were keen on moving forward with the betrothal , and the pope granted a dispensation towards that end . After originally rejecting the idea , Henry announced , after his succession on 22 April 1509 , that he would marry Catherine . The |
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] | 137,116 | wedding took place on 11 June . Catherine bore Henry six children : three sons died before reaching three months of age , a daughter was stillborn and another lived for only a week . The couple 's only surviving child was Mary I ( b . 1516 ) .
In 1526 , after eighteen years of marriage , Henry started to pursue the affections of Anne Boleyn , the sister of his former mistress , Mary Boleyn . At the same time , he became troubled by what became known as the King 's " great matter " , that is , finding an appropriate solution for his lack of male descendants . He found several possible options . He could have attempted to legitimise his illegitimate son Henry FitzRoy , but this would not be easy and would require the Pope 's intervention . He could have married his daughter Mary off and hoped for a grandson ; this was not seen as a real option , because Mary was a sickly child and was unlikely to conceive before Henry 's death . Finally , he could somehow reject Catherine and marry a bride more likely to bear children . Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne , the third was ultimately the most viable option to Henry , and it soon became the King 's wish to dissolve his marriage .
Henry believed that his marriage was cursed and found confirmation in the Bible , in Leviticus 20 : 21 . Although in the morning following his wedding , Arthur had claimed that he was thirsty " for I have been in the midst of Spain last night " and that " having a wife is a good pastime " , these claims are generally dismissed by modern historians as mere boasts of a boy who did not want others to know of his failure , and Catherine maintained the claim that she had married Henry while still a virgin until the day she died . After Henry 's constant support of the claim that Catherine 's first marriage had been consummated , an annulment was issued on 23 April 1533 , while the King had already married Anne on 25 January . Anne was beheaded for high treason in 1536 , after which Henry proceeded to marry four more times . At the time of his death in 1547 , Henry only had three living children ; his only son , Edward VI succeeded but died six years later . His successors were Henry 's daughters by Catherine and Anne , Mary I and Elizabeth I. Upon Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , the male line of the House of Tudor came to an end .
In 2002 , following the initiative of canon Ian MacKenzie , Arthur 's funeral was reenacted with a requiem mass at Worcester Cathedral , on occasion of the quincentenary of his death . Despite his role in English history , Arthur has remained largely forgotten since his death .
= = Popular culture = =
Arthur has been featured in several historical fiction novels , such as The King 's Pleasure , by Norah Lofts and Katherine , The Virgin Widow , by Jean Plaidy . In The Constant Princess , by Philippa Gregory , Catherine promises Arthur to marry his brother , thus fulfilling not only her own destiny of becoming Queen of England , but also the couple 's plans for the future of the kingdom . The Alteration , by Kingsley Amis , is an alternate history novel centred on the " War of the English Succession " , during which Henry VIII attempts to usurp the throne of his nephew , Stephen II , Arthur and Catherine 's son .
The historical drama The Six Wives of Henry VIII was broadcast in 1970 , with Martin Ratcliffe as " Prince Arthur " . In 1972 , BBC2 aired a historical miniseries titled The Shadow of the Tower , with " Lord Arthur , Prince of Wales " played by Jason Kemp .
= = Ancestors = =
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Bede =
Bede ( / ˈbiːd / BEED ; Old English : Bǣda or Bēda ; 672 / 673 – 26 May 735 ) , also referred to as Saint Bede or the Venerable Bede ( Latin : Bēda Venerābilis ) , was an English monk at the monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth and its companion monastery , Saint Paul 's , in modern Jarrow ( see Monkwe |
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] | 137,117 | armouth @-@ Jarrow ) , Tyne and Wear , both of which were then in the Kingdom of Northumbria . He is well known as an author and scholar , and his most famous work , Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( The Ecclesiastical History of the English People ) gained him the title " The Father of English History " .
In 1899 , Bede was made a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII ; he is the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation ( Anselm of Canterbury , also a Doctor of the Church , was originally from Italy ) . Bede was moreover a skilled linguist and translator , and his work made the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church Fathers much more accessible to his fellow Anglo @-@ Saxons , contributing significantly to English Christianity . Bede 's monastery had access to an impressive library which included works by Eusebius and Orosius , among many others .
= = Life = =
Almost everything that is known of Bede 's life is contained in the last chapter of his Historia ecclesiastica , a history of the church in England . It was completed in about 731 , and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty @-@ ninth year , which would give a birth date in 672 or 673 . A minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bede 's death . Bede , in the Historia , gives his birthplace as " on the lands of this monastery " . He is referring to the twinned monasteries of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow , in modern @-@ day Sunderland , claimed as his birthplace ; there is also a tradition that he was born at Monkton , two miles from the monastery at Jarrow . Bede says nothing of his origins , but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well @-@ to @-@ do . Bede 's first abbot was Benedict Biscop , and the names " Biscop " and " Beda " both appear in a king list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800 , further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family .
Bede 's name reflects West Saxon Bīeda ( Northumbrian Bǣda , Anglian Bēda ) . It is an Anglo @-@ Saxon short name formed on the root of bēodan " to bid , command " . The name also occurs in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , s.a. 501 , as Bieda , one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth . The Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name , one of whom is presumably Bede himself . Some manuscripts of the Life of Cuthbert , one of Bede 's works , mention that Cuthbert 's own priest was named Bede ; it is possible that this priest is the other name listed in the Liber Vitae .
At the age of seven , Bede was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith . Bede does not say whether it was already intended at that point that he would be a monk . It was fairly common in Ireland at this time for young boys , particularly those of noble birth , to be fostered out ; the practice was also likely to have been common among the Germanic peoples in England . Monkwearmouth 's sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682 , and Bede probably transferred to Jarrow with Ceolfrith that year . The dedication stone for the church has survived to the present day ; it is dated 23 April 685 , and as Bede would have been required to assist with menial tasks in his day @-@ to @-@ day life it is possible that he helped in building the original church . In 686 , plague broke out at Jarrow . The Life of Ceolfrith , written in about 710 , records that only two surviving monks were capable of singing the full offices ; one was Ceolfrith and the other a young boy , who according to the anonymous writer had been taught by Ceolfrith . The two managed to do the entire service of the liturgy until others could be trained . The young boy was almost certainly Bede , who would have been about 14 .
|
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] | 137,118 | When Bede was about 17 years old , Adomnan , the abbot of Iona Abbey , visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow . Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit , and it may be that Adomnan sparked Bede 's interest in the Easter dating controversy . In about 692 , in Bede 's nineteenth year , Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop , John , who was bishop of Hexham . The canonical age for the ordination of a deacon was 25 ; Bede 's early ordination may mean that his abilities were considered exceptional , but it is also possible that the minimum age requirement was often disregarded . There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon ; but there is no record of whether Bede held any of these offices . In Bede 's thirtieth year ( about 702 ) , he became a priest , with the ordination again performed by Bishop John .
In about 701 Bede wrote his first works , the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis ; both were intended for use in the classroom . He continued to write for the rest of his life , eventually completing over 60 books , most of which have survived . Not all his output can be easily dated , and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years . His last @-@ surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York , a former student , written in 734 . A 6th @-@ century Greek and Latin manuscript of Acts that is believed to have been used by Bede survives and is now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University ; it is known as the Codex Laudianus . Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow , one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence . Bede was a teacher as well as a writer ; he enjoyed music , and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular . It is possible that he suffered a speech impediment , but this depends on a phrase in the introduction to his verse life of Saint Cuthbert . Translations of this phrase differ , and it is uncertain whether Bede intended to say that he was cured of a speech problem , or merely that he was inspired by the saint 's works .
In 708 , some monks at Hexham accused Bede of having committed heresy in his work De Temporibus . The standard theological view of world history at the time was known as the six ages of the world ; in his book , Bede calculated the age of the world for himself , rather than accepting the authority of Isidore of Seville , and came to the conclusion that Christ had been born 3 @,@ 952 years after the creation of the world , rather than the figure of over 5 @,@ 000 years that was commonly accepted by theologians . The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham , Wilfrid , who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation . Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation , but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede , who replied within a few days to the monk , writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter also be read to Wilfrid . Bede had another brush with Wilfrid , for the historian himself says that he met Wilfrid , sometime between 706 and 709 , and discussed Æthelthryth , the abbess of Ely . Wilfrid had been present at the exhumation of her body in 695 , and Bede questioned the bishop about the exact circumstances of the body and asked for more details of her life , as Wilfrid had been her advisor .
In 733 , Bede travelled to York to visit Ecgbert , who was then bishop of York . The See of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735 , and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit . Bede hoped to visit Ecgbert again in 734 , but was too ill to make the journey . Bede also travelled to the monastery of Lindisfarne , and at some point visited the otherwise @-@ unknown monastery of a monk named Wicthed , a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk . Because of |
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] | 137,119 | his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles , and due to the fact that many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents , it is likely that Bede travelled to some other places , although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed . It seems certain that he did not visit Rome , however , as he would have mentioned it in the autobiographical chapter of his Historia Ecclesiastica . Nothhelm , a correspondent of Bede 's who assisted him by finding documents for him in Rome , is known to have visited Bede , though the date cannot be determined beyond the fact that it was after Nothhelm 's visit to Rome .
Except for a few visits to other monasteries , his life was spent in a round of prayer , observance of the monastic discipline and study of the Sacred Scriptures . He was considered the most learned man of his time , and wrote excellent biblical and historical books .
Bede died on Thursday , 26 May 735 ( Ascension Day ) on the floor of his cell , singing Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit and was buried at Jarrow . Cuthbert , a disciple of Bede 's , wrote a letter to a Cuthwin ( of whom nothing else is known ) , describing Bede 's last days and his death . According to Cuthbert , Bede fell ill , " with frequent attacks of breathlessness but almost without pain " , before Easter . On the Tuesday , two days before Bede died , his breathing became worse and his feet swelled . He continued to dictate to a scribe , however , and despite spending the night awake in prayer he dictated again the following day . At three o 'clock , according to Cuthbert , he asked for a box of his to be brought , and distributed among the priests of the monastery " a few treasures " of his : " some pepper , and napkins , and some incense " . That night he dictated a final sentence to the scribe , a boy named Wilberht , and died soon afterwards . Cuthbert 's letter also relates a five @-@ line poem in the vernacular that Bede composed on his deathbed , known as " Bede 's Death Song " . It is the most @-@ widely copied Old English poem , and appears in 45 manuscripts , but its attribution to Bede is not certain — not all manuscripts name Bede as the author , and the ones that do are of later origin than those that do not . Bede 's remains may have been transferred to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century ; his tomb there was looted in 1541 , but the contents were probably re @-@ interred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral .
One further oddity in his writings is that in one of his works , the Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles , he writes in a manner that gives the impression he was married . The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first @-@ person view . Bede says : " Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray . " Another passage , in the Commentary on Luke , also mentions a wife in the first person : " Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ . " The historian Benedicta Ward argues that these passages are Bede employing a rhetorical device .
= = Works = =
Bede wrote scientific , historical and theological works , reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries . He knew patristic literature , as well as Pliny the Elder , Virgil , Lucretius , Ovid , Horace and other classical writers . He knew some Greek .
Bede 's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation and his history includes accounts of miracles , which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history . Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world @-@ view of Early Medieval scholars .
He dedicated his work on the Apocalypse and the De Temporum Ratione to the successor of Ceolfrid as abbot , Hwaetbert .
Although Bede is |
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] | 137,120 | mainly studied as a historian now , in his time his works on grammar , chronology , and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works . The non @-@ historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian renaissance . He has been credited with writing a penitential , though his authorship of this work is still very much disputed .
= = Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum = =
Bede 's best @-@ known work is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People , completed in about 731 . Bede was aided in writing this book by Albinus , abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury . The first of the five books begins with some geographical background , and then sketches the history of England , beginning with Caesar 's invasion in 55 BC . A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain , including the martyrdom of St Alban , is followed by the story of Augustine 's mission to England in 597 , which brought Christianity to the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604 , and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria . These ended in disaster when Penda , the pagan king of Mercia , killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632 . The setback was temporary , and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald of Northumbria and Oswy . The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby , traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history . The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury , and recounts Wilfrid 's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex . The fifth book brings the story up to Bede 's day , and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia , and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter . Bede wrote a preface for the work , in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf , king of Northumbria . The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book ; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it , and he may even have been able to read it . The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy , and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf 's approval ; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede 's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility .
= = = Models and style = = =
Bede 's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history . His introduction imitates the work of Orosius , and his title is an echo of Eusebius 's Historia Ecclesiastica . Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the Acts of the Apostles as the model for the overall work : where Eusebius used the Acts as the theme for his description of the development of the church , Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo @-@ Saxon church . Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative , as Eusebius had done . Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times . For example , he almost always uses the terms " Australes " and " Occidentales " for the South and West Saxons respectively , but in a passage in the first book he uses " Meridiani " and " Occidui " instead , as perhaps his informant had done . At the end of the work , Bede added a brief autobiographical note ; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours ' earlier History of the Franks .
Bede 's work as a hagiographer , and his detailed attention to dating , were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica . His interest in computus , the science of calculating the date of Easter , was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo @-@ Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date .
Bede is described by Michael Lapidge as " without question the most accomplished Latinist produced in these islands in the Anglo @-@ |
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] | 137,121 | Saxon period " . His Latin has been praised for its clarity , but his style in the Historia Ecclesiastica is not simple . He knew rhetoric , and often used figures of speech and rhetorical forms which cannot easily be reproduced in translation , depending as they often do on the connotations of the Latin words . However , unlike contemporaries such as Aldhelm , whose Latin is full of difficulties , Bede 's own text is easy to read . In the words of Charles Plummer , one of the best @-@ known editors of the Historia Ecclesiastica , Bede 's Latin is " clear and limpid ... it is very seldom that we have to pause to think of the meaning of a sentence ... Alcuin rightly praises Bede for his unpretending style . "
= = = Intent = = =
Bede 's primary intention in writing the Historia Ecclesiastica was to show the growth of the united church throughout England . The native Britons , whose Christian church survived the departure of the Romans , earn Bede 's ire for refusing to help convert the Saxons ; by the end of the Historia the English , and their Church , are dominant over the Britons . This goal , of showing the movement towards unity , explains Bede 's animosity towards the British method of calculating Easter : much of the Historia is devoted to a history of the dispute , including the final resolution at the Synod of Whitby in 664 . Bede is also concerned to show the unity of the English , despite the disparate kingdoms that still existed when he was writing . He also wants to instruct the reader by spiritual example , and to entertain , and to the latter end he adds stories about many of the places and people about which he wrote .
N.J. Higham argues that Bede designed his work to promote his reform agenda to Ceolwulf , the Northumbrian king . Bede painted a highly optimistic picture of the current situation in the Church , as opposed to the more pessimistic picture found in his private letters .
Bede 's extensive use of miracles can prove difficult for readers who consider him a more or less reliable historian , but do not accept the possibility of miracles . Yet both reflect an inseparable integrity and regard for accuracy and truth , expressed in terms both of historical events and of a tradition of Christian faith that continues to the present day . Bede , like Gregory the Great whom Bede quotes on the subject in the Historia , felt that faith brought about by miracles was a stepping stone to a higher , truer faith , and that as a result miracles had their place in a work designed to instruct .
= = = Omissions and biases = = =
Bede is somewhat reticent about the career of Wilfrid , a contemporary and one of the most prominent clerics of his day . This may be because Wilfrid 's opulent lifestyle was uncongenial to Bede 's monastic mind ; it may also be that the events of Wilfrid 's life , divisive and controversial as they were , simply did not fit with Bede 's theme of the progression to a unified and harmonious church .
Bede 's account of the early migrations of the Angles and Saxons to England omits any mention of a movement of those peoples across the channel from Britain to Brittany described by Procopius , who was writing in the sixth century . Frank Stenton describes this omission as " a scholar 's dislike of the indefinite " ; traditional material that could not be dated or used for Bede 's didactic purposes had no interest for him .
Bede was a Northumbrian , and this tinged his work with a local bias . The sources he had access to gave him less information about the west of England than for other areas . He says relatively little about the achievements of Mercia and Wessex , omitting , for example , any mention of Boniface , a West Saxon missionary to the continent of some renown and of whom Bede had almost certainly heard , though Bede does discuss Northumbrian missionaries to the continent . He also is parsimonious in his praise for Aldhelm , a West Saxon who had done much to convert the native Britons to the Roman form of Christianity . He lists seven kings of the Anglo @-@ Saxons whom he regards as having held imperium , or overlordship ; only one king of Wessex , Ceawlin , is listed , and none |
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] | 137,122 | from Mercia , though elsewhere he acknowledges the secular power several of the Mercians held . Historian Robin Fleming states that he was so hostile to Mercia because Northumbria had been diminished by Mercian power that he consulted no Mercian informants and included no stories about its saints .
Bede relates the story of Augustine 's mission from Rome , and tells how the British clergy refused to assist Augustine in the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . This , combined with Gildas 's negative assessment of the British church at the time of the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions , led Bede to a very critical view of the native church . However , Bede ignores the fact that at the time of Augustine 's mission , the history between the two was one of warfare and conquest , which , in the words of Barbara Yorke , would have naturally " curbed any missionary impulses towards the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the British clergy . "
= = = Use of Anno Domini = = =
At the time Bede wrote the Historia Ecclesiastica , there were two common ways of referring to dates . One was to use indictions , which were 15 @-@ year cycles , counting from 312 AD . There were three different varieties of indiction , each starting on a different day of the year . The other approach was to use regnal years — the reigning Roman emperor , for example , or the ruler of whichever kingdom was under discussion . This meant that in discussing conflicts between kingdoms , the date would have to be given in the regnal years of all the kings involved . Bede used both these approaches on occasion , but adopted a third method as his main approach to dating : the anno domini method invented by Dionysius Exiguus . Although Bede did not invent this method , his adoption of it , and his promulgation of it in De Temporum Ratione , his work on chronology , is the main reason why it is now so widely used .
= = = Assessment = = =
The Historia Ecclesiastica was copied often in the Middle Ages , and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive . About half of those are located on the European continent , rather than on the British Isles . Most of the 8th- and 9th @-@ century texts of Bede 's Historia come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire . This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work , of which another 100 or so survive . It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482 , probably at Strasbourg , France . Modern historians have studied the Historia extensively , and a number of editions have been produced . For many years , early Anglo @-@ Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the Historia , but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did . The belief that the Historia was the culmination of Bede 's works , the aim of all his scholarship , a belief common among historians in the past , is no longer accepted by most scholars .
Modern historians and editors of Bede have been lavish in their praise of his achievement in the Historia Ecclesiastica . Stenton regarded it as one of the " small class of books which transcend all but the most fundamental conditions of time and place " , and regarded its quality as dependent on Bede 's " astonishing power of co @-@ ordinating the fragments of information which came to him through tradition , the relation of friends , or documentary evidence ... In an age where little was attempted beyond the registration of fact , he had reached the conception of history . " Patrick Wormald described him as " the first and greatest of England 's historians " .
The Historia Ecclesiastica has given Bede a high reputation , but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history . His focus on the history of the organisation of the English church , and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out , led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church . Besides the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the medieval writers William of Malmesbury , Henry of Huntingdon , and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations . Early modern writers , such |
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] | 137,123 | as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker , the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury , also utilised the Historia , and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion .
Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede 's accounts . One historian , Charlotte Behr , thinks that the Historia 's account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should not be considered to relate what actually happened , but rather relates myths that were current in Kent during Bede 's time .
It is likely that Bede 's work , because it was so widely copied , discouraged others from writing histories and may even have led to the disappearance of manuscripts containing older historical works .
= = Other historical works = =
= = = Chronicles = = =
As Chapter 66 of his On the Reckoning of Time , in 725 Bede wrote the Greater Chronicle ( chronica maiora ) , which sometimes circulated as a separate work . For recent events the Chronicle , like his Ecclesiastical History , relied upon Gildas , upon a version of the Liber pontificalis current at least to the papacy of Pope Sergius I ( 687 – 701 ) , and other sources . For earlier events he drew on Eusebius 's Chronikoi Kanones . The dating of events in the Chronicle is inconsistent with his other works , using the era of creation , the anno mundi .
= = = Lives = = =
His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow , as well as verse and prose lives of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , an adaptation of Paulinus of Nola 's Life of St Felix , and a translation of the Greek Passion of St Anastasius . He also created a listing of saints , the Martyrology .
= = Theological works = =
In his own time , Bede was as well known for his biblical commentaries and exegetical , as well as other theological works . The majority of his writings were of this type , and covered the Old Testament and the New Testament . Most survived the Middle Ages , but a few were lost . It was for his theological writings that he earned the title of Doctor Anglorum , and why he was made a saint .
Bede synthesised and transmitted the learning from his predecessors , as well as made careful , judicious innovation in knowledge ( such as recalculating the age of the earth — for which he was censured before surviving the heresy accusations and eventually having his views championed by Archbishop Ussher in the sixteenth century — see below ) that had theological implications . In order to do this , he learned Greek , and attempted to learn Hebrew . He spent time reading and rereading both the Old and the New Testaments . He mentions that he studied from a text of Jerome 's Vulgate , which itself was from the Hebrew text . He also studied both the Latin and the Greek Fathers of the Church . In the monastic library at Jarrow were a number of books by theologians , including works by Basil , Cassian , John Chrysostom , Isidore of Seville , Origen , Gregory of Nazianzus , Augustine of Hippo , Jerome , Pope Gregory I , Ambrose of Milan , Cassiodorus , and Cyprian . He used these , in conjunction with the Biblical texts themselves , to write his commentaries and other theological works . He had a Latin translation by Evagrius of Athanasius 's Life of Antony , and a copy of Sulpicius Severus ' Life of St. Martin . He also used lesser known writers , such as Fulgentius , Julian of Eclanum , Tyconius , and Prosper of Aquitaine . Bede was the first to refer to Jerome , Augustine , Pope Gregory and Ambrose as the four Latin Fathers of the Church . It is clear from Bede 's own comments that he felt his job was to explain to his students and readers the theology and thoughts of the Church Fathers .
Bede also wrote homilies , works written to explain theology used in worship services . Bede wrote homilies not only on the major Christian seasons such as Advent , Lent , or Easter , but on other subjects such as anniversaries of significant events . |
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Both types of Bede 's theological works circulated widely in the Middle Ages . A number of his biblical commentaries were incorporated into the Glossa Ordinaria , an 11th @-@ century collection of biblical commentaries . Some of Bede 's homilies were collected by Paul the Deacon , and they were used in that form in the Monastic Office . Saint Boniface used Bede 's homilies in his missionary efforts on the continent .
Bede sometimes included in his theological books an acknowledgement of the predecessors on whose works he drew . In two cases he left instructions that his marginal notes , which gave the details of his sources , should be preserved by the copyist , and he may have originally added marginal comments about his sources to others of his works . Where he does not specify , it is still possible to identify books to which he must have had access by quotations that he uses . A full catalogue of the library available to Bede in the monastery cannot be reconstructed , but it is possible to tell , for example , that Bede was very familiar with the works of Virgil . There is little evidence that he had access to any other of the pagan Latin writers — he quotes many of these writers but the quotes are almost all to be found in the Latin grammars that were common in his day , one or more of which would certainly have been at the monastery . Another difficulty is that manuscripts of early writers were often incomplete : it is apparent that Bede had access to Pliny 's Encyclopedia , for example , but it seems that the version he had was missing book xviii , as he would almost certainly have quoted from it in his De temporum ratione .
= = = Works on the Old Testament = = =
The works dealing with the Old Testament included Commentary on Samuel , Commentary on Genesis , Commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah , On the Temple , On the Tabernacle , Commentaries on Tobit , Commentaries on Proverbs , Commentaries on the Song of Songs , Commentaries on the Canticle of Habakkuk , The works on Ezra , the Tabernacle and the Temple were especially influenced by Gregory the Great 's writings .
= = = Works on the New Testament = = =
Bede 's works included Commentary on Revelation , Commentary on the Catholic Epistles , Commentary on Acts , Reconsideration on the Books of Acts , On the Gospel of Mark , On the Gospel of Luke , and Homilies on the Gospels . At the time of his death he was working on a translation of the Gospel of St. John into English . He did this for the last 40 days of his life . When the last passage had been translated he said : " All is finished . "
= = Works on historical and astronomical chronology = =
De temporibus , or On Time , written in about 703 , provides an introduction to the principles of Easter computus . This was based on parts of Isidore of Seville 's Etymologies , and Bede also included a chronology of the world which was derived from Eusebius , with some revisions based on Jerome 's translation of the bible . In about 723 , Bede wrote a longer work on the same subject , On the Reckoning of Time , which was influential throughout the Middle Ages . He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus .
On the Reckoning of Time ( De temporum ratione ) included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos , including an explanation of how the spherical earth influenced the changing length of daylight , of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the New Moon at evening twilight , and a quantitative relation between the changes of the tides at a given place and the daily motion of the moon . Since the focus of his book was the computus , Bede gave instructions for computing the date of Easter and the related time of the Easter Full Moon , for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac , and for many other calculations related to the calendar . He gives some information about the months of the Anglo @-@ Saxon calendar in chapter XV . Any codex of Bede 's Easter cycle is normally found together with a codex of his " De Temporum Ratione " .
For calendric purposes , Bede made a new calculation of the age of |
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] | 137,125 | the world since the creation , which he dated as 3952 BC . Due to his innovations in computing the age of the world , he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfrid , his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations . Once informed of the accusations of these " lewd rustics , " Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin .
In addition to these works on astronomical timekeeping , he also wrote De natura rerum , or On the Nature of Things , modelled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville . His works were so influential that late in the 9th century Notker the Stammerer , a monk of the Monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland , wrote that " God , the orderer of natures , who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation , in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth " .
= = Educational works = =
Bede wrote some works designed to help teach grammar in the abbey school . One of these was his De arte metrica , a discussion of the composition of Latin verse , drawing on previous grammarians work . It was based on Donatus ' De pedibus and Servius ' De finalibus , and used examples from Christian poets as well as Virgil . It became a standard text for the teaching of Latin verse during the next few centuries . Bede dedicated this work to Cuthbert , apparently a student , for he is named " beloved son " in the dedication , and Bede says " I have laboured to educate you in divine letters and ecclesiastical statutes " Another textbook of Bede 's is the De orthographia , a work on orthography , designed to help a medieval reader of Latin with unfamiliar abbreviations and words from classical Latin works . Although it could serve as a textbook , it appears to have been mainly intended as a reference work . The exact date of composition for both of these works is unknown .
Another educational work is De schematibus et tropis sacrae scripturae , which discusses the Bible 's use of rhetoric . Bede was familiar with pagan authors such as Virgil , but it was not considered appropriate to teach biblical grammar from such texts , and in De schematibus ... Bede argues for the superiority of Christian texts in understanding Christian literature . Similarly , his text on poetic metre uses only Christian poetry for examples .
= = Vernacular poetry = =
According to his disciple Cuthbert , Bede was also doctus in nostris carminibus ( " learned in our songs " ) . Cuthbert 's letter on Bede 's death , the Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae , moreover , commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as Bede 's Death Song
And he used to repeat that sentence from St. Paul " It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God , " and many other verses of Scripture , urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour . And in our own language , — for he was familiar with English poetry , — speaking of the soul 's dread departure from the body :
As Opland notes , however , it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede : most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede 's presentation of the song , and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo @-@ Latin literature . The fact that Cuthbert 's description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture , indeed , might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts . On the other hand , the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert 's Latin letter , the observation that Bede " was learned in our song , " and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all point to the possibility of his having written it . By citing the poem directly , Cuthbert seems to imply that its particular wording was somehow important , either since it was a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who evidently frowned upon secular entertainment or because it is a direct quotation of Bede 's last |
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= = Veneration = =
There is no evidence for cult being paid to Bede in England in the 8th century . One reason for this may be that he died on the feast day of Augustine of Canterbury . Later , when he was venerated in England , he was either commemorated after Augustine on 26 May , or his feast was moved to 27 May . However , he was venerated outside England , mainly through the efforts of Boniface and Alcuin , both of whom promoted the cult on the Continent . Boniface wrote repeatedly back to England during his missionary efforts , requesting copies of Bede 's theological works . Alcuin , who was taught at the school set up in York by Bede 's pupil Egbert , praised Bede as an example for monks to follow and was instrumental in disseminating Bede 's works to all of Alcuin 's friends . Bede 's cult became prominent in England during the 10th @-@ century revival of monasticism , and by the 14th century had spread to many of the cathedrals of England . Wulfstan , Bishop of Worcester ( c . 1008 – 1095 ) was a particular devotee of Bede 's , dedicating a church to him in 1062 , which was Wulfstan 's first undertaking after his consecration as bishop .
His body was ' translated ' ( the ecclesiastical term for relocation of relics ) from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral around 1020 , where it was placed in the same tomb with Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne . Later Bede 's remains were moved to a shrine in the Galilee Chapel at Durham Cathedral in 1370 . The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation , but the bones were reburied in the chapel . In 1831 the bones were dug up and then reburied in a new tomb , which is still there . Other relics were claimed by York , Glastonbury and Fulda .
His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when he was declared a Doctor of the Church . He is the only Englishman named a Doctor of the Church . He is also the only Englishman in Dante 's Paradise ( Paradiso X.130 ) , mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as Isidore of Seville and the Scot Richard of St. Victor .
His feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1899 , for celebration on 27 May rather than on his date of death , 26 May , which was then the feast day of Pope Saint Gregory VII . He is venerated in both the Anglican and Roman Catholic Church , with a feast day of 25 May , and in the Eastern Orthodox Church , with a feast day on 27 May .
Bede became known as Venerable Bede ( Lat . : Beda Venerabilis ) by the 9th century because of his holiness , but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Roman Catholic Church . According to a legend the epithet was miraculously supplied by angels , thus completing his unfinished epitaph . It is first utilised in connection with Bede in the 9th century , where Bede was grouped with others who were called " venerable " at two ecclesiastical councils held at Aachen in 816 and 836 . Paul the Deacon then referred to him as venerable consistently . By the 11th and 12th century , it had become commonplace . However , there are no descriptions of Bede by that term right after his death .
= = = Modern legacy = = =
Bede 's reputation as a historian , based mostly on the Historia Ecclesiastica , remains strong ; historian Walter Goffart says of Bede that he " holds a privileged and unrivalled place among first historians of Christian Europe " . His life and work have been celebrated with the annual Jarrow Lecture , held at St. Paul 's Church , Jarrow , since 1958 .
= Treehouse of Horror III =
" Treehouse of Horror III " is the fifth episode of |
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] | 137,127 | The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 29 , 1992 . In the third annual Treehouse of Horror episode , Homer buys Bart an evil talking Krusty doll , King Homer is captured by Mr. Burns , and Bart and Lisa inadvertently cause zombies to attack Springfield . The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen , Wallace Wolodarsky , Sam Simon , and Jon Vitti , and directed by Carlos Baeza .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons are having a Halloween party for the children of Springfield . Lisa , Grampa and Bart each tell a horror story .
= = = Clown Without Pity = = =
In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode , Living Doll , Homer realizes that he forgot to buy Bart a present for his birthday . He rushes to the House of Evil , where he purchases a talking Krusty the Clown doll . The shopkeeper warns him that the doll is cursed , but Homer dismisses his concerns . He returns to the party and gives Bart the doll . Grandpa exclaims that the doll is evil , but admits that he is just doing it to get attention .
Later , Homer is playing with the doll when it starts saying that it is going to kill him . He dismisses this until the doll threatens to stab him . After numerous attempts on Homer ’ s life , he captures the evil Krusty doll , locks it in a suitcase , and drops it in a " Bottomless Pit " . Returning home , Homer is ambushed by the escaped doll , who tackles him into the kitchen and tries to drown him in Santa 's Little Helper 's dog bowl . Marge calls the consumer service hotline . A repairman arrives and discovers that the doll has been set to " Evil " mode . He flips the switch to " Good " and the Krusty doll becomes friends with Homer .
A few hours later , the Krusty doll is working as Homer 's slave . The Krusty doll returns to his girlfriend ( a Malibu Stacy doll ) in Lisa 's dollhouse .
= = = King Homer = = =
In a parody of King Kong , Marge joins Mr. Burns and Smithers on an expedition to Ape Island to find the legendary King Homer . After landing on the island , Mr. Burns , Smithers , and Marge stealthily approach a native tribe , but are spotted due to Marge ’ s hair protruding over the bushes . The villagers agree that " The blue haired woman would make a good sacrifice " and tie her to a post as an offering . The sound of drums summons King Homer . Marge is initially terrified but sees the friendly side of Homer when he is attracted to Marge 's perfume and the two form a friendship . Nonetheless , Mr. Burns is determined to capture King Homer and Smithers knocks Homer unconscious with a gas bomb . Returning to New York , the group display King Homer at the Broadway theatre . The photographers ' flashes enrage King Homer , who breaks free from his restraints . He abducts Marge then attempts to climb the Empire State Building , but is unable to get past the second story of the building . King Homer collapses in exhaustion . In the end , King Homer and Marge get married . The story ends with the wedding .
= = = Dial " Z " For Zombies = = =
While in the Springfield Elementary library , Bart finds a book of black magic and gets attached to it . That night , when Lisa reminisces about the family ’ s dead cat , Snowball I , Bart suggests that he could use the book he found to resurrect Snowball . At the Springfield pet cemetery with Lisa , Bart utters an incantation from the book but accidentally reanimates corpses from the nearby human cemetery instead . The zombies terrorize Springfield , turning many people into zombies . Meanwhile , the Simpson family has barricaded all the doors and windows except for the back door , which Homer forgot to do . Several zombies break into the house : Homer sacrifices himself to give the others time to escape , but the zombies leave him when they realize he does not |
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] | 137,128 | have enough brains for them to eat . Lisa realizes that the school library must have a book that can reverse the spell .
The Simpsons arrive at the Springfield Elementary library and Bart casts the appropriate counter spell , causing all zombies to return to their graves .
= = Production = =
This episode originally encountered trouble when the color version came back from Korea . With only six weeks to the airdate the writers made almost 100 line changes , a very rare occurrence . It was decided to completely overhaul the episode after a poorly received screening with the writing staff . The tombstones that appeared at the start of and during the episode were abandoned in later episodes because it was becoming increasingly difficult to think of ideas . A subtle tombstone joke in this episode is in the scene where two zombies are crawling out of their graves . The names Jay Kogen and Wolodarsky ( two of The Simpsons writers who worked on the episode ) are written on the tombstones , but both are misspelled . The " King Homer " segment is one of Matt Groening 's all @-@ time favorite stories from the Treehouse of Horror series . Al Jean was also quite worried about this segment because it was the longest running black @-@ and @-@ white segment they had ever aired , and he thought that some people might be concerned that their televisions were broken . The " He ( Flanders ) was a zombie ? " line , created by Mike Reiss , is , in the opinions of the writers , one of the all @-@ time classic lines from the series .
= = Cultural references = =
The opening sequence where Homer walks into Alfred Hitchcock 's silhouette is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock Presents . It was meant to show Homer 's stomach bigger than that of the outline , but it was so subtle that not many people realised the joke . In the episode 's wraparounds , Bart is dressed as Alex from the film A Clockwork Orange . The " Clown Without Pity " segment is based on the Twilight Zone episode " Living Doll " and the film Trilogy of Terror . The title itself is a play on the song " Town Without Pity " by Gene Pitney . The man that gives Homer the Krusty doll is based on Mr. Wing from the film Gremlins . The Krusty doll riding under Homer 's car is a reference to the 1991 film Cape Fear . The " King Homer " segment is a parody of the 1933 film King Kong . In " King Homer " , the tribal leader is heard saying ' Mosi Tatupu , Mosi Tatupu ' , which means they will sacrifice the blue @-@ haired lady . The title " Dial " Z " for Zombies " is a play on the title of the 1954 Hitchcock film Dial M for Murder . Some aspects of " Dial " Z " for Zombies " are from the film Night of the Living Dead . In the pet cemetery , there are tombstones that read Fish Police , Capitol Critters and Family Dog , each a short @-@ lived animated series intended to capitalize on The Simpsons ' success .
When raising the dead from their graves , Bart wears Michael Jackson 's record album cover Thriller on his head . This is both a reference to Jackson 's famous music video , in which he dances with zombies .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror III " finished 20th in ratings for the week of October 26 – November 1 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating In Living Color . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , thoroughly enjoyed the episode . They described the episode as " Another seasonal treat . Dial Z for Zombies is particularly impressive ( ' Dad , you killed the zombie Flanders ! ' ' He was a zombie ? ' ) . " In 2006 , IGN voted " Dial Z For Zombies " as the second best segment of the Treehouse of Horror episodes . |
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] | 137,129 | " Clown Without Pity " was also rated sixth .
In the film 28 Days Later , there is a scene where Sgt. Ferrell mentions that his favorite joke from The Simpsons was the line " Women and seamen ( semen ) don 't mix " , said by Smithers during the " King Homer " segment . The episode 's reference to Night of the Living Dead was named the 16th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
= Slipknot ( album ) =
Slipknot is the self titled debut studio album by American heavy metal band Slipknot . It was released on 29 June 1999 through Roadrunner Records , following a demo containing a few of the songs which had been released in 1998 , and was reissued in December 1999 with a slightly altered track listing and mastering as the result of a lawsuit . It was the first release by the band to be produced by Ross Robinson , who sought to refine Slipknot 's sound rather than alter the group 's musical direction .
The album spans several genres , but is generally noted for its extensive percussion and overall heavy sound . It was well received by fans and critics alike and was responsible for bringing Slipknot a large increase in popularity . The album peaked at number 51 on the Billboard 200 , and has gone on to become certified double platinum in the United States , making it the band 's best selling album . It was voted the best debut album of the last 25 years by readers of Metal Hammer magazine .
= = Recording and production = =
In 1997 , following the band 's demo release Mate . Feed . Kill . Repeat . , the members of Slipknot continued to write new material and work in SR Audio , a local studio , with new vocalist Corey Taylor . The band had started work on a follow @-@ up but never got further than pre @-@ production . Songs written and recorded in this period include " Slipknot " , " Gently " , " Do Nothing " , " Tattered and Torn " , " Heartache and a Pair of Scissors " , " Me Inside " , " Coleslaw " , " Carve " , " Windows " and " May 17th " . In 1998 , Slipknot was receiving growing attention from record labels including Epic and Hollywood Records .
On September 29 , 1998 , Slipknot left Des Moines , Iowa for Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu , California , anxious to record an album after a long wait to be signed . They released this demo to prospective labels and producers ; the track " Spit It Out " was the main focus of the demo and , with help from their manager Sophia John , they were able to get a copy of the eponymous demo to Ross Robinson . The band wanted him to work with them on their debut album and after meeting with the band Robinson signed them to his own label , I Am , but later helped sign them to Roadrunner Records .
The album 's recording process was " very aggressive and chaotic " , as producer Robinson strove to capture the intensity that the band created when performing live . Within three days all the drums were recorded , which contributed to the raw , live sound on the album that the band considers integral to its musical direction . By November 11 , 1998 , the recording of the album seemed complete and the band returned to Des Moines . During the Christmas period , guitarist Josh Brainard , who recorded on all the tracks to that point , decided to leave the band . The reasons for his departure are unclear ; it was widely thought to have been because of family constraints , however , Brainard dispels these rumours , explaining that " some decisions were made that I wasn 't particularly happy with . " His replacement was Jim Root , with whom the band returned to the studio in February 1999 . Slipknot finished recording during this period , with two extra songs : a re @-@ recording of " Me Inside " , and a new track called " Purity " . The mixing stages were very challenging , as drummer Joey Jordison and producer Robinson mastered the entire album with analog equipment , instead of the then more common method of using digital formats . " Wait and Bleed " and " Spit It Out " , which had appeared on the demo prior to the album , were released on the |
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] | 137,130 | album , also ; the demo songs " Interloper " and " Despise " are available on the digipak version of the same album . " Snap " was featured on the soundtrack for the film Freddy vs. Jason and " Eyeless " appeared on an episode of The Sopranos .
= = Musical and lyrical themes = =
The musical style of Slipknot is a constantly contested issue and the genres that the band are categorized in vary depending on the source , however , this album is generally regarded as nu metal , while showing influences of many different genres . The influence of death metal on the album is clear , and on the subject Jordison stated ; " the roots are death metal , thrash , speed metal , and I could go on and on about all those bands . " The album also shows influences from alternative metal and even rap metal . Critics have also noted an industrial influence . Due to the band 's large line @-@ up consisting of additional percussionists and electronics , the album has a very dense , layered sound . Alternative Press stated that the album used " inventive sampling , creative guitar work and an absolute percussive overload " , while Q magazine described the album as " a terrifying racket " . Slipknot also includes melody , most notably in the single " Wait and Bleed " .
" 742617000027 " is the intro track to the album . It contains some guitar scratches and abstract sound samples from the sampler Craig Jones . Some of the dialogue was reportedly taken from a Charles Manson documentary . The dialogue is " The whole thing , I think it 's sick . " In an interview shortly after the album was released , Joey Jordison claimed the voice is Corey Taylor 's , sped up . 742617000027 was the barcode number on their 1996 self @-@ released album Mate . Feed . Kill . Repeat . All of the band members wear that number on their jumpsuits .
The album features Corey Taylor as lead vocalist ; he had previously appeared on their second demo , which , in turn , resulted in them signing to Roadrunner Records . Rick Anderson of AllMusic noted that on " Scissors " , Taylor " actually sounds like he 's about to burst into tears . Taylor 's aggressive , expletive @-@ filled lyrics were noted by AllMusic ; " [ the ] lyrics that are discernible are not generally quotable on a family website ; suffice it to say that the members of Slipknot are not impressed with their fathers , their hometown or most anything else . " " Eeyore " , a hidden track placed at the end of " Scissors " , begins after dialogue shared among the band members that was recorded while they were viewing a scene in a pornographic film that involved coprophilia , is heard . It has been played live many times and appears on both the DVD Disasterpieces and the live album 9 @.@ 0 : Live .
= = Critical reception = =
Slipknot was well received by critics and fans ; following its release the band gained popularity beyond their own expectations . Reviewing for AllMusic , Rick Anderson awarded the album four out of five stars , calling it " an auspicious debut " and proclaimed , " You thought Limp Bizkit was hard ? They 're The Osmonds . These guys are something else entirely . And it 's pretty impressive . " The album 's aggression and heavy sound was widely praised ; Rolling Stone stated Slipknot is " metal with a capital m " , Kerrang ! added " raw and wholly uncompromising , each track delivered a powerful blow to the senses " , and in 2001 , Q magazine included the album in their list " 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time " . CMJ ranked the album as the twelfth highest " Editorial Pick " for 1999 . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery .
A single from the album , " Wait and Bleed " , was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards , but lost to Deftones ' " Elite " . The song was also named the 36th greatest metal song of all time by VH1 . The release of the album and the touring which followed greatly increased the band 's popularity . The album |
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] | 137,131 | became the " biggest selling extreme metal album at the time . " It was ranked by American Soundscan as the fastest @-@ selling metal debut in Soundscan 's history . On May 2 , 2000 , the album was certified platinum in the United States , a first for any album released by Roadrunner Records . On February 5 , 2005 , the RIAA certified it Double Platinum . In Canada , the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified the album as Platinum on October 10 , 2000 . The British Phonographic Industry certified the album as Platinum on October 17 , 2008 in the UK .
= = = Controversy = = =
After the release of the album , the band was accused of copyright infringement regarding the concept of the song " Purity " . Corey Taylor , during a Q & A , claimed that the song 's lyrics had been written five years prior to the song 's release and that only the song 's name had been inspired by the Purity Knight story , which was claimed by the authoring website as being fictional . Taylor , to his defense , said the song 's inspiration came from films such as Boxing Helena and The Collector , and not the story itself . The short track , " Frail Limb Nursery " , which serves as a prelude to " Purity " , contains audio samples of the imprisoned Purity Knight as recorded by a young boy , posted as evidence on the authoring website . Slipknot , in an effort to prevent the entire album from being pulled , removed " Purity " and " Frail Limb Nursery " from the album until the case could be settled . As a result , the band released slightly remastered standard and digipak versions of the album in December 1999 , replacing both tracks with " Me Inside " . The band later won their case , and was subsequently able to still play the song during live performances . It is included in the band 's second DVD Disasterpieces ( the studio version appears here as well ) as well as the live album 9 @.@ 0 : Live and Antennas to Hell , and the 10th anniversary edition of the self @-@ titled album .
= = 10th Anniversary Edition = =
On September 9 , 2009 , Slipknot released a Special Edition version of the album to commemorate the tenth anniversary of its release . It was released in two forms , a digipak and a box set . The release date ( 09 / 09 / 09 ) is a reference to the fact that the band had nine band members and have sustained the same lineup since the original release of the album . The Special Edition box set includes : a CD and DVD set featuring all new digipak packaging , with a total of 25 songs , including the original album plus several previously unreleased cuts , demo tracks and " Purity " . The DVD , which was directed by percussionist Shawn Crahan , features footage of the band in 1999 and 2000 , titled Of the Sic : Your Nightmares , Our Dreams . The DVD also features all three music videos released in support of the album , an entire live concert recorded at the Dynamo Open Air , 2000 and " other surprises " . A " super deluxe " box set version of the re @-@ release contains a T @-@ shirt , patch , collectible cards , key chain , beanie and a note from vocalist Corey Taylor , and comes in packaging that resembles a safety deposit box .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Shawn Crahan , Paul Gray , Joey Jordison , Mick Thomson and Corey Taylor
= = Chart positions = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Literature = = =
Arnopp , Jason ( 2001 ) . Slipknot : Inside the Sickness , Behind the Masks . Ebury . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 187933 @-@ 7 .
Crampton , Mark ( 2001 ) . Barcode Killers : The |
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= Monsters University =
Monsters University is a 2013 American 3D computer @-@ animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae , with John Lasseter , Pete Docter , Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich as executive producers . It is the fourteenth feature film produced by Pixar and is a prequel to 2001 's Monsters , Inc . , marking the first time Pixar has made a prequel film .
Disney , as the rights holder , had plans for a sequel to Monsters , Inc. since 2005 . Following disagreements with Pixar , Disney tasked its Circle 7 Animation unit to make the film . An early draft of the film was developed ; however , Disney 's purchase of Pixar in early 2006 led to the cancellation of Circle 7 's version of the film . A Pixar @-@ made sequel was confirmed in 2010 , and in 2011 , it was confirmed that the film would instead be a prequel titled Monsters University .
Monsters University tells the story of two monsters , Mike and Sulley , and their time studying at college , where they start off as rivals , but slowly become best friends . John Goodman , Billy Crystal , Steve Buscemi , Bob Peterson , and John Ratzenberger reprise their roles as James P. Sullivan , Mike Wazowski , Randall Boggs , Roz , and the Abominable Snowman , respectively . Bonnie Hunt , who played Ms. Flint in the first film , voices Mike 's grade school teacher Ms. Karen Graves . The music for the film is composed by Randy Newman , marking his seventh collaboration with Pixar .
Monsters University premiered on June 5 , 2013 , at the BFI Southbank in London , United Kingdom and was released on June 21 , 2013 , in the United States . It was accompanied in theaters by a short film , The Blue Umbrella , directed by Saschka Unseld . The film grossed $ 743 million against its estimated budget of $ 200 million . An animated short film titled Party Central , which takes place shortly after the events of Monsters University , premiered in Fall 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Michael " Mike " Wazowski , a young monster , gets inspired to become a scarer ( a monster who enters the human world at night to scare children and harvest their screams for energy ) when he grows up after visiting Monsters Inc . , Monstropolis ' most profitable scaring company , on a school field trip . Eleven years later , Mike is a first @-@ year scare major at Monsters University , where he meets fellow monster James P. " Sulley " Sullivan . Mike studies hard , while the privileged Sulley , coming from a family of talented scarers , relies only on his natural ability and begins to falter . As the semester progresses , Mike and Sulley attempt to join a fraternity , but only Sulley is accepted into Roar Omega Roar , the strongest fraternity on campus . At the semester 's final exam , a fight between the two causes them to accidentally break Dean Abigail Hardscrabble 's cherished Scream Can . Hardscrabble promptly fails both of them immediately , stating that Sulley does not study enough , and Mike is not scary enough .
Wanting to prove himself , Mike enters the university 's " Scare Games " and makes a wager with Hardscrabble to reinstate him and his team to the scare program if they win , but Mike must leave the university if they lose . He joins a group of misfits named Oozma Kappa , the weakest fraternity on campus , but they are denied entry to the Games for being one team member short . Sulley subsequently joins them , seeing the competition as his ticket back into the scare program . Oozma Kappa finish last in the first challenge , but are saved from elimination after another team is disqualified for cheating . Oozma Kappa |
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] | 137,133 | subsequently improve gradually due to Mike 's training and intricate knowledge of scaring , and they advance through each following challenge , finishing just behind competition favourites Roar Omega Roar . In the final round , they defeat Roar Omega Roar with a decisive final scare by Mike in the simulation bedroom . However , Mike soon discovers that he only won because Sulley secretly rigged the machine to improve his score .
Determined to prove he can become a scarer , Mike breaks into the school 's door lab and enters a door to the human world leading to a summer camp , but he is unable to scare a cabin full of children and runs off into the woods . Meanwhile , Roar Omega Roar offers to reinstate Sulley , but he refuses , instead confessing to Hardscrabble that he cheated , just as she is alerted of Mike 's break @-@ in . Realizing what happened , Sulley defies Hardscrabble and enters the same door to find Mike . After reconciling , they try to return , but are unable to exit after Hardscrabble deactivates the door while waiting for the authorities to arrive . Pursued by camp rangers , Mike realizes that the only way to escape is to generate enough scream energy to power the door from their side . Working together , Sulley and Mike terrify the camp rangers and generate an overwhelming amount of scream energy to return to the lab seconds before the device overloads and explodes in front of Hardscrabble .
Mike and Sulley are led away by the CDA and are expelled from the university as a result of their actions , but the other members of Oozma Kappa are accepted into the scare program the next semester , as Hardscrabble was impressed by their performances in the scare games . As Mike leaves on the bus , Sulley runs after him to raise his spirits . Hardscrabble then appears and wishes the two luck , claiming they were the first students to have surprised her . The two take jobs in the mail room of Monsters , Inc . , eventually working their way up to join the Scarer Team and setting the events of Monsters , Inc. in motion .
= = Cast = =
Billy Crystal as Michael " Mike " Wazowski
Noah Johnston as Young Mike
John Goodman as James P. " Sulley " Sullivan
Steve Buscemi as Randall " Randy " Boggs
Helen Mirren as Dean Abigail Hardscrabble , the chair of the Scarer program at Monsters University
Peter Sohn as Scott " Squishy " Squibbles , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Joel Murray as Don Carlton , a middle @-@ aged returning student and the founding member of Oozma Kappa fraternity
Sean Hayes as Terri Perry , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member who shares his brother 's body .
Dave Foley as Terry Perry , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Charlie Day as Art , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Alfred Molina as Professor Derek Knight
Tyler Labine as Brock Pearson , Greek Council vice @-@ president
Nathan Fillion as Johnny J. Worthington III , president of Roar Omega Roar
Aubrey Plaza as Claire Wheeler , Greek Council president
Bobby Moynihan as Chet Alexander , a Roar Omega Roar fraternity member
Julia Sweeney as Sherri Squibbles , Scott 's mother
Bonnie Hunt as Ms. Karen Graves , Mike 's grade school teacher
John Krasinski as " Frightening " Frank McCay
Bill Hader as Referee , Slug
Beth Behrs as Carrie Williams , leader of Python Nu Kappa sorority
Bob Peterson as Roz
John Ratzenberger as The Yeti , a Monsters , Inc. mailroom employee
= = Production = =
Plans for a second Monsters , Inc. film existed since 2005 . Following disagreements between Disney CEO Michael Eisner and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs , Disney – which owned the rights to make sequels to all of Pixar 's films up |
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] | 137,134 | to Cars – announced that a sequel to Monsters , Inc. would be made by Circle 7 Animation , which was also working on an early draft of Toy Story 3 . Titled Monsters , Inc . 2 : Lost in Scaradise , the film would have focused on Mike and Sulley visiting the human world to give Boo a birthday present , only to find that she had moved . After getting trapped in the human world , Mike and Sulley split up after disagreeing on what to do . Screenwriters Rob Muir and Bob Hilgenberg were hired to write a script for the film , and storyboarded an early draft of it . Disney 's change of management in late 2005 – in which Eisner was replaced by Robert Iger – led to renewed negotiations with Pixar , and in early 2006 Disney announced it had purchased the studio . The Disney @-@ owned sequel rights were then transferred to Pixar , leading to the cancellation of Muir and Hilgenberg 's version of the film and the subsequent closure of Circle 7 .
A Pixar @-@ made sequel was confirmed in 2010 . The film was originally planned for release on November 16 , 2012 , but the release was preponed to November 2 , 2012 to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 . On March 29 , 2011 , it was confirmed that the film would be a prequel and the title Monsters University was announced . The next Month s release date June 21 , 2013 was announced .
The feature was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae . Billy Crystal , John Goodman , Steve Buscemi , Bob Peterson , and John Ratzenberger reprised their roles , and Bonnie Hunt voiced a new character . New voice cast included Dave Foley , Sean Hayes , Julia Sweeney , Helen Mirren , Alfred Molina , Peter Sohn , Charlie Day , Joel Murray , Nathan Fillion , Aubrey Plaza , Tyler Labine , John Kransinski , Bill Hader , Bobby Moynihan , and Beth Behrs .
The plot of Monsters University details Mike and Sulley 's first meeting , but this created a continuity error from the first film in which Mike tells Sulley " You 've been jealous of my good looks since the fourth grade . " Director Dan Scanlon said he had a dilemma with this line during pre @-@ production , but he believed it was best if Mike and Sulley meet in college because , " we wanted to see their relationship develop when they were adults . And we also felt like college is so much about self @-@ discovery and figuring out who you are . " He added , " It felt like the perfect place to do this , but we had that line . So we tried versions where they met young and then we skipped ahead to college . And we knew we didn 't want to make Monsters Elementary . " Scanlon said during pre @-@ production that , " Pete Docter , the original director , and John Lasseter ... finally said to me , ' it 's great that you 're honouring that , but you have to do what 's right for the story . ' So we made a tough decision to just have them be in college and put that line aside . " Scanlon later retconned the line from the first film as " an old monster expression " , saying " That 's what monsters always say to each other . "
Monsters University is the first Pixar film that used global illumination , a new lighting system introduced as part of the overhaul of the rendering system used since the first Toy Story film . In the planning stage of the film , director of photography , Jean @-@ Claude Kalache , asked " What if we made these lights just work ? " Before the new system , artists had to build reflections and shadows manually , which became increasingly complex as the models and the setups became more technologically advanced . The new lighting system uses path tracing , a technique that imitates the behaviour of the light in the real world ; this automatized the process , delivered more realism , produced soft shadows , and let the artist spend more time on models and complex scenes – some of which contained thousands of light sources .
For research , the filmmakers visited several colleges in the U.S. , including Harvard University , Stanford University , and the University of Alabama , observing |
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] | 137,135 | college architecture , student life , Greek organizations , and the teaching methods of professors and faculty . To research fraternity life , which is central to the film , many of the film 's producers spent several weeks at a fraternity house .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music for the film is Randy Newman 's seventh collaboration with Pixar as composer . Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on June 18 , 2013 .
The songs " Main Title " , " Rise and Shine " , and " The Scare Games " feature the drum line from the Blue Devils group " BD Entertainment " . The recordings for the percussion tracks were done at Skywalker Ranch , and were written by Blue Devils Percussion Caption Head Scott Johnson .
The songs " Island " by Mastodon and " Gospel " by MarchFourth Marching Band are featured during the film but do not appear on the soundtrack . The songs " Party Hard " by Andrew W.K. and " Kickstart My Heart " by Mötley Crüe are featured prominently in the teaser trailers but do not appear on the soundtrack or in the film .
Track listing
All music composed by Randy Newman , except where noted .
= = Release = =
The first teaser trailer for Monsters University was released on June 20 , 2012 . Four versions of the trailer exist ; in his sleep , Mike mutters excuses to avoid attending class in each one , such as " I 'm not wearing any clothes , " " My homework ate my dog , " " Class President ? " , and " My pony made the Dean 's List . " A second trailer was released on February 11 , 2013 , a third on April 26 , 2013 , and a fourth and final trailer , which included scenes from the film , was released on May 30 , 2013 .
On October 8 , 2012 , Pixar revealed a fully functional website for Monsters University , complete with information about admissions , academic and campus life , and a campus store to purchase MU apparel . On April 1 , 2013 , the website was styled to appear as though a rival college , Fear Tech , had hacked and vandalized it . The first television commercial for the film was aired during the 2013 Rose Bowl Game , parodying advertisements for participating schools that are shown during college football telecasts . From June 27 until July 11 , 2013 , Disney 's online game Club Penguin hosted a Monsters University Takeover event to promote the film . Players could dress up as their favorite monsters and take part in the Scare Games .
The film had its worldwide premiere on June 5 , 2013 , as a special screening at BFI Southbank in London with the director and producer in attendance . The film had its Asian premiere as the opening film of the 2013 Shanghai International Film Festival on June 15 , 2013 . It premiered in the United States on June 8 , 2013 , at the Seattle International Film Festival , and was released in theaters on June 21 , 2013 . The film 's theatrical release was accompanied by Pixar 's short film titled The Blue Umbrella .
= = = Home media = = =
Monsters University was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray , 3D Blu @-@ ray , DVD , digital copy , and on demand on October 29 , 2013 . It was accompanied by The Blue Umbrella , Pixar 's short film which played alongside the film in theaters .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Monsters University earned $ 268 @.@ 5 million in North America and $ 475 @.@ 1 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 743 @.@ 6 million . Calculating in all expenses , Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $ 179 @.@ 8 million . It is the 56th highest @-@ grossing film of all @-@ |
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] | 137,136 | time , the 12th highest @-@ grossing animated film all @-@ time , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , and the third highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . The film earned $ 136 @.@ 9 million worldwide on its opening weekend . Disney declined to provide a budget for the film ; Entertainment Weekly speculated that it was higher than that of Brave ( $ 185 million ) , mainly because of the high cost of John Goodman and Billy Crystal reprising their roles . Shockya and EOnline reported the budget to be $ 200 million — on par with previous Pixar films .
= = = = North America = = = =
In the week leading to Monsters University 's release , Disney projected an opening weekend gross of at least $ 70 million . The film opened on Friday , June 21 , 2013 in first place with $ 30 @.@ 47 million – including $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 20 : 00 Thursday night shows – marking the fifth largest opening day among animated films . The film then reached first place with an opening @-@ weekend gross of $ 82 @.@ 43 million ; the second largest among Pixar films , the second largest among G @-@ rated films , the fourth largest among prequels , the fifth largest among animated films , and the fifth largest among films released in June . Monsters University remained at first place on its second weekend , declining 45 % to $ 45 @.@ 6 million . Facing tough competition from Despicable Me 2 on its third weekend , it dropped 57 % to $ 19 @.@ 7 million . As of December 2013 , it is the tenth highest @-@ grossing animated film .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
The film earned $ 54 @.@ 5 million in 35 markets on its opening weekend . It set a Pixar opening weekend record in Latin America with revenues of $ 31 @.@ 7 million . In Argentina , the film set an opening weekend record among all films with $ 5 @.@ 49 million . In Australia , where it had a simultaneous release with Despicable Me 2 , Monsters University debuted behind the latter with $ 3 @.@ 56 million in third place . In Hong Kong , the film set opening @-@ day ( HK $ 5 @.@ 03 million ) , single @-@ day ( HK $ 7 @.@ 93 million ) and opening @-@ weekend ( HK $ 25 @.@ 79 million ) records among animated films , beating the previous record holder , Toy Story 3 . In the UK , the film topped the box office during its opening weekend with a gross of GB £ 3 @.@ 46 million . The film 's largest opening occurred in China , where its $ 13 million debut ranked fourth among Disney films . The film 's highest @-@ grossing markets are Japan ( $ 90 @.@ 1 million ) , the UK , Ireland , and Malta ( $ 47 @.@ 2 million ) , and Mexico ( $ 37 @.@ 6 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 78 % approval rating based on 189 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads " Offering Monsters , Inc. fans a welcome return visit with beloved characters , Monsters University delivers funny and thoughtful family entertainment for viewers of any age . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 65 based on 41 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Audiences polled by Cinemascore gave the film a grade A. According to Disney , audiences were 56 % female and 60 % below the age of 25 . Families made up 73 % of business , and teens accounted for a solid 15 % . The film played well with all ages .
Matt Zoller Seitz of Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film four stars out of four |
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] | 137,137 | , saying it " is true to the spirit of [ Monsters , Inc . ] and matches its tone . But it never seems content to turn over old ground . " Trevor Johnston of Time Out gave the film four stars out of five , writing " It has enough of the right stuff to haunt the imagination long after the immediate buzz of its fluffy @-@ furred cuteness has melted away . For a mere prequel , that 's a result . " Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three stars out of four and said it " is cute , and funny , and the animation , though not exactly inspired , is certainly colorful . " Jake Coyle of Associated Press gave the film three stars out of four , saying it " might not be as gifted as some of its other movies , but sometimes it 's alright to be OK . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three stars out of four , and said " It 's all infectious fun , despite the lack of originality . In the art of tickling funny bones , Crystal and Goodman earn straight A 's . " Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " This minor film with major charms still deserves to have kids dragging their parents to the multiplex for one more peek at the monsters in the closet . With Pixar , familiarity breeds content . " Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five and said it is " one of those movies that has absolutely no reason to exist , but once you 've seen it , you 're kind of glad it does . " Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review , saying " Monsters University feels not like the work of artists eager to express something but like that of likable pros whose existence depends on getting a rise out the kids . It 's like the scares Sully and Mike spring on those sleeping tykes : technically impressive but a job un @-@ anchored to anything more meaningful . "
Leonard Maltin of IndieWire praised the animation and art direction , but wrote that he wished " the movie was funnier and wasn 't so plot @-@ heavy " and that " Pixar has raised the bar for animated features so high that when they turn out a film that 's merely good , instead of great , they have only themselves to blame for causing critics to damn them with faint praise . " Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars out of four , saying " Monsters University , the weirdly charmless sequel to the animated 2001 Pixar hit Monsters , Inc . , is no better or worse than the average ( and I mean average ) time @-@ filling sequel cranked out by other animation houses . " Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review , saying that it " never surprises , goes off in unexpected directions or throws you for a loop in the manner of the best Pixar stories . Nor does it come close to elating through the sheer imagination of its conceits and storytelling . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three stars out of four , and said it " may not be as inventive as Inc . , but it 's an amusing and amiable addition to Pixar 's roster of animated coming @-@ of @-@ age stories . " Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three stars out of four , saying " It may be children 's terror that powers the movie 's fictional universe , but it 's the energy of its stars that lights up Monsters University . " Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A − and said it " is exactly the rebound Pixar needed after 2011 's Cars 2 left some wondering if the studio had lost its magic . The delightful story of when Mike met Sulley puts those concerns to rest . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three stars out of four and wrote " Although it falls short of the best Pixar has brought to the screen over its long association with Disney , it 's nevertheless worth a trip to the theater , especially for kids . "
However , the film was not without its detractors . Richard Roeper gave the film a C + , saying " This is a safe , predictable , edge @-@ free , nearly bland effort from a studio that rarely hedges its bets . " Stephen Whitty of Newark Star @-@ Ledger gave the |
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] | 137,138 | film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and said " The artwork is accomplished , and intricate . The G @-@ rating is genuine , without any gross @-@ out gags . And there 's none of the usual winks to the adults with tired , pop @-@ culture references . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and wrote " Both the originality and stirring emotional complexity of Monsters , Inc . , with its exquisitely painful and touching parallels with the human world , are missing . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , and said " This is not a bad movie , and to small children it will be a very good one , but it 's closer to average than one would wish from the company that gave us Up , WALL @-@ E , The Incredibles , and the Toy Story series . " Rene Rodriguez of Miami Herald gave the film two stars out of five and wrote that it " feels half @-@ hearted and lazy , like they weren 't even trying . At least show a little effort , guys . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= British Virgin Islands at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The British Virgin Islands took part in the 2008 Summer Olympics , which were held in Beijing , China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . The dependency 's participation at Beijing marked its seventh consecutive appearance in the summer Olympics since its debut in 1984 , and its eighth Olympic appearance ever . The British Virgin Islander delegation included two athletes in 2008 participating in two distinct events in one sport : discus thrower Eric Matthias and sprinter Tahesia Harrigan . Of the athletes , Harrigan was the flagbearer and the first female Olympian to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands in its entire history . Overall , Harrigan advanced to quarterfinals in her event , although neither athlete medaled .
= = Background = =
The British Virgin Islands participated in seven summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Their Olympic debut was at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , where the nation submitted a single athlete . The number of British Virgin Islanders participating in the summer games , excluding 1996 and 1984 , included four or less athletes , and until Tahesia Harrigan in Beijing , only included men . Harrigan was the first female athlete to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands , and was its first female flagbearer . At Beijing , the British Virgin Islands were represented by two athletes , both in their twenties and both participating in track and field events : Eric Matthias and Tahesia Harrigan . Harrigan progressed to quarterfinals in her event , although neither athlete medaled .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Former Boise State University student Eric Matthias participated on behalf of the British Virgin Islands at the discus throw event . He was one of two British Virgin Islanders participating in a track and field event and in the 2008 Olympics as a whole . Matthias ' appearance in Beijing marked his first appearance at any Olympic game . Once at the Olympics , Matthias was placed in the second qualifying heat on 16 August . He threw the discus 53 @.@ 11 meters , ranking last out of 18 athletes . The 17th place finalist in the second qualifying heat , Iraq 's Haidar Nasser Shaheed , threw 1 @.@ 08 meters further , with heat leader Rutger Smith of the Netherlands throwing the discus 12 @.@ 54 meters further than Matthias . Overall , out of 37 athletes , Matthias placed last , and did not progress to the final round on 19 August .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
University of Alabama graduate and single parent Tahesia Harrigan was the sole female competitor from the British Virgin |
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] | 137,139 | Islands , and one of two participating in a track and field event and for the BVI as a whole . Her appearance at Beijing was her first Olympic appearance ; she did not compete in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens because she was pregnant at the time . When at the Olympics , Harrigan competed in the first round of the 100 m dash on 15 August , where she was placed in Heat 2 against , among others , Lauryn Williams of the United States and Christine Arron of France . Harrigan ranked third in a heat of eight athletes with a time of 11 @.@ 46 seconds , placing behind Williams by 0 @.@ 08 seconds and ahead of Brazil 's Lucimar Moura by 0 @.@ 14 seconds . Overall , Harrigan tied Jade Latoya Bailey of Barbados for 25th place out of 85 . She progressed to the next round .
Harrigan competed in the second round on 16 August , placed in Heat 4 against Williams , Jamaica 's Kerron Stewart , and Belgium 's Kim Gevaert , among others . She placed fifth out of eight athletes with a time of 11 @.@ 36 seconds ; she was 0 @.@ 10 seconds ahead of sixth place heat finalist Semoy Hackett of Trinidad and Tobago and 0 @.@ 12 seconds behind Belarusian fourth place heat finalist Yuliya Nestsiarenka . Overall , she tied Arron for 16th place out of 40 athletes . Harrigan did not progress further .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= HMS Neptune ( 1797 ) =
HMS Neptune was a 98 @-@ gun second rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy . She served on a number of stations during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was present at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
Neptune was built during the early years of the war with Revolutionary France and was launched in 1797 . She almost immediately became caught up in the events of the mutiny at the Nore , and was one of a few loyal ships tasked with attacking mutinous vessels if they could not be brought to order . The mutiny died out before this became necessary and Neptune joined the Channel Fleet . She moved to the Mediterranean in 1799 , spending the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in operations with Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Keith 's fleet . After refitting , and spending time on blockades , she formed part of Lord Nelson 's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar , and was heavily involved in the fighting , sustaining casualties of 10 killed and 34 wounded .
She was not fully repaired and returned to service until 1807 , when she went out to the Caribbean . In 1809 she participated in the successful invasion of Martinique , and the subsequent battle with Troude 's squadron . Returning to Britain towards the end of the wars , she was laid up in ordinary , and in 1813 became a temporary prison ship . She was finally broken up in 1818 .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
Neptune was ordered from Deptford Dockyard on 15 February 1790 , to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow . She was one of three ships of the Neptune class , alongside her sisters HMS Temeraire and HMS Dreadnought . Neptune was laid down at Deptford in April 1791 , receiving her name on 24 July 1790 . The initial stages of her construction were overseen by Master Shipwright Martin Ware , though he |
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] | 137,140 | was succeeded by Thomas Pollard in June 1795 , and Pollard oversaw her completion . Neptune was launched on 28 January 1797 and sailed to Woolwich to be fitted for sea . Arriving at Woolwich on 12 February , she was immediately docked to have her copper sheathing fitted , a process that was completed by 1 March . Launched again , she finished fitting out , and received her masts and yards . Her final costs came to £ 77 @,@ 053 , and included £ 61 @,@ 172 spent on the hull , masts and yards , and a further £ 15 @,@ 881 on rigging and stores .
She was commissioned on 25 March 1797 under Captain Henry Stanhope , becoming the third ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Neptune . Her predecessors had been two 90 @-@ gun ships , the first launched in 1683 , renamed HMS Torbay in 1750 and sold in 1784 . The second had been launched in 1757 , was used as a sheer hulk from 1784 , and was broken up in 1816 . Stanhope sailed from Woolwich on 11 June 1797 , flying the broad pendant of Commodore Sir Erasmus Gower , and made for the Nore .
= = Mutiny at the Nore = =
Shortly after her arrival at the Nore , Neptune became caught up in the mutiny that had broken out there . While lying at Gravesend , Neptune and the 64 @-@ gun ships HMS Agincourt and HMS Lancaster , together with a fleet of gunboats , were ordered to intercept and attack the mutinous ships at the Nore . Before they could proceed word came that the mutineers had entered negotiations with the Earl of Northesk , captain of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Monmouth , and by 9 June the mutiny was on the verge of collapse . The attack was called off , and on 21 September Stanhope was superseded by Gower as captain of Neptune . The crisis over , Neptune joined the Channel Fleet .
= = Mediterranean = =
Gower remained in command of Neptune until his promotion to rear @-@ admiral of the white , at which point Herbert Sawyer became her acting @-@ captain . Sawyer was in command until 22 January 1799 , and Gower left her on 28 February 1799 . Command of the ship formally passed to Captain James Vashon on 5 March 1799 . The first half of 1799 was spent with the Channel Fleet , and in June Neptune was one of 15 ships of the line assigned to join Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Keith 's fleet in the Mediterranean . The squadron , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Charles Cotton , rendezvoused with Keith 's force at Minorca on 7 July , bringing the British fleet in the Mediterranean up to 31 ships . Keith intended to intercept a large Franco @-@ Spanish force of 42 ships under Admirals Étienne Eustache Bruix and Jose Mazarredo , and set out to sea on 10 July . Bruix ' expedition evaded Keith , and reached the safety of Brest on 9 August . Neptune went on to spend the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in the Mediterranean .
Vashon was superseded on 26 March 1801 , and the following day Captain Edward Brace arrived to take command . Neptune became the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral James Gambier during this period . Brace 's period of command was brief , he was superseded by Captain Francis Austen on 12 September . With the draw down in hostilities prior to the signing of the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 , Neptune was one of the many ships of the Mediterranean fleet to be ordered home , arriving at Portsmouth on 24 February . Austen paid her off on 29 April , but recommissioned her the next day . Neptune then underwent a brief refit , during which £ 5 @,@ 728 was expended , £ 2 @, |
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] | 137,141 | @ 895 of which was spent on her hull , masts and yards . Austen was superseded on 30 September 1802 and the following day Captain William O 'Bryen Drury took command . With Neptune fully refitted and stored , she sailed from the dockyard and joined the Channel Fleet at Spithead on 29 October .
= = Blockade , and approach to Trafalgar = =
Drury commanded Neptune for the next two years , until his promotion to rear @-@ admiral in 1804 . He departed the ship on 13 May 1804 , and the following day Captain Sir Thomas Williams took over . Neptune spent the rest of 1804 deployed with the Channel Fleet , blockading the French Atlantic ports . During this time Captain Williams ' health progressively worsened , and he was invalided back to Britain on 7 May 1805 . He was replaced by Captain Thomas Fremantle on 8 May , and was sent to join Robert Calder 's force blockading Ferrol , after the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet had arrived there after the Battle of Cape Finisterre . Calder decided that his eight ships were not sufficient to resist Villeneuve 's fleet were it to come out of harbour , and instead went north to join Admiral William Cornwallis 's fleet off Brest . Shortly afterwards Nelson 's fleet returned from the West Indies , bringing 12 more ships , and Calder was given 18 ships , including Neptune , and sent back to Ferrol to search for Villeneuve . By now Villeneuve had put into Cadiz and Calder 's force was ordered to join the hastily assembled British fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood , that was blockading the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at Cadiz . As the British fleet settled in for a long blockade Fremantle commented on Neptune 's sailing qualities . She had the reputation of being slow , and Fremantle complained that he did not like being in ' a large ship that don 't sail and must continually be late in action . ' During the battle however , Midshipman William Baddock commented that ' The old Neptune , which never was a good sailer , took it into her head that morning to sail better than I ever remember to have seen her do before . ' Neptune went into the battle 18 men short of her complement .
= = Trafalgar = =
Neptune formed part of the weather column in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October , and was the third ship from the lead , situated between her sister HMS Temeraire , and the 74 @-@ gun HMS Leviathan . Fremantle had been promised a position second to Nelson aboard HMS Victory , and by 10 o 'clock was sailing fast enough to threaten to overtake her . Fremantle hoped to pass her , and lead the line into battle , but Nelson ordered ' Neptune , take in your studding @-@ sails and drop astern . I shall break the line myself . ' Neptune went into action with her band playing , and everyone except the officers and the band lying down on the deck to protect them from enemy fire . Ahead of her Fremantle saw Eliab Harvey 's Temeraire turn to pass astern of the French Redoutable , but resolved to follow Nelson and HMS Victory to pass astern of the French flagship Bucentaure . As she passed under Bucentaure 's stern , Neptune discharged a double @-@ shotted broadside from her larboard ( port ) guns , with devastating consequences on Villeneuve 's already disabled flagship . Fremantle then had the helm swung hard to starboard , bringing his ship abeam of the Bucentaure . He fired two more triple @-@ shotted broadsides from nearly 50 guns at a range of less than 100 yards into the beleaguered French ship .
Fremantle then spotted the towering mass of the Spanish four @-@ decker Santísima Trinidad sailing away from him , and steered towards her starboard quarter in the hope of raking her stern . Opening fire with his larboard battery , he positioned Neptune off the Spanish vessel 's starboard beam and the two exchanged heavy fire for the next hour as more British ships poured through the gap astern of Neptune . |
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] | 137,142 | Neptune took fire from other ships of the combined fleet as they sailed past . Santísima Trinidad , heavily battered by Neptune 's guns , as well as those from the 74 @-@ gun ships HMS Leviathan and HMS Conqueror , became completely dismasted and covered in debris . She fought on until 5 @.@ 30 pm , when she struck her colours , having sustained casualties of 205 dead and 103 wounded . Neptune left the 98 @-@ gun HMS Prince to take possession and headed north to cut off the remains of the enemy fleet , briefly becoming engaged with the French 74 @-@ gun Intrépide . During the battle Neptune suffered considerable damage to her masts , although they did not fall . Most of her rigging was cut to pieces and she sustained nine shot holes in her hull . She sustained casualties of ten killed and 34 wounded . A remarkably small proportion of her officers became casualties , with only the captain 's clerk , Richard Hurrell , being wounded .
After the battle Collingwood transferred his flag from the damaged HMS Royal Sovereign to the frigate HMS Euryalus , and on 22 October Neptune took the Royal Sovereign in tow . On 23 October , as the Franco @-@ Spanish forces that had escaped into Cadiz sortied under Commodore Julien Cosmao , Neptune cast off the tow , surrendering the duty to HMS Mars , and took on board Villeneuve and several captured flag captains , who had originally been aboard Mars . As the weather continued to deteriorate Neptune sent her boats to assist in the evacuation of the Santísima Trinidad before she foundered . After riding out the storm she took the battered Victory , carrying Lord Nelson 's body , in tow on 26 October and brought her into Gibraltar on 28 October .
= = West Indies = =
After undergoing some repairs at Gibraltar Neptune sailed to Britain , arriving at Portsmouth on 6 December 1805 , where she was paid off . She was moved to Spithead in 1806 , but was back in Portsmouth on 23 November , and was moved into a dock on 24 March 1807 to undergo a refit . The refit lasted until November 1807 and involved having her copper sheathing removed and her hull refitted . She was then recoppered , having had a sum of £ 29 @,@ 053 expended on her . She was recommissioned on 18 August 1807 under her old commander , Captain Sir Thomas Williams , and was relaunched three days later on 21 August to complete her refit . She was initially assigned to serve in the English Channel , but was moved to the West Indies in 1808 . On 9 November Williams was superseded by Captain Thomas Pinto , who only spent six weeks in command before being succeeded by Captain Charles Dilkes on 20 December .
In January 1809 an attack on the French colony of Martinique , governed by Admiral Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse , was planned . Neptune became the flagship of the expedition 's commander , Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , and the invasion force , consisting of 44 vessels and transports for 10 @,@ 000 troops under Lieutenant @-@ General George Beckwith , sailed on 28 January . The force arrived at Martinique on 30 January , and 3 @,@ 000 troops were landed under Major @-@ General Frederick Maitland without resistance . 600 troops were put ashore at Cape Solomon under Major Henderson , both landings supervised by Captain William Charles Fahie aboard the 74 @-@ gun HMS Belleisle . An additional force of 6 @,@ 500 men were landed in the north of the island under Major @-@ General Sir George Prévost , and the French were driven into several fortified positions , the last of which surrendered on 24 February 1809 .
= = Battle with Troude = =
Cochrane 's squadron remained in the area blockading the island , and in March a French squadron consisting of three 74 @-@ |
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] | 137,143 | gun ships , Hautpoult , Courageux and Polonais , and two frigates , Félicité and Furieuse , under the overall command of Commodore Amable Troude , arrived in the Caribbean . Finding Martinique in British hands , Troude anchored near Îles des Saintes .
There they were blockaded until 14 April , when Cochrane removed this threat . A British force under Major @-@ General Frederick Maitland and Captain Philip Beaver in Acasta , landed troops on the islands capturing them . The British then installed heavy guns on vantage points .
Threatened , Troude put to sea , chased by Cochrane 's squadron . After a running battle over several days the Hautpoult was brought to action and captured . Neptune 's captain , Charles Dilkes , was given command of her , while Captain James Athol Wood succeeded him in command of Neptune on 2 August .
Neptune was among the naval vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of the islands .
= = Final years = =
Dilkes resumed command of Neptune on 2 March 1810 , while Wood was exchanged into HMS Pompee . Dilkes had apparently been suffering poor health , and Captain N Ballard took command in an acting capacity on 22 July . Neptune returned to Plymouth on 26 October and entered the dock on 9 November to be fitted for the ordinary . The process cost £ 713 , and after undocking on 8 December she was laid up in the Hamoaze until late autumn 1813 . Her hull appears to have quickly deteriorated , and after a survey she was deemed unfit for further service at sea . The Navy Board proposed that she be converted into a prison ship , a recommendation the Admiralty accepted , and she was taken in hand for fitting out on 22 November . On the completion of the work in December she was commissioned under Lieutenant George Lawrence . Neptune spent three years in this role , and was finally taken to pieces in October 1818 .
= Crippled Summer =
" Crippled Summer " is the seventh episode and mid @-@ season finale of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park , and the 202nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28 , 2010 . In the episode , the South Park children try to help Towelie overcome his drug addiction , while Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during athletic competitions at a summer camp for handicapped children .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The story of Towelie 's addiction is presented as a parody of the reality series Intervention . Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone originally planned an Intervention parody around Towelie for the tenth season episode " A Million Little Fibers " , but those plans were eventually scrapped . Several of the handicapped children in " Crippled Summer " are made to resemble characters from the Looney Tunes cartoon series , including Elmer Fudd , Beaky Buzzard , Daffy Duck , Pete Puma , and Porky Pig , as well as non @-@ Looney Tunes characters Droopy and Fat Albert .
" Crippled Summer " received positive reviews , though some commentators expressed disappointment that the episode did not respond to the controversies surrounding the show 's depictions of Muhammad in the previous episodes , " 200 " and " 201 " . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Crippled Summer " was seen by 3 @.@ 56 million viewers , making it the most watched cable show of the night , and outperforming even some prime time network shows that evening .
= = Plot = =
The drug addiction of Towelie , a living and talking towel , is growing so overwhelming that the South Park children make attempts to help him . Towelie 's history is shown , using head interviews and on @-@ screen captions ( in a parody of " Intervention " ) , starting with years of drug addiction to cannabis , crystal |
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"▁\""
] | 137,144 | meth , heroin and crack . He previously had a girlfriend named Rebecca and conceived a child with her ( a washcloth ) , but he was kicked out of their home due to his persistently getting high . Having run out of money for hard drugs , Towelie starts getting high off of cans of computer duster . His life continued in a downward spiral , leaving him in heavy debt and offering oral sex to strangers for money in the alleys . The boys help him get a job at Lake Tardicaca , a summer camp for children with physical and mental disabilities , as a towel to dry off the campers . However , Towelie persists in drug use and fellating strangers in the supply closet , and is fired by the camp . The boys confront Towelie and make emotional speeches to him as a plea to help him from killing himself ( except for Cartman , who uses this opportunity to read what appears to be several tens of thousands of pages of anti @-@ Semitic remarks on television , which the psychiatrist allows to continue in respect of the " no interruptions " rule ) . Towelie refuses their pleas until Butters reveals he has brought Towelie 's child , " Washcloth " , which finally prompts him to accept the offer to go to a rehabilitation clinic in Southern California . Later , Towelie reveals he has completed rehab and is now living with his girlfriend and son .
Meanwhile , at the summer camp , young bully Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during the athletic competitions so Nathan can be declared the camp 's champion . This sub @-@ plot is also narrated in the same style as " Intervention " . Nathan uses Mimsy as a minion to carry out his plans to harm Jimmy , but is repeatedly foiled by Mimsy , who either misinterprets his instructions or takes them too literally and causes his plans to backfire . Nathan tries to plant a black mamba in Jimmy 's canoe during a race , but Mimsy instead leaves it in Nathan 's canoe ( when told to put it " in the canoe " ) . Subsequently , Nathan tries to lead Jimmy 's team into dangerous Indian territory during a scavenger hunt , but instead Mimsy switches the maps and switches them again ( Nathan demanded him to " Switch the maps ! Switch the maps ! " ) , and leads Nathan 's team there . When Nathan tries to use a whistle with a shark mating call against Jimmy , Mimsy , who was supposed to blow the whistle underwater , instead swims in the water briefly then blows the whistle on land and a shark jumps out of the water and anally rapes Nathan with its nine @-@ inch long penis , according to the Colorado National Wildlife Association . During the talent show , Nathan rigs Jimmy 's ukulele with C @-@ 4 , hoping it will explode during a solo , but when Jimmy cannot perform the solo correctly , Mimsy starts to show Jimmy the correct notes . Nathan interrupts and confronts Mimsy about his failure to follow orders . With a lapse of judgment , Nathan plays the correct notes and causes the ukulele to explode , knocking him away before being further injured by his past plans attacking him again . The ukulele solo is spoofing the Looney Tunes repeated use of the Xylophone gag , where the last note of Believe Me If All Those Endearing Young Charms , is booby trapped , but the protagonist always somehow manages to play it wrong . Nathan is subsequently escorted to an ambulance , but is given the champion 's crown by Jimmy . Nathan tells Jimmy he hates him anyway before he is sent away to the hospital .
The episode ends with a message encouraging people who know towels in need of drug rehabilitation to visit " Restore Stephen Baldwin " , a real @-@ life website seeking assistance for actor Stephen Baldwin .
= = Production = =
" Crippled Summer " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28 , 2010 and served as the mid @-@ season finale of the fourteenth season before a months @-@ long hiatus for the series . Parker and fellow series co @-@ creator Matt Stone originally planned for the tenth season episode " A Million Little Fibers " |
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] | 137,145 | to be about Towelie 's struggle to overcome addiction in the style of the television series Intervention , with the children and residents of South Park coming together to help him , just as it was done in " Crippled Summer " . However , after writing portions of the story for the tenth season episode , they found they did not know where to bring the story or how to resolve it . As a result , they completely revamped the episode and focused it on talk show host Oprah Winfrey and the controversy surrounding the James Frey book A Million Little Pieces , rather than Towelie 's addiction . " Crippled Summer " also marked the first appearance by Towelie since the " A Million Little Fibers " , and the first appearance of Nathan , Jimmy 's handicapped nemesis , since the eighth season episode " Up the Down Steroid " .
= = Cultural references = =
" Crippled Summer " served as a parody of Intervention , the A & E Network documentary series about people struggling with various addictions . Throughout the episode , information about Towelie 's drug addiction is presented on completely black screens with white letters . This device is used frequently in Intervention . The interviews with Towelie 's friends and footage of their pleas to get help are also characteristic of the reality series . During one of Towelie 's interviews , he quotes " feels like I 'm walking on sunshine " after huffing air duster cans . Both the quote and his actions are from Season 5 , episode 9 of the TV reality series Intervention where they interview " Allison " . Many of the campers at Lake Tardicaca are parodies of characters from the cartoon series Looney Tunes . Nathan and Mimsy , in particular , are strongly influenced by Rocky and Mugsy , with Nathan taking on the role of the diminutive mastermind ( like Rocky ) who is constantly thwarted by his large but dim @-@ witted accomplice ( like Mugsy ) . Other characters from the summer camp in the episode resemble cartoon characters such as Elmer Fudd , Pete Puma , Droopy , Porky Pig , Taz , Foghorn Leghorn , and Beaky Buzzard .
The episode ends with a reference to " Restore Stephen Baldwin " , a real @-@ life website seeking to restore actor Stephen Baldwin 's career and solicit donations to repay his $ 2 @.@ 3 million debt . The joke compares Towelie 's addiction and rehabilitation to that of Baldwin , who had a history of drug abuse before becoming a born @-@ again Christian . A version of " Are You Ready for the Summer ? " , a camp theme song sung by children in the comedy film Meatballs , is featured . The episode makes reference to actress Kirstie Alley when a counselor says Towelie is the most troubled towel he had seen since Alley 's towel , who he said " has seen some nasty stuff " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 29 , 2010 , " Crippled Summer " was watched by 3 @.@ 56 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched cable television show of the night . It received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 4 share among overall viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among adult viewers between ages 18 and 49 . This rating marked an improvement over the previous South Park episode , " 201 " , and outperformed those of several primetime network shows that evening , including Fox 's Lie to Me , ABC 's The Middle , NBC 's Minute to Win It , CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and The CW Network 's America 's Next Top Model , most of which were in repeats that evening . " Crippled Summer " received a 4 @.@ 1 rating / 13 share among male viewers between ages 18 and 34 . The episode also ranked fourth for the week among cable viewers between ages 18 and 49 and , because it ranked only behind three NBA playoff games , it was the highest @-@ rated scripted cable show of the week . " Crippled Summer " was the highest @-@ rated cable show among the 18 – 34 viewer demographic .
" |
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] | 137,146 | Crippled Summer " received mixed reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN called " Crippled Summer " a brilliant episode , particularly praising the return of Towelie , who he said " has a slew of great moments in this story , making up for his long absence from the series " . Isler said after the controversy raised from the depictions of Muhammad in the previous two episodes , " 200 " and " 201 " , he appreciated that the show returned to a simpler plot and provided " a little comedy relief " . The A.V. Club writer Josh Modell also praised South Park for " not getting too caught up in the Muhammad thing " , and praised the jokes about Intervention , which he said " is one of those shows that 's really easy to parody " . He also praised several individual jokes , like Cartman 's theories about the Jews and Nathan getting raped by a shark , although he said the Mimsy jokes were " a little one @-@ note " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said of the episode : " Not the kind of South Park episode that ’ s going to stir national @-@ news debate , but funny and vulgar enough to satisfy fans . "
Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine pointed out that although the episode mocked drug addicts and handicapped children , it did not face the kind of censorship " 200 " and " 201 " did , which he suggested proved that censorship was born of fear rather than ethics . Delgado also said the comparison of handicapped children to Looney Tunes characters " should remind us all that such cruel portrayals of disabled people have been going on for years " . Others criticized the episode . MTV writer Adam Rosenberg thought the episode " just wasn 't very funny " , and said it missed an opportunity to continue the creative edginess demonstrated in " 200 " and " 201 " . Rosenberg found the jokes about handicapped children " pointlessly mean " , and said the fact that they are allowed where depictions of Muhammad are censored " makes a point about the absurdity of what is and isn 't TV @-@ acceptable " . The television website TV Fanatic praised the Towelie storyline and the use of his son " Washcloth " , but said the jokes about the handicapped children were unfunny and irritating . The site called it " by far the weakest of the season " and a disappointment following " 200 " and " 201 " .
= = Home release = =
" Crippled Summer " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 .
= Sweet Tooth ( novel ) =
Sweet Tooth is a novel by the English writer Ian McEwan , published on 21 August 2012 . It deals with the experiences of its protagonist , Serena Frome , during the early 1970s . After graduating from Cambridge she is recruited by MI5 , and becomes involved in a covert program to combat communism by infiltrating the intellectual world . When she becomes romantically involved with her mark , complications ensue .
McEwan wanted to write a novel dealing with the social turmoil of the 1970s , and Sweet Tooth is to a large extent based on his own life . The story explores the relationship between artistic integrity and government propaganda , and addresses competing approaches to literature ; the boundary between reality and fiction is tested throughout . The novel is dedicated to McEwan 's late friend Christopher Hitchens . He is not referred to directly in the book , but he did play a part as the host of a real @-@ life literary event fictionalised in the book , involving McEwan and Martin Amis , who does appear in the story . Critical reception was mixed ; some reviewers found the novel moving and poignant , while others saw it as weaker than much of McEwan 's previous work .
= = Plot summary = =
The plot is set in early @-@ 1970s England . Serena Frome ( " rhymes with plume " ) , the daughter of an Anglican bishop , shows a talent for |
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] | 137,147 | mathematics and is admitted to the University of Cambridge . But she struggles academically , and graduates with a third . While at Cambridge she becomes romantically involved with Tony Canning , a professor , who before abruptly ending the affair secures a position for Serena with MI5 . The job is low @-@ level , but a more exciting opportunity appears when Serena is offered a chance to take part in a new covert program codenamed " Sweet Tooth " . To counter Communist propaganda during the Cold War , the agency wants to offer financial assistance to young writers , academics and journalists with an anti @-@ Communist bent . Serena , who is an avid and quick reader of fiction , is given the task of vetting burgeoning writer Thomas Haley .
Serena is immediately taken by Haley 's published short fiction . She travels to the University of Sussex , where he works , to offer him a stipend from the fictional Freedom International Foundation . Soon the two begin a romantic affair , but things gradually start to unravel . Serena discovers that Professor Canning ( who , it turns out , broke off their affair only because he knew he was dying from cancer ) was in fact a Soviet spy , and she was recruited because the agency wanted to keep tabs on Canning . Then , when Haley 's first novel comes out , it is a great critical success , but its dystopian , anti @-@ capitalist theme is not well received by the agency . Finally , his affair with Serena is exposed by the press , and the whole Sweet Tooth program is threatened .
Serena fears that she has lost Haley 's love forever , now he knows she has deceived him . Haley , however , had known about the program for months , and instead of ending the affair , had decided to turn the story into a novel . The reader now discovers that the author of Sweet Tooth is in fact Haley , despite its being written from Serena 's first @-@ person perspective . As the novel ends , Haley asks Serena in a letter to marry him .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
Several reviewers have pointed out that the Thomas Haley character shares many traits and biographical details with the author . Like Haley , McEwan studied at the University of Sussex ( later also at the University of East Anglia ) , and not at one of the more prestigious Oxbridge universities . Haley 's stories , summarised briefly in the novel , are in several cases strikingly similar to some of McEwan 's earlier work . This goes particularly for Haley 's dystopian début novel , which closely follows the plot of " Two Fragments " , a short story from McEwan 's 1978 In Between the Sheets . The novel wins Haley the fictional Jane Austen Prize for Fiction , just as McEwan 's debut First Love , Last Rites was rewarded with the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976 . Several of McEwan 's acquaintances from this period also make cameo appearances in the novel , including his friend Martin Amis , his first publisher Tom Maschler , and his mentor Ian Hamilton .
McEwan has been open about the autobiographical elements in the book , and has called it " a muted and distorted autobiography " and " a muted , or transmuted , memoir of myself as a young writer . " There are , however , significant differences between author and character . Haley is both an academic and a writer of fiction , while McEwan has been a professional author for his entire career . The intelligence agency plot is also completely fictional ; there was never a scheme such as the one described in the book run by MI5 . As McEwan says himself , " unfortunately a beautiful woman never came into my room and offered me a stipend . "
= = Genre and style = =
Sweet Tooth is a love story , a spy novel , and a book about literature itself . Serena and her boyfriend Haley – she a well @-@ read but uncritical lover of literature , he a highly accomplished writer and literary scholar – have different attitudes towards literature . Serena prefers a realist approach , where life in the book reflects real life . Haley on the other hand is of a more modernist school , and enjoys experimentation in his work . McEwan plays with these differences , firstly by placing himself in the |
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] | 137,148 | novel and blurring the line between author and character , and secondly by writing what appears to be a straight first @-@ person narrative , only to distort this perception at the very end .
= = Themes = =
McEwan had long wanted to write a novel about the 1970s , a formative period in his life he refers to as " the time of my life . " For the United Kingdom it was a turbulent period , with striking miners , energy crisis , escalation of the conflict over Northern Ireland , repeated states of emergency and several shifts of government . It was also the period of the Cold War , when Western governments were trying to win the war of ideas against a highly radicalised intelligentsia . Operation Sweet Tooth is entirely fictional , but the story is inspired by the actual scandal affecting the conservative literary magazine Encounter , which in 1967 was revealed to have received covert funding from the CIA . McEwan uses this back @-@ story to explore the relationship between artist and government , and the need for literature to remain independent . According to McEwan , the problem was not the anti @-@ Communist crusade itself , but the secrecy with which it was conducted . " All that 's really required is that anything the state does in relation to the arts is laid on the table where we can see it . "
= = Critical reception = =
Lydia of The Observer enjoyed the " Russian doll " of the novel 's multiple layers , and its " keen emotional pull . " Though she had certain misgivings along the way , she felt that the last few pages answered all her questions and " moved [ her ] almost to tears . " Lucy Kellaway of the Financial Times was taken by the stories within the story , and though they tended to " suck vivacity from the main narrative " , she saw this as a device to illuminate the " different crafts of writing short stories and novels . " Benjamin Errett , writing for the National Post , pointed out how McEwan had blended spy fiction and literary criticism to a combination that was both exciting and intellectually stimulating . In reference to Serena and Tom 's different literary preferences , he concluded that " [ t ] his novel is juicy enough to satisfy them both . "
Other reviewers were less enthusiastic . The Daily Telegraph 's Catherine Taylor found the protagonist " a little too credulous . " She also found McEwan 's " wilful narrative sadism " sadly missing from the work . The review in The Economist was even more scathing : referring to Sweet Tooth as " not Mr McEwan 's finest book " , the reviewer concluded that by the end , " it is hard to feel much of anything for these heroes , who are all notions and no depth . " James Lasdun of The Guardian found that there were " momentous political questions " raised in the earlier parts of the novel , which were not fully addressed by the end . Stylistically , Serena found herself caught in exactly the kind of narrative she disliked , but , asked Lasdun , " to what end ? " Particularly the ending of the book was polarising . Kellaway saw it as " a good excuse to go back to the beginning and read this rich and enjoyable novel all over again " , while another reviewer confessed that , though the ending " might be enough to send McEwan acolytes scurrying back through the novel to see how he did it ... it made me want to throw the book out the window . "
The statistical journal " Significance " analyses McEwan 's representation of the famous mathematical conundrum : the Monty Hall Problem .
= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder =
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type . It is characterized by problems paying attention , excessive activity , or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person 's age . These symptoms begin by age six to twelve , are present for more than six months , and cause problems in at least two settings ( such as school , home , or recreational activities ) . In children , problems paying attention may result in poor school performance . Although it causes impairment , particularly in modern society , many children have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting .
Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents |
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] | 137,149 | , the cause is unknown in the majority of cases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimated that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013 . It affects about 5 – 7 % of children when diagnosed via the DSM @-@ IV criteria and 1 – 2 % when diagnosed via the ICD @-@ 10 criteria . Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed . ADHD is diagnosed approximately three times more in boys than in girls . About 30 – 50 % of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2 – 5 % of adults have the condition . The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other disorders as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the normal @-@ range .
ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling , lifestyle changes , and medications . The British guideline only recommends medications as a first @-@ line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling . Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first @-@ line therapy , except in preschool @-@ aged children . Stimulant therapy is not recommended as a first @-@ line therapy in preschool @-@ aged children in either guideline . Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months ; however , its long term effectiveness is unclear . Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments .
The medical literature has described symptoms similar to ADHD since the 19th century . ADHD , its diagnosis , and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s . The controversies have involved clinicians , teachers , policymakers , parents , and the media . Topics include ADHD 's causes and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment . Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder , and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated . The condition was officially known as attention deficit disorder ( ADD ) from 1980 to 1987 while before this it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Inattention , hyperactivity ( restlessness in adults ) , disruptive behavior , and impulsivity are common in ADHD . Academic difficulties are frequent as are problems with relationships . The symptoms can be difficult to define as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention , hyperactivity , and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin .
According to the DSM @-@ 5 , symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age and they must cause significant problems functioning in at least two settings ( e.g. , social , school / work , or home ) . The full criteria must have been met prior to age 12 in order to receive a diagnosis of ADHD .
ADHD is divided into three subtypes : predominantly inattentive , predominantly hyperactive @-@ impulsive , and combined type .
An individual with ADHD inattentive type has most or all of following symptoms , excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition :
Be easily distracted , miss details , forget things , and frequently switch from one activity to another
Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task
Become bored with a task after only a few minutes , unless doing something enjoyable
Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new
Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments , often losing things ( e.g. , pencils , toys , assignments ) needed to complete tasks or activities
Not seem to listen when spoken to
Daydream , become easily confused , and move slowly
Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others
Struggle to follow instructions
Have trouble understanding minute details
An individual with ADHD hyperactive / impulsive |
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] | 137,150 | type has most or all of the following symptoms , excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition :
Fidget and squirm in their seats
Talk nonstop
Dash around , touching or playing with anything and everything in sight
Have trouble sitting still during dinner , school , doing homework , and story time
Be constantly in motion
Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities
Be very impatient
Blurt out inappropriate comments , show their emotions without restraint , and act without regard for consequences
Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games
Often interrupt conversations or others ' activities
Symptoms of hyperactivity tend to go away with age and turn into " inner restlessness " in teens and adults with ADHD .
People with ADHD are more likely to have problems with social skills , such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships . This is true for all subtypes . About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience social rejection by their peers compared to 10 – 15 % of non @-@ ADHD children and adolescents . People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction . They also may drift off during conversations , and miss social cues .
Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD as are poor handwriting and delays in speech , language and motor development . Although it causes significant impairment , particularly in modern society , many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting .
= = = Associated disorders = = =
In children , ADHD occurs with other disorders about ⅔ of the time . Some commonly associated conditions include :
Learning disabilities have been found to occur in about 20 – 30 % of children with ADHD . Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders and academic skills disorders . ADHD , however , is not considered a learning disability , but it very frequently causes academic difficulties .
Tourette syndrome has been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population .
Oppositional defiant disorder ( ODD ) and conduct disorder ( CD ) , which occur with ADHD in about 50 % and 20 % of cases respectively . They are characterized by antisocial behaviors such as stubbornness , aggression , frequent temper tantrums , deceitfulness , lying , and stealing . About half of those with hyperactivity and ODD or CD develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood . Brain imaging supports that conduct disorder and ADHD are separate conditions .
Primary disorder of vigilance , which is characterized by poor attention and concentration , as well as difficulties staying awake . These children tend to fidget , yawn and stretch and appear to be hyperactive in order to remain alert and active .
Mood disorders ( especially bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder ) . Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder . Adults with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder , which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions .
Anxiety disorders have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population .
Obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) can co @-@ occur with ADHD and shares many of its characteristics .
Substance use disorders . Adolescents and adults with ADHD are at increased risk of substance abuse . This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis . The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals . This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult , with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks .
Restless legs syndrome has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to iron deficiency anaemia . However , restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders .
Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co @-@ exist . They can also occur as a |
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] | 137,151 | side effect of medications used to treat ADHD . In children with ADHD , insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioral therapy the preferred treatment . Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning . Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia .
There is an association with persistent bed wetting , language delay , and developmental coordination disorder ( DCD ) . Language delays can include auditory processing disorders such as short @-@ term auditory memory weakness , difficulty following instructions , slow speed of processing spoken language , and difficulties listening in distracting environments .
= = Cause = =
The cause of most cases of ADHD is unknown ; however , it is believed to involve interactions between genetic and environmental factors . Certain cases are related to previous infection of or trauma to the brain .
= = = Genetics = = =
Twin studies indicate that the disorder is often inherited from one 's parents with genetics determining about 75 % of cases . Siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop the disorder than siblings of children without the disorder . Genetic factors are also believed to be involved in determining whether ADHD persists into adulthood .
Typically , a number of genes are involved , many of which directly affect dopamine neurotransmission . Those involved with dopamine include DAT , DRD4 , DRD5 , TAAR1 , MAOA , COMT , and DBH . Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT , HTR1B , SNAP25 , GRIN2A , ADRA2A , TPH2 , and BDNF . A common variant of a gene called LPHN3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9 % of cases and when this variant is present , people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication . The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 ( DRD4 – 7R ) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD . The DRD4 receptor is a G protein @-@ coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase . The DRD4 – 7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioral phenotypes , including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention .
Evolution may have played a role in the high rates of ADHD , particularly hyperactive and impulsive traits in males . Some have hypothesized that some women may be more attracted to males who are risk takers , increasing the frequency of genes that predispose to hyperactivity and impulsivity in the gene pool . Others have claimed that these traits may be an adaptation that helped males face stressful or dangerous environment with , for example , increased impulsivity and exploratory behavior . In certain situations , ADHD traits may have been beneficial to society as a whole even while being harmful to the individual . The high rates and heterogeneity of ADHD may have increased reproductive fitness and benefited society by adding diversity to the gene pool despite being detrimental to the individual . In certain environments , some ADHD traits may have offered personal advantages to individuals , such as quicker response to predators or superior hunting skills .
People with Down syndrome are more likely to have ADHD .
= = = Environment = = =
In addition to genetics , some environmental factors might play a role . Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders which can include ADHD or symptoms like it . Children exposed to certain toxic substances , such as lead or polychlorinated biphenyls , may develop problems which resemble ADHD . Exposure to the organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and dialkyl phosphate is associated with an increased risk ; however , the evidence is not conclusive . Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD .
Extreme premature birth , very low birth weight , and extreme neglect , abuse , or social deprivation also increase the risk as do certain infections during pregnancy , at birth , and in early childhood . These infections include , among others , various viruses ( measles , varicella zoster encephalitis , |
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] | 137,152 | rubella , enterovirus 71 ) . At least 30 % of children with a traumatic brain injury later develop ADHD and about 5 % of cases are due to brain damage .
Some studies suggest that in a minority of children , artificial food dyes or preservative may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD @-@ like symptoms but the evidence is weak and may only apply to children with food sensitivities . The United Kingdom and the European Union have put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns . In a minority of children , intolerances or allergies to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms .
Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar , watching too much television , parenting , poverty or family chaos ; however , they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people .
= = = Society = = =
The diagnosis of ADHD can represent family dysfunction or a poor educational system rather than an individual problem . Some cases may be explained by increasing academic expectations , with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to get extra financial and educational support for their child . The youngest children in a class have been found to be more likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD possibly due to their being developmentally behind their older classmates . Behaviors typical of ADHD occurs more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse .
According to social construction theory it is societies that determine the boundary between normal and abnormal behavior . Members of society , including physicians , parents , and teachers , determine which diagnostic criteria are used and , thus , the number of people affected . This leads to the current situation where the DSM @-@ IV arrives at levels of ADHD three to four times higher than those obtained with the ICD @-@ 10 . Thomas Szasz , a supporter of this theory , has argued that ADHD was " invented and not discovered . "
= = Pathophysiology = =
Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain 's neurotransmitter systems , particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine . The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes . The dopamine pathways and norepinephrine pathways which project to the prefrontal cortex and striatum are directly responsible for modulating executive function ( cognitive control of behavior ) , motivation , reward perception , and motor function ; these pathways are known to play a central role in the pathophysiology of ADHD . Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed .
= = = Brain structure = = =
In children with ADHD , there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures , with a proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left @-@ sided prefrontal cortex . The posterior parietal cortex also shows thinning in ADHD individuals compared to controls . Other brain structures in the prefrontal @-@ striatal @-@ cerebellar and prefrontal @-@ striatal @-@ thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD .
= = = Neurotransmitter pathways = = =
Previously it was thought that the elevated number of dopamine transporters in people with ADHD was part of the pathophysiology but it appears that the elevated numbers are due to adaptation to exposure to stimulants . Current models involve the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway and the locus coeruleus @-@ noradrenergic system . ADHD psychostimulants possess treatment efficacy because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems . There may additionally be abnormalities in serotoninergic and cholinergic pathways . Neurotransmission of glutamate , a cotransmitter with dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway , seems to be also involved .
= = = Executive function and motivation = = =
The symptoms of ADHD arise from a deficiency in certain executive functions ( e.g. , attentional control , |
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] | 137,153 | inhibitory control , and working memory ) . Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviors that facilitate the attainment of one 's chosen goals . The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organized , time keeping , excessive procrastination , maintaining concentration , paying attention , ignoring distractions , regulating emotions , and remembering details . People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long @-@ term memory , and deficits in long @-@ term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory . The criteria for an executive function deficit are met in 30 – 50 % of children and adolescents with ADHD . One study found that 80 % of individuals with ADHD were impaired in at least one executive function task , compared to 50 % for individuals without ADHD . Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older , ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood .
ADHD has also been associated with motivational deficits in children . Children with ADHD find it difficult to focus on long @-@ term over short @-@ term rewards , and exhibit impulsive behavior for short @-@ term rewards . In these individuals , a large amount of positive reinforcement effectively improves task performance . ADHD stimulants may improve persistence in ADHD children as well .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Overall , studies have shown that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on intelligence quotient ( IQ ) tests . The significance of this is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms , such as distractibility , on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity . In studies of ADHD , higher IQ ’ s may be over represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQ ’ s despite those with ADHD scoring on average 9 points lower on standardized intelligence measures . As a result , we may have less of an accurate understanding of ADHD .
= = Diagnosis = =
ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person 's childhood behavioral and mental development , including ruling out the effects of drugs , medications and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms . It often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns . It may be viewed as the extreme end of one or more continuous human traits found in all people . Whether someone responds to medications does not confirm or rule out the diagnosis . As imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals , they are only used for research purposes and not diagnosis .
In North America , DSM @-@ 5 criteria are used for diagnosis , while European countries usually use the ICD @-@ 10 . With the DSM @-@ IV criteria a diagnosis of ADHD is 3 – 4 times more likely than with the ICD @-@ 10 criteria . It is classified as neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder . Additionally , it is classified as a disruptive behavior disorder along with oppositional defiant disorder , conduct disorder , and antisocial personality disorder . A diagnosis does not imply a neurological disorder .
Associated conditions that should be screened for include anxiety , depression , oppositional defiant disorder , conduct disorder , and learning and language disorders . Other conditions that should be considered are other neurodevelopmental disorders , tics , and sleep apnea .
Diagnosis of ADHD using quantitative electroencephalography ( QEEG ) is an ongoing area of investigation , although the value of QEEG in ADHD is currently unclear . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of QEEG to evaluate the morbidity of ADHD .
= = = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual = = =
As with many other psychiatric disorders , formal diagnosis is made by a qualified professional based on a set number of criteria . In the United States , these criteria are defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the DSM . Based on the DSM criteria , there are three sub @-@ types of ADHD :
ADHD predominantly inattentive type |
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] | 137,154 | ( ADHD @-@ PI ) presents with symptoms including being easily distracted , forgetful , daydreaming , disorganization , poor concentration , and difficulty completing tasks .
ADHD , predominantly hyperactive @-@ impulsive type presents with excessive fidgetiness and restlessness , hyperactivity , difficulty waiting and remaining seated , immature behavior ; destructive behaviors may also be present .
ADHD , combined type is a combination of the first two subtypes .
This subdivision is based on presence of at least six out of nine long @-@ term ( lasting at least six months ) symptoms of inattention , hyperactivity – impulsivity , or both . To be considered , the symptoms must have appeared by the age of six to twelve and occur in more than one environment ( e.g. at home and at school or work ) . The symptoms must be not appropriate for a child of that age and there must be evidence that it is causing social , school or work related problems .
= = = International Classification of Diseases = = =
In the ICD @-@ 10 , the symptoms of " hyperkinetic disorder " are analogous to ADHD in the DSM @-@ 5 . When a conduct disorder ( as defined by ICD @-@ 10 ) is present , the condition is referred to as hyperkinetic conduct disorder . Otherwise , the disorder is classified as disturbance of activity and attention , other hyperkinetic disorders or hyperkinetic disorders , unspecified . The latter is sometimes referred to as hyperkinetic syndrome .
= = = Adults = = =
Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria , including that their signs must have been present by the age of six to twelve . Questioning parents or guardians as to how the person behaved and developed as a child may form part of the assessment ; a family history of ADHD also adds weight to a diagnosis . While the core symptoms of ADHD are similar in children and adults they often present differently in adults than in children , for example excessive physical activity seen in children may present as feelings of restlessness and constant mental activity in adults .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Symptoms of ADHD such as low mood and poor self @-@ image , mood swings , and irritability can be confused with dysthymia , cyclothymia or bipolar disorder as well as with borderline personality disorder . Some symptoms that are due to anxiety disorders , antisocial personality disorder , developmental disabilities or mental retardation or the effects of substance abuse such as intoxication and withdrawal can overlap with some ADHD . These disorders can also sometimes occur along with ADHD . Medical conditions which can cause ADHD type symptoms include : hyperthyroidism , seizure disorder , lead toxicity , hearing deficits , hepatic disease , sleep apnea , drug interactions , untreated celiac disease , and head injury .
Primary sleep disorders may affect attention and behavior and the symptoms of ADHD may affect sleep . It is thus recommended that children with ADHD be regularly assessed for sleep problems . Sleepiness in children may result in symptoms ranging from the classic ones of yawning and rubbing the eyes , to hyperactivity and inattentiveness . Obstructive sleep apnea can also cause ADHD type symptoms .
= = Management = =
The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications either alone or in combination . While treatment may improve long @-@ term outcomes , it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely . Medications used include stimulants , atomoxetine , alpha @-@ 2 adrenergic receptor agonists , and sometimes antidepressants .
= = = Behavioral therapies = = =
There is good evidence for the use of behavioral therapies in ADHD and they are the recommended first line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or are preschool @-@ aged . Psychological therapies used include : psychoeducational input , behavior therapy , cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) , interpersonal psychotherapy , family therapy , school @-@ based interventions , social skills training , behavioral peer intervention , organization training |
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] | 137,155 | , parent management training , and neurofeedback . Behavior modification and neurofeedback have the best support .
Parent training and education have been found to have short @-@ term benefits . There is little high quality research on the effectiveness of family therapy for ADHD , but the evidence that exists shows that it is similar to community care and better than a placebo . Several ADHD specific support groups exist as informational sources and may help families cope with ADHD .
Training in social skills , behavioral modification and medication may have some limited beneficial effects . The most important factor in reducing later psychological problems , such as major depression , criminality , school failure , and substance use disorders is formation of friendships with people who are not involved in delinquent activities .
Regular physical exercise , particularly aerobic exercise , is an effective add @-@ on treatment for ADHD in children and adults , particularly when combined with stimulant medication , although the best intensity and type of aerobic exercise for improving symptoms are not currently known . In particular , the long @-@ term effects of regular aerobic exercise in ADHD individuals include better behavior and motor abilities , improved executive functions ( including attention , inhibitory control , planning , and cognitive processing speed , among other cognitive domains ) , and better memory without causing any side effects . Exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function . It is believed that these short @-@ term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain .
= = = Medication = = =
Stimulant medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice . They have at least some effect in the short term in about 80 % of people . Methylphenidate appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents .
There are a number of non @-@ stimulant medications , such as atomoxetine , bupropion , guanfacine , and clonidine that may be used as alternatives , or added to stimulant therapy . There are no good studies comparing the various medications ; however , they appear more or less equal with respect to side effects . Stimulants appear to improve academic performance while atomoxetine does not . There is little evidence on their effects on social behaviors . Medications are not recommended for preschool children , as the long @-@ term effects in this age group are not known . The long @-@ term effects of stimulants generally are unclear with one study finding benefit , another finding no benefit and a third finding evidence of harm . Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long @-@ term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD . Atomoxetine , due to its lack of addiction liability , may be preferred in those who are at risk of recreational or compulsive stimulant use . Guidelines on when to use medications vary by country , with the United Kingdom 's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommending use only in severe cases , Switzerland strongly limits the authorised medications , while most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups .
Underdosing of stimulants may occur and result in a lack of response or later loss of effectiveness . This is particularly common in adolescents and adults as approved dosing is based on school @-@ aged children , causing some practitioners to use weight based or benefit based off @-@ label dosing instead .
While stimulants and atomoxetine are usually safe , there are side @-@ effects and contraindications to their use . A large overdose on ADHD stimulants is commonly associated with symptoms such as stimulant psychosis and mania ; although very rare , at therapeutic doses these events appear to occur in approximately 0 @.@ 1 % of individuals within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine or methylphenidate therapy . Administration of an antipsychotic medication has been found to effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis . Regular monitoring has been recommended in those on long @-@ term treatment . Stimulant therapy should be stopped periodically to assess for continuing need for medication , decrease possible growth delay , and reduce tolerance . Long @-@ term misuse of stimulant medications at doses above the th |
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] | 137,156 | erapeutic range for ADHD treatment is associated with addiction and dependence . Untreated ADHD , however , is also associated with elevated risk of substance use disorders and conduct disorders . The use of stimulants appears to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it . The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear .
= = = Diet = = =
Dietary modifications may be of benefit to some children with ADHD . A 2013 meta @-@ analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food coloring . These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications . This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD . A 2014 review found that an elimination diet results in a small overall benefit . A 2016 review did not support a clear link between celiac disease and ADHD , and stated that routine screening for celiac disease in people with ADHD and the use of a gluten @-@ free diet as standard ADHD treatment are discouraged . Iron , magnesium and iodine may also have an effect on ADHD symptoms . There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD . In the absence of a demonstrated zinc deficiency ( which is rare outside of developing countries ) , zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD . There is evidence of a modest benefit of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation , but it is not recommended in place of traditional medication .
= = Prognosis = =
An 8 @-@ year follow up of children diagnosed with ADHD ( combined type ) found that they often have difficulties in adolescence , regardless of treatment or lack thereof . In the US , fewer than 5 % of individuals with ADHD get a college degree , compared to 28 % of the general population aged 25 years and older . The proportion of children meeting criteria for ADHD drops by about half in the three years following the diagnosis and this occurs regardless of treatments used . ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30 – 50 % of cases . Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature , thus compensating for their previous symptoms .
= = Epidemiology = =
ADHD is estimated to affect about 6 – 7 % of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM @-@ IV criteria . When diagnosed via the ICD @-@ 10 criteria rates in this age group are estimated at 1 – 2 % . Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East ; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency . If the same diagnostic methods are used , the rates are more or less the same between countries . It is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls . This difference between sexes may reflect either a difference in susceptibility or that females with ADHD are less likely to be diagnosed than males .
Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s . This is believed to be primarily due to changes in how the condition is diagnosed and how readily people are willing to treat it with medications rather than a true change in how common the condition is . It is believed that changes to the diagnostic criteria in 2013 with the release of the DSM @-@ 5 will increase the percentage of people diagnosed with ADHD , especially among adults .
= = History = =
Hyperactivity has long been part of the human condition . Sir Alexander Crichton describes " mental restlessness " in his book An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement written in 1798 . ADHD was first clearly described by George Still in 1902 .
The terminology used to describe the condition has changed over time and has included : in the DSM @-@ I ( 1952 ) " minimal brain dysfunction " , in the DSM @-@ II ( 1968 ) " hyperkinetic reaction of childhood " , in the DSM @-@ III ( 19 |
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] | 137,157 | 80 ) " attention @-@ deficit disorder ( ADD ) with or without hyperactivity " . In 1987 this was changed to ADHD in the DSM @-@ III @-@ R and the DSM @-@ IV in 1994 split the diagnosis into three subtypes , ADHD inattentive type , ADHD hyperactive @-@ impulsive type and ADHD combined type . These terms were kept in the DSM @-@ 5 in 2013 . Other terms have included " minimal brain damage " used in the 1930s .
The use of stimulants to treat ADHD was first described in 1937 . In 1934 , Benzedrine became the first amphetamine medication approved for use in the United States . Methylphenidate was introduced in the 1950s , and enantiopure dextroamphetamine in the 1970s .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Controversies = = =
ADHD , its diagnosis , and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s . The controversies involve clinicians , teachers , policymakers , parents , and the media . Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition . Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children , the method of diagnosis , and the possibility of overdiagnosis . In 2012 , the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence , while acknowledging the controversy , states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature . In 2014 , Keith Conners , one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder , spoke out against overdiagnosis in a New York Times article . In contrast , a 2014 peer @-@ reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults .
With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries , states within countries , races , and ethnicities , some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis . Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior , that is , the turning of the previously non @-@ medical issue of school performance into a medical one . Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder , at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms . Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less severe symptoms .
As of 2009 , 8 % of all United States Major League Baseball players had been diagnosed with ADHD , making the disorder common among this population . The increase coincided with the League 's 2006 ban on stimulants , which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport .
= = = Media commentary = = =
A number of public figures have given controversial statements regarding ADHD . Tom Cruise has described the medications Ritalin ( methylphenidate ) and Adderall ( a mixed @-@ salt amphetamine formulation ) as " street drugs " . Ushma S. Neill criticized this view , stating that the doses of stimulants used in the treatment of ADHD do not cause addiction and that there is some evidence of a reduced risk of later substance addiction in children treated with stimulants . In the UK , Susan Greenfield spoke out publicly in 2007 in the House of Lords about the need for a wide @-@ ranging inquiry into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD , and possible causes . Her comments followed a BBC Panorama program that highlighted research that suggested medications are no better than other forms of therapy in the long term . In 2010 , the BBC Trust criticized the 2007 Panorama program for summarizing the research as showing " no demonstrable improvement in children 's behaviour after staying on ADHD medication for three years " when in actuality " the study found that medication did offer a significant improvement over time " although the long @-@ term benefits of medication were |
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] | 137,158 | Welles had previously produced a Broadway stage adaptation of nine Shakespeare plays called Five Kings in 1939 . In 1960 , he revived this project in Ireland as Chimes at Midnight , which was his final on @-@ stage performance . Neither of these plays was successful , but Welles considered portraying Falstaff to be his life 's ambition and turned the project into a film . Throughout its production , Welles struggled to find financing and at one point , to get money , he lied to producer Emiliano Piedra about intending to make a version of Treasure Island . Welles shot Chimes at Midnight throughout Spain between 1964 and 1965 , and premiered it at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival , where it won two awards .
Initially dismissed by most film critics , Chimes at Midnight is now regarded as one of Welles ' highest achievements , and Welles himself called it his best work . Welles felt a strong connection to the character of Falstaff and called him " Shakespeare 's greatest creation " . Some film scholars and Welles 's collaborators have made comparisons between Falstaff and Welles , while others see a resemblance between Falstaff and Welles 's father . Disputes over the ownership of Chimes at Midnight made it difficult to view the film legally until recently . It was released in the UK on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in 2015 . A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection was screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12 , 2016 . The Criterion Collection will release the film on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on August 30 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Sir John Falstaff and Justice Shallow walking through the snow , then to a warm fire inside the Boar 's Head Tavern as the two reminisce . After a main credit sequence , the narrator explains that King Henry IV of England has succeeded Richard II , whom he had killed . Richard II 's true heir , Edmund Mortimer , is a prisoner in Wales , and Mortimer 's cousins Northumberland , Worcester and Northumberland 's son Hotspur demand that Henry rescue Mortimer . Henry refuses and Northumberland , Worcester and Hotspur begin to plot his overthrow .
To Henry 's great dissatisfaction , his son Prince Hal spends most of his time at the Boar 's Head Tavern drinking and carousing with prostitutes , thieves and other criminals under John Falstaff 's patriarchal influence . Falstaff insists that he and Hal should think of themselves as gentlemen , but Hal warns Falstaff that one day he will reject both this lifestyle and Falstaff . The next morning Hal , Falstaff , Bardolph , Peto , and Poins disguise themselves in Gadshill to prepare to rob a group of traveling pilgrims . After Falstaff , Bardolph and Peto rob the pilgrims , Hal and Poins jump out in disguises and take the stolen treasure from Falstaff as a joke .
Back at the Boar 's Head Tavern , Falstaff begins to tell Hal and Poins with increasing exaggeration the story of how the money was stolen from him . Hal and Poins poke holes in Falstaff 's tale until they reveal their joke to the entire group . In celebration of the newly recovered stolen treasure , Falstaff and Hal take turns impersonating Henry , with a cooking pot crown and vocal impressions . Falstaff 's Henry chastises Hal for spending his time with common criminals , but names Sir John Falstaff as his one virtuous friend . Hal 's Henry calls Falstaff a " misleader of youth . "
Hal visits the King at the castle and Henry scolds him for his criminal and unethical lifestyle . Henry warns Hal about Hotspur 's growing army and its threat to his crown . Hal passionately vows to his unimpressed father that he will defend Henry and redeem his good name . The King 's army , including Falstaff , parades through the streets and off to war . Before the battle , Henry meets with Worcester and offers to forgive all of Hotspur 's men of treason if they surrender immediately . Hal vows to personally kill Hotspur . Wor |
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] | 137,159 | cester returns to his camp and lies to Hotspur , telling him that Henry intends to execute all traitors .
The two armies meet in the Battle of Shrewsbury , but Falstaff hides in shrubs for most of the conflict . After a long and bloody fight the King 's men win the battle , after which , Hotspur and Hal meet alone and duel . Falstaff watches as Hal kills Hotspur . Henry sentences Worcester to death and takes his men as prisoners . Falstaff brings Hotspur 's body to Henry , claiming that he killed Hotspur . Henry does not believe Falstaff but looks disapprovingly at Hal and the ignoble company that he chooses to keep .
The narrator explains that all of Henry IV 's rebellious enemies had been killed by 1408 , but that Henry 's health has begun to deteriorate . At the castle , Henry becomes upset when told that Hal is once again spending time with Falstaff , and collapses . Hal visits the castle and discovers that Henry is sicker than he had realized . Hal vows to Henry to be a good and noble king . Henry finally has faith in Hal and advises him on how to be a king . Henry dies and Hal tells his men that he is now King Henry V.
Falstaff , Shallow and Silence sit in front of a warm fire , continuing from the first scene of the film . They receive news of Henry IV 's death and that Hal 's coronation will be held that morning . Falstaff becomes ecstatic and goes directly to the castle , thinking that he will become a great and powerful nobleman under King Henry V. At the coronation , Falstaff cannot contain his excitement and interrupts the entire ceremony , announcing himself to Hal . Hal turns his back on Falstaff and proclaims that he is now finished with his former lifestyle . As Falstaff looks up at Hal with a mixture of pride and despair , the new king banishes Falstaff . The coronation continues into the castle as Falstaff walks away , stating that he will be sent for that evening . That night , Falstaff dies at the Boar 's Head Tavern and his friends mourn him , saying that he died of a broken heart . The narrator explains that Hal went on to become a good and noble king .
= = Cast = =
Orson Welles as Sir John Falstaff , a knight and father @-@ figure to Prince Hal
Keith Baxter as Prince Hal , the Prince of Wales and the heir to the throne of England
John Gielgud as King Henry IV , the King of England
Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet , a prostitute
Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly , hostess of the Boar 's Head Tavern
Norman Rodway as Henry Percy , called Hotspur , Northumberland 's son and second cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Fernando Rey as Earl of Worcester , Leader of the Rebels . Northumberland 's brother and cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Marina Vlady as Kate Percy , Hotspur 's wife
Alan Webb as Justice Shallow , a country justice and old friend of Falstaff
Walter Chiari as Justice Silence , a country justice
Michael Aldridge as Pistol , a friend of Falstaff
Tony Beckley as Ned Poins , a friend of Falstaff and Hal
Andrew Faulds as Earl of Westmorland , an Earl loyal to the King
José Nieto as Earl of Northumberland , an Earl rebellious of the King and cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Jeremy Rowe as Prince John , Henry IV 's second son
Beatrice Welles as Falstaff 's Page , a servant
Patrick Bedford as Bardolph , a friend of Falstaff and Hal
Charles Farrell
Fernando Hilbeck
Andrés Mejuto
Julio Peña
Keith Pyott
Ralph Richardson as The Narrator ( voice )
= = Original stage productions = =
Welles 's inspiration for Chimes at Midnight began in 1930 when he was a student at the Todd School for Boys in Woodstock , Illinois . |
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] | 137,160 | Welles tried to stage a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour combination of several of Shakespeare 's historical plays called The Winter of Our Discontent in which he played Richard III . School officials forced him to make cuts to the production . Chimes at Midnight originated in 1939 as a stage play called Five Kings , which Welles wrote and partially staged . It was an ambitious adaptation of several Shakespeare plays that chronicled the stories of Richard II , Henry IV , Henry V , Henry VI and Richard III . Its sources were Richard II , Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 , Henry V , The Merry Wives of Windsor , Henry VI , Part 1 , Henry VI , Part 2 , Henry VI , Part 3 and Richard III — sometimes collectively called the " War of the Roses cycle " . The grouping of Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 and Henry V are often referred to as the Henriad .
= = = Five Kings ( 1939 ) = = =
Five Kings was announced as part of the newly revived Mercury Theatre 's second season in 1938 . John Houseman had secured a partnership with the prestigious Theatre Guild to produce the play for US $ 40 @,@ 000 , with an initial tour of Baltimore , Boston , Washington D.C. and Philadelphia before debuting on Broadway . Welles 's intended to stage only the first part of the play — which was primarily taken from Henry IV Parts 1 and 2 and Henry V — during the tour while simultaneously rehearsing Part Two and finally debuting the full production on Broadway . Houseman stated that the play 's aim was " to combine the immediate quality of the Elizabethan with all the devices and techniques possible in the modern theatre . " The cast included Welles as Falstaff , Burgess Meredith as Prince Hal , John Emery as Hotspur , Morris Ankrum as Henry IV and Robert Speaight as the Narrator . The play 's music was composed by Aaron Copland . Welles commissioned an elaborate revolving set to be built , but it was not completed during the five weeks allotted to rehearsals .
Welles avoided attending the rehearsals or finishing the play 's final script and instead often went out drinking and socializing with co @-@ star Meredith , with the result that only specific scenes or fragments of the play were ever rehearsed . The Baltimore performance was eventually dropped and at the first dress rehearsal in Boston , it was discovered that the play was over five and a half hours long and contained 46 scenes . Welles cut 14 scenes and shortened others , which caused the built @-@ in timer for the revolving set to move out of synchronization . Five Kings , Part 1 premiered at the Colonial Theatre in Boston on February 27 , 1939 , and was a disaster . Critics were either scathing or apologetic , and only the play 's battle scenes received praise . By the end of the Boston run , the Theatre Guild was on the verge of dropping the production , and canceled the D.C. engagement . Welles then edited the show to three and a half hours . The play closed after only a few performances in Philadelphia , and the Theatre Guild terminated its contract with the Mercury Theater . Photographs of the play 's rehearsals show similarities to Chimes at Midnight , including the Boar 's Head Tavern set and the character blocking of the " chimes at midnight " scene with Falstaff , Shallow and Silence .
= = = Chimes at Midnight ( 1960 ) = = =
Welles returned to the project in 1960 , with performances in Belfast and Dublin . This version , now retitled Chimes at Midnight , was produced by Welles 's old friend Hilton Edwards through his Dublin @-@ based company Gate Theatre . The cast included Welles as Falstaff , Keith Baxter as Prince Hal , Hilton Edwards as the Narrator , Reginald Jarman as Henry IV and Alexis Kanner as Hotspur . At one point , Welles and Edwards wanted Micheál Mac Liammóir to replace Jarman as Henry IV , but Mac Liammóir would only accept the role of Prince Hal . Hilton Edwards was officially credited as director , but Welles is usually acknowledged as the actual director and was often the director throughout rehearsals . W |
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] | 137,161 | elles 's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg also worked on the play as an actor and as Edwards 's personal assistant . Welles 's opinion of Falstaff had intensified since first playing the part , and his new version of the play focused more upon the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal than on the historical story of Hal 's defeat of Hotspur . Most of the scenes from Henry V used in the first version before were removed . Welles intended to perform the play in Belfast , Dublin and London before filming it in Yugoslavia .
Rehearsals began in Russell Square , London , with a read through . After a week of rehearsing , Welles left to secure further funding and Edwards directed the play , working on blocking and lighting . Welles returned two days before the premiere and the cast had their first dress rehearsal , which lasted until 3 a.m. After premiering at the Grand Opera House in Belfast on February 13 , 1960 , and receiving a good review from a Variety correspondent , the play closed after five performances because of low attendances . It moved to the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin , where it fared no better . By the end of the second week , Welles had resorted to reading portions of the works of Irish author J. M. Synge , and from Riders to the Sea , to attract an audience . Eventually the play simply became a version of An Evening with Orson Welles , which would often include a question and answer section with the audience and Welles 's solo performance of Moby Dick — Rehearsed or the works of Isak Dinesen .
Welles continued to adjust the play throughout its short production , and at one point moved Mistress Quickly 's speech about Falstaff 's death to the very beginning of the play . Welles finally abandoned the entire project in late March 1960 , when his friend Laurence Olivier offered him the chance to direct him in Eugène Ionesco 's play Rhinoceros on London 's West End . According to Keith Baxter , Welles ended the play 's run because he was bored with it , and at one point told Baxter " This is only a rehearsal for the movie , Keith , and I 'll never make it unless you play Hal in that too . " Five years later , Baxter was the only cast member from the play to appear in the film . Chimes at Midnight was Welles 's final performance in a theatrical play .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In 1964 , Welles met and befriended Spanish film producer Emiliano Piedra , who wanted to work with him . Piedra did not think a Shakespearian film was marketable enough and proposed that Welles make a version of Treasure Island instead . Welles agreed to this on condition that he could simultaneously make Chimes at Midnight , and Piedra agreed not knowing that Welles had no intention of making Treasure Island . Although some B @-@ roll footage of the Alicante departing from port was shot early in the production , no scenes from Treasure Island were ever shot or even scripted . Welles got away with this trick throughout pre @-@ production by building sets that could be used in both films , such as Mistress Quickley 's Boar 's Head Tavern , which would double as the Admiral Benbow Inn . Welles also cast each actor in both films , casting himself as Long John Silver , Baxter as Dr. Livesey , Beckley as Israel Hands and Gielgud as Squire Trelawney . Ironically Welles would eventually play Long John Silver in the unrelated 1972 film version of Treasure Island .
Welles said that the Boar 's Head Tavern was the only full set built for the film , and the other sets were simply dressed or decorated on location . Welles stated that he designed , painted and blow @-@ torched the set , and designed all of the film 's costumes . Early in pre @-@ production Welles was approached by Anthony Perkins to play Prince Hal , but Welles had already promised the role to Keith Baxter . Hilton Edwards was initially cast as Justice Silence , but was replaced after he became ill . The title Chimes at Midnight derives from Henry IV , Part 2 , where in response to Justice Shallow 's reminiscing of their long @-@ past school days , Falstaff states : " |
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] | 137,162 | We have heard the chimes at midnight , Master Shallow " . Welles scholar Bridget Gellert Lyons said that the film 's title , " which is given further resonance by the repeated intoning of bells throughout the film , is associated for the audience with sadness and mortality more than youthful carousal . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot in Spain from September 1964 until April 1965 , with a break in filming from late December until late February . Welles 's limitations on the film included a budget of $ 800 @,@ 000 and actors Jeanne Moreau and John Gielgud being available for five and ten days respectively , while Margaret Rutherford was only available for four weeks . Welles later joked that during one scene which included seven principal characters , none of the actors were available and stand @-@ ins were used for over @-@ the @-@ shoulder shots of all seven characters . Filming began in Colmenar and included all of John Gielgud 's scenes . Welles then traveled to Cardona , where the Royal Court scenes and Marina Vlady 's scenes were shot , and to Madrid 's Casa de Campo Park , where the Gadshill robbery scene was filmed . Madrid was also the location of the Boar 's Head Tavern set , where Welles shot Moreau 's and Rutherford 's scenes . The production then traveled to Pedraza for some outdoor street scenes , and then to Soria to shoot in the snow for the opening shots . After shooting some scenes with Justice Shallow and Justice Silence in the Basque country , Welles returned to Madrid in December to film the battle scenes in Casa de Campo Park for ten days .
By late December Welles had run out of money and the film was put on hold while he searched for additional funding . However , some small scenes were shot during the break . Welles later said that he had rejected offers for funding that were conditional upon filming in color . Welles eventually secured funding from Harry Saltzman and production officially resumed in late February with most of Keith Baxter 's longer speeches and the Coronation scene in Madrid . Between March and April , Welles finished the film with filler shots , close @-@ ups , the final rejection scene and most of Falstaff 's speeches . According to Keith Baxter , Welles had stage fright and delayed all of his scenes until the very end of filming , except for scenes that included other actors . Welles was timid about shooting his love scene with Moreau , and used a double whenever possible . Other filming locations included the Chateau Calatañazor , Puerta de San Vincente and the Soria Cathedral . Welles was harsh with his crew members and according to actor Andrew Faulds , " he spoke in five different languages to them and was pretty offensive — very demanding . I suppose he 'd worked out that if you bullied actors , you didn 't get the best from them whereas , to hell with the technicians . They had to do as they were told , and pretty quick . " A scene depicting the assassination of King Richard II , originally intended to open the film , was cut .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Keith Baxter said that the film 's soundtrack was post @-@ dubbed months after filming was completed , and that actors Fernando Rey and Marina Vlady were dubbed by different actors because of their heavy accents . Baxter also stated that he , Welles and Michael Aldridge recorded voices for several characters in post @-@ production . Mistress Quickly 's speech after Falstaff 's death , which was disrupted by the audible hum of a power generator , used the original version of the soundtrack because Welles liked Margaret Rutherford 's performance enough to keep it . The score was composed by Angelo Francesco Lavagnino , who had worked with Welles on Othello . The score was recorded in an Italian studio , which paid Lavagnino for his work on the film in exchange for the rights to the music , and later released a soundtrack album in Italy and the UK . During the editing , Welles showed a rough cut to the visiting head of the Cannes Film Festival , who immediately wanted to include the film in the festival , and Welles had to finish the editing more quickly than he preferred .
= = Style = =
= = = Cinematography = = =
|
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] | 137,163 | Welles had originally wanted the entire film to use high contrast cinematography , resembling engravings of the Middle Ages ; only the opening title sequence uses this technique . The film 's most famous sequence is the Battle of Shrewsbury ; only about 180 extras were available and Welles used editing techniques to give the appearance of armies of thousands . Welles filmed all of the battle scenes in long takes , but cut the shots into fragments to create the effect that he wanted . It took ten days to shoot the scenes and six weeks to edit what became a six @-@ minute sequence . In filming the sequence , Welles often used hand @-@ held cameras , wide @-@ angle lenses , slow motion and speed up shots , static shots , swish pans and constant rapid movement of the characters to create a kinetic and chaotic atmosphere . Anderegg has said that " in the end , both armies have become one huge , awkward , disintegrating war machine , a grotesque robot whose power source slowly begins to fail and finally comes to a frozen halt . Verbal rhetoric — language itself — seems , for the moment , both irrelevant and obscene . "
The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has often been called an anti @-@ war statement by film critics and likened to contemporary films like Dr. Strangelove and Culloden . Shakespearean scholar Daniel Seltzer said that " the social consciousness of the movie is as alert as Shakespeare 's , and thematically pertinent in Shakespearean terms too ... the footage of the Battle of Shrewsbury itself must be some of the finest , truest , ugliest scenes of warfare ever shot and edited for a movie . " Welles scholar James Naremore said that " the underlying eroticism of the chivalric code ... is exposed in all its cruel perversity . " Tony Howard wrote that Welles used Shakespeare 's historical plays " to denounce modern political hypocrisy and militarism . "
= = = Sound = = =
Due to budgetary constraints , both the on @-@ set and post @-@ production sound was poorly recorded . Anderegg wrote that this , in combination with Welles ' fast @-@ paced camera movements and editing , makes the Shakespearean dialogue more difficult to understand . Many scenes are shot in long shots or with character 's backs facing the camera , most likely for practical purposes when actors were not present , creating more sound problems . " In effect , " Anderegg writes , " Welles generates a constant tension between what we see and what we hear , a tension that points to the ambiguous status of language in its relation to action . " During the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence Welles used a complex and layered soundtrack that included the sounds of swords and armor clanking , soldiers grunting and screaming , bones breaking , boots in the mud and the film 's musical score to add to the chaos of the scene .
= = = Interpretation of Shakespeare = = =
Welles 's adaptation of five Shakespeare plays was not a chronological transcription of the original texts . Shakespearean scholar Kenneth S. Rothwell said that Welles " goes beyond mere tinkering with Shakespeare 's scenes ; [ he ] massively reworks , transposes , revises and deletes , indeed reconstructs them . " These changes included taking lines of dialogue from one play and inserting them into scenes from another . Specific changes include a scene near the end of the film in which Hal pardons an imprisoned street rabble @-@ rouser just before his expedition to invade France ; Welles slightly altered this scene from Henry V , Act 2 , Scene 2 . In the film it is stated that this man is Falstaff , and that the incident he is pardoning is Falstaff 's disturbance of Hal 's coronation . Although both the pardoned prisoner and Falstaff are said to drink wine , Shakespeare does not imply that the pardoned prisoner is Falstaff . In both Chimes at Midnight and in Henry V , this scene is followed by Falstaff 's death . The film contains no true soliloquies , since characters are never alone and do not speak directly to the audience during their speeches . Henry IV is usually shown standing or sitting with very little action involved — this , says Anderegg , makes it appear that he speaks only to himself even when others are present . Gielgud was known for his classical interpretation of Shakespeare , and his performance consists almost entirely of words , which are unable to defeat |
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] | 137,164 | either Northumberland 's rebels or Hal 's wild behavior . Throughout the film , Falstaff , Hal and Hotspur imitate Gielgud , mocking the words of Henry IV .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Chimes at Midnight premiered to a positive audience reception at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival . However , after New York Times critic Bosley Crowther 's unfavorable advance review , American distributor Harry Saltzman decided to give the film little publicity and minimal distribution when it was released in the U.S. the next year . Critical reception on its first release was mostly negative ; the film was not regarded as one of Welles 's best until years later . Crowther criticized the film 's poor audio track and called it " a confusing patchwork of scenes and characters ... designed to give major exposure to Jack Falstaff . " Welles 's performance , he said , was " a dissolute , bumbling street @-@ corner Santa Claus . " Penelope Houston called it " a film which seems to turn its back on brilliance . " A Time review also criticized Welles , stating that " [ he ] is probably the first actor in the history of the theater to appear too fat for the role ... he takes command of scenes less with spoken English than with body English " , but that he is " never entirely bad . "
Judith Crist praised the film as " stark , simple , concentrating on word and performance , serv [ ing ] as a reminder of where the substance of the play lies . " Pauline Kael also criticized the poor sound , but gave a favorable review overall , singling out the film 's casting and calling Welles 's performance " very rich , very full . " She said the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence was " unlike any battle scene done on the screen before . " Cahiers du Cinema critic Serge Daney also praised both the film and Welles 's ability to make great films on the subject of power . Roger Ebert praised the film as " a magnificent film , clearly among Welles ' greatest work . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Welles held Chimes at Midnight in high regard . " It 's my favorite picture , yes , " he told interviewer Leslie Megahey in a 1982 interview for BBC Arena :
If I wanted to get into heaven on the basis of one movie , that 's the one I would offer up . I think it 's because it is to me the least flawed ; let me put it that way . It is the most successful for what I tried to do . I succeeded more completely in my view with that than with anything else .
He also considered it to be his most personal film , along with The Magnificent Ambersons . Many critics , including Peter Bogdanovich and Jonathan Rosenbaum , also consider Chimes at Midnight to be Welles 's finest work . Several years after its initial release , film critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that Chimes at Midnight " may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made , bar none . " Joseph McBride has called it " Welles 's masterpiece , the fullest , most completely realized expression of everything he had been working towards since Citizen Kane . " Welles was disappointed with the film 's reception , complaining that " almost nobody has seen it in America , and that drives me nuts . "
The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has been particularly admired , and inspired later movies , including Braveheart and Saving Private Ryan . Film critics have compared it to the Odessa Steps sequence in Battleship Potemkin and the Battle on the Ice sequence in Alexander Nevsky , both directed by Sergei Eisenstein . Kenneth Branagh 's Henry V used Welles 's Battle of Shrewsbury sequence as an inspiration for the Battle of Agincourt , and depicted Prince Hal 's rejection of Falstaff in a way that was more influenced by Chimes at Midnight than from more traditional interpretations of the scene . In 1988 , director Patrick Garland staged a version of Chimes at Midnight starring Simon Callow as Falstaff at the Chichester Festival Theatre . Michael Anderegg said that Chimes at Midnight 's use of wide angle lenses , low @-@ key lighting and costumes , and its focus on the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal influenced My Own Private Idaho — Gus |
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] | 137,165 | Van Sant 's 1991 loose adaptation of Henry IV Parts 1 and 2 .
In 2011 , Bonham 's Auction House sold a large archive of Welles 's material that had once belonged to the film 's executive producer Alessandro Tasca di Cuto . Most of the material was from Chimes at Midnight , and included Welles 's original artwork , photographs and memos . This collection was later donated to the University of Michigan for scholarly study .
In 2012 , for the British Film Institute 's Sight and Sound poll , 11 film critics and two directors voted Chimes at Midnight one of the 10 greatest films of all time , including McBride and Todd McCarthy .
Spanish writer and director of the Film Library of Catalonia Esteve Riambau published a book about the film called The Things We 've Seen : Welles and Falstaff in 2015 .
= = = Awards = = =
At the 1966 Cannes Film Festival , Chimes at Midnight was screened in competition for the Palme d 'Or and won the 20th Anniversary Prize and the Technical Grand Prize . Welles was nominated for a BAFTA award for Best Foreign Actor in 1968 In Spain , the film won the Citizens Writers Circle Award for Best Film in 1966 .
= = = Home media = = =
Because of legal disputes over the rights , Chimes at Midnight has only been released twice on VHS video in the United States , neither of which is currently available . Harry Saltzman 's widow Adriana Saltzman , the families of producers Emiliano Piedra and Angel Escolano and the estate of Orson Welles — maintained by Beatrice Welles — among others have all claimed ownership of the film . For many years the only available source was a region @-@ free DVD from Brazil . Mr Bongo Records screened a restored version in the UK at Picturehouse Cinemas on August 1 , 2011 . In February 2015 , the film was screened at the Sedona International Film Festival . Beatrice Welles attended and announced that " a major DVD / Blu @-@ ray label is interested in restoring and releasing Chimes at Midnight . " The pristine 35mm print was discovered by Distribpix Inc . , who said it was " in such great condition that it is begging for a full 4k scan restoration . "
The film had a European release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on June 29 , 2015 .
= = = 2016 Restoration = = =
Janus Films released a restored version of the film on DCP that premiered on January 1 , 2016 , at Film Forum in New York City and Cinefamily in Los Angeles . This restored version is not derived from the Distribpix print .
A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12 , 2016 . Peter Becker , Criterion 's president , said that the release is the product of more than 20 years of effort : " There is no film we have waited longer for or worked harder to free up , and none we are prouder to present " , he said . Criterion will release this restoration on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in August 2016 .
= = Welles and Falstaff = =
= = = Welles 's views on Sir John Falstaff = = =
Welles considered Falstaff to be " Shakespeare 's greatest creation " and said that the role was " the most difficult part I 've ever played . " Keith Baxter believed that making the film was Welles 's life 's ambition . Before the 1939 Boston premiere of Five Kings , Welles told journalists " I will play him as a tragic figure . I hope , of course , he will be funny to the audience , just as he was funny to those around him . But his humor and wit were aroused merely by the fact that he wanted to please the prince . Falstaff , however , had the potential of greatness in him . " Reviews for the 1939 play mention Welles ' |
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] | 137,166 | choice to downplay the traditional comedic elements of Falstaff in his performance . This reverence for the character increased over the years and by the time Welles made Chimes at Midnight , his focus was entirely on the relationships between Falstaff , Hal and Henry IV . He believed that the core of the story was " the betrayal of friendship . " Welles called Hal 's rejection of Falstaff " one of the greatest scenes ever written , so the movie is really a preparation for it . Everything prepares for it . " Throughout the film , Hal constantly turns his back on Falstaff , foreshadowing the film 's ending .
Welles said , " the film was not intended as a lament for Falstaff , but for the death of Merrie England . Merrie England as a conception , a myth which has been very real to the English @-@ speaking world , and is to some extent expressed in other countries of the Medieval epoch : the age of chivalry , of simplicity , of Maytime and all that . It is more than Falstaff who is dying . It 's the old England dying and betrayed . " Many film theorists and Welles biographers have written about the recurrent theme of the " Lost Eden " in Welles 's work and of characters who are nostalgic for an idealized past , which Welles called " the central theme in Western culture . " Welles told Peter Bogdanovich that " even if the good old days never existed , the fact that we can conceive of such a world is , in fact , an affirmation of the human spirit . " Film scholar Beverle Houston argued that this nostalgia made Welles 's depiction of Falstaff infantile and called his performance a " [ p ] ower baby ... an eating , sucking , foetus @-@ like creature . " Welles also called Falstaff " the greatest conception of a good man , the most completely good man , in all of drama " , and said that " the closer I thought I was getting to Falstaff the less funny he seemed to me . When I played him before in the theater , he seemed more witty than comical . And in bringing him to the screen , I found him only occasionally , and only deliberately , a clown . "
= = = Welles 's personal connections to Sir John Falstaff = = =
Keith Baxter compared Welles to Falstaff , since they were both perpetually short of money , often lied and cheated people to get what they needed and were always merry and fun loving . Film scholar Jack Jorgens also compared Welles to Falstaff , stating that " to a man who directed and starred in a masterpiece and has since staggered through three decades of underfinanced , hurried , flawed films , scores of bit parts , narrations , and interviews which debased his talent , dozens of projects which died for want of persistence and financing , the story of a fat , aging jester exiled from his audience and no longer able to triumph over impossible obstacles with wit and torrential imagination might well seem tragic . " When Joss Ackland played Falstaff on the stage in 1982 , he said that he was more inspired by Welles than by Welles 's performance as Falstaff , stating that " like Falstaff , I believe he could have achieved so much , but it was frittered away . " Kenneth S. Rothwell has called Hal 's rejection of Falstaff allegorical to Hollywood 's rejection of Welles . Welles had become deeply depressed in the late 1950s after the disappointment of making Touch of Evil , his intended Hollywood comeback .
Welles 's biographer Simon Callow has compared Falstaff to Welles 's father Richard Head Welles , stating that like Falstaff , Welles 's father was " a drunkard , a trickster , a braggart , a womanizer , a gentleman and a charmer — and he is rejected by the person he loves the most . " Welles 's father was an alcoholic and womanizer who would often take a teenage Welles along with him when he was indulging in his vices . Welles observed his father much like Falstaff is observed by Hal and depends on his young protégé to bail him out of trouble . The love triangle between Prince Hal and his two father figures , Henry IV and Falstaff , is also similar to Welles 's relationships with his father and the two men who became surrogate fathers |
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] | 137,167 | to him : family friend Dr. Maurice Bernstein and Todd School for Boys headmaster Roger Hill . Both of Welles 's surrogate fathers disapproved of Richard Welles 's lifestyle and negative influence on Welles . When he was fifteen Welles took the advice of Roger Hill and told his father that he would not see him again until he cleaned up his act and stopped drinking . Welles 's father died shortly afterwards , alone and lonely , and Welles always blamed himself for his father 's death , stating " I always thought I killed him . "
Welles 's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg , who was born out of wedlock to Welles and actress Geraldine Fitzgerald , first met Welles when he was 15 and later worked on the 1960 stage play Chimes at Midnight . This was the only significant amount of time that the two spent together and afterwards Lindsay @-@ Hogg only saw Welles sporadically . Like Welles , Lindsay @-@ Hogg had two surrogate fathers in addition to his biological father . In the late 1950s when she was 16 , Welles 's eldest daughter Christopher Welles Feder cut off all ties with Welles under pressure from her mother , who disapproved of Welles 's influence on her . Welles and Feder later reconnected but their relationship never fully recovered . Welles 's youngest daughter Beatrice , who resembles her father as a young boy , appears in the film version of Chimes at Midnight .
= Python ( programming language ) =
Python is a widely used high @-@ level , general @-@ purpose , interpreted , dynamic programming language . Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability , and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code than possible in languages such as C + + or Java . The language provides constructs intended to enable clear programs on both a small and large scale .
Python supports multiple programming paradigms , including object @-@ oriented , imperative and functional programming or procedural styles . It features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library .
Python interpreters are available for many operating systems , allowing Python code to run on a wide variety of systems . Using third @-@ party tools , such as Py2exe or Pyinstaller , Python code can be packaged into stand @-@ alone executable programs for some of the most popular operating systems , so Python @-@ based software can be distributed to , and used on , those environments with no need to install a Python interpreter .
CPython , the reference implementation of Python , is free and open @-@ source software and has a community @-@ based development model , as do nearly all of its variant implementations . CPython is managed by the non @-@ profit Python Software Foundation .
= = History = =
Python was conceived in the late 1980s , and its implementation began in December 1989 by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica ( CWI ) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language ( itself inspired by SETL ) capable of exception handling and interfacing with the operating system Amoeba . Van Rossum is Python 's principal author , and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by the Python community , benevolent dictator for life ( BDFL ) .
About the origin of Python , Van Rossum wrote in 1996 :
Over six years ago , in December 1989 , I was looking for a " hobby " programming project that would keep me occupied during the week around Christmas . My office ... would be closed , but I had a home computer , and not much else on my hands . I decided to write an interpreter for the new scripting language I had been thinking about lately : a descendant of ABC that would appeal to Unix / C hackers . I chose Python as a working title for the project , being in a slightly irreverent mood ( and a big fan of Monty Python 's Flying Circus ) .
Python 2 @.@ 0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had many major new features , including a cycle @-@ detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode . With this release the development process was changed and became more transparent and community @-@ backed .
Python 3 @.@ |
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] | 137,168 | 0 ( which early in its development was commonly referred to as Python 3000 or py3k ) , a major , backwards @-@ incompatible release , was released on 3 December 2008 after a long period of testing . Many of its major features have been backported to the backwards @-@ compatible Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version series .
= = Features and philosophy = =
Python is a multi @-@ paradigm programming language : object @-@ oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported , and many language features support functional programming and aspect @-@ oriented programming ( including by metaprogramming and metaobjects ( magic methods ) ) . Many other paradigms are supported via extensions , including design by contract and logic programming .
Python uses dynamic typing and a mix of reference counting and a cycle @-@ detecting garbage collector for memory management . An important feature of Python is dynamic name resolution ( late binding ) , which binds method and variable names during program execution .
The design of Python offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition . The language has map ( ) , reduce ( ) and filter ( ) functions ; list comprehensions , dictionaries , and sets ; and generator expressions . The standard library has two modules ( itertools and functools ) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML .
The core philosophy of the language is summarized by the document The Zen of Python ( PEP 20 ) , which includes aphorisms such as :
Beautiful is better than ugly
Explicit is better than implicit
Simple is better than complex
Complex is better than complicated
Readability counts
Rather than requiring all desired functionality to be built into the language 's core , Python was designed to be highly extensible . Python can also be embedded in existing applications that need a programmable interface . This design of a small core language with a large standard library and an easily extensible interpreter was intended by Van Rossum from the start because of his frustrations with ABC , which espoused the opposite mindset .
While offering choice in coding methodology , the Python philosophy rejects exuberant syntax , such as in Perl , in favor of a sparser , less @-@ cluttered grammar . As Alex Martelli put it : " To describe something as clever is not considered a compliment in the Python culture . " Python 's philosophy rejects the Perl " there is more than one way to do it " approach to language design in favor of " there should be one — and preferably only one — obvious way to do it " .
Python 's developers strive to avoid premature optimization , and moreover , reject patches to non @-@ critical parts of CPython that would offer a marginal increase in speed at the cost of clarity . When speed is important , a Python programmer can move time @-@ critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C , or try using PyPy , a just @-@ in @-@ time compiler . Cython is also available , which translates a Python script into C and makes direct C @-@ level API calls into the Python interpreter .
An important goal of Python 's developers is making it fun to use . This is reflected in the origin of the name , which comes from Monty Python , and in an occasionally playful approach to tutorials and reference materials , such as using examples that refer to spam and eggs instead of the standard foo and bar .
A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic , which can have a wide range of meanings related to program style . To say that code is pythonic is to say that it uses Python idioms well , that it is natural or shows fluency in the language , that it conforms with Python 's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability . In contrast , code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic .
Users and admirers of Python , especially those considered knowledgeable or experienced , are often referred to as Pythonists , Pythonistas , and Pythoneers .
= = Syntax and semantics = =
Python is intended to be a highly readable language . It is designed to have an uncluttered visual layout , often using English keywords where other languages use punctuation . Further , Python has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal .
= = = Indentation = = =
Python uses whitespace indentation |
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] | 137,169 | , rather than curly braces or keywords , to delimit blocks ; this feature is also termed the off @-@ side rule . An increase in indentation comes after certain statements ; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block .
= = = Statements and control flow = = =
Python 's statements include ( among others ) :
The assignment statement ( token ' = ' , the equals sign ) . This operates differently than in traditional imperative programming languages , and this fundamental mechanism ( including the nature of Python 's version of variables ) illuminates many other features of the language . Assignment in C , e.g. , x
= 2 , translates to " typed variable name x receives a copy of numeric value 2 " . The ( right @-@ hand ) value is copied into an allocated storage location for which the ( left @-@ hand ) variable name is the symbolic address . The memory allocated to the variable is large enough ( potentially quite large ) for the declared type . In the simplest case of Python assignment , using the same example , x =
2 , translates to " ( generic ) name x receives a reference to a separate , dynamically allocated object of numeric ( int ) type of value 2 . " This is termed binding the name to the object . Since the name 's storage location doesn 't contain the indicated value , it is improper to call it a variable . Names may be subsequently rebound at any time to objects of greatly varying types , including strings , procedures , complex objects with data and methods , etc . Successive assignments of a common value to multiple names , e.g. , x
= 2 ; y =
2 ; z = 2 result in allocating storage to ( at most ) three names and one numeric object , to which all three names are bound . Since a name is a generic reference holder it is unreasonable to associate a fixed data type with it . However at a given time a name will be bound to some object , which will have a type ; thus there is dynamic typing .
The if statement , which conditionally executes a block of code , along with else and elif ( a contraction of else @-@ if ) .
The for statement , which iterates over an iterable object , capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block .
The while statement , which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true .
The try statement , which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses ; it also ensures that clean @-@ up code in a finally block will always be run regardless of how the block exits .
The class statement , which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class , for use in object @-@ oriented programming .
The def statement , which defines a function or method .
The with statement ( from Python 2 @.@ 5 ) , which encloses a code block within a context manager ( for example , acquiring a lock before the block of code is run and releasing the lock afterwards , or opening a file and then closing it ) , allowing Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ( RAII ) -like behavior .
The pass statement , which serves as a NOP . It is syntactically needed to create an empty code block .
The assert statement , used during debugging to check for conditions that ought to apply .
The yield statement , which returns a value from a generator function . From Python 2 @.@ 5 , yield is also an operator . This form is used to implement coroutines .
The import statement , which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program .
The print statement was changed to the print ( ) function in Python 3 .
Python does not support tail call optimization or first @-@ class continuations , and , according to Guido van Rossum , it never will . However , better support for coroutine @-@ like functionality is provided in 2 @.@ 5 , by extending Python 's generators . Before 2 @.@ 5 , generators were lazy iterators ; information was passed unidirectionally out of the generator . As of Python 2 @.@ 5 , it is possible to pass information back into a generator function , and as of Python 3 @.@ 3 , the information can be passed through multiple stack levels .
= = = Expressions = = =
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] | 137,170 | languages such as C and Java , while some are not :
Addition , subtraction , and multiplication are the same , but the behavior of division differs ( see Mathematics for details ) . Python also added the * * operator for exponentiation .
As of Python 3 @.@ 5 , it supports matrix multiplication directly with the @ operator , versus C and Java , which implement these as library functions . Earlier versions of Python also used methods instead of an infix operator .
In Python , = = compares by value , versus Java , which compares numerics by value and objects by reference . ( Value comparisons in Java on objects can be performed with the equals ( ) method . ) Python 's is operator may be used to compare object identities ( comparison by reference ) . In Python , comparisons may be chained , for example a < = b <
= c .
Python uses the words and , or , not for its boolean operators rather than the symbolic & & , | | , ! used in Java and C.
Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension . Python 2 @.@ 4 extended list comprehensions into a more general expression termed a generator expression .
Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions ; however , these are limited in that the body can only be one expression .
Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y ( different in order of operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages ) .
Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples . Lists are written as [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] , are mutable , and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries ( dictionary keys must be immutable in Python ) . Tuples are written as ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) , are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries , provided all elements of the tuple are immutable . The parentheses around the tuple are optional in some contexts . Tuples can appear on the left side of an equal sign ; hence a statement like x , y =
y , x can be used to swap two variables .
Python has a " string format " operator % . This functions analogous to printf format strings in C , e.g. " spam = % s eggs = % d " % ( " blah " , 2 ) evaluates to " spam = blah eggs = 2 " . In Python 3 and 2 @.@ 6 + , this was supplemented by the format ( ) method of the str class , e.g. " spam = { 0 } eggs = { 1 } " .format ( " blah " , 2 ) .
Python has various kinds of string literals :
Strings delimited by single or double quote marks . Unlike in Unix shells , Perl and Perl @-@ influenced languages , single quote marks and double quote marks function identically . Both kinds of string use the backslash ( \ ) as an escape character and there is no implicit string interpolation such as " $ spam " .
Triple @-@ quoted strings , which begin and end with a series of three single or double quote marks . They may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells , Perl and Ruby .
Raw string varieties , denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r . No escape sequences are interpreted ; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common , such as regular expressions and Windows @-@ style paths . Compare " @ -quoting " in C # .
Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists , denoted as a [ key ] , a [ start : stop ] or a [ start : stop : step ] . Indexes are zero @-@ based , and negative indexes are relative to the end . Slices take elements from the start index up to , but not including , the stop index . The third slice parameter , called step or stride , allows elements to be skipped and reversed . Slice indexes may be omitted , for example a [ : ] returns a copy of the entire list . Each element of a slice is a shallow copy .
In Python , a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced , in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp , Scheme , or Ruby . This leads to duplicating some functionality . For example :
List comprehensions vs. for @-@ loops
Conditional expressions vs. if blocks
The eval ( ) vs. exec ( ) built @-@ in functions ( in Python 2 |
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] | 137,171 | , exec is a statement ) ; the former is for expressions , the latter is for statements .
Statements cannot be a part of an expression , so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions , all being expressions , cannot contain statements . A particular case of this is that an assignment statement such as a
= 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement . This has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment operator =
for an equality operator
= = in conditions : if ( c =
1 ) { ... } is valid C code but if c = 1 : ... causes a syntax error in Python .
= = = Methods = = =
Methods on objects are functions attached to the object 's class ; the syntax instance.method ( argument ) is , for normal methods and functions , syntactic sugar for Class.method ( instance , argument ) . Python methods have an explicit self parameter to access instance data , in contrast to the implicit self ( or this ) in some other object @-@ oriented programming languages ( e.g. , C + + , Java , Objective @-@ C , or Ruby ) .
= = = Typing = = =
Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names . Type constraints are not checked at compile time ; rather , operations on an object may fail , signifying that the given object is not of a suitable type . Despite being dynamically typed , Python is strongly typed , forbidding operations that are not well @-@ defined ( for example , adding a number to a string ) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them .
Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes , which are most often used for object @-@ oriented programming . New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class ( for example , SpamClass ( ) or EggsClass ( ) ) , and the classes are instances of the metaclass type ( itself an instance of itself ) , allowing metaprogramming and reflection .
Before version 3 @.@ 0 , Python had two kinds of classes : old @-@ style and new @-@ style . Old @-@ style classes were eliminated in Python 3 @.@ 0 , making all classes new @-@ style . In versions between 2 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 0 , both kinds of classes could be used . The syntax of both styles is the same , the difference being whether the class object is inherited from , directly or indirectly ( all new @-@ style classes inherit from object and are instances of type ) .
= = = Mathematics = = =
Python has the usual C arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , / , % ) . It also has * * for exponentiation , e.g. 5 * * 3
= = 125 and 9 * * 0 @.@ 5 = =
3 @.@ 0 , and a new matrix multiply @ operator is included in version 3 @.@ 5 .
The behavior of division has changed significantly over time :
Python 2 @.@ 1 and earlier use the C division behavior . The / operator is integer division if both operands are integers , and floating @-@ point division otherwise . Integer division rounds towards 0 , e.g. 7 / 3
= = 2 and -7 / 3 = =
-2 .
Python 2 @.@ 2 changes integer division to round towards negative infinity , e.g. 7 / 3
= = 2 and -7 / 3 = =
-3 . The floor division / / operator is introduced . So 7 / / 3
= = 2 , -7 / / 3 = =
-3 , 7 @.@ 5 / / 3
= = 2 @.@ 0 and -7.5 / / 3 = =
-3.0 . Adding from _ _ future _ _ import division causes a module to use Python 3 @.@ 0 rules for division ( see next ) .
Python 3 @.@ 0 changes / to be always floating @-@ point division . In Python terms , the pre @-@ 3 @.@ 0 / is classic division , the version @-@ 3 @.@ 0 / is real division , and / / is floor division .
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] | 137,172 | Rounding towards negative infinity , though different from most languages , adds consistency . For instance , it means that the equation ( a + b ) / / b
= = a / / b + 1 is always true . It also means that the equation b * ( a / / b ) + a % b = =
a is valid for both positive and negative values of a . However , maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a % b is , as expected , in the half @-@ open interval [ 0 , b ) , where b is a positive integer , it has to lie in the interval ( b , 0 ] when b is negative .
Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer . For tie @-@ breaking , versions before 3 use round @-@ away @-@ from @-@ zero : round ( 0 @.@ 5 ) is 1 @.@ 0 , round ( -0.5 ) is − 1 @.@ 0 . Python 3 uses round to even : round ( 1 @.@ 5 ) is 2 , round ( 2 @.@ 5 ) is 2 .
Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics . For example , the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c . C @-@ derived languages interpret this expression differently : in C , the expression would first evaluate a < b , resulting in 0 or 1 , and that result would then be compared with c .
Python has extensive built @-@ in support for arbitrary precision arithmetic . Integers are transparently switched from the machine @-@ supported maximum fixed @-@ precision ( usually 32 or 64 bits ) , belonging to the python type int , to arbitrary precision , belonging to the python type long , where needed . The latter have an " L " suffix in their textual representation . The Decimal type / class in module decimal ( since version 2 @.@ 4 ) provides decimal floating point numbers to arbitrary precision and several rounding modes . The Fraction type in module fractions ( since version 2 @.@ 6 ) provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers .
Due to Python 's extensive mathematics library , it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation .
= = Libraries = =
Python has a large standard library , commonly cited as one of Python 's greatest strengths , providing tools suited to many tasks . This is deliberate and has been described as a " batteries included " Python philosophy . For Internet @-@ facing applications , many standard formats and protocols ( such as MIME and HTTP ) are supported . Modules for creating graphical user interfaces , connecting to relational databases , pseudorandom number generators , arithmetic with arbitrary precision decimals , manipulating regular expressions , and doing unit testing are also included .
Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications ( for example , the Web Server Gateway Interface ( WSGI ) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333 ) , but most modules are not . They are specified by their code , internal documentation , and test suite ( if supplied ) . However , because most of the standard library is cross @-@ platform Python code , only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations .
The standard library is not needed to run Python or embed it in an application . For example , Blender 2 @.@ 49 omits most of the standard library .
As of January 2016 , the Python Package Index , the official repository of third @-@ party software for Python , contains more than 72 @,@ 000 packages offering a wide range of functionality , including :
graphical user interfaces , web frameworks , multimedia , databases , networking and communications
test frameworks , automation and web scraping , documentation tools , system administration
scientific computing , text processing , image processing
= = Development environments = =
Most Python implementations ( including CPython ) can function as a command line interpreter , for which the user enters statements sequentially and receives the results immediately ( read – eval – print loop ( REPL ) ) . In short , Python acts as a command @-@ line interface or shell .
Other shells add abilities beyond those in the basic interpreter , including IDLE and IPython . While generally following the visual style of the Python shell , they implement features like auto @-@ completion |
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] | 137,173 | , session state retention , and syntax highlighting .
In addition to standard desktop integrated development environments ( Python IDEs ) , there are also web browser @-@ based IDEs , Sage ( intended for developing science and math @-@ related Python programs ) , and a browser @-@ based IDE and hosting environment , PythonAnywhere .
= = Implementations = =
The main Python implementation , named CPython , is written in C meeting the C89 standard . It compiles Python programs into intermediate bytecode , which is executed by the virtual machine . CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and Python . It is available in versions for many platforms , including Windows and most modern Unix @-@ like systems . CPython was intended from almost its very conception to be cross @-@ platform .
PyPy is a fast , compliant interpreter of Python 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 2 . Its just @-@ in @-@ time compiler brings a significant speed improvement over CPython . A version taking advantage of multi @-@ core processors using software transactional memory is being created .
Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads ; it does not use the C memory stack , thus allowing massively concurrent programs . PyPy also has a stackless version .
MicroPython is a lean , fast Python 3 variant that is optimised to run on microcontrollers .
Other just @-@ in @-@ time compilers have been developed in the past , but are now unsupported :
Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009 with the aims of speeding up the Python interpreter by 5 times , by using the LLVM , and of improving its multithreading ability to scale to thousands of cores .
Psyco is a just @-@ in @-@ time specialising compiler that integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime . The emitted code is specialised for certain data types and is faster than standard Python code .
In 2005 , Nokia released a Python interpreter for the Series 60 mobile phones named PyS60 . It includes many of the modules from the CPython implementations and some added modules to integrate with the Symbian operating system . This project has been kept up to date to run on all variants of the S60 platform and there are several third party modules available . The Nokia N900 also supports Python with GTK widget libraries , with the feature that programs can be both written and run on the target device .
There are several compilers to high @-@ level object languages , with either unrestricted Python , a restricted subset of Python , or a language similar to Python as the source language :
Jython compiles into Java byte code , which can then be executed by every Java virtual machine implementation . This also enables the use of Java class library functions from the Python program .
IronPython follows a similar approach in order to run Python programs on the .NET Common Language Runtime .
The RPython language can be compiled to C , Java bytecode , or Common Intermediate Language , and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python .
Pyjamas compiles Python to JavaScript .
Shed Skin compiles Python to C + + .
Cython and Pyrex compile to C.
A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non @-@ numerical ( combinatorial ) workload was presented at EuroSciPy ' 13 .
= = Development = =
Python 's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal ( PEP ) process . The PEP process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features , for collecting community input on an issue , and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python . Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented upon by the Python community and by Van Rossum , the Python project 's benevolent dictator for life .
Enhancement of the language goes along with development of the CPython reference implementation . The mailing list python @-@ dev is the primary forum for discussion about the language 's development ; specific issues are discussed in the Roundup bug tracker maintained at python.org. Development takes place on a self @-@ hosted source code repository running Mercurial .
CPython 's public releases come in three types , distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented : |
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] | 137,174 |
Backwards @-@ incompatible versions , where code is expected to break and must be manually ported . The first part of the version number is incremented . These releases happen infrequently — for example , version 3 @.@ 0 was released 8 years after 2 @.@ 0 .
Major or " feature " releases , which are largely compatible but introduce new features . The second part of the version number is incremented . These releases are scheduled to occur roughly every 18 months , and each major version is supported by bugfixes for several years after its release .
Bugfix releases , which introduce no new features but fix bugs . The third and final part of the version number is incremented . These releases are made whenever a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release , or roughly every 3 months . Security vulnerabilities are also patched in bugfix releases .
Many alpha , beta , and release @-@ candidates are also released as previews , and for testing before final releases . Although there is a rough schedule for each release , this is often pushed back if the code is not ready . The development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development , and using the BuildBot continuous integration system .
The community of Python developers has also contributed over 72 @,@ 000 software modules ( as of January 2016 ) to the Python Package Index ( PyPI ) , the official repository of third @-@ party libraries for Python .
The major academic conference on Python is named PyCon . There are special mentoring programmes like the Pyladies .
= = Naming = =
Python 's name is derived from the television series Monty Python 's Flying Circus , and it is common to use Monty Python references in example code . For example , the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs , instead of the traditional foo and bar . Also , the official Python documentation often contains various obscure Monty Python references .
The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python . Examples of the use of this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame , a binding of SDL to Python ( commonly used to create games ) ; PyS60 , an implementation for the Symbian S60 operating system ; PyQt and PyGTK , which bind Qt and GTK , respectively , to Python ; and PyPy , a Python implementation originally written in Python .
= = Uses = =
Since 2003 , Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages as measured by the TIOBE Programming Community Index . As of June 2016 , it is the fourth most popular language . It was ranked as Programming Language of the Year for the year 2007 and 2010 . It is the third most popular language whose grammatical syntax is not predominantly based on C , e.g. C + + , Objective @-@ C ( note , C # and Java only have partial syntactic similarity to C , such as the use of curly braces , and are closer in similarity to each other than C ) .
An empirical study found scripting languages ( such as Python ) more productive than conventional languages ( such as C and Java ) for a programming problem involving string manipulation and search in a dictionary . Memory consumption was often " better than Java and not much worse than C or C + + " .
Large organizations that make use of Python include Google , Yahoo ! , CERN , NASA , and some smaller ones like ILM , and ITA . The social news networking site , Reddit , is written entirely in Python .
Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications , e.g. , via mod _ wsgi for the Apache web server . With Web Server Gateway Interface , a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications . Web frameworks like Django , Pylons , Pyramid , TurboGears , web2py , Tornado , Flask , Bottle and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications . Pyjamas and IronPython can be used to develop the client @-@ side of Ajax @-@ based applications . SQLAlchemy can be used as data mapper to a relational database . Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers , and is used ( for example ) by Dropbox .
Libraries like NumPy , SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective |
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] | 137,175 | use of Python in scientific computing , with specialized libraries such as BioPython and Astropy providing domain @-@ specific functionality . Sage is a mathematical software with a " notebook " programmable in Python : its library covers many aspects of mathematics , including algebra , combinatorics , numerical mathematics , number theory , and calculus .
Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language , including in finite element method software such as Abaqus , 3D parametric modeler like FreeCAD , 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max , Blender , Cinema 4D , Lightwave , Houdini , Maya , modo , MotionBuilder , Softimage , the visual effects compositor Nuke , 2D imaging programs like GIMP , Inkscape , Scribus and Paint Shop Pro , and musical notation program or scorewriter capella . GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as C + + containers . Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS . It has also been used in several video games , and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App Engine , the other two being Java and Go .
Python has been used in artificial intelligence tasks . As a scripting language with module architecture , simple syntax and rich text processing tools , Python is often used for natural language processing tasks .
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component ; the language ships with most Linux distributions , AmigaOS 4 , FreeBSD , NetBSD , OpenBSD and OS X , and can be used from the terminal . Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python : Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer , while Red Hat Linux and Fedora use the Anaconda installer . Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package management system , Portage .
Python has also seen extensive use in the information security industry , including in exploit development .
Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO , now developed at Sugar Labs , is written in Python .
The Raspberry Pi single @-@ board computer project has adopted Python as its main user @-@ programming language .
LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python . Python Scripting Provider is a core feature since Version 4 @.@ 0 from 7 February 2013 .
= = Languages influenced by Python = =
Python 's design and philosophy have influenced several programming languages , including :
Boo uses indentation , a similar syntax , and a similar object model . However , Boo uses static typing ( and optional duck typing ) and is closely integrated with the .NET Framework .
Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax . Cobra 's " Acknowledgements " document lists Python first among languages that influenced it . However , Cobra directly supports design @-@ by @-@ contract , unit tests , and optional static typing .
ECMAScript borrowed iterators , generators , and list comprehensions from Python .
Go is described as incorporating the " development speed of working in a dynamic language like Python " .
Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java .
Julia was designed " with true macros [ .. and to be ] as usable for general programming as Python [ and ] should be as fast as C " . Calling to or from Julia is possible ; to with PyCall.jl and a Python package pyjulia allows calling , in the other direction , from Python .
OCaml has an optional syntax , named twt ( The Whitespace Thing ) , inspired by Python and Haskell .
Ruby 's creator , Yukihiro Matsumoto , has said : " I wanted a scripting language that was more powerful than Perl , and more object @-@ oriented than Python . That 's why I decided to design my own language . "
CoffeeScript is a programming language that cross @-@ compiles to JavaScript ; it has Python @-@ inspired syntax .
Swift is a programming language invented by Apple ; it has some Python @-@ inspired syntax .
Python 's development practices have also been emulated by other languages . The practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for , and issues surrounding , a change to the language ( in Python 's case , a PEP ) is also used in Tcl and Erlang because of Python 's influence .
Python has |
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= Lisa the Vegetarian =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the American television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15 , 1995 . In the episode , Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo . Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs , but with the help of Apu , Paul , and Linda McCartney , she commits to vegetarianism .
Directed by Mark Kirkland , " Lisa the Vegetarian " is the first full @-@ length episode David S. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons . David Mirkin , the show runner at the time , supported the episode in part because he had just become a vegetarian himself . Former Beatle Paul McCartney and his then wife Linda McCartney guest star in the episode . Paul McCartney 's condition for appearing was that Lisa would remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series . The episode makes several references to McCartney 's musical career , and his song " Maybe I 'm Amazed " plays during the closing credits .
The inaugural airing of " Lisa the Vegetarian " was watched by 14 @.@ 6 million viewers and finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15 , 1995 , with a 9 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . It has won two awards , an Environmental Media Award and a Genesis Award , for highlighting environmental and animal issues .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family visit Story Town Village , an amusement park for babies , as a special treat for Maggie . In the village , there is a petting zoo , where Lisa is enamored by a cute lamb . That night , Marge serves lamb chops for dinner , but Lisa is troubled by the connection between the dish and its living counterpart , and announces that she will no longer eat meat . In response , Bart and Homer mock her relentlessly . Reaction at school is no better ; when Lisa requests a vegetarian alternative to the cafeteria food , Principal Skinner labels her an " agitator " . The students are then forced to watch a Meat Council propaganda film , " The Meat Council Presents Meat and You : Partners in Patriotism " , starring Troy McClure , which portrays eating meat as a patriotic duty , and criticizes vegetarianism . Lisa is unimpressed by the film , but her classmates tease her .
Homer and Bart continue to give Lisa a hard time at home , particularly since Homer is preparing to host a barbecue , complete with roast pig . Bart and Homer even form a conga line and sing , " You don 't win friends with salad ! " On the day of the barbecue , Lisa makes gazpacho for all the guests as an alternative to meat , but the partygoers laugh in her face . Enraged and deeply hurt , she climbs aboard a riding mower and drives away with the roast pig in tow . Homer and Bart chase her , but she pushes the pig off a slope and they are too late . The pig rolls through bushes , into a river , and is shot into the air by a dam spillway 's suction .
At home , Homer reprimands Lisa for ruining his party and demands an apology , but Lisa refuses to apologize and chews him out for serving a meat @-@ based dish . They fight and she leaves the house , not wanting to live in a house with a " prehistoric carnivore . " As Lisa walks along , she decides that she can no longer fight the pressure to eat meat , prompting her to grab a hot dog from the grill at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart and take a bite . However , Apu , himself a vegan , reveals that she has eaten a |
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] | 137,177 | tofu dog , which he subtly switched out and none of his loyal customers had noticed the change .
Apu takes Lisa through a secret passageway hidden behind the cooler section assigned to non @-@ alcoholic beer leading to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart roof where they meet Paul and Linda McCartney . The McCartneys explain that they are old friends of Apu from Paul 's days in India , and discuss their interest in animal rights . After a brief discussion , Apu asks Lisa what happened at home that made her upset . She reveals everything and while he understands , Apu warns Lisa that forcing others to accept her views can do a lot more harm than good . She is committed once more to vegetarianism , but realizes that she should tolerate those who disagree with her views .
Inspired , Lisa begins to return home and finds Homer frantically searching for her . Homer apologizes for his behavior , but Lisa admits she was wrong as well . She apologizes to Homer , admitting she had no right to ruin his barbecue ; he forgives her and offers her a " veggie back " ride home . The final credits play over the still airborne roast pig .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " was the first full @-@ length episode David X. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons . His most prominent work for the show to that point had been the " Nightmare Cafeteria " segment in the season six episode " Treehouse of Horror V " . The idea for " Lisa the Vegetarian " came to him while he was working on another Simpsons script . Cohen could not concentrate on his task because he was waiting for lunch , and on the back of the script he scribbled , " Lisa becomes a vegetarian ? " Cohen showed the note to Simpsons writer Brent Forrester , who liked the idea . Show runner David Mirkin then approved the story when Cohen pitched it to him . Mirkin had just become a vegetarian himself , and later noted that many of Lisa 's experiences in the episode were based on his own .
Writer Bill Oakley suggested the episode 's barbecue scenes . Cohen 's first draft contained a more philosophical argument between Lisa and Homer about eating meat , but Oakley told Cohen that the story needed something more specific to serve as the basis of Homer and Lisa 's dispute . George Meyer , a writer known among the Simpsons staff for his " bizarre physical jokes " , contributed the idea of the barbecue pig getting caught in the spillway and flying into the air . Cohen credits Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder for inspiring the scene in which Homer finds it impossible to believe that bacon , ham and pork chops could possibly come from the same animal . According to Cohen it was based on a real statement made by Swartzwelder , who was going on and on about how amazing the pig is for the variety of cuts of meat that come from it .
In the episode , Ralph Wiggum coins the phrase , " Oh boy , sleep ! That 's where I 'm a Viking ! " The term caused a point of contention with some fans curious whether or not he meant he was literally a Viking in his dreams or if he meant sleeping was just something he excelled at . Mirkin confirmed on Twitter that the line was meant to be taken literally , stating " We weren 't writing Ralph as capable of metaphor . "
= = = Voice acting = = =
At the time the episode was being written , Paul McCartney was the only living member of The Beatles who had never appeared on The Simpsons . John Lennon died before the show was created , but Ringo Starr and George Harrison had guest starred in 1991 ( " Brush with Greatness " ) and 1993 ( " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " ) , respectively . The Simpsons staff wanted to bring McCartney onto the show , and David Mirkin thought " Lisa the Vegetarian " would be an attractive story , since McCartney is a vegetarian himself . McCartney agreed to appear , but requested that Lisa remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series , rather than revert to meat @-@ eating in the next episode . The Simpsons staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian , |
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] | 137,178 | resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show . McCartney 's wife Linda was also recruited to appear in the episode . She told Entertainment Weekly that the episode was a chance for her and her husband " to spread the vegetarian word to a wider audience . " Paul and Linda were both long @-@ time fans of The Simpsons .
Mirkin later said that recording with the McCartneys was one of the most " amazing " experiences of his life . He flew to London and met the couple at Paul McCartney 's recording studio , where the McCartneys spent an hour recording their parts . Simpsons creator Matt Groening was supposed to go with Mirkin to London , but missed his plane . Groening commented that having McCartney and the rest of The Beatles on The Simpsons " was a dream come true for all of us . "
Linda McCartney died of cancer at age 56 on April 17 , 1998 . The Simpsons ' season nine episode " Trash of the Titans " , which aired on April 26 , 1998 , was dedicated to her memory . Simpsons executive producer Mike Scully said , " It just seemed like the right thing to do . Everyone here was surprised and saddened by her death . "
= = = Directing and animating = = =
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland , who was intrigued by the story because he had not seen many television episodes about vegetarianism . The designs for Paul and Linda McCartney are unusual for The Simpsons in that the characters have brown and blue irises , respectively . Most Simpsons characters simply have black spots in the centers of their eyes .
In one scene of the episode , Homer sprays two bottles of lighter fluid onto his grill , causing viewers to anticipate an explosion when Homer throws a match on it . When he does release the match , however , the grill barely ignites . A similar scene appears in an older episode of The Simpsons , " Treehouse of Horror " , although in that episode , Homer uses a single bottle of lighter fluid and causes an explosion . Mirkin enjoyed the joke enough to reuse parts of it in " Lisa the Vegetarian " , adding new twists to further enhance the comedic effect . The old sketches from the " Treehouse of Horror " episode were used to help the animators animate the scene .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode features several references to The Beatles and McCartney 's solo career . For instance , McCartney tells Lisa that playing his 1970 song " Maybe I 'm Amazed " backwards will reveal " a recipe for a really rippin ' lentil soup " . A modified version of the song plays in the final scene , then over the closing credits of the episode ; when played backwards , McCartney can be heard reciting the recipe in the song . Mirkin had McCartney record the recipe , which was later added in reverse over the original song . McCartney thought it was " very funny " that the staff wanted to " send up the whole cult thing " of backmasking on the Beatles ' songs . " A secret lentil soup recipe seemed a nice parody of that , " he said . One of the backwards snippets says , " Oh , and by the way , I 'm alive , " a reference to the " Paul is dead " urban legend .
When Lisa , Apu , and the McCartneys gather on the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart roof , Apu tells Lisa , " I learned long ago to tolerate others rather than forcing my beliefs on them . You know , you can influence people without badgering them always . It 's like Paul 's song , ' Live and Let Live ' . " Paul corrects Apu and says the song 's title is actually " Live and Let Die " . In the same scene , Apu refers to himself as the " fifth Beatle " , and Linda alludes to a line in the Beatles ' 1969 song " Octopus 's Garden " . The McCartneys later ask Lisa if she would like to hear a song , and Apu sings part of " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " , to which the McCartneys snap along .
= = Release = =
" Lisa the Veget |
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] | 137,179 | arian " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15 , 1995 . It finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 63 million viewing households . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Fox NFL Sunday , and Melrose Place . " Lisa the Vegetarian " was later selected for release in a 2000 video collection of episodes titled The Simpsons – Raiders of the Lost Fridge . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Guess Who 's Coming to Criticize Dinner ? " , " King @-@ Size Homer " , and " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " . " Lisa the Vegetarian " was later included in The Simpsons ' season seven DVD set , which was released on December 13 , 2005 . David X. Cohen , Mark Kirkland , Matt Groening , and David Mirkin participated in the episode 's DVD audio commentary .
The episode won an Environmental Media Award in the " Best Television Episodic Comedy " category , which has been awarded every year since 1991 to the best television episode or film with an environmental message . The episode has also received a Genesis Award in the " Best Television Comedy Series , Ongoing Commitment " category . The Genesis Award is awarded annually by the Humane Society of the United States to honor works that raise the public 's understanding of animal issues .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " has received positive reviews from television critics and the staff of The Simpsons . Among the show 's staff , Mirkin , Kirkland , Groening and writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham list it as one of their favorite episodes . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Mirkin called the opening sequence at the petting zoo one of his favorite set pieces in the show 's history . He thought it was " absolutely hilarious " , and praised Kirkland for his animation . Mirkin also enjoyed the use of Apu in the episode , because Apu shows Lisa that " the way to get people to change is through tolerance and understanding . " Groening considers the joke in which the family forms a conga line one of the " high @-@ points " in the history of The Simpsons .
Television critics praised " Lisa the Vegetarian " for its humor . John Serba of the Grand Rapids Press named it his favorite episode , " because the tale of Lisa 's conversion to vegetarianism has more humorous scenes per square inch than any other episode . " The Ventura County Reporter 's Matthew Singer thought it was " overflowing with great individual scenes " , particularly Troy McClure 's Meat Council propaganda video , which he said " may be the funniest isolated segment in the history of the show . " MSNBC 's Patrick Enright , who listed the episode as his second favorite of the series , highlighted the " You don 't win friends with salad ! " song as " one of those archetypal Simpsons moments , one in which the writers hit a joke so long that it goes from funny to unfunny and back to funny again . "
Reviewers of the episode have also praised it for its character development . Todd Gilchrist of IGN said he thinks the key to The Simpsons ' longevity is its " sentimental but not gooey " approach to storytelling and character development . He took " Lisa the Vegetarian " as an example and said : " Lisa sabotages Homer 's barbecue , which results in an unceremonious death for his prize pig . But rather than simply punctuating the episode with an iconic image of the porker soaring through the air , the writers actually develop a story into which the joke fits . The comedic effect is actually intensified because we care about the characters , are invested in the story , and primed for a great gag . " The Niagara Gazette 's Phil Dzikiy said that " the character development and storytelling is perfect " , noting that the episode was " equally hilarious , touching and satirical " .
The McCartneys ' guest appearance received mixed reactions from critics . Warren Martyn and |
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] | 137,180 | Adrian Wood , the authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it a " superb " performance . Singer , however , thought their cameo was poorly integrated into the show , and Dzikiy thought it seemed " a little forced " . IGN ranked McCartney 's performance in this episode , along with Ringo Starr 's performance in " Brush with Greatness " , and George Harrison 's performance in " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons ' history . They added that " Although none of these appearances were really large , the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show . " Simon Crerar of Times Online named Paul and Linda McCartney 's performance in the episode as one of the thirty @-@ three " funniest Simpsons cameos ever " , and Larry Dobrow and Mike Errico of Blender listed it as the eighth best band cameo in the show 's history .
= Marie Lloyd =
Matilda Alice Victoria Wood , ( 12 February 1870 – 7 October 1922 ) , professionally known as Marie Lloyd / ˈmɑːri / ; was an English music hall singer , comedian and musical theatre actress during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . She was best known for her performances of songs such as " The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery " , " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " and " Oh Mr Porter What Shall I Do " . She received both criticism and praise for her use of innuendo and double entendre during her performances , and enjoyed a long and prosperous career , during which she was affectionately called the " Queen of the Music Hall " .
Born in London , she was showcased by her father at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton . In 1884 , she made her professional début as Bella Delmere ; she changed her stage name to Marie Lloyd the following year . In 1885 , she had success with her song " The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery " , and she frequently topped the bill at prestigious theatres in London 's West End . In 1891 , she was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear in that year 's spectacular Theatre Royal , Drury Lane Christmas pantomime Humpty Dumpty . She starred in a further two productions at the theatre , Little Bo Peep ( 1892 ) and Robinson Crusoe ( 1893 ) . By the mid @-@ 1890s , Lloyd was in frequent dispute with Britain 's theatre censors due to the risqué content of her songs .
Between 1894 and 1900 , she became an international success when she toured France , America , Australia and Belgium with her solo music hall act . In 1907 , she assisted other performers during the music hall war and took part in demonstrations outside theatres , protesting for better pay and conditions for performers . During the First World War , in common with most other music hall artists , she supported recruitment into the armed services to help the war effort , touring hospitals and industrial institutions to help boost morale . In 1915 , she performed her only wartime song " Now You 've Got Your Khaki On " , which became a favourite among front @-@ line troops .
Lloyd had a turbulent private life that was often the subject of press attention : she was married three times , divorced twice , and frequently found herself giving court testimony against two of her husbands who had physically abused her . In later life , she was still in demand at music halls and had a late success in 1919 with her performance of " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " , which earned her an extended audience . Privately , she suffered from bouts of ill @-@ health and became alcohol @-@ dependent , both of which imposed restrictions on her performing career by the 1920s . In 1922 , she gave her final performance at the Alhambra Theatre , London , during which she became ill on stage . She died a few days later at the age of 52 .
= = Biography = =
= = = |
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] | 137,181 | Family background and early life = = =
Lloyd was born on 12 February 1870 in Hoxton , London . Her father John Wood ( 1847 – 1940 ) , was an artificial flower arranger and waiter , and his wife Matilda Mary Caroline née Archer ( 1849 – 1931 ) , was a dressmaker and costume designer . Lloyd was the eldest of nine children and became known within the family circle as Tilley . The Wood family were respectable , hard @-@ working , and financially comfortable . Lloyd often took career advice from her mother , whose influence was strong in the family . Lloyd attended a school in Bath Street , London , but disliked formal education and often played truant ; with both her parents working , she adopted a maternal role over her siblings , helping to keep them entertained , clean and well cared @-@ for . Along with her sister Alice , she arranged events in which the Wood children performed at the family home . She enjoyed the experience of entertaining her family and decided to form a minstrel act in 1879 called the Fairy Bell troupe comprising her brothers and sisters .
Lloyd and the troupe made their début at a mission in Nile Street , Hoxton , in 1880 and followed this with an appearance at the Blue Ribbon Gospel Temperance Mission later the same year . Costumed by Matilda , they toured local doss @-@ houses in East London , where they performed temperance songs , teaching people the dangers of alcohol abuse . Eager to show off his daughter 's talent , John secured her unpaid employment as a table singer at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton , where he worked as a waiter . Among the songs she performed there was " My Soldier Laddie " . Together with her performances at the Eagle , Lloyd briefly contributed to the family income by making babies ' boots , and , later , curled feathers for hat making . She was unsuccessful at both and was sacked from the latter after being caught dancing on the tables by the foreman . She returned home that evening and declared that she wanted a permanent career on the stage . Although happy to have her performing in her spare time , her parents initially opposed the idea of her appearing on the stage full @-@ time . She recalled that when her parents " saw that they couldn 't kick their objections as high as [ she ] could kick [ her ] legs , they very sensibly came to the conclusion to let things take their course and said ' Bless you my child , do what you like ' . "
= = = Early career and first marriage = = =
On 9 May 1885 , at the age of 15 , Lloyd made her professional solo stage début at the Grecian music hall ( in the same premises as the Eagle Tavern ) , under the name " Matilda Wood " . She performed " In the Good Old Days " and " My Soldier Laddie " , which proved successful , and earned her a booking at the Sir John Falstaff music hall in Old Street where she sang a series of romantic ballads . Soon after this , she chose the stage name Bella Delmere and appeared on stage in costumes designed by her mother . Her performances were a success , despite her singing other artists ' songs without their permission , a practice which brought her a threat of an injunction from one of the original performers . News of her act travelled ; that October , she appeared at the Collins music hall in Islington in a special performance to celebrate the theatre 's refurbishment , the first time she had appeared outside Hoxton , and two months later , she was engaged at the Hammersmith Temple of Varieties and the Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane . On 3 February 1886 , she appeared at the prestigious Sebright Music Hall in Bethnal Green , where she met George Ware , a prolific composer of music hall songs . Ware became her agent and , after a few weeks , she began performing songs purchased from little @-@ known composers . As her popularity grew , Ware suggested that she change her name . " Marie " was chosen for its " posh " and " slightly French " sound , and " Lloyd " was taken from an edition of Lloyd 's Weekly Newspaper .
Lloyd established her new name on 22 June 1886 , with an appearance at the Falstaff Music Hall , where she attracted wide notice for the song " The Boy I Love Is |
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] | 137,182 | Up in the Gallery " ( which was initially written for Nelly Power by Lloyd 's agent George Ware ) . By 1887 , her performance of the song had become so popular that she was in demand in London 's West End , including the Oxford Music Hall , where she excelled at skirt dancing . George Belmont , the Falstaff 's proprietor , secured her an engagement at the Star Palace of Varieties in Bermondsey . She soon began making her own costumes , a skill she learned from her mother , and one she used for the rest of her career . She undertook a month @-@ long tour of Ireland at the start of 1886 , earning £ 10 per week after which she returned to East London to perform at , amongst others , the Sebright Music Hall , Bethnal Green . On 23 October , The Era called her " a pretty little soubrette who dances with great dash and energy . "
By the end of 1886 , Lloyd was playing several halls a night and earned £ 100 per week . She was now able to afford new songs from established music hall composers and writers , including " Harry 's a Soldier " , " She Has a Sailor for a Lover " , and " Oh Jeremiah , Don 't you Go to Sea " . By 1887 , Lloyd began to display a skill for ad lib , and to gain a reputation for her impromptu performances . It was during this period that she first sang " Whacky @-@ Wack " and " When you Wink the Other Eye " , a song which introduced her famous wink at the audience . Unlike her West End audiences who enjoyed her coarse humour , her " blue " performances did not impress audiences in the East End .
While appearing at the Foresters music hall in Mile End , she met and began dating Percy Charles Courtenay , a ticket tout from Streatham , London . The courtship was brief , and the couple married on 12 November 1887 at St John the Baptist , Hoxton . In May 1888 , Lloyd gave birth to a daughter , Marie ( 1888 – 1967 ) . The marriage was mostly unhappy , and Courtenay was disliked by Lloyd 's family and friends . Before long , Courtenay became addicted to alcohol and gambling , and grew jealous of his wife 's close friendship with the 13 @-@ year @-@ old actress Bella Burge , to whom Lloyd had rented a room in the marital house . He also became angry at the numerous parties Lloyd hosted for fellow members of the music hall profession including Gus Elen , Dan Leno and Eugene Stratton .
In October 1888 , Lloyd returned from maternity leave and joined rehearsals for the 1888 – 89 pantomime The Magic Dragon of the Demon Dell ; or , The Search for the Mystic Thyme , in which she was cast as Princess Kristina . The production , which was staged between Boxing Day and February at the Britannia theatre in Hoxton , gave her the security of working close to home for a two @-@ month period . The engagement also gave her much @-@ needed experience of playing to a big audience . The following year , she appeared at more Bohemian venues including the Empire and the Alhambra theatres , the Trocadero Palace of Varieties , and the Royal Standard playhouse . In 1889 , she gave birth to a stillborn child , which further damaged her marriage .
By the start of the 1890s , Lloyd had built up a successful catalogue of songs , which included " What 's That For , Eh ? " , about a little girl who asks her parents the meaning of various everyday household objects . Her biographer and theatre historian W. J. MacQueen @-@ Pope described the song as being " blue " and thought that it spoke volumes about her reputation thanks to her " wonderful wink , and that sudden , dazzling smile , and the nod of the head . " Similar @-@ styled songs followed ; " She 'd Never had her Ticket Punched Before " , told the story of a young , naive woman travelling to London on her own by train . This was followed by " The Wrong Man Never Let a Chance go By " ; " We Don 't Want to Fight , But , by Jingo , If we Do " ; " Oh You Wink the |
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] | 137,183 | Other Eye " and " Twiggy Vous " — a song which won her much success and increased her popularity abroad . After an evening 's performance at the Oxford music hall , a French well @-@ wisher requested a conversation and to meet Lloyd backstage . Flanked by Courtenay , she appeared at the stage door , where Courtenay threatened the man with violence as both had become suspicious of his interest in her . She took a chance and invited the man into her dressing room , where he identified himself as a member of the French government . He confirmed to her that " Twiggy Vous " was " most popular in Paris " ; she was delighted at the news . At the end of the year , Lloyd returned to London where she appeared in the Christmas pantomime Cinderella in Peckham alongside her sister Alice .
= = = 1890s = = =
= = = = Drury Lane and success = = = =
Between 1891 and 1893 , Lloyd was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear alongside Dan Leno in the spectacular and popular Theatre Royal , Drury Lane Christmas pantomimes . While lunching with Harris in 1891 to discuss his offer , Lloyd played coy , deliberately confusing the theatre with the lesser known venue the Old Mo so as not to appear conscious of Drury Lane 's successful reputation ; she compared its structure to that of a prison . Secretly , she was thrilled with the offer , for which she would receive £ 100 per week . The pantomime seasons lasted from Boxing Day to March and were highly lucrative , but Lloyd found working from a script restrictive . Her first role was Princess Allfair in Humpty Dumpty ; or , The Yellow Dwarf and the Fair One , which she dismissed as being " Bloody awful , eh ? " She received mixed reviews for her opening performance . The Times described her as being " playful in gesture , graceful in appearance , but not strong in voice . " Despite the weak start ( which Lloyd blamed on nerves ) , the pantomime received glowing reviews from the theatrical press . The London Entr 'acte thought that she " delivere [ d ] her text quite pungently , and sings and dances with spirit too . " She was noted for her acrobatic dancing on stage , and was able to display handstands , tumbles and high kicks . As a boy , the writer Compton Mackenzie was taken to the show 's opening night and admitted that he was " greatly surprised that any girl should have the courage to let the world see her drawers as definitely as Marie Lloyd . "
Lloyd 's biographer Midge Gillies defines 1891 as being the year that she officially " made it " thanks to a catalogue of hit songs and major success in the halls and pantomime . When she appeared at the Oxford music hall in June , the audience cheered so loudly for her return that the following act could not be heard ; The Era called her " the favourite of the hour " . During the summer months , she toured North England , including Liverpool , Birmingham and Manchester . At the last she stayed an extra six nights due to popular demand , which caused her to cancel a trip to Paris . The 1892 pantomime was Little Bo Peep ; or , Little Red Riding Hood and Hop O ' My Thumb , in which she played Little Red Riding Hood . The production was five hours long and culminated with the show 's harlequinade . During one scene , her improvisational skills caused some scandal when she got out of bed to pray , but instead reached for a chamber pot . The stunt angered Harris , who ordered her not to do it again or risk immediate dismissal . Max Beerbohm , who was in a later audience , asked " Isn 't Marie Lloyd charming and sweet in the pantomime ? I think of little besides her . " On 12 January 1892 , Lloyd and Courtenay brawled drunkenly in her Drury Lane dressing room after an evening 's performance of Little Bo @-@ Peep . Courtenay pulled a decorative sword off the wall and threatened to cut her throat ; she escaped from the room with minor bruises and reported the incident to the Bow Street police station . In early 1893 , she travelled to Wolverhampton where she starred as Flossie in another unsuccessful piece called The A.B.C Girl ; or , Flossie |
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] | 137,184 | the Frivolous , which , according to MacQueen @-@ Pope , " ended the Queen of Comedy 's career as an actress " .
Lloyd made her American stage début in 1893 , appearing at Koster and Bial 's Music Hall in New York . She sang " Oh You Wink the Other Eye " , much to the delight of her American audiences . Other numbers were " After the Pantomime " and " You Should Go to France and See the Ladies Dance " , which both required her to wear provocative costumes . Her performances pleased the theatre proprietors , who presented her with an antique tea and coffee service . News of her success reached home , and the London Entr 'acte reported that " Miss Marie Lloyd made the biggest hit ever known at Koster and Bial 's variety hall , New York . "
Upon her return to London , Lloyd introduced " Listen With the Right Ear " , which was an intended follow @-@ up to " Oh You Wink the Other Eye " . Shortly after her return , she sailed to France , to take up an engagement in Paris . Her biographer Daniel Farson thought that she received " greater acclaim than any other English comedienne who had preceded her " . She changed the lyrics to some of her best @-@ known songs for her French audience and retitled them , " The Naughty Continong " ; " Twiggy Vous " ; " I 'm Just Back from Paris " and " The Coster Honeymoon in Paris " . At Christmas in 1893 , she returned to London to honour her final Drury Lane commitment , starring as Polly Perkins in Robinson Crusoe . The part allowed her to perform " The Barmaid " and " The Naughty Continong " and saw her perform a mazurka with Leno . Talking to a friend years later about her Drury Lane engagements , she admitted that she was " the proudest little woman in the world " .
In May 1894 , Courtenay followed Lloyd to the Empire , Leicester Square , where she was performing , and attempted to batter her with a stick , shouting : " I will gouge your eyes out and ruin you ! " His assault missed Lloyd , but struck Burge in the face instead . As a result of the incident , Lloyd was sacked from the Empire for fear of a reprisal . Lloyd left the marital home , moving to 73 Carleton Road , Tufnell Park and successfully applied for a restraining warrant , which prevented Courtenay from contacting her . A few weeks later , Lloyd began an affair with the music hall singer Alec Hurley , which resulted in Courtenay initiating divorce proceedings in 1894 on the grounds of her adultery . That year , together with a short tour of the English provinces , Lloyd travelled to New York with Hurley , where she appeared at the Imperial Theatre , staying for two months . On her return to England , she appeared in the Liverpool Christmas pantomime as the principal boy in Pretty Bo @-@ Peep , Little Boy Blue , and the Merry Old Woman who lived in a Shoe . Her performance was praised by the press , who called her " delightfully easy , graceful and self @-@ possessed . "
= = = = Risqué reputation and transatlantic tours = = = =
By 1895 , Lloyd 's risqué songs were receiving frequent criticism from theatre reviewers and influential feminists . As a result , she often experienced resistance from strict theatre censorship which dogged the rest of her career . The writer and feminist Laura Ormiston Chant , who was a member of the Social Purity Alliance , disliked the bawdiness of music hall performances , and thought that the venues were attractive to prostitutes . Her campaign persuaded the London County Council to erect large screens around the promenade at the Empire Theatre in Leicester Square , as part of the licensing conditions . The screens were unpopular and protesters , among them the young Winston Churchill , later pulled them down . That November at the Tivoli theatre , Lloyd performed " Johnny Jones " , a ditty about a girl who is taught the facts of life by her best male friend . The song , although not lyrically obscene , was considered to be offensive largely because of the manner in which Lloyd sang it , adding winks and gestures , and creating a conspiratorial relationship with her audience . Social reformers cited " Johnny Jones " as being off |
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] | 137,185 | ensive , but less so compared to other songs of the day . Upon the expiry of a music hall 's entertainments licence , the Licensing Committee tried to use the lyrical content of music hall songs as evidence against a renewal . As a result , Lloyd was summoned to perform some of her songs in front of a council committee . She sang " Oh ! Mr Porter " ( composed for her by George Le Brunn ) , " A Little of What You Fancy " and " She Sits Among the Cabbages and Peas " , which she retitled " I Sits Amongst the Cabbages and Leeks " after some protest . The numbers were sung in such a way that the committee had no reason to find anything amiss . Feeling disgruntled at the council 's interference , she then rendered Alfred Tennyson 's drawing @-@ room ballad " Come into the Garden , Maud " and displayed leers and nudges , to illustrate each innuendo . The committee were left stunned at the performance , but Lloyd argued afterwards that the rudeness was " all in the mind " .
Despite their opposing views on music hall entertainment , Lloyd and Chant shared similar political views , and were wrongly assumed by the press to be enemies . An inspector who reported on one of Lloyd 's performances at the Oxford music hall thought that her lyrical content was fine but her knowing nods , looks , smiles and the suggestiveness in her winks to the audience suggested otherwise . The restrictions imposed on the music halls were , by now beginning to affect trade , and many were threatened with closure . To avoid social unrest , Hackney council scrapped the licensing restrictions on 7 October 1896 . In 1896 , Lloyd sailed to South Africa with her daughter , who appeared as Little Maudie Courtenay on the same bill as her mother . Lloyd came to the attention of Barney Barnato , a British entrepreneur who was responsible for mining diamond and gold . Barnato lavished gifts on her in an attempt to woo her , but his attempts were unsuccessful ; nevertheless , the two remained friends until his death in 1897 . The tour was a triumph for Lloyd , and her songs became popular among her South African audience . She performed " Wink the Other Eye " , " Twiggy @-@ Vous " , " Hello , Hello , Hello " , " Whacky , Whacky , Whack ! " , " Keep Off the Grass " , and " Oh ! Mr Porter " . Feeling satisfied at the success she had achieved , Lloyd returned to London once the two @-@ month tour had ended .
The following year , Lloyd travelled to New York where she re @-@ appeared at Koster and Bial 's Music Hall . Her first song was about a young woman who lacked confidence in finding a suitor . The chorus , " Not for the very best man that ever got into a pair of trousers " , proved hilarious ; The Era observed that the line " tickled the audience immensely " . Following this , she performed a song about a French maid who appeared innocent and petite at first sight , but turned out not to be so . The Era described the character as being " not so demure as she looked , for she confided to her auditors that she ' knew a lot about those tricky little things they don 't teach a girl at school ' . " Many other songs followed and were all warmly received . At the conclusion of each performance , she received gifts from the audience including bouquets and floral structures . The Era commented that " Miss Lloyd 's clever character work , her versatility and unflagging endeavours to please were rewarded with deserved success " . After the tour , Lloyd returned to London , and moved to Hampstead with Hurley . That Christmas , she appeared in pantomime , this time at the Crown Theatre in Peckham in a production of Dick Whittington in which she played the title role . In it , she sang " A Little Bit Off the Top " , which MacQueen @-@ Pope describes as being " one of the pantomime songs of the year " . The Music Hall and Theatre Review was equally complimentary , saying : " Brilliant Repertory , Charming Dresses , A Unique Personality ! " During the Christmas period of 1898 – 9 , Lloyd returned to the Crown where she took her benefit , during which she appeared in Dick Whittington . The entertainment culminated with a song from Vesta Victoria , and a short piece called The Squeaker , starring Joe Elvin . |
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] | 137,186 |
= = = 1900s = = =
In February 1900 , Lloyd was the subject of another benefit performance at the Crown Theatre in Peckham . Kate Carney , Vesta Tilley and Joe Elvin were among the star turns who performed before the main piece , Cinderella , which starred Lloyd , her sister Alice , Kittee Rayburn and Jennie Rubie . The same year , although her divorce was not yet finalised , Lloyd went to live with Hurley in Southampton Row , London . Hurley , an established singer of coster songs , regularly appeared on the same bill as Lloyd ; his calm nature was a contrast to the abusive personality of Courtenay . Lloyd and Hurley set sail for a tour of Australia in 1901 , opening at Harry Rickards Opera House in Melbourne on 18 May with their own version of " The Lambeth Walk " . After the successful two @-@ month tour , Lloyd and Hurley returned to London where she appeared in the only revue of her career . Entitled The Revue , it was written by Charles Raymond and Phillip Yorke with lyrics by Roland Carse and music by Maurice Jacobi . It was staged at the Tivoli theatre , in celebration of the Coronation of King Edward VII . Lloyd and Courtenay 's divorce became absolute on 22 May 1905 , and she married Hurley on 27 October 1906 . Hurley , although ecstatic with his earlier success in Australia , began feeling sidelined by his wife 's popularity . MacQueen @-@ Pope suggested that " [ Hurley ] was a star who had married a planet . Already the seeds of disaster were being sown . "
= = = = Music hall strikes of 1907 = = = =
Shortly after her marriage to Hurley , Lloyd went to Bournemouth to recuperate from exhaustion . Within days she was back performing in London music halls . From the start of the new century , music hall artistes and theatre managers had been in dispute over working conditions , a reduction in pay and perks , and an increased number of matinée performances . The first significant rift was a 1906 strike , initiated by The Variety Artistes ' Federation . The following year , the Music Hall War commenced , which saw the Federation fight for more freedom and better working conditions on behalf of music @-@ hall performers . Although popular enough to command her own fees , Lloyd supported the strike , acted as a picket for the strikers and gave generously to the strike fund . To raise spirits , she often performed on picket lines and took part in a fundraising performance at the Scala Theatre . During one demonstration , she recognised someone trying to enter and shouted , " Let her through , girls , she 'll close the music hall faster than we can . " The singer was Belle Elmore , later murdered by her husband , Dr. Crippen . The dispute ended later the same year with a resolution broadly favourable to the performers . In 1909 , Lloyd appeared at the Gaiety Theatre in Dundee where a critic for The Courier noted " Her bright smile and fascinating presence has much to do with her popularity , while her songs are of the catchy style , perhaps not what a Dundee audience is familiar with , but still amusing and of an attractive style . "
= = = = Relationship with Bernard Dillon = = = =
Despite their marital problems , Lloyd went on an American tour with Hurley in 1908 . She was eager to equal the success of her sister Alice , who had become popular in the country a few years previously . By 1910 , Marie 's relationship with Hurley had ended , due in part to her endless parties and her developing friendship with the jockey Bernard Dillon , winner of the 1910 Derby . Lloyd and the young sportsman began an open and passionate affair . For the first time , her private life eclipsed her professional career . She was seldom mentioned in the theatrical press in 1910 , and when she did perform , it was not to the best of her abilities . The writer Arnold Bennett , who witnessed her on stage at the Tivoli Theatre in 1909 , admitted that he " couldn 't see the legendary cleverness of the vulgarity of Marie Lloyd " and accused her songs of being " variations of the same theme of sexual naughtiness . " As with Courten |
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] | 137,187 | ay years previously , the shy and retiring Dillon was finding it hard to adapt to Lloyd 's elaborate and sociable lifestyle . Dillon 's success on the racecourse was short lived . In 1911 , he was expelled from the Jockey Club for borrowing £ 660 to bet on his own horses to win . Dillon 's horses lost , and he ended up in debt to trainers . He became jealous of Lloyd 's successful life in the spotlight . Depression led to drink and obesity , and he started to abuse her . Hurley , meanwhile , had initiated divorce proceedings , the strain of which caused him to drink heavily , which in turn finished his theatrical career . Lloyd left the marital home in Hampstead and moved to Golders Green with Dillon , a move which MacQueen @-@ Pope describes as being " the worst thing she ever did . "
= = = Later years = = =
A new show in London in 1912 showcased the best of music hall 's talent . The Royal Command Performance took place at the Palace Theatre in London , which was managed by Alfred Butt . The show was organised by Oswald Stoll , an Australian impresario who managed a string of West End and provincial theatres . Stoll , although a fan of Lloyd 's , disliked the vulgarity of her act and championed a return to a more family @-@ friendly atmosphere within the music hall . Because of this , and her participation in the earlier music hall war , Stoll left her out of the line @-@ up . He placed an advert in The Era on the day of the performance warning that " Coarseness and vulgarity etc are not allowed ... this intimation is rendered necessary only by a few artists " . In retaliation , Lloyd staged her own show at the London Pavilion , advertising that " every one of her performances was a command performance by order of the British public " . She performed " One Thing Leads to Another " , " Oh Mr Porter " , and " The Boy I Love Is up in the Gallery " and was hailed as " the Queen of Comedy " by critics . The same year , she travelled to Devon where she appeared at the Exeter Hippodrome to much success . The Devon and Exeter Gazette , reported that Lloyd 's performance of " Every Movement Tells a Tale " , was " thoroughly enjoyed " by the audience and " [ received ] round after round of applause " . The paper also praised her recital of a " Cockney girl 's honeymoon in Paris " , which was met by " roars of laughter " .
= = = = Scandal in America = = = =
In 1913 , Lloyd was booked by the Orpheum Syndicate to appear at the New York Palace Theatre . She and Dillon set sail on the RMS Olympic under the name Mr and Mrs Dillon and were met at the American port by her sister Alice , who had resided in the country for many years . Upon arrival , Lloyd and Dillon were refused entry when the authorities found out that they were not married , as they had claimed when applying for entry visas . They were detained and threatened with deportation on the grounds of moral turpitude and were sent to Ellis Island while an enquiry took place . Dillon was charged under the White Slave Act with attempting to take into the country a woman who was not his wife , and Lloyd was charged with being a passive agent . After a lengthy enquiry , a surety of $ 300 each , and an imposed condition that they were to live apart while in America , the couple were allowed to stay until March 1914 . Alice later stated that " the indignity of the subsequent experience [ while in custody ] went to Marie 's heart in a way she never survived . She could not bear to talk of that awful twenty @-@ four hours . "
Despite the problems , the tour was a success , and Lloyd performed to packed theatres throughout America . Her act featured the songs " The Tiddly Wink " , " I 'd Like to Live in Paris All the Time ( The Coster Girl in Paris ) " , and " The Aviator " . The numbers were popular , partly due to the Americanisation of each song 's lyrics . On a personal level , Lloyd 's time in America was miserable and was made worse by the increasing domestic abuse she received from Dillon . The assaults caused her to miss several key performances , which angered the theatre manager |
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] | 137,188 | , Edward Albee , who threatened her with a breach of contract action . She claimed that illness made it difficult for her to perform and protested at her billing position . The theatrical press were not convinced . The New York Telegraph speculated " In vaudeville circles her domestic relations are thought to be at the bottom of her attacks of disposition . " Back in England , Hurley had died of pleurisy and pneumonia on 6 December 1913 . Lloyd heard the news while appearing in Chicago and sent a wreath with a note saying " until we meet again " . She was reported in The Morning Telegraph as saying : " With all due respect to the dead , I can cheerfully say that 's the best piece of news I 've heard in many years , for it means that Bernard Dillon and I will marry as soon as this unlucky year ends . " Lloyd married Dillon on 21 February 1914 , the ceremony taking place at the British Consulate in Portland , Oregon . When the tour finished , Lloyd commented , " [ I will ] never forget the humiliation to which I have been subjected and I shall never sing in America again , no matter how high the salary offered . "
= = = = First World War and final years = = = =
Lloyd and Dillon returned to England in June 1914 . Lloyd started a provincial tour of Liverpool , Aldershot , Southend , Birmingham and Margate , and finished the summer season at the London Hippodrome . She sang " The Coster Honeymoon in Paris " and " Who Paid the Rent for Mrs Rip Van Winkle ? " , the latter of which had been received particularly well with her American audiences . Within a fortnight , Britain was at war , which threw the music @-@ hall world into disarray . The atmosphere in London 's music halls had turned patriotic , and theatre proprietors often held charity events and benefits to help the war effort . Lloyd played her part and frequently visited hospitals , including the Ulster Volunteer Force Hospital in Belfast , where she interacted with wounded servicemen . She also toured munitions factories to help boost public morale , but received no official recognition for her work . During 1914 , she scored a hit with " A Little of What you Fancy " , which critics thought captured her life perfectly up until that point . The song is about a middle @-@ aged woman who encourages the younger generation to enjoy themselves , rather than indulging in life 's excitement herself . During the rendition , Lloyd depicts a young couple who cuddle and kiss on a railway carriage , while she sits back and recalls memories of her doing the same in years gone by .
In January 1915 , Lloyd appeared at the Crystal Palace where she entertained over ten thousand troops . At the end of that year , she performed her only war song , " Now You 've Got your Khaki On " , composed for her by Charles Collins and Fred W. Leigh , about a woman who found the army uniform sexy and thought that wearing it made the average pot @-@ bellied gentleman look like a muscle @-@ toned soldier . Lloyd 's brother John appeared with her on stage dressed as a soldier and helped characterise the ditty . Following this , she sang the already well @-@ established songs " If You Want to Get On in Revue " , which depicted a young girl who offered sexual favours to promote her theatrical career , and " The Three Ages of Woman " , which took a cynical look at men from a woman 's perspective . She seldom toured during the war , but briefly performed in Northampton , Watford and Nottingham in 1916 . By the end of that year , she had suffered a nervous breakdown which she blamed on her hectic workload and a delayed reaction to Hurley 's death . During the war years , Lloyd 's public image had deteriorated . Her biographer Midge Gillies thought that Lloyd 's violent relationship with Dillon and professional snubs in public had left the singer feeling like " someone 's mother , rather than their sweetheart . "
In July 1916 , Dillon was conscripted into the army , but disliked the discipline of regimental life . He applied for exemption on the grounds he had to look after his parents and four brothers , but his claim was rejected . In a later failed attempt , he tried to convince army officials that he was too obese to carry out military duties . On the |
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] | 137,189 | rare occasions when Dillon was allowed home on leave , he would often indulge in drinking sessions . One night , Lloyd 's friend Bella Burge received a knock at the front door to find a hysterical Lloyd covered in blood and bruises . When asked to explain what had caused her injuries , she stated that she had caught Dillon in bed with another woman and had had a showdown with her husband . By 1917 , Dillon 's drinking had become worse . That June , two constables were called to Lloyd and Dillon 's house in Golders Green after Dillon committed a drunken assault on his wife . Police entered the house and found Lloyd and her maid cowering beneath a table . Dillon confronted the constables and assaulted one of them , which resulted in him being taken to court , fined and sentenced to a month 's hard labour . Lloyd began drinking to escape the trauma of her domestic abuse . That year , she was earning £ 470 per week performing in music halls and making special appearances . The following year , she performed perhaps her best known song , " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " , which was written for her by Fred W. Leigh and Charles Collins . The song depicts a mother fleeing her home to avoid the rent man . The lyrics reflected the hardships of working class life in London at the beginning of the 20th century , and gave her the chance to costume the character in a worn out dress and black straw boater , while carrying a birdcage . By 1918 , she had become popular with the British @-@ based American soldiers , but had failed to capture the spirits of their English counterparts , and began feeling sidelined by her peers ; Vesta Tilley had led a very successful recruitment drive into the services , and other music hall performers had been honoured by royalty .
In July 1919 , Lloyd was again left off the cast list for the Royal Variety Performance , which paid tribute to the acts who helped raise money and boost morale during the war years . She was devastated at the snub and grew bitter towards her rivals who had been acknowledged . Her biographer Midge Gillies compared Lloyd to a " talented old aunt who must be allowed to have her turn at the piano even though all everyone really wants is jazz or go to the Picture Palace " . She toured Cardiff in 1919 , and in 1920 she was earning £ 11 @,@ 000 a year . Despite the high earnings , she was living beyond her means , with a reckless tendency to spend money . She was famous for her generosity , but was unable to differentiate between those in need and those who simply exploited her kindness . Her extravagant tastes , an accumulation of writs from disgruntled theatre managers , an inability to save money , and generous hand @-@ outs to friends and family , resulted in severe money troubles during the final years of her life .
= = = Decline and death = = =
In 1920 , Lloyd appeared twice at Hendon Magistrates Court and gave evidence of the abuse she had suffered from Dillon . Soon afterwards , she separated from him and , as a result , became depressed . When asked by prosecutors how many times Dillon had assaulted her since Christmas 1919 , Lloyd replied " I cannot tell you , there were so many [ occasions ] . It has happened for years , time after time , always when he is drunk . " By now , she was becoming increasingly unreliable on stage ; she appeared at a theatre in Cardiff for a mere six minutes before being carried off by stage hands . During the performance , she seemed dazed and confused , and she stumbled across the stage . She was conscious of her weak performances and frequently cried between shows . Virginia Woolf was among the audience at the Bedford Music Hall on 8 April 1921 and described Lloyd as " A mass of corruption – long front teeth – a crapulous way of saying ' desire ' , and yet a born artist – scarcely able to walk , waddling , aged , unblushing . "
In April 1922 , Lloyd collapsed in her dressing room after singing " The Cosmopolitan Girl " at the Gateshead Empire in Cardiff . Her doctor diagnosed exhaustion , and she returned to the stage in August . Her voice became weak , and she reduced her act to a much shorter running time . Her biographer Na |
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] | 137,190 | omi Jacob thought that Lloyd was " growing old , and [ she ] was determined to show herself to her public as she really was ... an old , grey @-@ faced , tired woman " . On 12 August 1921 , Lloyd failed to show for an appearance at the London Palladium , choosing instead to stay at home and write her will .
In early 1922 , Lloyd moved in with her sister Daisy to save money . On 4 October , against her doctor 's advice , she appeared at the Empire Music Hall in Edmonton , North London , where she sang " I 'm One of the Ruins That Cromwell Knocked About a Bit " . Her performance was weak , and she was unsteady on her feet , eventually falling over on stage . Her erratic and brief performance proved hilarious for the audience , who thought that it was all part of the act . A week later , while appearing at the Alhambra Theatre , she was taken ill on stage and was found later in her dressing room crippled with pain , complaining of stomach cramps . She returned home later that evening , where she died of heart and kidney failure three days later , aged 52 . More than 50 @,@ 000 people attended her funeral at Hampstead Cemetery on 12 October 1922 . Lloyd was penniless at the time of her death and her estate , which was worth £ 7 @,@ 334 , helped to pay off debts that she and Dillon had incurred over the years .
Writing in The Dial magazine the following month , T.S. Eliot claimed : " Among [ the ] small number of music @-@ hall performers , whose names are familiar to what is called the lower class , Marie Lloyd had far the strongest hold on popular affection . " Her biographer and friend MacQueen @-@ Pope thought that Lloyd was " going downhill of her own volition . The complaint was incurable , some might call it heartbreak , perhaps a less sentimental diagnosis is disillusionment . " The impersonator Charles Austin paid tribute by saying " I have lost an old pal , and the public has lost its principal stage favourite , one who can never be replaced . "
= Prince Oana =
Henry " Hank " Kawaihoa " Prince " Oana , Jr . ( January 22 , 1910 – June 19 , 1976 ) was a professional baseball player for 23 years from 1929 to 1951 . He played portions of three seasons in Major League Baseball as an outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1934 , and as a pinch hitter and pitcher for Detroit Tigers in 1943 and 1945 . When Oana debuted with the Phillies , he became the fourth Hawaiian player to appear in the major leagues . He compiled a .308 batting average and a 3 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) in three major league seasons .
Born in Hawaii , Oana played five sports in high school , and took up baseball professionally after he was noticed by Ty Cobb . He spent a few seasons in the minor leagues before joining the Phillies , who sent him back to the minors after six games in 1934 . For the next decade , he played for various minor league teams , where his Hawaiian heritage proved to be both a selling point for teams and a hindrance to him making the majors , until the outbreak of World War II . Facing a shortage of active players , the Tigers signed him , and Oana played parts of 1943 and 1945 with the team . After 1945 , he was sold to the Dallas Rebels , and he finished his professional career in 1951 . He later operated a lakeside fishing business until his death in 1976 .
= = Early years = =
Oana was born at Waipahu , Hawaii , the site of the former Oahu Sugar Company plantation , in 1910 . His father , Henry Kawaihoa Oana , Sr. , was a Native Hawaiian from Waialua and a 1896 graduate of Kamehameha School , who later worked as a bookkeeper at the sugarcane plantation and as a station agent at the local railroad depot . His |
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] | 137,191 | mother Mary was of Portuguese descent .
Oana attended Saint Louis School in Honolulu where he had the nickname " Nutsky , " and was " a five @-@ sport star " in baseball , football , basketball , track and swimming . He was a running back in football and was twice ( 1926 and 1927 ) selected for the Interscholastic League of Honolulu all @-@ star team .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Pacific Coast League = = =
In his youth , Oana played for a Hawaiian " Aratani " baseball team that went on a tour of Japan in 1928 . While barnstorming in Japan , Ty Cobb saw Oana playing and suggested he play professionally in the United States , and recommended Oana to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League . Oana heeded Cobb 's advice and traveled to California in the winter of 1929 to try out with the Seals .
He spent the 1929 season with the Globe Bears , San Francisco 's affiliate in the Class D Arizona State League . Oana compiled a .374 batting average with the Bears in his first year of professional play . He compiled a .413 average in 79 games for the Globe Bears at the start of the 1930 season , and was promoted to San Francisco . He joined the Seals organization with the ability to pitch or play in the infield or the outfield . Ultimately , " [ h ] e found himself as an outfielder being blessed with a powerful throwing arm , great speed and an ability to whack the ball to the far reaches of the parks . "
Oana spent the next several seasons as an outfielder for the Seals ( 1929 – 1932 ) and the Portland Beavers ( 1933 – 1934 ) , also in the Pacific Coast League . Oana compiled batting averages of .326 in 1930 , .345 in 1931 , and .332 in 1933 . He also totaled 29 home runs , 63 doubles , and 11 triples in 686 at bats during the 1933 season , and led the Pacific Coast League with 163 RBIs .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
In November 1933 , the Philadelphia Phillies acquired Oana from Portland in exchange for cash , Frank Ragland , Jimmy McLeod , and a player to be named later . Portland manager Spencer Abbott noted that the deal required the Phillies to pay " $ 2500 for a look " and $ 20 @,@ 000 if he was retained for the years . " Oana made his major league debut on April 22 , 1934 , becoming the fourth Hawaiian player to play Major League Baseball . He appeared in only six games for the Phillies , four as the starting left fielder . He compiled a .238 batting average with one double and three RBIs in 21 at bats . On May 1 , 1934 the Phillies sent Oana back to Portland after less than 10 days in the big leagues .
= = = Hawaiian heritage and nickname = = =
Oana 's Hawaiian heritage was both a selling point for Pacific Coast League promoters and a handicap in terms of Oana 's ability to make it to the major leagues . When Oana signed with the San Francisco Seals , team owner Charlie Graham advertised Oana as " a Hawaiian prince . " Graham claimed that , while vacationing in Honolulu , he discovered Oana playing baseball in bare feet . With the popularity of swimmer Duke Kahanamoku , The Sporting News noted : " If Kahanamoku , the great swimmer , could be listed as a duke , Graham figured Oana should be at least a prince . " Portland manager Spencer Abbott also boasted that he was the one who had invested Oana " with the halo of Hawaiian royalty . "
Oana 's Hawaiian heritage was also a handicap in an era before racial integration of Major League Baseball . In January 1934 , shortly after Oana had been acquired by the Phill |
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] | 137,192 | ies , The Sporting News wrote a feature story about Oana under the headline , " ' Prince ' Oana Pops Into the Big League Melting Pot : Adding Dash of Hawaii to Cuban and Indian Spice . " Author Daniel M. Daniel offered Oana 's promotion to the Phillies as evidence that , " while baseball is as American as America itself , it is also as cosmopolitan as our national population . " Daniel wrote that , without going into the justice of the color line , the color line in baseball " is adhered to most strictly . " Daniel wrote that , despite Oana 's batting record , San Francisco owner Charlie Graham had difficulty selling Oana to a major league club , as some suggested that a full @-@ blooded " Kanaka " may " not be welcome in the ranks of the big leagues . " When the Seals signed Oana , he was rated as " an ' important money ' prospect " who would likely draw five figures in a sale to a big league club .
To overcome the color line , Graham backed away from the story that Oana was a full @-@ blooded Hawaiian prince and noted that Oana 's mother was Portuguese . However , Graham could still not find a major league buyer for Oana . When Oana was acquired by the Phillies at the end of the 1933 season , The Sporting News published a front @-@ page story referring to Oana as a " full @-@ blooded Hawaiian " and a " dark @-@ skinned islander " who " comes from the royal stock of the old Hawaiian dynasty that ruled the islands before the United States took over the country . Hence , the title of prince , which he wears proudly . "
= = = Atlanta Crackers = = =
After his brief stint with the Phillies , Oana was returned to Portland and shortly thereafter sold to the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association . Spencer Abbott , who had previously managed Portland and was then the manager in Atlanta , offered to allow Portland to name its price for Oana . Abbott paid $ 5 @,@ 000 for Oana and recalled Atlanta 's racially segregated bleachers furthered the rationale for acquiring Oana :
At Atlanta we needed a powerful right @-@ handed hitter who could hit the ball into those Negro bleachers in left field . We needed a hero for our colored citizens . Oana was the man .
Abbott agreed to fly Oana to Atlanta and asked him to dress sharply and wear a lei . Abbott arranged for press and photographers to meet Oana at the Atlanta airport . He later recalled : " I sold them on the Hawaiian royalty stuff . It was not far off the beam , either , for Hank comes from the best stock in the islands – and he looked like a prince , tall , dark and handsome . " Oana spent most of the 1934 season with the Crackers , compiling a .289 batting average and 17 home runs in 480 at bats . Despite playing less than the full season in the Southern Association , he led the circuit in home runs and finished second in the league with 100 RBIs . Finding no interest from major league clubs after his 1934 season in Atlanta , Oana reportedly expressed interest in pursuing a career as a professional wrestler , with one account indicating that he hoped to " cash in " on his " wrestling experience on the island with Japanese grapplers . "
= = = Later 1930s = = =
Oana spent the 1935 and 1936 seasons with the Syracuse Chiefs of the International League . He hit .300 with 21 doubles , 8 triples , and 12 home runs in 320 at bats during the 1935 season . Oana spent the 1937 season with Knoxville and Little Rock in the Southern Association , but an injury in Little Rock forced him to finish the season playing semipro ball in North Carolina . Oana next spent two years playing for the Jackson Senators in 1938 and 1939 . In 1938 , he hit .320 with 39 doubles and 26 home runs , and in 1939 , he hit .323 with 20 doubles , 12 triples , and a career @-@ high 39 home runs .
= = = Conversion to |
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At the end of the 1939 season , the Jackson club sole Oana to the Fort Worth Cats in the Texas League . He continued to play as an outfielder for Fort Worth in 1940 and 1941 . However , his offensive production dropped with batting averages of .264 in 1940 and .253 in 1941 .
After the 1941 season , with his batting in decline , Oana worked as a pitcher during a barnstorming tour of Mexico . Rogers Hornsby took over as the manager at Fort Worth in 1942 , and Oana badgered Hornsby for a chance as a pitcher . According to one account , Hornsby was reportedly prepared to release Oana , who was not hitting well , and said to Oana , " Hank , you hit like a pitcher , " to which Oana replied , " I am a good pitcher . " Hornsby initially thought that Oana was joking about being a pitcher , but finally relented and allowed him to pitch in relief one day in Houston . In Oana 's first 76 innings as a pitcher in 1942 , he compiled a 0 @.@ 76 earned run average ( ERA ) , threw 50 consecutive innings without an earned run , and pitched a no @-@ hitter . In mid @-@ July 1942 , Oana 's scoreless streak became national news , and resulted in a feature story in The Sporting News . In a total of 25 games as a pitcher during the 1942 season , Oana compiled a 16 – 5 record with a 1 @.@ 72 ERA .
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
In 1943 , the Texas League disbanded due to the shortage of players during World War II . Oana was sold to the Milwaukee Brewers in February 1943 , and he appeared in 20 games for that team . However , baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis ruled that Oana was a free agent since the Texas League had disbanded . In late June 1943 , Oana signed with the Detroit Tigers . In an introductory interview with the Detroit press , Oana had this to say about his supposed connection to Hawaiian royalty :
When I first joined the Seals , stories were published that I was a Hawaiian prince . The more I denied them , the more people believed them . I 'm plain plain Henry Oana . Just call me Hank .
On July 3 , 1943 , Oana played a key role in a double @-@ header sweep of the New York Yankees that Detroit general manager Jack Zeller said brought " the greatest thrills of any game he witnessed . " In the second game of the double header , the Yankees led 5 – 2 in the third inning . Detroit manager Steve O 'Neill brought in his newly acquired pitcher , Oana . O 'Neill reportedly concluded that " the game was lost and so why waste his good pitchers . " Oana gave up four more runs , and the Yankees led 9 – 3 after seven innings . Oana then held the Yankees scoreless in the eighth inning and hit a three @-@ run home run in the bottom of the eighth inning . He held the Yankees scoreless again in the ninth inning , and the Tigers won the game with four runs in the bottom of the ninth . Oana was the winning pitcher and had his first major league home run in the same game . In all , Oana appeared in 10 games for the Tigers in 1943 , all as a reliever , compiling a 3 – 2 record with a 4 @.@ 50 ERA in 34 innings pitched . Oana also compiled a .385 batting average with two doubles , a triple , a home run , and seven RBIs in only 26 at bats for the 1943 Tigers .
Late in the 1943 season , Oana was returned to the Milwaukee Brewers , appearing in several games until he sustained a fractured wrist . In December 1943 , the Brewers sold Oana to the Buffalo |
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] | 137,194 | Bisons of the International League . Oana compiled a 13 – 13 record with a 3 @.@ 63 ERA in 38 games for the Bisons in 1944 . He also spent most of the 1945 season in Buffalo , compiling a 15 – 14 record ( 4 @.@ 20 ERA ) in 31 games .
In August 1945 , on the recommendation of Buffalo manager Bucky Harris , the Tigers called him back up to the big leagues . With the Tigers were competing for the American League pennant , Oana appeared in three games , one as a starter . Oana compiled a 1 @.@ 59 ERA in 11 innings for the 1945 Tigers team that won the pennant and the 1945 World Series . His only major league game as a starting pitcher was on September 12 , 1945 , against the Philadelphia Athletics : Oana allowed one hit through the first eight innings , pitched 10 @-@ 2 / 3 innings and allowed only two runs , though the Tigers lost the game , 3 – 2 , in the 16th inning .
= = = Final years in the minors = = =
After the 1945 season , Oana was sold to the Dallas Rebels of the Texas League . By July 1946 , he was ranked among the league 's top hitters and pitchers . He finished the 1946 season with a 24 – 10 record , a 2 @.@ 54 ERA , a .303 batting average and seven home runs in 185 at bats .
Oana remained in Dallas for two years , 1946 and 1947 . He then played three years as a player @-@ manager for the Austin Pioneers of the Big State League from 1948 to 1950 . He concluded his career as the player @-@ manager for the Texarkana Bears in 1951 . He ended his minor league career with a .304 batting average with 2 @,@ 292 hits , including 428 doubles , 130 triples , and 261 home runs .
= = Personal and later life = =
During his playing career , Oana developed a " reputation as a playboy , " who " had too many extra @-@ curricular activities . " He was reported to have dressed like " a dandy " , been " the Beau Brummel of baseball , " and been idolized by fans for his " S @-@ S appeal , socks and sex . "
Oana was married multiple times . With his first wife , Arma Puninani Richardson , he had two sons , George ( born 1928 ) and Henry ( born 1929 ) . On October 1 , 1935 , he was married to Joyce Powell of Winter Haven , Florida . By 1942 , he had remarried to Patricial Hall of Atlanta . In 1946 , he was reported to be happily married to a Texas girl . He also had at least two marriages late in life , in 1968 to a woman named Cynthia , and in 1974 to Opal Gunn . Spencer Abbott , Oana 's minor league manager in Portland and Atlanta , recalled that Oana " worried hell out of me . " According to Abbott , Oana had friends in every town , and " it was tough for him to live anything resembling a Spartan life . " Abbott speculated that , despite having major league talent , Oana 's lifestyle may have held him back from becoming a star in the major leagues . In 1946 , Abbott opined : " If he had been a less handsome fellow with the same ability he might have been a ten @-@ year star now in the major leagues . "
Oana 's baseball career ended in 1951 , in part due to vision problems . In the spring of 1952 , Oana underwent surgery in Austin , Texas , to remove cataracts from his right eye . He reportedly underwent eye surgery five times over the next 10 years and lived and worked during the late 1950s and |
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] | 137,195 | early 1960s in a rehabilitation center for the blind in Austin , Texas . He worked there as an instructor teaching crafts to the totally blind . In 1965 , the Associated Press reported that Oana 's vision had returned and that he hoped to secure a job as a baseball coach , which would enable him to reimburse the Travis Association for the Blind for the assistance it provided while his vision was substantially lost due to cataracts in both eyes .
In his later years , Oana regained much of his vision and continued living in Austin , Texas . He operated a lakeside fishing business and was also a captain with the Travis County Sheriff 's Department . Oana died of a heart attack in 1976 at his home in Austin , Texas at the age of 66 , and was buried at the Oakwood Cemetery Annex in Austin .
= M @-@ 209 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 209 was a state trunkline highway in the lower peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It was located in Leelanau County in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . Until it was decommissioned , it was Michigan 's shortest state highway . M @-@ 209 started at M @-@ 109 and went 0 @.@ 543 miles ( 0 @.@ 874 km ) or just 956 yards ( 874 m ) to Glen Haven . In 1996 , M @-@ 209 's designation was " abandoned " , and the road was turned over to the jurisdiction of the Leelanau County Road Commission .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 209 was the short connector route from M @-@ 109 to the Glen Haven unit of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore west of Glen Arbor . The southern terminus of the highway was at the intersection with M @-@ 109 south of Glen Haven , a restored logging village on the shore of Lake Michigan on the Leelanau Peninsula . The roadway ran north from this intersection where M @-@ 109 made a 90 – degree corner through the south and east legs of a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 209 and Dune Valley Road . M @-@ 209 ran past such attractions as the restored General Store and Blacksmith Shop . Also located in Glen Haven is the former Glen Haven Canning Co. building . This building was first used as a warehouse and later as a cannery for cherries in the 1920s . It has since been restored as the Cannery Boathouse housing historic wooden boats used in the Manitou Passage between Glen Haven , Glen Arbor and the North and South Manitou Islands . The northern terminus of M @-@ 209 was located in front of the former U.S. Coast Guard Life Saving Station , now restored as a maritime museum . The museum is located at the intersection of Glen Haven Road and Sleeping Bear Dunes Road . At the time of decommissioning , M @-@ 209 was a two @-@ lane , paved road .
Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is a United States National Lakeshore located on the " little finger " of the lower peninsula of Michigan in Leelanau and Benzie counties . The park covers a 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) stretch of Lake Michigan 's eastern coastline , as well as North and South Manitou Islands . The park was authorized on October 21 , 1970 .
= = History = =
From its inception in the 1920s , M @-@ 209 was Michigan 's shortest highway . It connected the small community of Glen Haven to M @-@ 109 just south of the community . Glen Haven was founded as a settlement called Sleeping Bearville with a sawmill and an inn in 1857 . By 1881 , there were 11 buildings in the community . The lifesaving station was built in 1901 and moved to its present location in 1931 before closing in 1941 . M @-@ |
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] | 137,196 | 209 was first assumed as a state trunkline in the 1920s . It would later serve the national lakeshore when the park was created on October 21 , 1970 . The Park Service purchased all of the village by the mid @-@ 1970s . The highway was turned over to Leelanau County control on June 5 , 1996 . It is now known only as Glen Haven Road . Since the transfer , M @-@ 212 in Cheboygan County is now the shortest highway in the state .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Glen Arbor Township , Leelanau County .
= Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) =
Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in May 1942 , and controlled units based in New South Wales and southern Queensland . Headquartered in Sydney , Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . The area continued to function following the end of the war , transferring its headquarters to Glenbrook , in the Blue Mountains , in 1949 . By this time most of the RAAF 's operational units were based within Eastern Area 's boundaries . It was re @-@ formed in October 1953 as Home Command ( renamed Operational Command in 1959 , and Air Command in 1987 ) under the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . When war broke out , the RAAF began to decentralise its command structure , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Between March 1940 and May 1941 , Australia and Papua were divided into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) who controlled the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .
Central Area was disbanded in August 1941 and its responsibilities divided between Southern Area , Northern Area , and the newly formed No. 2 ( Training ) Group . The outbreak of the Pacific War resulted in Northern Area being split in January 1942 into North @-@ Western and North @-@ Eastern Areas , to counter separate Japanese threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea . Southern Area was also considered appropriate for division owing to its size , so the Air Board proposed assigning responsibility for operational and maintenance units within New South Wales to a new area command , Eastern Area , which would also assume control of units in southern Queensland from North @-@ Eastern Area .
Headquartered in the Sydney suburb of Edgecliff , Eastern Area Command was formed on 15 May 1942 under the leadership of Air Vice Marshal Bill Anderson . Staff numbered 114 , including forty @-@ five officers . Training units in New South Wales remained part of No. 2 ( Training ) Group . No. 5 ( Maintenance ) Group was formed in Sydney on 1 June , and took responsibility for all maintenance units initially controlled by Eastern Area Command . In September , the Allied Air Forces commander in the South West Pacific Area , Major General George Kenney , formed the majority of his US flying units into the Fifth Air Force , and most of their Australian counterparts into RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock . Bostock exercised control of Australian air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority , meaning that Bostock and his area commanders were ultimately dependent on the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , for supplies and equipment .
Of necessity , the RAAF 's two northerly area commands were primarily responsible for bombing and air defence , while the other commands focussed on maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare . Aircraft from Eastern Area flew over 400 patrol , anti @-@ |
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] | 137,197 | submarine , and convoy escort missions in January 1943 . By April , the command was operating seven combat units : No. 5 Squadron , flying army cooperation missions with CAC Wirraways out of Kingaroy , Queensland ; No. 23 Squadron , flying dive @-@ bombing missions with Wirraways from Lowood , Queensland ; No. 24 Squadron , flying dive @-@ bombing missions with Wirraways from Bankstown , New South Wales ; No. 32 Squadron , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with Lockheed Hudsons from Camden , New South Wales ; No. 71 Squadron , flying maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine missions with Avro Ansons from Lowood ; No. 73 Squadron , flying maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine missions with Ansons from Nowra , New South Wales ; and No. 83 Squadron , flying fighter missions with Wirraways from Strathpine , Queensland . Area headquarters staff numbered 626 , including ninety @-@ nine officers . Bristol Beauforts of No. 32 Squadron were credited with damaging a Japanese submarine on 19 June , but neither the RAAF nor the Royal Australian Navy was able to destroy any enemy submarines in coastal waters during 1943 .
Anderson handed over command of Eastern Area to Air Commodore John Summers in July 1943 . Group Captain Alister Murdoch became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) . On 22 October , Avro Lancaster Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie , piloted by Flight Lieutenant Peter Isaacson , " buzzed " the Eastern Area headquarters building in Edgecliff before flying under the Sydney Harbour Bridge , flouting regulations and becoming the largest aircraft to pull such a stunt . The same month , the Air Board proposed carving a new area command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for division . The new command , to be known as Central Area , would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland ; the War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland ; once again , nothing came of the proposal .
Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth was appointed AOC Eastern Area in December 1943 . Japanese submarine activity had decreased in the months prior to Charlesworth taking command , and he was concerned that Allied ships were becoming complacent . He observed " a general slackening off in procedure ; ships are seldom where they should be , and a minority of merchant ships identify themselves to aircraft " . The RAAF 's patrols had also settled into a predictable pattern that an observant submarine captain could easily avoid . Charlesworth relinquished command in September 1944 to take over North @-@ Western Area . In December , aircraft from Eastern Area took part in the search for the German submarine U @-@ 862 , but could not prevent it sinking the Liberty ship Robert J. Walker on Christmas ; a Beaufort of No. 15 Squadron , based at Camden , located the wreck . No. 32 Squadron lost a Beaufort with its crew shortly after takeoff from Lowood during the search for U @-@ 862 , which was called off in January 1945 . That month , Air Commodore Leon Lachal became AOC Eastern Area , and held command for the duration of the Pacific War .
= = = Post @-@ war activity and reorganisation = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , South West Pacific Area was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational elements , including the area commands . According to the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , the AOC Eastern Area was considered " Australia 's senior operational airman " and delegated by the Chief of the Air Staff with day @-@ to @-@ day responsibility for the nation 's air defence . Most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland . Air Commodore Frank Lukis succeeded Lachal as AOC in December 1945 . By the end of the month , headquarters staff numbered 1 @,@ 122 |
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] | 137,198 | , including 104 officers . No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing came under the control of Eastern Area Command in April 1946 , when it moved to RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland ; initially operating B @-@ 24 Liberators , the wing re @-@ equipped with Avro Lincolns soon after . By this time Eastern Area headquarters occupied seven mansions in Point Piper , Sydney ; it subsequently relocated to Bradfield Park . Lukis retired from the Air Force in May , and Charlesworth took over command .
In July – August 1946 , Eastern Area Command oversaw the establishment of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , operating C @-@ 47 Dakotas , at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , displacing No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing , which moved to RAAF Station Williamtown , and began operating P @-@ 51 Mustangs . The following month , Air Vice Marshal Jones proposed reducing the five mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The proposal was part of a much larger plan to restructure the post @-@ war RAAF ; the Federal government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries largely remained in place . Lachal succeeded Charlesworth as AOC Eastern Area in October , and held command until his retirement from the Air Force in July 1947 .
Lachal 's successor as AOC Eastern Area , Air Vice Marshal Frank Bladin , was responsible for preparing the transfer of its headquarters from Bradfield Park to the former Lapstone Hotel at Glenbrook in the Lower Blue Mountains , a process that was completed in 1949 . As well as commanding a view of the surrounding countryside , the property was within five kilometres ( three miles ) of the City of Penrith and thirty kilometres ( twenty miles ) of RAAF Station Richmond , and incorporated a disused railway tunnel that offered , according to government correspondence , " complete protection from Atom Bomb attack " . An adjoining property , " Briarcliffe " , was purchased soon afterwards to augment the new headquarters ' accommodation facilities . Bladin completed his term as AOC Eastern Area in October 1948 . Air Vice Marshal John McCauley was appointed AOC in March the following year . McCauley commanded Eastern Area during the early years of the Malayan Emergency , and oversaw the deployment of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing to administer RAAF units stationed there — a Lincoln squadron detached from No. 82 Wing and a Dakota squadron from No. 86 Wing . Having re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Vampire jets , No. 78 Wing departed Williamtown for garrison duties with the RAF on Malta in July 1952 . In May 1953 , Eastern Area 's SASO , Group Captain Frank Headlam , announced that the Air Force was planning to re @-@ equip No. 82 Wing with English Electric Canberra jet bombers , and also procure CAC Sabre swept @-@ wing jet fighters .
The Federal government retired Air Marshal Jones in 1952 and replaced him with Air Marshal Donald Hardman , RAF , who proceeded to re @-@ organise the RAAF command @-@ and @-@ control system along functional lines , establishing Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance Commands in October 1953 . The first was re @-@ formed from Eastern Area Command as it was considered the RAAF 's de facto operational organisation . The second was re @-@ formed from Southern Area Command , as it was the hub of training services , controlling those in New South Wales and Queensland as well as Victoria and South Australia . The third and last functional command was formed from the extant Maintenance Group headquarters in Melbourne . The transition to a functional system was completed in February 1954 , when the three new commands assumed control of operations , training and maintenance from Western , North @-@ Western , and North @-@ Eastern Areas .
= = Aftermath = =
The functional commands established in 1953 – 54 were revised in 1959 . Home Command was renamed Operational Command , and Training and |
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] | 137,199 | Maintenance Commands merged to become Support Command . Operational Command was renamed Air Command in 1987 , and three years later Support Command split into Logistics Command and Training Command . Throughout the evolution from Home to Operational to Air Command , the headquarters remained at Glenbrook in the Blue Mountains . In 1997 , logistics management became the responsibility of Support Command ( Air Force ) , the RAAF component of the Defence @-@ wide Support Command Australia ( later subsumed by the Defence Materiel Organisation ) . Training Command was re @-@ formed as Air Force Training Group , a force element group under Air Command , in 2006 . Air Command thus became the sole command @-@ level organisation in the RAAF .
= = Order of battle = =
As at May 1944 , Eastern Area controlled the following squadrons :
No. 11 Squadron , equipped with Consolidated PBY Catalinas , based in Rathmines
No. 21 Squadron , equipped with Vultee Vengeances , based at Camden
No. 32 Squadron , equipped with Bristol Beauforts , based at Lowood
No. 107 Squadron , equipped with Vought Kingfishers , based at St. George 's Basin
= Nels Nelsen =
Nels Nelsen ( 3 June 1894 – 3 June 1943 ) , born Nils Johan Nilsen and sometimes incorrectly referred to as Nels Nelson , was a Norwegian @-@ born Canadian ski jumper and later ski jumping organizer . He was among the world 's best ski jumpers during the 1920s , and held the world record of 73 meters from 1925 to 1930 . Born in Salangen , he moved with his family to Revelstoke , British Columbia , in 1913 . He quickly became the town 's best ski jumper , making his debut in the town 's Big Hill in 1916 . He competed throughout Canada and the United States , and became Canadian champion five times . Despite holding the world record at the time , he was not allowed to participate in the 1928 Winter Olympics because the officials did not find it suitable for him to have to work his way to Switzerland .
Nelsen worked for the Canadian Pacific Railway , and moved to North Vancouver , British Columbia , where he raised a family . Nelsen lost his hand in a hunting accident in 1933 , and was forced to retire as a ski jumper . He continued as an organizer , and was among other things president of the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association and later vice @-@ president of the Canadian Amateur Ski Association . In 1948 , after Big Hill had been expanded , it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill . Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971 and the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983 .
= = Early and personal life = =
He was born Nils Johan Nilsen to a Norwegian family in Seljeskog in Salangen on 3 June 1894 , as the oldest of six children . As a child , Nelsen was an active skier and ski jumper , with more than fifteen ski jumps located in the area . In 1913 , his family emigrated to Big Eddy near Revelstoke . Once in Canada , he anglicized his name . His brother , Ivind Nilsen was also a champion ski jumper , and became among other things Boy 's World Champion in 1922 . Ivind , who chose not to anglicize his last name , was known for his supreme style , while Nels was better known for his length . Nelsen married Emma Pickard , with whom he had ten children . Except for a brief period as a ski instructor , he worked as a brakeman and conductor for the Canadian Pacific Railway , whose flexibility made it easer to participate in tournaments . He moved to North Vancouver where he raised his family .
= = Athletic career = =
Nelsen won the home @-@ town Winter Carnival Tournament , setting the hill record of 56 meters ( 183 ft ) in Big Hill in the inauguration tournament in 1916 . With this and subsequent better distances , he would hold the hill record |