tokens
sequence
id
int64
text
string
[ "Ġwould", "Ġsee", "Ġthe", "Ġfuture", ",", "Ġno", "Ġone", "Ġwould", "Ġever", "Ġbelieve", "Ġher", "Ġprophe", "cies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠH", "est", "ia", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhear", "th", ",", "Ġrejected", "Ġboth", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġand", "ĠPose", "idon", "'s", "Ġmarriage", "Ġproposals", "Ġand", "Ġswore", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġwould", "Ġalways", "Ġstay", "Ġunmarried", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFemale", "Ġcounterparts", "Ġ", "ĠArtemis", "Ġ", "ĠArtemis", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġsister", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "a", "Ġap", "oll", "ous", "a", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġis", ",", "Ġshe", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġfemale", "Ġdiv", "inity", "Ġrepresented", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġidea", "Ġthat", "ĠApollo", "Ġdid", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmale", "Ġdiv", "inity", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "-", "Hell", "enic", "Ġperiod", ",", "Ġtheir", "Ġrelationship", "Ġwas", "Ġdescribed", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġone", "Ġbetween", "Ġhusband", "Ġand", "Ġwife", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthere", "Ġseems", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġa", "Ġtradition", "Ġwhich", "Ġactually", "Ġdescribed", "ĠArtemis", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġwife", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġrelationship", "Ġwas", "Ġnever", "Ġsexual", "Ġbut", "Ġspiritual", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġwhy", "Ġthey", "Ġboth", "Ġare", "Ġseen", "Ġbeing", "Ġunmarried", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠHell", "enic", "Ġperiod", ".", "Ġ", "ĠArtemis", ",", "Ġlike", "Ġher", "Ġbrother", ",", "Ġis", "Ġarmed", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġbow", "Ġand", "Ġarrows", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcause", "Ġof", "Ġsudden", "Ġdeaths", "Ġof", "Ġwomen", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġalso", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġprotector", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġyoung", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġgirls", ".", "ĠThough", "Ġshe", "Ġhas", "Ġnothing", "Ġto", "Ġdo", "Ġwith", "Ġor", "acles", ",", "Ġmusic", "Ġor", "Ġpoetry", ",", "Ġshe", "Ġsometimes", "Ġled", "Ġthe", "Ġfemale", "Ġchorus", "Ġon", "ĠOlympus", "Ġwhile", "ĠApollo", "Ġsang", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlaure", "l", "Ġ(", "d", "aph", "ne", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġsacred", "Ġto", "Ġboth", ".", "ĠArtemis", "ĠD", "aph", "na", "ia", "Ġhad", "Ġher", "Ġtemple", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "ĠL", "aced", "emon", "ians", ",", "Ġat", "Ġa", "Ġplace", "Ġcalled", "ĠHyp", "so", "i", ".", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "ĠD", "aph", "n", "ep", "hor", "os", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġtemple", "Ġin", "ĠE", "ret", "ria", ",", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "place", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġcitizens", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġthe", "Ġoath", "s", "\".", "ĠIn", "Ġlater", "Ġtimes", "Ġwhen", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġregarded", "Ġas", "Ġidentical", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġsun", "Ġor", "ĠHel", "ios", ",", "ĠArtemis", "Ġwas", "Ġnaturally", "Ġregarded", "Ġas", "ĠSel", "ene", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġmoon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "Ġwitchcraft", "Ġand", "Ġmagic", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġch", "th", "onic", "Ġcounterpart", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġboth", "Ġare", "Ġcousins", ",", "Ġsince", "Ġtheir", "Ġmothers", "Ġ-", "ĠLet", "o", "Ġand", "ĠAster", "ia", "Ġ-", "Ġare", "Ġsisters", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġepit", "he", "ts", ",", "ĠHe", "cat", "os", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmasculine", "Ġform", "Ġof", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", ",", "Ġand", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġnames", "Ġmean", "Ġ\"", "working", "Ġfrom", "Ġafar", "\".", "ĠWhile", "ĠApollo", "Ġpresided", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġprophetic", "Ġpowers", "Ġand", "Ġmagic", "Ġof", "Ġlight", "Ġand", "Ġheaven", ",", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "Ġpresided", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġprophetic", "Ġpowers", "Ġand", "Ġmagic", "Ġof", "Ġnight", "Ġand", "Ġch", "th", "onian", "Ġdarkness", ".", "ĠIf", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "gate", "-", "keeper", "\",", "ĠApollo", "ĠA", "gy", "ie", "us", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "door", "-", "keeper", "\".", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "Ġcross", "roads", "Ġand", "ĠApollo", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġgod", "Ġand", "Ġprotector", "Ġof", "Ġstreets", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġoldest", "Ġevidence", "Ġfound", "Ġfor", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "'s", "Ġworship", "Ġis", "Ġat", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġtemple", "Ġin", "ĠMile", "t", "os", ".", "ĠThere", ",", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "Ġwas", "Ġtaken", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġsister", "Ġcounterpart", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġabsence", "Ġof", "ĠArtemis", ".", "ĠHe", "c", "ate", "'s", "Ġlunar", "Ġnature", "Ġmakes", "Ġher", "Ġthe", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwaning", "Ġmoon", "Ġand", "Ġcontrasts", "Ġand", "Ġcomple", "ments", ",", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtime", ",", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġsolar", "Ġnature", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAthena", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġdeity", "Ġof", "Ġknowledge", "Ġand", "Ġgreat", "Ġpower", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġseen", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġmale", "Ġcounterpart", "Ġof", "ĠAthena", ".", "ĠBeing", "ĠZeus", "'", "Ġfavorite", "Ġchildren", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġgiven", "Ġmore", "Ġpowers", "Ġand", "Ġduties", ".", "ĠApollo", "Ġand", "ĠAthena", "Ġoften", "Ġtook", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġrole", "Ġas", "Ġprotect", "ors", "Ġof", "Ġcities", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġpatrons", "Ġof", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġimportant", "Ġcities", ".", "ĠAthena", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "ĠAthens", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġgod", "Ġof", "ĠSpart", "a", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġpatrons", "Ġof", "Ġarts", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġand", "ĠAthena", "Ġwere", "Ġcompanions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMus", "es", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", "Ġa", "Ġmuch", "Ġmore", "Ġfrequent", "Ġcompanion", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġlatter", ".", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġsometimes", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠAthena", "Ġand", "ĠHep", "ha", "est", "us", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠTrojan", "Ġwar", ",", "Ġas", "ĠZeus", "'", "Ġexecutive", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġis", "Ġseen", "Ġholding", "Ġthe", "Ġa", "eg", "is", "Ġlike", "ĠAthena", "Ġusually", "Ġdoes", ".", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġdecisions", "Ġwere", "Ġusually", "Ġapproved", "Ġby", "Ġhis", "Ġsister", "ĠAthena", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthey", "Ġboth", "Ġworked", "Ġto", "Ġestablish", "Ġthe", "Ġlaw", "Ġand", "Ġorder", "Ġset", "Ġforth", "Ġby", "ĠZeus", ".", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠO", "rest", "e", "ia", "ĠIn", "ĠA", "es", "ch", "yl", "us", "'", "ĠO", "rest", "e", "ia", "Ġtrilogy", ",", "ĠCly", "tem", "n", "est", "ra", "Ġkills", "Ġher", "Ġhusband", ",", "ĠKing", "ĠAg", "am", "em", "non", "Ġbecause", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġsacrificed", "Ġtheir", "Ġdaughter", "ĠI", "ph", "igen", "ia", "Ġto", "Ġproceed", "Ġforward", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠTrojan", "Ġwar", ".", "ĠApollo", "Ġgives", "Ġan", "Ġorder", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "ĠOracle", "Ġat", "ĠDel", "phi", "Ġthat", "ĠAg", "am", "em", "non", "'s", "Ġson", ",", "ĠO", "rest", "es", ",", "Ġis", "Ġto", "Ġkill", "ĠCly", "tem", "n", "est", "ra", "Ġand", "ĠAeg", "ist", "hus", ",", "Ġher", "Ġlover", ".", "ĠO", "rest", "es", "Ġand", "ĠP", "yl", "ades", "Ġcarry", "Ġout", "Ġthe", "Ġrevenge", ",", "Ġand", "Ġconsequently", "ĠO", "rest", "es", "Ġis", "Ġpursued", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠEr", "iny", "es", "Ġor", "ĠF", "uries", "Ġ(", "female", "Ġperson", "ifications", "Ġof", "Ġvengeance", ").", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠF", "uries", "Ġargue", "Ġabout", "Ġwhether", "Ġthe", "Ġmat", "ric", "ide", "Ġwas", "Ġjustified", ";", "ĠApollo", "Ġholds", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġbond", "Ġof", "Ġmarriage", "Ġis", "Ġsacred", "Ġand", "ĠO", "rest", "es", "Ġwas", "Ġaven", "ging", "Ġhis", "Ġfather", ",", "Ġwhereas", "Ġthe", "ĠEr", "iny", "es", "Ġsay", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġbond", "Ġof", "Ġblood", "Ġbetween", "Ġmother", "Ġand", "Ġson", "Ġis", "Ġmore", "Ġmeaningful", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġbond", "Ġof", "Ġmarriage", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġinvade", "Ġhis", "Ġtemple", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhe", "Ġdrives", "Ġthem", "Ġaway", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġsays", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġmatter", "Ġshould", "Ġbe", "Ġbrought", "Ġbefore", "ĠAthena", ".", "ĠApollo", "Ġpromises", "Ġto", "Ġprotect", "ĠO", "rest", "es", ",", "Ġas", "ĠO", "rest", "es", "Ġhas", "Ġbecome", "ĠApollo", "'s", "Ġsupp", "lic", "ant", ".", "ĠApollo", "Ġadvocates", "ĠO", "rest", "es", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġtrial", ",", "Ġand", "Ġultimately", "ĠAthena", "Ġrules", "Ġin", "Ġfavor", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRoman", "ĠApollo", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠRoman", "Ġworship", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "Ġwas", "Ġadopted", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠGreeks", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġquint", "ess", "entially", "ĠGreek", "Ġgod", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġhad", "Ġno", "Ġdirect", "ĠRoman", "Ġequivalent", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġlater", "ĠRoman", "Ġpoets", "Ġoften", "Ġreferred", "Ġto", "Ġhim", "Ġas", "ĠPh", "o", "ebus", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġtradition", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠDel", "ph", "ic", "Ġor", "acle", "Ġwas", "Ġconsulted", "Ġas", "Ġearly", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġperiod", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġkings", "Ġof", "ĠRome", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġreign", "Ġof", "ĠTar", "quin", "ius", "ĠSuper", "bus", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "Ġoccasion", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġpest", "il", "ence", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ430" ]
200
would see the future, no one would ever believe her prophecies. Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, rejected both Apollo's and Poseidon's marriage proposals and swore that she would always stay unmarried. Female counterparts Artemis Artemis as the sister of Apollo, is thea apollousa, that is, she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. In the pre-Hellenic period, their relationship was described as the one between husband and wife, and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as the wife of Apollo. However, this relationship was never sexual but spiritual, which is why they both are seen being unmarried in the Hellenic period. Artemis, like her brother, is armed with a bow and arrows. She is the cause of sudden deaths of women. She also is the protector of the young, especially girls. Though she has nothing to do with oracles, music or poetry, she sometimes led the female chorus on Olympus while Apollo sang. The laurel (daphne) was sacred to both. Artemis Daphnaia had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi. Apollo Daphnephoros had a temple in Eretria, a "place where the citizens are to take the oaths". In later times when Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun or Helios, Artemis was naturally regarded as Selene or the moon. Hecate Hecate, the goddess of witchcraft and magic, is the chthonic counterpart of Apollo. They both are cousins, since their mothers - Leto and Asteria - are sisters. One of Apollo's epithets, Hecatos, is the masculine form of Hecate, and both the names mean "working from afar". While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and heaven, Hecate presided over the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness. If Hecate is the "gate-keeper", Apollo Agyieus is the "door-keeper". Hecate is the goddess of crossroads and Apollo is the god and protector of streets. The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is at Apollo's temple in Miletos. There, Hecate was taken to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence of Artemis. Hecate's lunar nature makes her the goddess of the waning moon and contrasts and complements, at the same time, Apollo's solar nature. Athena As a deity of knowledge and great power, Apollo was seen being the male counterpart of Athena. Being Zeus' favorite children, they were given more powers and duties. Apollo and Athena often took up the role as protectors of cities, and were patrons of some of the important cities. Athena was the principle goddess of Athens, Apollo was the principle god of Sparta. As patrons of arts, Apollo and Athena were companions of the Muses, the former a much more frequent companion than the latter. Apollo was sometimes called the son of Athena and Hephaestus. In the Trojan war, as Zeus' executive, Apollo is seen holding the aegis like Athena usually does. Apollo's decisions were usually approved by his sister Athena, and they both worked to establish the law and order set forth by Zeus. Apollo in the Oresteia In Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he drives them away. He says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo. Roman Apollo The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430
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"Ġthe", "Ġgod", ".", "ĠE", "use", "b", "ius", "Ġwrote", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġappearance", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmoon", "Ġis", "Ġheld", "Ġsacred", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠApollo", "Ġin", "ĠEgypt", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", "'s", "Ġsymbol", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġman", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġhawk", "like", "Ġface", "Ġ(", "H", "orus", ").", "ĠClaud", "ius", "ĠA", "el", "ian", "us", "Ġwrote", "Ġthat", "ĠEgyptians", "Ġcalled", "ĠApollo", "ĠHorus", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġlanguage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġgod", "Ġof", "Ġcolonization", ",", "ĠApollo", "Ġgave", "Ġor", "acular", "Ġguidance", "Ġon", "Ġcolonies", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġheight", "Ġof", "Ġcolonization", ",", "Ġ750", "âĢĵ", "550", "ĠBCE", ".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠGreek", "Ġtradition", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġhelped", "ĠC", "ret", "an", "Ġor", "ĠArc", "adian", "Ġcolonists", "Ġfound", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠTroy", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġstory", "Ġmay", "Ġreflect", "Ġa", "Ġcultural", "Ġinfluence", 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"character", "istics", "Ġcontrasted", "Ġwith", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "ĠDion", "ys", "us", ",", "Ġgod", "Ġof", "Ġwine", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġrepresents", "Ġecstasy", "Ġand", "Ġdisorder", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcontrast", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġroles", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġgods", "Ġis", "Ġreflected", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġadject", "ives", "ĠAp", "oll", "onian", "Ġand", "ĠDion", "ys", "ian", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠGreeks", "Ġthought", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġqualities", "Ġas", "Ġcomplementary", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġgods", "Ġare", "Ġbrothers", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwhen", "ĠApollo", "Ġat", "Ġwinter", "Ġleft", "Ġfor", "ĠHyper", "b", "orea", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwould", "Ġleave", "Ġthe", "ĠDel", "ph", "ic", "Ġor", "acle", "Ġto", "ĠDion", "ys", "us", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġcontrast", "Ġappears", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġshown", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġsides", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠBorg", "he", "se", "ĠV", "ase", ".", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠGolden", "ĠMean", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġideal", "Ġof", "Ġmoderation", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġvirtue", "Ġthat", "Ġopposes", "Ġgl", "utton", "y", ".", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġarts", "Ġ", "ĠApollo", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġtheme", "Ġin", "ĠGreek", "Ġand", "ĠRoman", "Ġart", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠRenaissance", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġearliest", "ĠGreek", "Ġword", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġstatue", "Ġis", "Ġ\"", "del", "ight", "\"", "Ġ(", ",", "Ġag", "al", "ma", "),", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġsculpt", "ors", "Ġtried", "Ġto", "Ġcreate", "Ġforms", "Ġwhich", "Ġwould", "Ġinspire", "Ġsuch", "Ġguiding", "Ġvision", ".", "ĠGreek", "Ġart" ]
201
s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era. Festivals The chief Apollonian festival was the Pythian Games held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great Panhellenic Games. Also of major importance was the Delia held every four years on Delos. Athenian annual festivals included the Boedromia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, and Thargelia. Spartan annual festivals were the Carneia and the Hyacinthia. Thebes every nine years held the Daphnephoria. Attributes and symbols Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), ravens, hawks, crows (Apollo had hawks and crows as his messengers), snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin. Homer and Porphyry wrote that Apollo had a hawk as his messenger. In many myths Apollo is transformed into a hawk. In addition, Claudius Aelianus wrote that in Ancient Egypt people believed that hawks were sacred to the god and that according to the ministers of Apollo in Egypt there were certain men called "hawk-keepers" (ἱερακοβοσκοί) who fed and tended the hawks belonging to the god. Eusebius wrote that the second appearance of the moon is held sacred in the city of Apollo in Egypt and that the city's symbol is a man with a hawklike face (Horus). Claudius Aelianus wrote that Egyptians called Apollo Horus in their own language. As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention an Asia Minor god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase. Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony. Apollo in the arts Apollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is "delight" (, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art
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puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world. Archaic sculpture Numerous free-standing statues of male youths from Archaic Greece exist, and were once thought to be representations of Apollo, though later discoveries indicated that many represented mortals. In 1895, V. I. Leonardos proposed the term kouros ("male youth") to refer to those from Keratea; this usage was later expanded by Henri Lechat in 1904 to cover all statues of this format. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. Significantly more rare are the life-sized bronze statues. One of the few originals which survived into the present day—so rare that its discovery in 1959 was described as "a miracle" by Ernst Homann-Wedeking—is the masterpiece bronze, Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, a port city close to Athens, and is believed to have come from north-eastern Peloponnesus. It is the only surviving large-scale Peloponnesian statue. Classical sculpture The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara, a sophisticated seven-stringed variant of the lyre, in his left arm. While none of the Greek originals have survived, several Roman copies from approximately the late 1st or early 2nd century exist. Other notable forms are the Apollo Citharoedus and the Apollo Barberini. Hellenistic Greece-Rome Apollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a cithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE. The life-size so-called "Adonis" found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed. Modern reception Apollo often appears in modern and popular culture due to his status as the god of music, dance and poetry. Postclassical art and literature Dance and music Apollo has featured in dance and music in modern culture. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs "Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom"/"Dionysus: Bringer of Love". Books Apollo been portrayed in modern literature, such as when Charles Handy, in Gods of Management (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organizational culture. Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order, reason, and bureaucracy prevail. In 2016, author Rick Riordan published the first book in the Trials of Apollo series, publishing four other books in the series in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020. Film Apollo has been depicted in
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modern films—for instance, by Keith David in the 1997 animated feature film Hercules, by Luke Evans in the 2010 action film Clash of the Titans, and by Dimitri Lekkos in the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief. Video games Apollo has appeared in many modern video games. Apollo appears as a minor character in Santa Monica Studio's 2010 action-adventure game God of War III with his bow being used by Peirithous. He also appears in the 2014 Hi-Rez Studios Multiplayer Online Battle Arena game Smite as a playable character. Psychology and philosophy In philosophical discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Psychologist Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. Spaceflight In spaceflight, the 1960s and 1970s NASA program for orbiting and landing astronauts on the Moon was named after Apollo, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein: "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program." Genealogy See also Family tree of the Greek gods Dryad Epirus Phoebus (disambiguation) Sibylline oracles Tegyra Temple of Apollo (disambiguation) Notes References Sources Primary sources Aelian, On Animals, Volume II: Books 6-11. Translated by A. F. Scholfield. Loeb Classical Library 447. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958. Aeschylus, The Eumenides in Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes, Vol 2, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1926, Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992). Online version at the Topos Text Project. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apollonius of Rhodes, Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. Internet Archive. Callimachus, Callimachus and Lycophron with an English Translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English Translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Natura Deorum in Cicero in Twenty-eight Volumes, XIX De Natura Deorum; Academica, with an english translation by H. Rackham, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd, 1967. Internet Archive. Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8, translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Online version by Bill Thayer. Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Online version available at The Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the
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"ak", "ĠDj" ]
205
Konstantino Ramiotis; Books VII–VIII by Vasiliki Dogani; Books IX–X by Jonathan Alexander; Books XII–XIII by Nikolaos Giallousis. Internet Archive). Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, translated by J. H. Mozley, Loeb Classical Library No. 286. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Online translated text available at theoi.com. Vergil, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Secondary sources Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, The Orphic Hymns, Johns Hopkins University Press; owlerirst Printing edition (May 29, 2013). . Google Books. M. Bieber, 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art. Chicago. Hugh Bowden, 2005. Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 passim Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, University of California Press, 1959. . Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). Miranda J. Green, 1997. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson. Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books. Karl Kerenyi, 1953. Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität revised edition. Kerényi, Karl 1951, The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London. Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.. Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. . Martin Nilsson, 1955. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I. C.H. Beck. Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. . Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft: II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). Peck, Harry Thurston, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, New York. Harper and Brothers. 1898. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. D.S.Robertson (1945) A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture Cambridge University Press Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). "Apollo" Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. William Smith, LLD. William Wayte. G. E. Marindin. Albemarle Street, London. John Murray. 1890. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Spivey Nigel (1997) Greek art Phaedon Press Ltd. External links Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo Beauty gods Health gods Knowledge gods Light deities Maintenance deities Music and singing gods Oracular gods Solar gods Greek gods Roman gods Dragonslayers Mythological Greek archers Mythological rapists Homosexuality and bisexuality deities Divine twins Deities in the Iliad Metamorphoses characters Characters in Greek mythology LGBT themes in Greek mythology Children of Zeus Characters in the Odyssey Characters in the Argonautica <|endoftext|>Andre Kirk Agassi ( ; born April 29, 1970) is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. He is an eight-time major champion and a 1996 Olympic gold medalist, as well as a runner-up in seven other Grand Slam tournaments. Agassi was the first man to win four Australian Open singles titles in the Open Era (though later surpassed by Novak Dj
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206
okovic, who won his fifth title in 2015 and has since won the tournament nine times). Agassi is the second of five men to achieve the career Grand Slam in the Open Era and the fifth of eight overall to make the achievement. He is also the first of two men to achieve the career Golden Slam (career Grand Slam and Olympic gold medal), and the only man to win a career Super Slam (career Grand Slam, plus the Olympic gold medal and the year-end championships). Agassi was the first man to win all four singles majors on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and remains the most recent American man to win the French Open (in 1999) and the Australian Open (in 2003). He also won 17 ATP Masters Series titles and was part of the winning Davis Cup teams in 1990, 1992 and 1995. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995 but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to No. 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over. Agassi returned to No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname "The Punisher". After suffering from sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back, a spondylolisthesis (vertebral displacement) and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve, Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the US Open. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K–12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player Steffi Graf since 2001. 1970–1985: Early life Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada, to Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi, a former Olympic boxer from Iran and American Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley). His father is of Armenian and Assyrian heritage. Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife of former number one Pancho Gonzales), Philip and Tami. Andre was given the middle name Kirk after Kirk Kerkorian, an Armenian American billionaire. Emmanuel Agassi, then a waiter at Tropicana Las Vegas, had met Kerkorian in 1963. At the age of 12, Agassi and his good friend and doubles partner, Roddy Parks, won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago. Agassi describes memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book Open. When he was 13, Agassi was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only three months, because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri, deeply impressed by his talent, called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free." Agassi then dropped out of school in the ninth grade to pursue a full-time tennis career. 1986–2006: Professional career 1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at La Quinta, California. He won his first match against John Austin, but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander. By the end of 1986, Agassi was ranked No. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica and ended the year ranked No. 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Forest Hills WCT, Stuttgart Outdoor, Volvo International and Livingston Open), and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level. During 1988, he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager (a record that stood for 17 years until Rafael Nadal broke it in 2005). His year-end ranking was No. 3, behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the Association of Tennis Professionals and Tennis magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988. In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress
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",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġbegan", "Ġto", "Ġemploy", "Ġmore", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtactical", ",", "Ġconsistent", "Ġapproach", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġfueled", "Ġhis", "Ġresurgence", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġstarted", "Ġslowly", "Ġin", "Ġ1994", ",", "Ġlosing", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġweek", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "ĠOpen", "Ġand", "ĠWim", "bledon", ".", "ĠNevertheless", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġemerged", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġhard", "-", "court", "Ġseason", ",", "Ġwinning", "Ġthe", "ĠCanadian", "ĠOpen", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġcomeback", "Ġculminated", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġ1994", "ĠUS", "ĠOpen", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġfive", "-", "set", "Ġfourth", "-", "round", "Ġvictory", "Ġagainst", "ĠMichael", "ĠChang", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġthen", "Ġbecame", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġman", "Ġto", "Ġcapture", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", "ĠOpen", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġunse", "eded", "Ġplayer", ",", "Ġbeating", "ĠMichael", "ĠSt", "ich", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", ".", "ĠAlong", "Ġthe", "Ġway", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġbeat", "Ġ5", "Ġseeded", "Ġplayers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ1995", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", 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code to which players at the event are required to conform. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988 and made the US Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to Andrés Gómez, which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. The rivalry between these two American players became the biggest one in tennis over the rest of the decade. Agassi ended 1990 on a high note as he helped the United States win its first Davis Cup in 8 years and won his only Tennis Masters Cup, beating reigning Wimbledon champion Stefan Edberg in the final. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus Jim Courier. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to David Wheaton. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: Boris Becker and John McEnroe. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until Lleyton Hewitt ten years later. Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. Agassi famously played the game wearing Oakley brand sunglasses, and a photo of him from the day appeared on the cover of Tennis magazine. In his memoir, he wrote that he was covering up bloodshot eyes from a hangover and claimed that the founder of Oakley, Jim Jannard, had sent him a Dodge Viper to thank him for the inadvertent publicity. In 1993, Agassi won the only doubles title of his career, at the Cincinnati Masters, partnered with Petr Korda. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to Thomas Enqvist and required wrist surgery late in the year. 1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall With new coach Brad Gilbert on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a five-set fourth-round victory against Michael Chang. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player, beating Michael Stich in the final. Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players. In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old "image is everything" style. He competed in the 1995 Australian Open (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating Sampras in a four-set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on hardcourt, with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 (Cincinnati, Key Biscayne, and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late-night four-set semi-final of the US Open against Boris Becker. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and
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finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses to Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne. 1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using crystal methamphetamine at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend. He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress, model, and socialite Brooke Shields and had lost interest in the game. He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to No. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant championships. 1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam In 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against Pete Sampras and Patrick Rafter. In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 110 to No. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ríos, who became No. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988). Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining Rod Laver, Fred Perry, Roy Emerson and Don Budge—these have since been joined by Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, and Novak Djokovic) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the Open Era. This win also made him the first (of only four, the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts). Agassi also became the only male player to win the Career Super Slam, consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a Year-end championship. Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the US Open, beating Todd Martin in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat Marat Safin. Agassi ended 1999 as the No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98). This was the only time Agassi ended the year at No. 1. Agassi was runner-up to Sampras at the year-end Tennis Masters Cup losing 1–6, 5–7, 4-6 despite beating Sampras in the round-robin 6–2, 6–2. He began the next year 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title
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209
, beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clément. En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semi-finals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set. In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades. 2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. The last duel between Agassi and Sampras came in the final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months. In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat Rainer Schüttler in straight sets in the final. On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the No. 1 ranking to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by Roger Federer in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks, when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. There he managed to reach the US Open semi-finals, where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero, surrendering his No. 1 ranking to him. During his career, Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer, his third time to finish as runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000, and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33, he had been one of the oldest players to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was No. 4 in 1987. 2004–2006: Final years In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi-finals of the Australian Open to Marat Safin; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event. He won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo and Hamburg. At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), tied with Roger Federer and surpassed only by Ken Rosewall, who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked No. 8, one of the oldest players to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No. 7 in 1988. At the time, Agassi also became the sixth male player during the open era
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to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over Alex Bogomolov in Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles. Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the Rogers Cup, before falling to No. 2 Rafael Nadal. Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating Răzvan Sabău and Ivo Karlović in straight sets and Tomáš Berdych in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over James Blake, where he rallied from two sets down to win in the fifth set tie-breaker. His other five-set victories were on Xavier Malisse in the fourth round and Robby Ginepri in the semi-finals. In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked No. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end. Agassi had a poor start to 2006, as he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then Wimbledon. He was defeated in the third round by world No. 2 (and eventual runner-up) Rafael Nadal. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando González of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a tough four-set win against Andrei Pavel, Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five tough sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech. Rivalries Agassi vs. Sampras The rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 1990s, as Sampras and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest server and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20. The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi, however, lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the 1992 French Open, where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug himself out from a two-sets-to-love hole, levelling the match at two sets apiece; however, Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship. With both Sampras and Agassi participating, the US won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won three out of four major titles, meeting each other twice in the finals, and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the whole
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211
year. They met five times during the year, all in the title matches, including the Australian Open, the Newsweek Champions Cup (now Indian Wells), the Lipton International Players Championships (now Miami Open), the Canadian Open, and the US Open. Agassi won three of the finals, including the Australian Open; however, Sampras took the US Open title, ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off, Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season. In the following three years, while Sampras continued winning Grand Slam titles every season, Agassi slumped in the rankings and struggled in major competitions. The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was at Wimbledon in 1999, where Sampras won in straight sets. For both, it was considered a career rejuvenation, as Sampras had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was regaining his status as a top-ranked player after winning the French Open. Sampras forfeited the No. 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open, which Agassi went on to win. They faced each other twice in the season-ending ATP Tour World Championships, with Sampras losing the round-robin match, but winning the final. In the 2000s, they met three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests. In 2000, the top-ranked Agassi defeated No. 3 Sampras in the semi-finals of the Australian Open in five sets, which was an important win for Agassi who had lost 4 of the previous five matches against Sampras. In arguably their most memorable match ever, Sampras defeated Agassi in the 2001 US Open quarterfinals in four sets. There were no breaks of serve during the entire match. Reruns of the match are frequently featured on television, especially during US Open rain delays, and the match is considered one of the best in history because of the level of play presented by both players. Their last meeting was the final of the 2002 US Open, which was their third meeting in a US Open final, but the first since 1995. The match was also notable because they had defeated several up-and-coming players en route to the final. Sampras had defeated No. 3 Tommy Haas in the fourth round and future No. 1 Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals, while Agassi had defeated No. 1 and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets. This was the final ATP tour singles match of Sampras's career. Agassi vs. Chang Michael Chang was the opponent Agassi faced most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to stay at the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players and both having foreign descent. Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high-quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing in a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi-finals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final. Agassi won the last four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly past his prime. Agassi vs. Becker Boris Becker and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker won their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi reversed the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 Davis Cup semi-final match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title.
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"Ġthe", "Ġsummer", "Ġof", "Ġ2009", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġ2009", "ĠFrench", "ĠOpen", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġwas", "Ġon", "Ġhand", "Ġto", "Ġpresent", "ĠRoger", "ĠFed", "erer", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġcompleted", "Ġhis", "ĠCareer", "ĠGrand", "ĠSlam", "Ġby", "Ġwinning", "Ġthe", "Ġtournament", "Ġand", "Ġjoined", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġsix", "Ġmen", "Ġto", "Ġcomplete", "Ġthe", "ĠCareer", "ĠGrand", "ĠSlam", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġtrophy", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlso", "Ġin", "Ġ2009", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġplayed", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠOut", "back", "ĠChampions", "ĠSeries", "Ġevent", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġplayed", "Ġthe", "ĠCancer", "ĠTreatment", "ĠCenters", "Ġof", "ĠAmerica", "ĠTennis", "ĠChampionships", "Ġat", "ĠSurprise", ",", "ĠArizona", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġhe", "Ġreached", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", "Ġbefore", "Ġb", "owing", "Ġto", "Ġeventual", "Ġchampion", "ĠTodd", "ĠMartin", ".", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġreturned", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġtour", "Ġrenamed", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠPower", "Shares", 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The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semi-final after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi-final, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets. Agassi vs. Rafter Agassi and Pat Rafter played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters, because of the players' contrasting styles of play, with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts, but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the 1999 Rome Masters. They played four matches at Wimbledon with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999, while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters, both of the gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open, in 1995 and 2001, on his way to the title on both occasions. Rafter, however, took their only US Open encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title. Agassi vs. Federer Agassi and Roger Federer played 11 times, and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras, the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer, who was another great server like Sampras, became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of his career. Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones. They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Open in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round-robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two windy days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the 2005 US Open. In the historic clash of generations, Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match was the last appearance by Agassi in any tournament final. Agassi vs. Lendl Agassi and Ivan Lendl played eight times, and Lendl led their head-to-head series 6–2. Agassi vs. Edberg Agassi and Stefan Edberg played nine times, and Agassi led their head-to-head series 6–3. Earnings Agassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Djokovic, Federer, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (May 2018). He also earned more than $25 million a year through endorsements during his career, which was ranked fourth in all sports at the time. Post-retirement Since retiring after the 2006 US Open, Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009. At the 2009 French Open, Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy. Also in 2009, Agassi played at the Outback Champions Series event for the first time. He played the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships at Surprise, Arizona, where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion Todd Martin. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in Boston and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas. In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in
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213
San Jose, beating John McEnroe in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat Michael Chang for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat James Blake for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in Portland to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to Mark Philippoussis in the final of the Champions Shootout. The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston. In 2009, in Macau Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the "Hit for Haiti" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the earthquake. Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, the old rivals began making jokes at each other's expense, which ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event, Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at Madison Square Garden in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets. On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual World Tennis Day. This time, it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets. He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to Novak Djokovic for the French Open. Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31, 2018, stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship. Playing style Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court. Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the baseline, and he was able to consistently take the ball on the rise. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. A signature play later in his career was a change-up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes. This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it. Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. Despite grass being his worst surface, his first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time. His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors. Business ventures Agassi established a limited liability company named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises). Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including Wayne Gretzky, Joe Montana, Shaquille O'Neal, Ken Griffey, Jr., and Monica Seles) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named Official All Star Café in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001. In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006. In 2002, he joined the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network
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. After meeting chef Michael Mina at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, San Jose, Dana Point, Atlantic City and Las Vegas. Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin from MGM Mirage for $215 million in 2004. One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to Landry's, Inc. for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by Allen & Company. Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at Caesars Palace, which opened in 2004, and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010. In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises. They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection. In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at Tamarack Resort in Donnelly, Idaho. Owing to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September, they collaborated with Steve Case's Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers. They also invested in online ticket reseller viagogo in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company. In October 2012, Village Roadshow and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build a new water park called Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013. IMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with CAA. Equipment and endorsements Agassi used Prince Graphite rackets early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers Donnay. He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993. He renewed his contract in 1999, and in November 2003 he signed a lifetime agreement with Head. He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005, Agassi left Nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with Adidas. A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas was more than happy to do so. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike. Agassi was sponsored by DuPont, Ebel, Mountain Dew in 1993, Mazda in 1997, Kia Motors in 2002, American Express and Deutsche Bank in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc., promoting the Canon EOS Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by Aramis, and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with 24 Hour Fitness, which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end. Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker Jacobs Creek announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to "[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court." In 2007, watchmaker Longines named Agassi as their brand ambassador. Agassi and his mother appeared in a Got Milk? advertisement in 2002. Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed Deutsche Telekom in 2002, Genworth Financial and Canon Inc. in 2004, LVMH in 2007, and Nintendo Wii and Wii Fit U and Longines in 2013. Personal life Relationships and family In the early 1990s, after dating Wendi Stewart, Agassi dated American singer and entertainer Barbra Streisand. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, "We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're symp
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"iss", "Ġwho", "Ġdescribed", "Ġit", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "very", "Ġcandid", ",", "Ġvery", "Ġamusing", ",", "Ġand", "Ġvery", "Ġinstructional", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġmedia", "ĠIn", "Ġ2017", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġappeared", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdocumentary", "Ġfilm", "ĠLove", "ĠMeans", "ĠZero", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhighlighted", "Ġthe", "Ġtroubled", "Ġrelationship", "Ġbetween", "Ġhis", "Ġcoach", "ĠNick", "ĠBol", "lett", "ieri", "Ġand", "Ġhim", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPolitics", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġhas", "Ġdonated", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ$", "100", ",", "000", "Ġto", "ĠDemocratic", "Ġcandidates", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ$", "2", ",", "000", "Ġto", "ĠRepublicans", ".", "ĠOn", "ĠSeptember", "Ġ1", ",", "Ġ2010", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġhe", "Ġappeared", "Ġon", "Ġdaily", "ĠW", "NY", "C", "Ġpublic", "Ġradio", "Ġprogram", "ĠThe", "ĠBrian", "ĠLeh", "rer", "ĠShow", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġstated", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġregistered", "Ġas", "ĠIndependent", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPhil", "anthrop", "y", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġfounded", "Ġthe", "ĠAndre", "ĠAg", "assi", 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"Ġbasketball", "Ġprogram", "Ġ(", "the", "ĠAg", "assi", "ĠStars", ")", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġrigorous", "Ġsystem", "Ġthat", "Ġencourages", "Ġa", "Ġmix", "Ġof", "Ġacademics", "Ġand", "Ġathletics", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2001", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġopened", "Ġthe", "ĠAndre", "ĠAg", "assi", "ĠCollege", "ĠPrepar", "atory", "ĠAcademy", "Ġin", "ĠLas", "ĠVegas", ",", "Ġa", "Ġtuition", "-", "free", "Ġcharter", "Ġschool", "Ġfor", "Ġat", "-", "risk", "Ġchildren", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġarea", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġpersonally", "Ġdonated", "Ġ$", "35", "Âł", "million", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġschool", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ2009", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgraduating", "Ġclass", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġ100", "Ġpercent", "Ġgraduation", "Ġrate", "Ġand", "Ġexpected", "Ġa", "Ġ100", "Ġpercent", "Ġcollege", "Ġacceptance", "Ġrate", ".", "ĠAmong", "Ġother", "Ġchild", "-", "related", "Ġprograms", "Ġthat", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġsupports", "Ġthrough", "Ġhis", "ĠAndre", "ĠAg", "assi", "ĠChar", "itable", "ĠFoundation", "Ġis", "ĠClark", "ĠCounty", "'s", "Ġonly", "Ġresidential", "Ġfacility", "Ġfor", "Ġabused", "Ġand", "Ġneglected", "Ġchildren", ",", "ĠChild", "ĠHaven", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1997", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġdonated", "Ġfunding", "Ġto", "ĠChild", "ĠHaven", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġsix", "-", "room", "Ġclassroom", "Ġbuilding", "Ġnow", "Ġnamed", "Ġthe", "ĠAg", "assi", "ĠCenter", "Ġfor", "ĠEducation", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġfoundation", "Ġalso", "Ġprovided", "Ġ$", "720", ",", "000", "Ġto", "Ġassist", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbuilding", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAndre", "ĠAg", "assi", "ĠC", "ottage", "Ġfor", "ĠMed", "ically", "ĠFrag", "ile", "ĠChildren", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġ20", "-", "bed", "Ġfacility", "Ġopened", "Ġin", "ĠDecember", "Ġ2001", ",", "Ġand", "Ġaccommod", "ates", "Ġdevelopment", "ally", "Ġdelayed", "Ġor", "Ġhandic", "apped", "Ġchildren", "Ġand", "Ġchildren", "Ġqu", "arant", "ined", "Ġfor", "Ġinfectious", "Ġdiseases", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2007", ",", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġseveral", "Ġother", "Ġathletes", ",", "ĠAg", "assi", "Ġfounded", "Ġthe", "Ġcharity", "ĠAthlet", "es", "Ġfor", "ĠHope", ",", "Ġwhich" ]
215
atico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava." He was married to Brooke Shields from 1997 to 1999. He married Steffi Graf on October 22, 2001, at their Las Vegas home; the only witnesses were their mothers. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003). Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players. The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin, a community in the Las Vegas Valley. Graf's mother and brother, Michael, with his four children, also live there. Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi. In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes. In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him. Autobiography Agassi's autobiography, Open: An Autobiography, (written with assistance from J. R. Moehringer), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father, who came to the United States from Iran where he was a professional boxer. Overly demanding and emotionally abusive to the whole family, his father groomed young Agassi for tennis greatness by building a tennis court in their backyard and sending Agassi to tennis boarding school under the supervision of Nick Bollettieri, who later coached and managed part of Agassi's professional career. There is also mention in the book of using and testing positive for methamphetamine in 1997. In response to this revelation, Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed, while Marat Safin argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that "It was a period in my life where I needed help." Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought Pete Sampras was "robotic". The book reached No. 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list and received favorable reviews. It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 British Sports Book Awards. In 2018, the book was listed on Esquire as one of "The 30 Best Sports Books Ever Written", and was also recommended by self-help author Tim Ferriss who described it as "very candid, very amusing, and very instructional". In media In 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film Love Means Zero, which highlighted the troubled relationship between his coach Nick Bollettieri and him. Politics Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates, and $2,000 to Republicans. On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program The Brian Lehrer Show, he stated that he is registered as Independent. Philanthropy Agassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He has been cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation. Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009, the graduating class had a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases. In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity Athletes for Hope, which
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helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund, now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the "nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses." In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation. In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building in Las Vegas as a new school, called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in Henderson, Nevada to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church. Career statistics Singles performance timeline Grand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runners-up) By winning the 1999 French Open, Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after Budge, Perry, Laver and Emerson, and before Federer, Nadal and Djokovic) to achieve this. Open Era records These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis and in ATP World Tour Masters 1000 series since 1990. Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements. Legacy Considered by numerous sources to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time, Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game, and was described by the BBC upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history". As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s. Professional awards ITF World Champion: 1999. ATP Player of the Year: 1999. ATP Most Improved Player: 1988, 1998 Recognition In 1992, Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year. In 2010, Sports Illustrated named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time. On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island. Video Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, . Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001) Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes. Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005) Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, . Video games Andre Agassi Tennis for the SNES, Sega Genesis, Sega Game Gear, Master System, and Mobile phone Agassi Tennis Generation for PS2 and GBA Agassi Tennis Generation 2002 for Windows Smash Court Pro Tournament for PS2 Top Spin 4 (On cover of game) for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii See also Agassi–Sampras rivalry All-time tennis records – men's singles List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions Tennis male players statistics Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles Explanatory notes References Further reading External links Andre Agassi Ventures Farewell to Tennis Speech at the U.S. Open Agassi's Tennis Hall of Fame Induction for Steffi Graf 1970 births Living people 20th-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople American autobiographers American investors American male tennis players American people of Iranian descent American people of Iranian-Assyrian descent American sportspeople of Armenian descent American real estate businesspeople American sportspeople in doping cases Armenian-American tennis players Assyrian sportspeople Australian Open (tennis) champions Doping cases in tennis Ethnic Armenian sportspeople French Open champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Iranian Assyrian people Iranian people of Armenian descent Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics Nevada Democrats Novak Djokovic coaches Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis Philanthropists from Nevada Sportspeople from Las Vegas Sportspeople of Iranian descent Steffi Graf Tennis people from Nevada Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon champions World No. 1 tennis players Writers from Las Vegas <|endoftext|>The Austroasiatic languages , also known as Mon–Khmer , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered
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throughout parts of Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China. There are around 117 million speakers of Austroasiatic languages. Of these languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have a long-established recorded history. Only two have official status as modern national languages: Vietnamese in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar, the Wa language is the de facto official language of Wa State. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status. Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer, and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic), while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family. Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across Southeast Asia and parts of India, Bangladesh, Nepal and East Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant original languages of Mainland Southeast Asia (excluding the Andaman Islands), with the neighboring, and sometimes surrounding, Kra–Dai, Hmong-Mien, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan languages being the result of later migrations. Etymology The name Austroasiatic comes from a combination of the Latin words for "South" and "Asia", hence "South Asia". Typology Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice. Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure. Proto-language Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in. Internal classification Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh, parts of Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995
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"ĠThailand", "Ġ", "ĠPal", "aun", "go", "-", "Pak", "anic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ", "ĠPak", "anic", "Ġor", "ĠPal", "yu", ":", "Ġ4", "Ġor", "Ġ5", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "Ġsouthern", "ĠChina", "Ġand", "ĠVietnam", "Ġ", "ĠPal", "aun", "g", "ic", ":", "Ġ21", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠBurma", ",", "Ġsouthern", "ĠChina", ",", "Ġand", "ĠThailand", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNuclear", "ĠMon", "âĢĵ", "Kh", "mer", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ", "ĠKh", "mer", "o", "-", "V", "iet", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ(", "Eastern", "ĠMon", "âĢĵ", "Kh", "mer", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠViet", "o", "-", "Kat", "u", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ?", "Ġ", "ĠViet", "ic", ":", "Ġ10", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠVietnam", "Ġand", "ĠLaos", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "ĠVietnamese", "Ġlanguage", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġspeakers", "Ġof", "Ġany", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠKat", "u", "ic", ":", "Ġ19", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠLaos", ",", "ĠVietnam", ",", "Ġand", "ĠThailand", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠKh", "mer", "o", "-", "B", "ahn", "ar", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ", "ĠBah", "nar", "ic", ":", "Ġ40", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠVietnam", ",", "ĠLaos", ",", "Ġand", "ĠCambodia", ".", "ĠKh", "meric", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠKh", "mer", "Ġdialect", "s", "Ġof", "ĠCambodia", ",", "ĠThailand", ",", "Ġand", "ĠVietnam", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPear", "ic", ":", "Ġ6", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "ĠCambodia", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNico", "-", "Mon", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ(", "Southern", "ĠMon", "âĢĵ", "Kh", "mer", ")", "Ġ", "ĠNic", "ob", "are", "se", ":", "Ġ6", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNic", "obar", "ĠIslands", ",", "Ġa", "Ġterritory", "Ġof", "ĠIndia", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "li", "-", "Mon", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "l", "ian", ":", "Ġ19", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "Ġpen", "ins", "ular", "ĠMalaysia", "Ġand", "ĠThailand", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMon", "ic", ":", "Ġ2", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMon", "Ġlanguage", "Ġof", "ĠBurma", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠNy", "ah", "k", "ur", "Ġlanguage", "Ġof", "ĠThailand", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2009", "âĢĵ", "2015", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠPaul", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2009", "),", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġlex", "ic", "ost", "at", "istical", "Ġcomparison", "Ġof", "Ġ36", "Ġlanguages", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġwell", "Ġknown", "Ġenough", "Ġto", "Ġexclude", "Ġloan", "words", ",", "Ġfinds", "Ġlittle", "Ġevidence", "Ġfor", "Ġinternal", "Ġbranching", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġhe", "Ġdid", "Ġfind", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġincreased", "Ġcontact", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "ĠBah", "nar", "ic", "Ġand", "ĠKat", "u", "ic", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġthat", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġbranches", "Ġapart", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġgeographically", "Ġdistant", "ĠMund", "a", "Ġand", "ĠNic", "ob", "are", "se", "Ġshow", "Ġgreater", "Ġsimilarity", "Ġto", "ĠBah", "nar", "ic", "Ġand", "ĠKat", "u", "ic", "Ġthe", "Ġcloser", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġthose", "Ġbranches", ",", "Ġwithout", "Ġany", "Ġnoticeable", "Ġinnovations", "Ġcommon", "Ġto", "ĠBah", "nar", "ic", "Ġand", "ĠKat", "u", "ic", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġtherefore", "Ġtakes", "Ġthe", "Ġconservative", "Ġview", 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218
). Diffloth (1974) Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue. Munda North Munda Korku Kherwarian South Munda Kharia–Juang Koraput Munda Mon–Khmer Eastern Mon–Khmer Khmer (Cambodian) Pearic Bahnaric Katuic Vietic (Vietnamese, Muong) Northern Mon–Khmer Khasi (Meghalaya, India) Palaungic Khmuic Southern Mon–Khmer Mon Aslian (Malaya) Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands) Peiros (2004) Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. Nicobarese Munda–Khmer Munda Mon–Khmer Khasi Nuclear Mon–Khmer Mangic (Mang + Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK) Vietic (perhaps in Northern MK) Northern Mon–Khmer Palaungic Khmuic Central Mon–Khmer Khmer dialects Pearic Asli-Bahnaric Aslian Mon–Bahnaric Monic Katu–Bahnaric Katuic Bahnaric Diffloth (2005) Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: Or in more detail, Munda languages (India) Koraput: 7 languages Core Munda languages Kharian–Juang: 2 languages North Munda languages Korku Kherwarian: 12 languages Khasi–Khmuic languages (Northern Mon–Khmer) Khasian: 3 languages of north eastern India and adjacent region of Bangladesh Palaungo-Khmuic languages Khmuic: 13 languages of Laos and Thailand Palaungo-Pakanic languages Pakanic or Palyu: 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam Palaungic: 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer) Vieto-Katuic languages ? Vietic: 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the Vietnamese language, which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language. Katuic: 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. Khmero-Bahnaric languages Bahnaric: 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Khmeric languages The Khmer dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Pearic: 6 languages of Cambodia. Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer) Nicobarese: 6 languages of the Nicobar Islands, a territory of India. Asli-Monic languages Aslian: 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand. Monic: 2 languages, the Mon language of Burma and the Nyahkur language of Thailand. Sidwell (2009–2015) Paul Sidwell (2009), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch
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"ĠAge", "Ġabout", "Ġ2", ",", "500", "ĠB", ".", "P", ".,", "Ġrelatively", "Ġyoung", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġbranches", "Ġin", "ĠInd", "och", "ina", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠViet", "ic", ",", "ĠKat", "u", "ic", ",", "ĠPear", "ic", ",", "Ġand", "ĠKh", "mer", "Ġwere", "Ġformed", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġmore", "Ġinternally", "Ġdiverse", "ĠBah", "nar", "ic", "Ġbranch", "Ġ(", "dating", "Ġto", "Ġabout", "Ġ3", ",", "000", "ĠB", ".", "P", ".)", "Ġunderwent", "Ġmore", "Ġextensive", "Ġinternal", "Ġdivers", "ification", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġthe", "ĠIron", "ĠAge", ",", "Ġall", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġbranches", "Ġwere", "Ġmore", "Ġor", "Ġless", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġpresent", "-", "day", "Ġlocations", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdivers", "ification", "Ġwithin", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġtaking", "Ġplace", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "ĠIron", "ĠAge", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPaul", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2018", ")", "Ġconsiders", "Ġthe", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguage", 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"Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlater", "Ġstr", "atum", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRoger", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġ(", "2017", ")", "Ġsuggests", "Ġthat", "Ġvocabulary", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġaquatic", "Ġsubsistence", "Ġstrategies", "Ġ(", "such", "Ġas", "Ġboats", ",", "Ġwaterways", ",", "Ġriver", "Ġf", "auna", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfish", "Ġcapture", "Ġtechniques", ")", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġreconstructed", "Ġfor", "ĠProto", "-", "Aust", "ro", "asi", "atic", ".", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġ(", "2017", ")", "Ġfinds", "Ġwidespread", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġroots", "Ġfor", "Ġ'", "river", ",", "Ġvalley", "',", "Ġ'", "boat", "',", "Ġ'", "fish", "',", "Ġ'", "cat", "fish", "Ġsp", ".'", ",", "Ġ'", "e", "el", "',", "Ġ'", "p", "rawn", "',", "Ġ'", "sh", "rimp", "'", "Ġ(", "Central", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "),", "Ġ'", "cr", "ab", "',", "Ġ'", "t", "ort", "oise", "',", "Ġ'", "t", "urtle", "',", "Ġ'", "ot", "ter", "',", "Ġ'", "c", "roc", "od", "ile", "',", "Ġ'", "her", "on", ",", "Ġfishing", "Ġbird", "',", "Ġand", "Ġ'", "fish", "Ġtrap", "'.", "ĠArchae", "ological", "Ġevidence", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġagriculture", "Ġin", "Ġnorthern", "ĠInd", "och", "ina", "Ġ(", "n", "orthern", "ĠVietnam", ",", "ĠLaos", ",", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġnearby", "Ġareas", ")", "Ġdates", "Ġback", "Ġto", "Ġonly", "Ġabout", "Ġ4", ",", "000", "Ġyears", "Ġago", "Ġ(", "2", ",", "000", "ĠBC", "),", "Ġwith", "Ġagriculture", "Ġultimately", "Ġbeing", "Ġintroduced", "Ġfrom", "Ġfurther", "Ġup", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorth", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠYang", "t", "ze", "Ġvalley", "Ġwhere", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġdated" ]
219
, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly. Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179) proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian, just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other. A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b) suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious. Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c) further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan. Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and millet, kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments. At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P. However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages. During the Iron Age about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as Vietic, Katuic, Pearic, and Khmer were formed, while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification. By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age. Paul Sidwell (2018) considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructible in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum. Roger Blench (2017) suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years ago (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated
[ "Ġto", "Ġ6", ",", "000", "ĠB", ".", "P", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "20", "22", ")", "Ġproposes", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġloc", "us", "Ġof", "ĠProto", "-", "Aust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠRed", "ĠRiver", "ĠDelta", "Ġarea", "Ġabout", "Ġ4", ",", "000", "-", "4", ",", "500", "Ġyears", "Ġbefore", "Ġpresent", ",", "Ġinstead", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMiddle", "ĠMek", "ong", "Ġas", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġpreviously", "Ġproposed", ".", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġdispersed", "Ġcoastal", "Ġmaritime", "Ġroutes", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġupstream", "Ġthrough", "Ġriver", "Ġvalleys", ".", "ĠKh", "mu", "ic", ",", "ĠPal", "aun", "g", "ic", ",", "Ġand", "ĠKh", "as", "ic", "Ġresulted", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġwest", "ward", "Ġdispers", "al", "Ġthat", "Ġultimately", "Ġcame", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠRed", "ĠValley", "Ġvalley", ".", "ĠBased", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġcurrent", "Ġdistributions", ",", "Ġabout", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġall", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġbranches", "Ġ(", "including", "ĠNic", "obar", 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",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠS", "ino", "-", "T", "ib", "et", "an", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2018", ")", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2018", ")", "Ġ(", "qu", "oted", "Ġin", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ2021", ")", "Ġgives", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġnested", "Ġclassification", "Ġof", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġbranches", "Ġas", "Ġsuggested", "Ġby", "Ġhis", "Ġcomputational", "Ġphylogen", "etic", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġusing", "Ġa", "Ġ200", "-", "word", "Ġlist", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtentative", "Ġgroup", "ings", "Ġare", "Ġlikely", "Ġlink", "ages", ".", "ĠPak", "anic", "Ġand", "ĠSh", "omp", "en", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġincluded", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPossible", "Ġextinct", "Ġbranches", "Ġ", "ĠRoger", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġ(", "2009", ")", "Ġalso", "Ġproposes", "Ġthat", "Ġthere", "Ġmight", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġother", "Ġprimary", "Ġbranches", "Ġof", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġnow", "Ġextinct", ",", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġsubstrate", "Ġevidence", "Ġin", "Ġmodern", "-", "day", "Ġlanguages", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPre", "-", "Ch", "amic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġlanguages", "Ġof", "Ġcoastal", "ĠVietnam", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "ĠCh", "amic", "Ġmigr", "ations", ").", "ĠCh", "amic", "Ġhas", "Ġvarious", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġloan", "words", "Ġthat", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġclearly", "Ġtraced", "Ġto", "Ġexisting", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġbranches", "Ġ(", "S", "id", "well", "Ġ2006", ",", "Ġ2007", ").", "ĠLar", "ish", "Ġ(", "1999", ")", "Ġalso", "Ġnotes", "Ġthat", "ĠM", "ok", "len", "ic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġcontain", "Ġmany", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġloan", "words", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġones", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "ĠCh", "amic", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAce", "h", "nes", "e", "Ġsubstr", "atum", "Ġ(", "S", "id", "well", "Ġ2006", ").", "ĠAce", "h", "nes", "e", "Ġhas", "Ġmany", "Ġbasic", "Ġwords", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġof", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġorigin", ",", "Ġsuggesting", "Ġthat", "Ġeither", "ĠAust", "rones", "ian", "Ġspeakers", "Ġhave", "Ġabsorbed", "Ġearlier", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġresidents", "Ġin", "Ġnorthern", "ĠSum", "atra", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthat", "Ġwords", "Ġmight", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġborrowed", "Ġfrom", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguages", "Ġin", "Ġsouthern", "ĠVietnam", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġor", "Ġperhaps", "Ġa", "Ġcombination", "Ġof", "Ġboth", ".", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2006", ")", "Ġargues", "Ġthat", "ĠAce", "h", "nes", "e", "Ġand", "ĠCh", "amic", "Ġhad", "Ġoften", "Ġborrowed", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġwords", "Ġindependently", "Ġof", "Ġeach", "Ġother", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġsome", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġwords", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġtraced", "Ġback", "Ġto", "ĠProto", "-", "A", "ce", "h", "-", "Ch", "amic", ".", "ĠSid", "well", "Ġ(", "2006", ")", "Ġaccepts", "Ġthat", "ĠAce", "h", "nes", "e", "Ġand", "ĠCh", "amic", "Ġare", "Ġrelated", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġhad", "Ġseparated", "Ġfrom", "Ġeach", "Ġother", "Ġbefore", "ĠCh", "amic", "Ġhad", "Ġborrowed", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġits", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlex", "icon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠB", "orne", "an", "Ġsubstrate", "Ġlanguages", "Ġ(", "Bl", "ench", "Ġ2010", ").", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġcites", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "-", "origin", "Ġwords", "Ġin", "Ġmodern", "-", "day", "ĠB", "orne", "an", "Ġbranches", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠLand", "ĠDay", "ak", "Ġ(", "B", "iday", "uh", ",", "ĠDay", "ak", "ĠBak", "ati", "q", ",", "Ġetc", ".),", "ĠD", "us", "unic", "Ġ(", "Central", "ĠD", "us", "un", ",", "ĠVis", "ayan", ",", "Ġetc", ".),", "ĠKay", "an", ",", "Ġand", "ĠKen", "yah", ",", "Ġnoting", "Ġespecially", "Ġresemb", "l", "ances", "Ġwith", "ĠAs", "l", "ian", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġfurther", "Ġevidence", "Ġfor", "Ġhis", "Ġproposal", ",", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġalso", "Ġcites", "Ġethn", "ographic", "Ġevidence", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġmusical", "Ġinstruments", "Ġin", "ĠB", "orne", "o", "Ġshared", "Ġin", "Ġcommon", "Ġwith", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "-", "speaking", "Ġgroups", "Ġin", "Ġmainland", "ĠSoutheast", "ĠAsia", ".", "ĠAd", "ela", "ar", "Ġ(", "1995", ")", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġnoticed", "Ġphon", "ological", "Ġand", "Ġlex", "ical", "Ġsimilarities", "Ġbetween", "ĠLand", "ĠDay", "ak", "Ġand", "ĠAs", "l", "ian", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLep", "cha", "Ġsubstr", "atum", "Ġ(\"", "R", "ong", "ic", "\").", "ĠMany", "Ġwords", "Ġof", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġorigin", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġnoticed", "Ġin", "ĠLep", "cha", ",", "Ġsuggesting", "Ġa", "ĠS", "ino", "-", "T", "ib", "et", "an", "Ġsuper", "strate", "Ġlaid", "Ġover", "Ġan", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġsubstrate", ".", "ĠBl", "ench", "Ġ(", "2013", ")", "Ġcalls", "Ġthis", "Ġbranch", "Ġ\"", "R", "ong", "ic", "\"", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠLep", "cha", "Ġaut", "onym", "ĠR", "ó", "ng", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġlanguages", "Ġwith", "Ġproposed", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġsubstr", "ata", "Ġare", ":", "Ġ", "ĠJi", "ama", "o", ",", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġevidence", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġregister", "Ġsystem", "Ġof", "ĠJi", "ama", "o", ",", "Ġa", "ĠH", "l", "ai", "Ġlanguage", "Ġ(", "Th", "urg", "ood", "Ġ1992", ").", "ĠJi", "ama", "o", "Ġis", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġits", "Ġhighly", "Ġaber", "rant", "Ġvocabulary", "Ġin", "Ġrelation", "Ġto", "Ġother", "ĠH", "l", "ai", "Ġlanguages", ".", "Ġ", "ĠKer", "in", "ci", ":", "Ġvan", "ĠRe", "ijn", "Ġ(", "1974", ")", "Ġnotes", "Ġthat", "ĠKer", "in", "ci", ",", "Ġa", "ĠMal", "ay", "ic", "Ġlanguage", "Ġof", "Ġcentral", "ĠSum", "atra", ",", "Ġshares", "Ġmany", "Ġphon", "ological", "Ġsimilarities", "Ġwith", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġs", "es", "qu", "isy", "ll", "ab", "ic", "Ġword", "Ġstructure", "Ġand", "Ġvowel", "Ġinventory", ".", "Ġ", "ĠJohn", "ĠPeterson", "Ġ(", "2017", ")", "Ġsuggests", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "pre", "-", "M", "unda", "\"", "Ġ(\"", "pro", "to", "-\"", "Ġin", "Ġregular", "Ġterminology", ")", "Ġlanguages", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġonce", "Ġdominated", "Ġthe", "Ġeastern", "ĠIndo", "-", "G", "ang", "etic", "ĠPlain", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġthen", "Ġabsorbed", "Ġby", "ĠIndo", "-", "A", "ryan", "Ġlanguages", "Ġat", "Ġan", "Ġearly", "Ġdate", "Ġas", "ĠIndo", "-", "A", "ryan", "Ġspread", "Ġeast", ".", "ĠPeterson", "Ġnotes", "Ġthat", "Ġeastern", "ĠIndo", "-", "A", "ryan", "Ġlanguages", "Ġdisplay", "Ġmany", "Ġmorph", "os", "ynt", "actic", "Ġfeatures", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "ĠMund", "a", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġwestern", "ĠIndo", "-", "A", "ryan", "Ġlanguages", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWriting" ]
220
to 6,000 B.P. Sidwell (2022) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before present, instead of the Middle Mekong as he had previously proposed. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red Valley valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals. Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan. Sidwell (2018) Sidwell (2018) (quoted in Sidwell 2021) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included. Possible extinct branches Roger Blench (2009) also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages. Pre-Chamic languages (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007). Larish (1999) also notes that Moklenic languages contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic. Acehnese substratum (Sidwell 2006). Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam – or perhaps a combination of both. Sidwell (2006) argues that Acehnese and Chamic had often borrowed Austroasiatic words independently of each other, while some Austroasiatic words can be traced back to Proto-Aceh-Chamic. Sidwell (2006) accepts that Acehnese and Chamic are related, but that they had separated from each other before Chamic had borrowed most of its Austroasiatic lexicon. Bornean substrate languages (Blench 2010). Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as Land Dayak (Bidayuh, Dayak Bakatiq, etc.), Dusunic (Central Dusun, Visayan, etc.), Kayan, and Kenyah, noting especially resemblances with Aslian. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995) has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between Land Dayak and Aslian. Lepcha substratum ("Rongic"). Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a Sino-Tibetan superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "Rongic" based on the Lepcha autonym Róng. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: Jiamao, based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a Hlai language (Thurgood 1992). Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other Hlai languages. Kerinci: van Reijn (1974) notes that Kerinci, a Malayic language of central Sumatra, shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as sesquisyllabic word structure and vowel inventory. John Peterson (2017) suggests that "pre-Munda" ("proto-" in regular terminology) languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. Writing
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221
systems Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer, Thai, Lao, and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. Chữ Nôm Khmer alphabet Khom script (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) Old Mon script Mon script Pahawh Hmong was once used to write Khmu, under the name "Pahawh Khmu" Tai Le (Palaung, Blang) Tai Tham (Blang) Ol Chiki alphabet (Santali alphabet) Mundari Bani (Mundari alphabet) Warang Citi (Ho alphabet) Sorang Sompeng alphabet (Sora alphabet) External relations Austric languages Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis, which also includes the Austronesian languages, and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the Hmong–Mien languages. Hmong-Mien Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze. According to Cai (et al. 2011), Hmong–Mien is at least partially related to Austroasiatic but was heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan, especially Tibeto-Burman languages. Indo-Aryan languages It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally, French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha (from Mahabharata) and the Nāgas. Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1, which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China, and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today Japanese, Koreans and some Manchu, are the carriers of early rice-agriculturalists from Indochina. Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Mandchurian, Korean and Yayoi people. A 2021 study by Tagore et al. found that the proto-Austroasiatic-speakers split from an Basal-East Asian source population, native to Mainland Southeast Asia and Northeast India, which also gave rise to other East Asian-related populations, including Northeast Asians and Indigenous peoples of the Americas. The proto-Austroasiatic-speakers can be linked to the Hoabinhian material culture. From Mainland Southeast Asia, the Austroasiatic-speakers expanded into the Indian-subcontinent and Maritime Southeast Asia. There is evidence that later back migration from more northerly East Asian groups (such as Kra-Dai-speakers) merged with indigenous Southeast Asians, contributing to the fragmentation observed among modern day Austroasiatic-speakers. In the Indian subcontinent, Austroasiatic-speakers, specifically Mundari, intermixed with the local population. Furthermore they concluded that their results do not support a genetic relationship between Ancient Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers (Hoabinhians) with Papuan-related groups, as previously suggested by McColl et al. 2018, but that these Ancient Southeast Asians are characterized by Basal-East Asian ancestry. The authors finally concluded that genetics do not necessarily correspond with linguistic identity, pointing to the fragmentation of modern Austroasiatic-speakers. Larena et al. 2021 could reproduce the genetic evidence for the origin of Basal-East Asians in Mainland Southeast Asia, which are estimated to have formed about 50kya years ago, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards. Early Austroasiatic-speakers are estimated to have originated from an lineage, which split from Ancestral East Asians between 25,000 to 15,000 years ago, and were among the first wave to replace distinct Australasian-related groups
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"ĠDri", "em", ",", "ĠGeorge", ".", "Ġ(", "2007", ").", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġphylogen", "y", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠAust", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġhomeland", "Ġin", "Ġlight", "Ġof" ]
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in Insular Southeast Asia. Early Austroasiatic people were found to be best represented by the Mlabri people in modern day Thailand. Proposals for Austroasiatic substratum among later Austronesian languages in Western Indonesia, noteworthy among the Dayak languages, is strengthened by genetic data, suggesting Austroasiatic-speakers were assimilated by Austronesian-speakers. A study in November 2021 (Guo et al.) found that modern East-Eurasians can be modeled from four ancestry components, which descended from a common ancestor in Mainland Southeast Asia, one being the "Ancestral Austroasiatic" component (AAA), which is more prevalent among modern Southeast Asians, and making up the exclusive ancestry among Austroasiatic-speaking Lua and Mlabri people. The early Austroasiatic-speakers are suggested to have been hunter-gatherers but became rice-agriculturalists quite early, spreading from Mainland Southeast Asia northwards to the Yangtze river, westwards into the Indian subcontinent, and southwards into Insular Southeast Asia. Evidence for these migrations are Austroasiatic loanwords related to rice-agriculture found among non-Austroasiatic languages, and the presence of Austroasiatic genetic ancestry. According to a recent genetic study, Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese, has almost an equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages. Migration into India According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations." According to Riccio et al., the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia. According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al, suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya. Notes References Sources Adams, K. L. (1989). Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. Alves, Mark J. (2015). Morphological functions among Mon-Khmer languages: beyond the basics. In N. J. Enfield & Bernard Comrie (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: the state of the art. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton, 531–557. Bradley, David (2012). "Languages and Language Families in China", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. Chakrabarti, Byomkes. (1994). A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali. Diffloth, Gérard. (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. Filbeck, D. (1978). T'in: a historical study. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. Hemeling, K. (1907). Die Nanking Kuanhua. (German language) Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries. Peiros, Ilia. 1998. Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia. Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University. Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. van Driem, George. (2007). Austroasiatic phylogeny and the Austroasiatic homeland in light of
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"ro", "asi", "atic", "\"", "Ġ(", "often", "Ġnow", "Ġspelled", "Ġ\"", "Af", "ro", "-", "As", "i", "atic", "\").", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġit", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġcome", "Ġinto", "Ġgeneral", "Ġuse", "Ġuntil", "ĠJoseph", "ĠGreenberg", "Ġ(", "1950", ")", "Ġformally" ]
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recent population genetic studies. Mon-Khmer Studies, 37, 1-14. Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics, The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). Further reading Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families. Chiang Mai: Payap University. Sidwell, Paul. 2016. Bibliography of Austroasiatic linguistics and related resources. E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press. Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2002. Issues in Proto-Munda and Proto-Austroasiatic Nominal Derivation: The Bimoraic Constraint. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series Press. pp. 55–74. External links Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix) Austro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Sebeok 1942, Pinnow 1959, Diffloth 2005, and Matisoff 2006 Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell Mon–Khmer Languages Project at SEAlang Munda Languages Project at SEAlang RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage) http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66A4-2@view RWAAI Digital Archive Michel Ferlus's recordings of Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) languages (CNRS) Agglutinative languages Language families Sino-Austronesian languages <|endoftext|>Afroasiatic (Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasian or Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, or Erythraean, is a large language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and parts of the Sahel. With the exception of Semitic, all branches of the Afroаsiatic family are spoken exclusively on the African continent. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Niger–Congo). The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic; however, the inclusion of Omotic remains controversial, and several linguists see it as independent language family that stood in long-term contact with Afroasiatic languages. By far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. In addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family, and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew and Old Aramaic. There is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family, or the period when the parent language (i.e. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken. Proposed locations include the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Eastern Sahara and the Levant. Etymology In the early 19th century, linguists grouped the Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian languages within a "Hamitic" phylum, in acknowledgement of these languages' genetic relation with each other and with those in the Semitic phylum. The terms "Hamitic" and "Semitic" were etymologically derived from the Book of Genesis, which describes various Biblical tribes descended from Ham and Shem, two sons of Noah. By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out. Friedrich Müller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" for the entire language family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1876). Maurice Delafosse (1914) later coined the term "Afroasiatic" (often now spelled "Afro-Asiatic"). However, it did not come into general use until Joseph Greenberg (1950) formally
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proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that 'Hamitic' was not a valid group and that language cladistics did not reflect race. Individual scholars have also called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of "Hamito-Semitic", the Russian linguist Igor Diakonoff later suggested the term "Afrasian", meaning "half African, half Asiatic", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages. Distribution and branches Scholars generally treat the Afroasiatic language family as including the following five branches, whereas Omotic is disputed: Berber Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Semitic Although there is general agreement on these six families, linguists who study Afroasiatic raise some points of disagreement, in particular: The Omotic language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic because the grammatical formatives to which most linguists have given the greatest weight in classifying languages in the family "are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about its being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006). The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands (2009) finds the proposal by Savà and Tosco (2003) the most convincing: namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language. Beja, sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic, is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a substantial degree of internal diversity. There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see § Subgrouping below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: scholars also frequently disagree on the internal classification of the Indo-European languages, for instance. The extinct Meroitic language has been proposed (Bruce Trigger, 1964, 1977) as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the phonotactics characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification (Fritz Hintze, 1974, The classification of Kujargé within Afroasiatic is not agreed upon. Blench (2008) notes that much of the basic vocabulary looks Cushitic, and speculates that Kujargé could even be a conservative language transitional between Chadic and Cushitic. Demographics In descending order of the number of speakers, widely-spoken Afroasiatic languages include: Arabic (Semitic), the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language, has over 300 million native speakers. Hausa (Chadic), the dominant language of northern Nigeria and southern Niger, spoken as a first language by over 40 million people and used as a lingua franca by another 20 million across West Africa and the Sahel. Oromo (Cushitic), spoken in Ethiopia and Kenya by around 34 million people. Amharic (Semitic), spoken in Ethiopia, with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language. Somali (Cushitic), spoken by 21.8 million people in Somalia, Somaliland, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia and northeastern Kenya. Tigrinya (Semitic), spoken by around 9.73 million people in Eritrea and Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Afar (Cushitic), spoken by around 7.5 million people in Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Eritrea. Shilha (Berber), spoken by around 7 million people in Morocco. Kabyle (Berber), spoken by around 5.6 million people in Algeria. Hebrew (Semitic), spoken by around 5 million native speakers, and additionally by 4 million second-language speakers in Israel and the Jewish diaspora; premodern Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism and of the Samaritan people. Central Atlas Tamazight (Berber), spoken by around 4.6 million people in Morocco. Riffian (Berber), spoken by around 4.2 million people in Morocco. Gurage languages (Semitic), a group of languages spoken by more than 2
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225
million people in Ethiopia. Tigre (Semitic), spoken by around 2 million people in Eritrea. Wolaitta (Omotic), spoken by around 1.6 million people in Ethiopia. Maltese (Semitic), spoken by around half a million people in Malta and the Maltese diaspora. It descended from Siculo-Arabic independently from modern Arabic dialects, features Romance superstrates and has been written in the Latin script since at least the 14th century. Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (Semitic), a variety of modern Aramaic, spoken by more than 500,000 people in the Assyrian diaspora. Classification history In the 9th century the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret in Algeria became the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic. In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, Theodor Benfey proposed a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (he called the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. Friedrich Müller named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft ("Outline of Linguistics"), and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. It was the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical gender system. This "Hamitic language group" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient Egyptian language, the Berber languages, the Cushitic languages, the Beja language, and the Chadic languages. Unlike Müller, Lepsius saw Hausa and Nama as part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments for grouping particular languages together. In 1912, Carl Meinhof published Die Sprachen der Hamiten ("The Languages of the Hamites"), in which he expanded Lepsius's model, adding the Fula, Maasai, Bari, Nandi, Sandawe and Hadza languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported in the 1940s. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that "speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'." However, in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of language mixture". Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages. Leo Reinisch (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However, his suggestion found little acceptance. Marcel Cohen (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct "Hamitic" subgroup and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Finally, Joseph Greenberg's 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of "Hamitic" as a language category by linguists. Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories and rejected the use of racial and social evidence. In dismissing the notion of a separate "Nilo-Hamitic" language category, in particular, Greenberg was "returning to a view widely held a half-century earlier". He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with their appropriate Nilotic siblings. He also added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed a new name, "Afroasiatic", for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus. Greenberg developed his model fully in his book The Languages of Africa (1963), in which he reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families, notably Nilo-Saharan. Following Isaac Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified the Khoekhoe language as
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226
a member of the Khoisan languages, a grouping that has since proven inaccurate and excessively motivated on the presence of click sounds. To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian Hadza and Sandawe, though this view has been discredited as linguists working on these languages regard them as linguistic isolates. Despite this, Greenberg's classification remains a starting point for modern work on many languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category (and its extension to Nilo-Hamitic) has no part in this. Since the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages (Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian) have not been shown to form an exclusive (monophyletic) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family. In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name "Omotic". This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Based on typological differences with the other Cushitic languages, Robert Hetzron proposed that Beja has to be removed from Cushitic, thus forming an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Most scholars, however, reject this proposal, and continue to group Beja as the sole member of a Northern branch within Cushitic. Glottolog does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families: South Omotic, Mao, Dizoid, Gonga–Gimojan (North Omotic apart from the preceding), Ongota, and Kujarge. Subgrouping Little agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: Paul Newman (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic but does not otherwise address the structure of the family. Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed Ongota as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. Like Harold Fleming, Christopher Ehret (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and "Boreafrasian." According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic. Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a Sprachbund rather than a language family. Igor M. Diakonoff (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic. Lionel Bender (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others. Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of lexicostatistics, groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic. Position among the world's languages Afroasiatic is one of the four major language families spoken
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"ĠEstimates", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdate", "Ġat", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "ĠProto", "-", "Af", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġlanguage", "Ġwas", "Ġspoken", "Ġvary", "Ġwidely", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġfall", "Ġwithin", "Ġa", "Ġrange", "Ġbetween", "Ġapproximately", "Ġ7", ",", "500", "ĠBC", "Ġ(", "9", ",", "500", "Ġyears", "Ġago", "),", "Ġand", "Ġapproximately", "Ġ16", ",", "000", "ĠBC", "Ġ(", "18", ",", "000", "Ġyears", "Ġago", ").", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠIgor", "ĠM", ".", "ĠDi", "ak", "on", "off", "Ġ(", "1988", ":", "Ġ33", "n", "),", "ĠProto", "-", "Af", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġwas", "Ġspoken", "Ġc", ".", "Ġ10", ",", "000", "ĠBC", ".", "ĠChristopher", "ĠEh", "ret", "Ġ(", "2002", ":", "Ġ35", "âĢĵ", "36", ")", "Ġasserts", "Ġthat", "ĠProto", "-", "Af", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġwas", "Ġspoken", "Ġc", ".", "Ġ11", ",", "000", "ĠBC", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġlatest", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpossibly", "Ġas", "Ġearly", "Ġas", "Ġc", ".", "Ġ16", ",", "000", "ĠBC", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġdates", "Ġare", "Ġolder", "Ġthan", "Ġthose", "Ġassociated", 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"Ġtyp", "ology", "Ġwith", "ĠSV", "O", "Ġtendencies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġtwo", "-", "gender", "Ġsystem", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsingular", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġfeminine", "Ġmarked", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġsound", "Ġ/", "t", "/.", "Ġ", "ĠAll", "ĠAf", "ro", "asi", "atic", "Ġsub", "fam", "ilies", "Ġshow", "Ġevidence", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġcaus", "ative", "Ġaff", "ix", "Ġs", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSem", "itic", ",", "ĠBer", "ber", ",", "ĠC", "ush", "itic", "Ġ(", "including" ]
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in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book The Languages of Africa (1963). It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental, with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe. There are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: Hermann Möller (1906) argued for a relation between Semitic and the Indo-European languages. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. Holger Pedersen and Louis Hjelmslev). (For a fuller account, see Indo-Semitic languages.) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as grammatical gender, noun-adjective agreement, three-way number distinction, and vowel alternation as a means of derivation). Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the University of Copenhagen), Holger Pedersen included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed Nostratic macro-family (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Yukaghir languages, and Dravidian languages. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky. Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called Eurasiatic, and to which he added Chukotian, Gilyak, Korean, Japanese-Ryukyuan, Eskimo–Aleut, and Ainu. Most recently, Sergei Starostin's school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian, and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger Borean super-family contains Nostratic as well as Dené-Caucasian and Austric. Date of Afroasiatic The earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an Ancient Egyptian inscription dated to c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago). Symbols on Gerzean (Naqada II) pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from Proto-Afroasiatic, and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago), and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to Igor M. Diakonoff (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other proto-languages. Afroasiatic Urheimat The Afroasiatic urheimat, the hypothetical place where Proto-Afroasiatic language speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages, is unknown. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the Sahara pump operating over the last 10,000 years. While there is no definitive agreement on when or where the original homeland of this language family existed, many link the first speakers to the first farmers in the Levant who would later spread to North and East Africa. Others argue the first speakers were pre-agricultural and based in North East Africa. Similarities in grammar and syntax Widespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include: A set of emphatic consonants, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive. VSO typology with SVO tendencies. A two-gender system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/. All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a causative affix s. Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including
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"ĠSelected", "ĠCompar", "ative", "-", "Hist", "orical", "ĠAf", "ro", "-", "As", "i", "atic", "ĠStudies", "Ġin", "ĠMemory", "Ġof", "ĠIgor", "ĠM", ".", "ĠDi", "ak", "on", "off" ]
228
Beja), and Chadic support possessive suffixes. Nisba derivation in -j (earlier Egyptian) or -ī (Semitic) Morphology in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or gemination) as well as with prefixes and suffixes. One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/. According to Ehret (1996), tonal languages appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones phonemically. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-āy; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Putten (2018)). Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. Shared vocabulary The following are some examples of Afroasiatic cognates, including ten pronouns, three nouns, and three verbs. Source: Christopher Ehret, Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). Note: Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): "the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available." The Berber cognates here are taken from the previous version of the table in this article and need to be completed and referenced. Abbreviations: NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'. Symbols: Following Ehret (1995: 70), a caron ˇ over a vowel indicates rising tone, and a circumflex ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a vowel of unknown quality. Ɂ indicates a glottal stop. * indicates reconstructed forms based on comparison of related languages. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research: Etymological bibliography Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include: Cohen, Marcel. 1947. Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique. Paris: Champion. Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian," St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies 2–6. Ehret, Christopher. 1995. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (= University of California Publications in Linguistics 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction. Leiden: Brill. . See also Afroasiatic phonetic notation Borean languages Indo-European languages Indo-Semitic languages Languages of Africa Languages of Asia Languages of Europe Nostratic languages Proto-Afroasiatic language References Citations Works cited General references Anthony, David. 2007. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff
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230
ro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, by Alexander Militarev in "Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis", eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p. 135–50. Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, by Alexander Militarev in "Aspects of Comparative Linguistics", v. 1. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, 2005, pp. 339–408. Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129. Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches, by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145. A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?" by Rolf Theil (2006) NACAL The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year Afro-Asiatic webpage of Roger Blench (with family tree). Language families Ethnic groups in Africa Ethnic groups in Asia Ethnic groups in Europe <|endoftext|>Andorra, officially the Principality of Andorra, is a sovereign landlocked microstate on the Iberian Peninsula, in the eastern Pyrenees, bordered by France to the north and Spain to the south. Believed to have been created by Charlemagne, Andorra was ruled by the count of Urgell until 988, when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell. The present principality was formed by a charter in 1278. It is headed by two co-princes: the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia, Spain and the President of France. Its capital and largest city is Andorra la Vella. Andorra is the sixth-smallest state in Europe, with an area of and a population of approximately . The Andorran people are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent. Andorra is the world's 16th-smallest country by land and 11th-smallest by population. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of above sea level. The official language is Catalan, but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken. Tourism in Andorra sees an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. Andorra is not a member state of the European Union, but the euro is its official currency. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. In 2013, Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, according to the Global Burden of Disease Study; in 2019, it had the 23rd-highest at 81.9 years, according to the United Nations Development Programme. Etymology The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation is from the Greek historian Polybius (The Histories III, 35, 1), who describes the Andosins, an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars. The word Andosini or Andosins () may derive from the Basque , meaning "big" or "giant". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word (water). Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from , meaning "the thickly wooded place". When the Arabs and Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These
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regions were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese "andurrial", which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland". The folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of Endor or Andor (where the Midianites had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son Louis the Pious after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell". History Prehistory La Balma de la Margineda, found by archaeologists at Sant Julià de Lòria, was settled in 9,500 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege and Segre. During the Neolithic Age, a group of people moved to the Valley of Madriu (the present-day Natural Parc located in Escaldes-Engordany declared UNESCO World Heritage Site) as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed a commercial trade with people from the Segre and Occitania. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet (Ordino) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria), both dated in 4900–4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to a complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins, and relicaries can be found in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of Canillo, about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone murals. Iberian and Roman Andorra The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini () during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the Aquitanian, Basque and Iberian languages, the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early Marca Hispanica), l'Anxiu in Les Escaldes and Roc de L'Oral in Encamp. The presence of Roman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The places with the most Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria, and in some places in Encamp, as well as in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet (the present-day La Seu d'Urgell) and all across Segre through the via romana Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana). Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne After the fall of the Roman Empire, Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths, the Kingdom of Toledo, and the Diocese of Urgell. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time Christianity spread. When the Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these invaders by the Franks. Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of 5,000 soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against the Moors near Porté-Puymorens (Cerdanya). Andorra remained part of the Frankish Marca Hispanica, the buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the Count of Urgell and eventually the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Tradition also holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, writing the Carta de Poblament or a local municipal charter circa 805. In 988, Borrell II, Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then, the Bishop of
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232
Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been co-prince of Andorra. The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The document, dated 839, depicts the six old parishes of the Andorran valleys that made up the country's administrative division. Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality Before 1095, Andorra had no military protection, and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the lord of Caboet for help and protection. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò. Their daughter, Ermessenda, married the count of Foix, Roger-Bernard II. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell. In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon, Peter III, between the bishop and the count, by the signing of the first paréage, which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of Urgell, in Catalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form. A second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in Roc d'Enclar. The document was ratified by the noble notary Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà, and construction of military structures in the country was prohibited. In 1364, the political organization of the country named the figure of the syndic (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes, making possible the creation of local departments (comuns, quarts and veïnats). After being ratified by Bishop Francesc Tovia and Count John I, the Consell de la Terra or Consell General de les Valls (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the Justice Courts (La Cort de Justicia) in 1433 with the co-princes and the collection of taxes like foc i lloc (literally "fire and site", a national tax active since then). Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or Església de Santa Coloma), Andorra developed exquisite Romanesque Art during the 9th through 14th centuries, particularly in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the Virgin and Child (Our Lady of Meritxell being the most important). Nowadays, the Romanesque buildings that form part of Andorra's cultural heritage stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on Església de Sant Esteve, Sant Joan de Caselles, Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters, Sant Martí de la Cortinada and the medieval bridges of Margineda and Escalls among many others. The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local economy during the Middle Ages was based on livestock, agriculture, furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first iron foundries began to appear in Northern Parishes like Ordino, much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century. 16th to 18th centuries In 1601, the Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of Huguenot rebellions in France, Inquisition courts coming from Spain and witchcraft-related beliefs native to the area, in the context of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre
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233
. After Henry III of Navarre became king of France, he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra, a political arrangement that still holds. During 1617, communal councils form the sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme (brigandage) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today. Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. In 1371, and 1448, the co-princes ratified the fair of Andorra la Vella, the most important annual national festival commercially ever since. The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, in Escaldes-Engordany. Founded in 1604, it took advantage of the local thermal waters. By this time, the country was characterized by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of pubilla and hereu. Three centuries after its foundation, the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall in 1702. The manor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys (Armari de les sis claus), representative of each Andorran parish, where the Andorran constitution and other documents and laws were later kept. In both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, the Andorran people (while professing to be a neutral country) supported the Catalans who saw their rights reduced in 1716. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the Book of Privileges (Llibre de Privilegis de 1674), Manual Digest (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the Polità andorrà (1763) by Antoni Puig. 19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question After the French Revolution, Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during the Peninsular War () and divided the region into four départements, with Andorra as a part of the district of Puigcerdà. In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra. During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform () began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the constitution and symbolssuch as the tricolour flagof Andorra. A new service economy arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines. The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict and the Revolution of 1881, which began when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies. From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and La Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany. After a day of combat the Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over the  – the "Andorran Question" in relation to the Eastern Question. The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885. Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan Renaixença. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language, Catalan. Romantic authors from France and Spain reported
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234
the awakening of the national consciousness of the country. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographer, Joaquim de Riba. In 1848, Fromental Halévy had premiered the opera Le Val d'Andorre to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War. 20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and the Constitutional Andorra In 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by Joves Andorrans (a labour union group related to the Spanish CNT and FAI) called for political reforms, the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defense of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilization of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat. On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff, with his promise of freedoms and modernization of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and also face the rise of Republicanism in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain, two fascist states. Many Andorrans criticized the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and sympathy with Francoism. General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain groups formed to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the most prominent was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, which, in contact with the British Mi6, helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were Allied military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents in Andorra. In the capital city there was a smuggling black market of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not favorable to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for people of ideologies close to Andorran and Spanish Republicanism and Free France. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books censored in Franco's Spain were imported, becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. Andorran Group (Agrupament Andorrà), an anti-fascist organization linked to the Occitanie's French Resistance, accused the French representative (veguer) of collaboration with Nazism. The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps toward the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with Banc Agrícol (1930) and Crèdit Andorrà (1949), later with Banca Mora (1952), Banca Cassany (1958) and SOBANCA (1960). Shortly after activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities
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"Ġof", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", ".", "Ġ" ]
235
in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created (CASS). The Andorran government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness. Andorra lived an era commonly known as "Andorran dream" (in relation to the American dream) along with the Trente Glorieuses: the mass culture rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this was Ràdio Andorra, the top musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of chanson française, swing, rhythm & blues, jazz, rock and roll and American country music. During this period Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. But in recent times its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country has seen the need to reform Andorran institutions due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982, a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of Executive Board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister Òscar Ribas Reig with the co-princes' approval. In 1989, the Principality signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularize trade relations. Its political system was modernized in 1993 after the Andorran constitutional referendum, when the constitution was drafted by the co-princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year. The same year, Andorra became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe. Andorra formalized diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996, participating in the 51st UN General Assembly. First General Syndic Marc Forné took part on a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organization, and after three days he took part in the parliamentary assembly of the Council of Europe to defend Andorra's linguistic rights and economy. In 2006, a monetary agreement with the European Union was formalized that allows Andorra to use the euro in an official way, as well as coin its own euro currency. Politics Andorra is a parliamentary co-principality with the president of France and the Catholic bishop of Urgell (Catalonia, Spain) as co-princes. This peculiarity makes the president of France, in his capacity as prince of Andorra, an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy with a unicameral legislature, and of a pluriform multi-party system. The head of government is the prime minister. The current head of government is Xavier Espot Zamora of the Democrats for Andorra (DA). Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors. The councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council. Half are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election, the councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the head of government is chosen from among the councillors. Candidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be head of government. The Syndic General then notifies the co-princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the head of government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra.
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"Ġweaponry", "Ġwere", "Ġhanded", "Ġdown", "Ġfrom", "Ġgeneration", "Ġto", "Ġgeneration", "Ġwithin", "Ġfamilies", "Ġand", "Ġcommunities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġarmy", "'s", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġinternal", "Ġsecurity", "Ġwas", "Ġlargely", "Ġtaken", "Ġover", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġformation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPolice", "ĠCorps", "Ġof", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġin", "Ġ1931", ".", "ĠBrief", "Ġcivil", "Ġdisorder", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġelections", "Ġof", "Ġ1933", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġassistance", "Ġbeing", "Ġsought", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "ĠNational", "ĠG", "endar", "mer", "ie", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġdetachment", "Ġresident", "Ġin", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġfor", "Ġtwo", "Ġmonths", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġcommand", "Ġof", "ĠRen", "é", "-", "J", "ules", "ĠB", "aul", "ard", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAnd", "or", "ran", "ĠPolice", "Ġwas", "Ġreformed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġyear", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġeleven", "Ġsoldiers", "Ġappointed", "Ġto", "Ġsuper", "visory", "Ġroles", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġforce", "Ġconsisted", 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236
The council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it. If the head of government is not satisfied with the council, he may request that the co-princes dissolve the council and order new elections. In turn, the councillors have the power to remove the head of government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the councillors, the council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the head of government is removed. Law and criminal justice The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the head of government, one each by the co-princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the judges and magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms. The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court. Foreign relations, defence and security Andorra does not have its own armed forces, although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain. However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the Sometent (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the European Union (EU), it also has observer status at the World Trade Organization (WTO). On 16 October 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), during the COVID-19 pandemic. Military Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the Sometent. Being a landlocked country, Andorra has no navy. Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell. In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie, with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six Corporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. Today a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Sometent, but all able-
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bodied men remain technically available for military service, with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. A shotgun per household is unregulated. Rifles and pistols require a license. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the flag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions. According to Marc Forné Molné, Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers. In more recent times there has only been a general emergency call to the popular army of Sometent during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees, where 12 citizens perished in Andorra, to help the population and establish a public order along with the Local Police units. Police Corps Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team. GIPA The Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in counter-terrorism, and hostage recovery tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the Police Corps, and not the army. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing. Fire brigade The Andorran Fire Brigade, with headquarters at Santa Coloma, operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances. Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961. The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations. Geography Parishes Andorra consists of seven parishes: Andorra la Vella Canillo Encamp Escaldes-Engordany La Massana Ordino Sant Julià de Lòria Physical geography Due to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at , and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the Gran Valira river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of ). Andorra's land area is . Environment Phytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Andorra belongs to the ecoregion of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests. Andorra had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries. Important Bird Area The whole country has been recognised as a single Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, because it is important for forest and mountain birds and supports populations of red-billed choughs, citril finches and rock buntings. Climate Andorra has alpine, continental and oceanic climates, depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of the Mediterranean climates make the country have a great diversity of microclimates that hinder the general dominance of the high mountain climate. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees. When in precipitation, a global model characterized by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer, which can last until autumn (May, June and August are usually the rainiest months). In winter, however, it is less rainy, except in the highlands, subject to the influence of fronts from the Atlantic, which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterized, broadly,
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238
by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter, in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality. Economy Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. One of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors annually and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present since 2007. The banking sector, with its tax haven status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP). However, during the European sovereign-debt crisis of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercutting duty-free shopping and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter. Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead. Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the French franc and the Spanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has historically had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2019, it stood at 2%. On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government Antoni Martí and the French President and Prince of Andorra François Hollande. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards". By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality. Demographics Population The population of Andorra is estimated at (). The Andorrans are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent. The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900. Two-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as prime minister or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company. Languages The historic and official language is Catalan, a Romance language. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan Toponymy in Andorra (Catalan: ), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, Monaco, and Turkey) that have never signed the Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities. According to mother tongue percentage statistics by the Andorran Government released in 2018 the principality has the following: Religion The population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell. There are also members of various Protestant denominations. There are also small numbers of Muslims, Hindus, and Bahá'ís, and roughly 100 Jews. (See History of the Jews in Andorra.) Largest cities Education Schools Children between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education
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239
up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government. There are three systems of school, Andorran, French and Spanish, which use Catalan, French and Spanish languages respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. 39% of Andorran children attend Andorran schools, 33% attend French schools, and 28% Spanish schools. University of Andorra The Universitat d'Andorra (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme. Virtual Studies Centre The geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (Centre d'Estudis Virtuals) at the university runs approximately 20 different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan philology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals. Transport Until the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra. Andorra has a road network of , of which is unpaved. The two main roads out of Andorra la Vella are the CG-1 to the Spanish border near Sant Julià de Lòria, and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near El Pas de la Casa. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to Barcelona and Toulouse, plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in La Massana (Camí Heliport), Arinsal and Escaldes-Engordany with commercial helicopter services and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of Alt Urgell, south of the Andorran-Spanish border. Since July 2015, Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport has operated commercial flights to Madrid and Palma de Mallorca, and is the main hub for Air Andorra and Andorra Airlines. As of 11 July 2018, there are no regular commercial flights at the airport. Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at Perpignan, France ( from Andorra) and Lleida, Spain ( from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France ( from Andorra) and Barcelona, Spain ( from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is Andorre-L'Hospitalet station east of Andorra which is on the -gauge line from Latour-de-Carol () southeast of Andorra, to Toulouse and on to Paris by the French high-speed trains. This line is operated by the SNCF. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic trainline to Villefranche-de-Conflent, as well as the SNCF's gauge line connecting to Perpignan, and the Renfe's -gauge line to Barcelona. There are also direct Intercités de Nuit trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates. Media and telecommunications In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, Andorra Telecom. The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. In 2010, Andorra became the first country to provide a direct optical fiber link to all homes (FTTH) and businesses. The first commercial radio station
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"Ġregular", "Ġnewspaper", "Ġin", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġan", "Ġamateur", "Ġradio", "Ġsociety", "Ġand", "Ġnews", "Ġagency", "ĠAN", "A", "Ġwith", "Ġindependent", "Ġmanagement", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCulture", "Ġ", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġis", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġfolk", "Ġdances", "Ġlike", "Ġthe", "Ġcont", "rap", "Ãł", "s", "Ġand", "Ġmar", "rat", "xa", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġsurvive", "Ġin", "ĠSant", "ĠJul", "i", "Ãł", "Ġde", "ĠL", "Ã", "²", "ria", "Ġespecially", ".", "ĠAnd", "or", "ran", "Ġfolk", "Ġmusic", "Ġhas", "Ġsimilarities", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġmusic", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġneighbours", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġis", "Ġespecially", "ĠCatalan", "Ġin", "Ġcharacter", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġpresence", "Ġof", "Ġdances", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġs", "ard", "ana", ".", "ĠOther", "ĠAnd", "or", "ran", "Ġfolk", "Ġdances", "Ġinclude", "Ġcont", "rap", "Ãł", "s", "Ġin", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġla", "ĠV", "ella", "Ġand", "ĠSaint", "ĠAnne", "'s", "Ġdance", "Ġin", "ĠEsc", "ald", "es", "-", "Eng", "ord", "any", ".", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "'s", "Ġnational", "Ġholiday", "Ġis", "ĠOur", "ĠLady", "Ġof", "ĠMer", "it", "x", "ell", "ĠDay", ",", "Ġ8", "ĠSeptember", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAmong", "Ġthe", "Ġmore", "Ġimportant", "Ġfestivals", "Ġand", "Ġtraditions", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "ĠCan", "ó", "lich", "ĠGathering", "Ġin", "ĠMay", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠRos", "er", "Ġd", "'", "Ord", "ino", "Ġin", "ĠJuly", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMer", "it", "x", "ell", "ĠDay", "Ġ(", "National", "ĠDay", "Ġof", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "),", "Ġthe", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġla", "ĠV", "ella", "ĠFair", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSant", "ĠJord", "i", "ĠDay", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSanta", "ĠLl", "ú", "cia", "ĠFair", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠFest", "ivity", "Ġfrom", "ĠLa", "ĠCand", "el", "era", "Ġto", "ĠCan", "illo", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCarnival", "Ġof", "ĠEnc", "amp", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġsung", "Ġof", "Ġcar", "ame", "ll", "es", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠFest", "ivity", "Ġof", "ĠSant", "ĠE", "ste", "ve", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠF", "esta", "Ġdel", "ĠP", "ob", "le", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġparticipated", "Ġregularly", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠEuro", "vision", "ĠSong", "ĠContest", "Ġbetween", "Ġ2004", "Ġand", "Ġ2009", ",", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġparticipating", "Ġcountry", "Ġpresenting", "Ġsongs", "Ġin", "ĠCatalan", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġpopular", "Ġfolklore", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "-", "known", "ĠAnd", "or", "ran", "Ġlegends", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġlegend", "Ġof", "ĠChar", "lem", "agne", ",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġwhich", "Ġthis", "ĠFrank", "ish", "ĠKing", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġfounded", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠWhite", "ĠLady", "Ġof", "ĠA", "uv", "iny", "Ãł", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠBun", "er", "Ġd", "'", "Ord", "ino", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlegend", "Ġof", "ĠEng", "ol", "asters", "ĠLake", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġlegend", "Ġof", "ĠOur", "ĠLady", "Ġof", "ĠMer", "it", "x", "ell", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnd", "or", "ran", "Ġgast", "ron", "omy", "Ġis", "Ġmainly", "ĠCatalan", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġadopted", "Ġother", "Ġelements", "Ġof", "ĠFrench", "Ġand", "ĠItalian", "Ġcu", "is", "ines", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcuisine", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġhas", "Ġsimilar", "Ġcharacteristics", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġneighbours", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCer", "d", "anya", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠAlt", "ĠUr", "ge", "ll", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġwhom", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġcultural", "Ġties", ".", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "'s", "Ġcuisine", "Ġis", "Ġmarked", "Ġby", "Ġits", "Ġnature", "Ġas", "Ġmountain", "Ġvalleys", ".", "ĠTypical", "Ġdishes", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġqu", "ince", "Ġall", "-", "i", "-", "oli", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġduck", "Ġwith", "Ġwinter", "Ġpear", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlamb", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġoven", "Ġwith", "Ġnuts", ",", "Ġpork", "Ġc", "ive", "t", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmasse", "g", "ada", "Ġcake", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġesc", "ar", "ole", "Ġwith", "Ġpear", "Ġtrees", ",", "Ġduck", "Ġconf", "it", "Ġand", "Ġmushrooms", ",", "Ġesc", "ud", "ella", ",", "Ġspinach", "Ġwith", "Ġra", "is", "ins", "Ġand", "Ġpine", "Ġnuts", ",", "Ġjelly", "Ġmar", "mal", "ade", ",", "Ġstuffed", "Ġm", "urg", "ues", 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"Ġand", "Ġpolitical", ")", "Ġpower", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnational", "Ġculture", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġtotal", "Ġof", "Ġforty", "ĠRom", "anes", "que", "Ġchurches", "Ġthat", "Ġstand", "Ġout", "Ġas", "Ġbeing", "Ġsmall", "Ġaust", "ere", "Ġornament", "ation", "Ġconstruct", "ions", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġbridges", ",", "Ġfort", "resses", "Ġand", "Ġman", "or", "Ġhouses", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġperiod", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSummer", "Ġsol", "stice", "Ġfire", "Ġfestivals", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠPy", "rene", "es", "Ġwas", "Ġincluded", "Ġas", "ĠUNESCO", "ĠInt", "angible", "Ġcultural", "Ġheritage", "Ġin", "Ġ2015", ".", "ĠAlso", "Ġthe", "ĠMad", "ri", "u", "-", "Per", "af", "ita", "-", "Clar", "or", "ĠValley", "Ġbecame", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "'s", "Ġfirst", ",", "Ġand", "Ġto", "Ġdate", "Ġits", "Ġonly", ",", "ĠUNESCO", "ĠWorld", "ĠHeritage", "ĠSite", "Ġin", "Ġ2004", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġextension", "Ġin", "Ġ2006", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSports", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġis", "Ġfamous", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġpractice", "Ġof", "Ġwinter", "Ġsports", ".", "ĠAnd", "or", "ra", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "Ġterritory", "Ġof", "Ġski", "Ġslopes", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠPy", "rene", "es", "Ġ(", "3", "100", "Ġhectares", "Ġand", "Ġabout", "Ġ350", "Âł", "km", "Ġof", "Ġslopes", ")", "Ġand", "Ġtwo", "Ġski", "Ġresorts", ".", "ĠGrand", "val", "ira", "Ġis", "Ġthe" ]
240
to broadcast was Radio Andorra, which was active from 1939 to 1981. On 12 October 1989, the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA, becoming on 13 April 2000, in the public company Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra (RTVA). In 1990, the public radio was founded on the Radio Nacional d'Andorra. As an autochthonous television channel, there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisió, created in 1995. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. There are three national newspapers, Diari d'Andorra, El Periòdic d'Andorra, and Bondia as well as several local newspapers. The history of the Andorran press begins in the period between 1917 and 1937 with the appearance of several periodicals papers such as Les Valls d'Andorra (1917), Nova Andorra (1932) and Andorra Agrícola (1933). In 1974, the Poble Andorrà became the first regular newspaper in Andorra. There is also an amateur radio society and news agency ANA with independent management. Culture Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in Sant Julià de Lòria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially Catalan in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the sardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in Andorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is Our Lady of Meritxell Day, 8 September. Among the more important festivals and traditions are the Canólich Gathering in May, the Roser d'Ordino in July, the Meritxell Day (National Day of Andorra), the Andorra la Vella Fair, the Sant Jordi Day, the Santa Llúcia Fair, the Festivity from La Candelera to Canillo, the Carnival of Encamp, the sung of caramelles, the Festivity of Sant Esteve and the Festa del Poble. Andorra participated regularly in the Eurovision Song Contest between 2004 and 2009, being the only participating country presenting songs in Catalan. In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady of Auvinyà, the Buner d'Ordino, the legend of Engolasters Lake and the legend of Our Lady of Meritxell. Andorran gastronomy is mainly Catalan, although it has also adopted other elements of French and Italian cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of the Cerdanya and the Alt Urgell, with whom it has a strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature as mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country are the quince all-i-oli, the duck with winter pear, the lamb in the oven with nuts, pork civet, the massegada cake, the escarole with pear trees, duck confit and mushrooms, escudella, spinach with raisins and pine nuts, jelly marmalade, stuffed murgues (mushrooms) with pork, dandelion salad and the Andorran trout of river. To drink, the mulled wine and beer are also popular. Some of the dishes are very common in the mountainous regions of Catalonia, such as trinxat, embotits, cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice and mató. Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art are one of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque one allows to know the formation of the parochial communities, the relations of (social and political) power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well as bridges, fortresses and manor houses of the same period. Summer solstice fire festivals in the Pyrenees was included as UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage in 2015. Also the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley became Andorra's first, and to date its only, UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, with a small extension in 2006. Sports Andorra is famous for the practice of winter sports. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in the Pyrenees (3100 hectares and about 350 km of slopes) and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the
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241
largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra include football, rugby union, basketball, and roller hockey. For roller hockey, Andorra usually plays in CERH Euro Cup and in FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the 2011 European League Final Eight. The country is represented in association football by the Andorra national football team. The team gained its first competitive win in a European Championship qualifier on 11 October 2019, against Moldova. Football is governed in Andorra by the Andorran Football Federation – founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football (Primera Divisió, Copa Constitució and Supercopa) and futsal. Andorra was admitted to UEFA and FIFA in the same year, 1996. FC Andorra, a club based in Andorra la Vella founded in 1942, compete in the Spanish football league system. Rugby is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The Andorra national rugby union team, nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage in rugby union and rugby sevens. VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella, which actually plays in the French championship. Basketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team BC Andorra played in the top league of Spain (Liga ACB). After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014. Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of . Andorra first participated at the Olympic Games in 1976. The country has appeared in every Winter Olympic Games since 1976. Andorra competes in the Games of the Small States of Europe, being twice the host country, in 1991 and 2005. As one of the Catalan Countries, Andorra is home to a team of castellers, or Catalan human tower builders. The , based in the town of Santa Coloma d'Andorra, are recognized by the , the governing body of castells. See also Index of Andorra-related articles Outline of Andorra Bibliography of Andorra Explanatory notes Citations General bibliography Further reading Berthet, Elie, The Valley of Andorra. Bristol, UK: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1886. Butler, Michael, Frisch: Andorra. Carrick, Noel, Let's Visit Andorra. London: Macmillan, 1988. Deane, Shirley, The Road to Andorra. London: John Murray, 1960. Duursma, John C., Fragmentation and the International Relations of Micro-States. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Jenner, Paul & Christine Smith, Landscapes of the Pyrenees. London: Sunflower Books, 1990. Johnson, Virginia W., Two Quaint Republics: Andorra and San Marino. Leary, Lewis Gaston, Andorra the Hidden Republic. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912. Mackintosh, May, Assignment in Andorra. London: Pan, 1976. Murray, James Erskine, A Summer in the Pyrenees. London: John Macrone, 1837. Newman, Bernard, Round About Andorra. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1928. Piesold, Werner, Andorra. Reichert, Thomas, Andorra: A Country Survey. Nuremberg, 1986. Spender, Harold & H. Llewellyn Smith, Through the High Pyrenees. London: A. D. Innes, 1898. Vila, Linda Armengol, Approach to the History of Andorra. Perpignan: Institut d'Estudis Andorrans, 1989. Vilajoana, Ricard Fiter & M. Marti Rebols, All Andorra. Barcelona: Escudo de Oro, 1979. Waagenaar, Sam, The Little Five. London: Andre Deutsch, 1960. External links Govern d'Andorra Official governmental site Andorra. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress Andorra from UCB Libraries GovPubs Andorra from the BBC News Andorra – Guía, turismo y de viajes
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"Ġincrease", "Ġar", "ith", "met", "ically", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġplaced", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġorder", ",", "Ġthen", "Ġthe", "Ġmedian" ]
242
History of Andorra: Primary Documents from EuroDocs A New Path for Andorra – slideshow by The New York Times 1278 establishments in Europe Catalan Countries Christian states Countries in Europe Diarchies Duty-free zones of Europe French-speaking countries and territories Iberian Peninsula Important Bird Areas of Andorra Landlocked countries Member states of the Council of Europe Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Current member states of the United Nations Monarchies of Europe Prince-bishoprics Principalities Pyrenees Southern European countries Southwestern European countries Spanish-speaking countries and territories Special economic zones States and territories established in 1278 <|endoftext|>In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean ( ) or arithmetic average, or simply just the mean or the average (when the context is clear), is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an experiment or an observational study, or frequently a set of results from a survey. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics, because it helps distinguish it from other means, such as the geometric mean and the harmonic mean. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in many diverse fields such as economics, anthropology and history, and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, per capita income is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies, it is not a robust statistic, meaning that it is greatly influenced by outliers (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). For skewed distributions, such as the distribution of income for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not coincide with one's notion of "middle", and robust statistics, such as the median, may provide better description of central tendency. Definition Given a data set , the arithmetic mean (or mean or average), denoted (read bar), is the mean of the values . The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency in a data set. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation, divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set consisting of the values , then the arithmetic mean is defined by the formula: (for an explanation of the summation operator, see summation.) For example, consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the population mean, and denoted by the Greek letter . If the data set is a statistical sample (a subset of the population), then we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a sample mean (which for a data set is denoted as ). The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for vectors in multiple dimension, not only scalar values; this is often referred to as a centroid. More generally, because the arithmetic mean is a convex combination (coefficients sum to 1), it can be defined on a convex space, not only a vector space. Motivating properties The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: If numbers have mean , then . Since is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the residuals (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. If it is required to use a single number as a "typical" value for a set of known numbers , then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of . (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest root mean squared error.) If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is unbiased is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. Contrast with median The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data increase arithmetically, when placed in some order, then the median
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and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample . The average is , as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as , the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2, while the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income. Generalizations Weighted average A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of and is , or equivalently . In contrast, a weighted mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as . Here the weights, which necessarily sum to the value one, are and , the former being twice the latter. The arithmetic mean (sometimes called the "unweighted average" or "equally weighted average") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all the weights are equal to each other (equal to in the above example, and equal to in a situation with numbers being averaged). Continuous probability distributions If a numerical property, and any sample of data from it, could take on any value from a continuous range, instead of, for example, just integers, then the probability of a number falling into some range of possible values can be described by integrating a continuous probability distribution across this range, even when the naive probability for a sample number taking one certain value from infinitely many is zero. The analog of a weighted average in this context, in which there are an infinite number of possibilities for the precise value of the variable in each range, is called the mean of the probability distribution. A most widely encountered probability distribution is called the normal distribution; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median and the mode (the three M's), are equal to each other. This equality does not hold for other probability distributions, as illustrated for the log-normal distribution here. Angles Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data, such as phases or angles. Naively taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons: Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to an additive constant of 360° (or 2π, if measuring in radians). Thus one could as easily call these 1° and −1°, or 361° and 719°, since each one of them gives a different average. Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better average value: there is lower dispersion about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average). In general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation (viz., define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°). Symbols and encoding The arithmetic mean is often denoted by a bar, (a.k.a vinculum or macron), for example as in (read bar). Some software (text processors, web browsers) may not display the x̄ symbol properly. For example, the x̄ symbol in HTML is actually a combination of two codes - the base letter x plus a code for the line above (&#772; or ¯). In some texts, such as pdfs, the x̄ symbol may be replaced by a cent (¢) symbol (Unicode &#162), when copied to text processor such as Microsoft Word. See also Fréchet mean Generalized mean Geometric mean Harmonic mean Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means Mode Sample mean and covariance Standard deviation Standard error of the mean Summary statistics References Further reading External links Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic mean and geometric mean of two numbers Calculate the arithmetic mean of a series of numbers on fxSolver Means <|endoftext|>The American Football Conference (AFC) is one of the two conferences
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of the National Football League (NFL), the highest professional level of American football in the United States. This conference currently contains 16 teams organized into 4 divisions, as does its counterpart, the National Football Conference (NFC). Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 merger between the National Football League, and the American Football League (AFL). All ten of the AFL teams, and three NFL teams, became members of the new AFC, with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 teams in each conference. The current AFC champions are the Cincinnati Bengals, who defeated the Kansas City Chiefs in the 2022 AFC Championship Game for their third conference championship, and their first since 1988. Teams Like the NFC, the conference has 16 teams organized into four divisions each with four teams: East, North, South and West. Season structure This chart of the 2021 season standings displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The Bengals in 2021 (highlighted in green) finished in first place in the AFC North. Thus, in 2021, the Bengals are scheduled to play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the AFC East and NFC South (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the first-place finishers in the AFC South, AFC West (highlighted in orange), and NFC East (highlighted in pink). Currently, the fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a pre-determined formula: Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season, and the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2021 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC North and NFC East. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the three games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the four division winners and three wild cards (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the AFC qualify for the playoffs. The AFC playoffs culminate in the AFC Championship Game, with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy. The AFC champion then plays the NFC champion in the Super Bowl. History Both the AFC and the NFC were created after the NFL merged with the American Football League (AFL) in 1970. The AFL began play in 1960 with eight teams, and added two more expansion clubs (the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968) before the merger. In order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers, and the then-Baltimore Colts) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC. The two AFL divisions AFL East and AFL West were more or less intact, while the NFL's Century Division, in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970, the newly minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the 1970 season; the National Football Conference, however, could not agree upon their setup, and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16, 1970. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the Baltimore Colts relocated to Indianapolis. In 1995, the Cleveland Browns had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting dispute between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the Baltimore Ravens with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team. In California, the Oakland Raiders relocated to Los Angeles in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to Las Vegas in 2020, while the San Diego Chargers returned to Los Angeles in 2017 after 56 years in San Diego. The Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to
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"ĠAFC", "Ġthat", "Ġtook", "Ġelements", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġold", "ĠAFL", "Ġlogo", ",", "Ġspecifically", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "A", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġsix", "Ġstars", "Ġsurrounding", "Ġit", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAFC", "Ġlogo", "Ġbasically", "Ġremained", "Ġunchanged", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1970", "Ġto", "Ġ2009", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ2010", "ĠNFL", "Ġseason", "Ġintroduced", "Ġan", "Ġupdated", "ĠAFC", "Ġlogo", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġnotable", "Ġrevision", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġremoval", "Ġof", "Ġtwo", "Ġstars", "Ġ(", "le", "aving", "Ġfour", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġthe", "Ġfour", "Ġdivisions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAFC", "),", "Ġand", "Ġmoving", "Ġthe", "Ġstars", "Ġinside", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", ",", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠNFC", "Ġlogo", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTelevision", "ĠNBC", "Ġaired", "Ġthe", "ĠAFC", "'s", "ĠSunday", "Ġafternoon", "Ġand", "Ġplayoff", "Ġgames", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1970", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġ1997", "Ġseason", ".", "ĠFrom", "Ġ1998", "Ġto", "Ġ2013", ",", "ĠCBS", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġprimary", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġright", 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"Ġoriginal", "Ġtitle", "Ġwas", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ":", "ĠA", "ĠFairy", "ĠStory", ",", "Ġbut", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġpublishers", "Ġdropped", "Ġthe", "Ġsubtitle", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġpublished", "Ġin", "Ġ1946", ",", "Ġand", "Ġonly", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtranslations", "Ġduring", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġlifetime", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠTel", "ugu", "Ġversion", ",", "Ġkept", "Ġit", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġtit", "ular", "Ġvariations", "Ġinclude", "Ġsubtitles", "Ġlike", "Ġ\"", "A", "ĠSat", "ire", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "A", "ĠContemporary", "ĠSat", "ire", "\".", "ĠOrwell", "Ġsuggested", "Ġthe", "Ġtitle", "Ġ", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġtranslation", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġabbrevi", "ates", "Ġto", "ĠUR", "SA", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġword", "Ġfor", "Ġ\"", "bear", "\",", "Ġa", "Ġsymbol", "Ġof", "ĠRussia", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġalso", "Ġplayed", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġname", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ",", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "ĠOrwell", "Ġwrote", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġbetween", "ĠNovember", "Ġ1943", "Ġand", "ĠFebruary", "Ġ1944", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠKingdom", "Ġwas", "Ġin", "Ġits", "Ġwartime", "Ġalliance", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", "Ġagainst", "ĠNazi", "ĠGermany", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠBritish", "Ġintellig", "ents", "ia", "Ġheld", "ĠStalin", "Ġin", "Ġhigh", "Ġesteem", ",", "Ġa", "Ġphenomenon", "ĠOrwell", "Ġhated", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmanuscript", "Ġwas", "Ġinitially", "Ġrejected", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "ĠBritish", "Ġand", "ĠAmerican", "Ġpublishers", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġone", "Ġof", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġown", ",", "ĠVictor", "ĠG", "oll", "anc", "z", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġdelayed", "Ġits", "Ġpublication", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġbecame", "Ġa", "Ġgreat", "Ġcommercial", "Ġsuccess", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġdid", "Ġappear", "Ġpartly", "Ġbecause", "Ġinternational", "Ġrelations", "Ġwere", "Ġtransformed", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġwartime", "Ġalliance", "Ġgave", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠCold", "ĠWar", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTime", "Ġmagazine", "Ġchose", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ100", "Ġbest", "ĠEnglish", "-", "language", "Ġnovels", "Ġ(", "19", "23", "Ġto", "Ġ2005", ");", "Ġit", "Ġalso", "Ġfeatured", "Ġat", "Ġnumber", "Ġ31", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠModern", "ĠLibrary", "ĠList", "Ġof", "ĠBest", "Ġ20", "th", "-", "Cent", "ury", "ĠNovel", "s", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnumber", "Ġ46", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠBBC", "'s", "ĠThe", "ĠBig", "ĠRead", "Ġpoll", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwon", "Ġa", "ĠRetro", "spective", "ĠHugo", "ĠAward", "Ġin", "Ġ1996", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġincluded", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠBooks", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠWestern", "ĠWorld", "Ġselection", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPlot", "Ġsummary", "ĠThe", "Ġpoorly", "-", "run", "ĠManor", "ĠFarm", "Ġnear", "ĠWill", "ing", "don", ",", "ĠEngland", ",", "Ġis", "Ġrip", "ened", "Ġfor", "Ġrebellion", "Ġfrom", "Ġits", "Ġanimal", "Ġpopulace", "Ġby", "Ġneglect", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġhands", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġirresponsible", "Ġand", "Ġalcoholic", "Ġfarmer", ",", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġnight", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġexalted", "Ġbo", "ar", ",", "ĠOld", "ĠMajor", ",", "Ġholds", "Ġa", "Ġconference", ",", "Ġat", "Ġwhich" ]
245
the Tennessee Titans. The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the Houston Texans to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since. Between 1995 and 2021, the AFC has sent only 9 of its 16 teams to the Super Bowl: New England Patriots (10 times), Denver Broncos (4 times), Pittsburgh Steelers (4 times), Baltimore Ravens (2 times), Indianapolis Colts (2 times), Kansas City Chiefs (2 times), Cincinnati Bengals (1 time), Las Vegas Raiders (1 time), Tennessee Titans (1 time). By contrast, the NFC has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the Detroit Lions, Minnesota Vikings, and Washington Commanders missing out on an appearance in the Super Bowl. 17 of the 19 AFC champions from 2001 to 2019 have started one of just three quarterbacks - Tom Brady, Peyton Manning and Ben Roethlisberger - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 7 quarterbacks in the last 20 Super Bowls, while the NFC has started 16. Logo The merged league created a new logo for the AFC that took elements of the old AFL logo, specifically the "A" and the six stars surrounding it. The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo. Television NBC aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, CBS was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoff games have been seen on ABC or ESPN. References National Football League Conference Sports organizations established in 1970 <|endoftext|>Animal Farm is a satirical allegorical novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. The book tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer, hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. Ultimately, the rebellion is betrayed, and the farm ends up in a state as bad as it was before, under the dictatorship of a pig named Napoleon. According to Orwell, the fable reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the May Days conflicts between the POUM and Stalinist forces during the Spanish Civil War. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin (""), and in his essay "Why I Write" (1946), wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole". The original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story, but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime, the Telugu version, kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "A Satire" and "A Contemporary Satire". Orwell suggested the title for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin word for "bear", a symbol of Russia. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, . Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the United Kingdom was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany, and the British intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War. Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels, and number 46 on the BBC's The Big Read poll. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection. Plot summary The poorly-run Manor Farm near Willingdon, England, is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer, Mr. Jones. One night, the exalted boar, Old Major, holds a conference, at which
[ "Ġhe", "Ġcalls", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġoverthrow", "Ġof", "Ġhumans", "Ġand", "Ġteaches", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġa", "Ġrevolutionary", "Ġsong", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "Be", "asts", "Ġof", "ĠEngland", "\".", "ĠWhen", "ĠOld", "ĠMajor", "Ġdies", ",", "Ġtwo", "Ġyoung", "Ġpigs", ",", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġand", "ĠNapoleon", ",", "Ġassume", "Ġcommand", "Ġand", "Ġstage", "Ġa", "Ġrevolt", ",", "Ġdriving", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", "Ġoff", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", "Ġand", "Ġren", "aming", "Ġthe", "Ġproperty", "Ġ\"", "Animal", "ĠFarm", "\".", "ĠThey", "Ġadopt", "Ġthe", "ĠSeven", "ĠCommand", "ments", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ism", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġimportant", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", ",", "Ġ\"", "All", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġequal", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġdecree", "Ġis", "Ġpainted", "Ġin", "Ġlarge", "Ġletters", "Ġon", "Ġone", "Ġside", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbarn", ".", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġteaches", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġto", "Ġread", "Ġand", "Ġwrite", ",", "Ġwhile", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġeduc", "ates", "Ġyoung", "Ġpuppies", "Ġon", "Ġthe", 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",", "Ġwhich", "Ġculmin", "ate", "Ġin", "ĠNapoleon", "'s", "Ġdogs", "Ġchasing", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġaway", "Ġand", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġdeclaring", "Ġhimself", "Ġsupreme", "Ġcommander", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġen", "acts", "Ġchanges", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġgovernance", "Ġstructure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġreplacing", "Ġmeetings", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġcommittee", "Ġof", "Ġpigs", "Ġwho", "Ġwill", "Ġrun", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ".", "ĠThrough", "Ġa", "Ġyoung", "Ġpork", "er", "Ġnamed", "ĠSqu", "eal", "er", ",", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġclaims", "Ġcredit", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġwind", "mill", "Ġidea", ",", "Ġclaiming", "Ġthat", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġwas", "Ġonly", "Ġtrying", "Ġto", "Ġwin", "Ġanimals", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġside", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġanimals", "Ġwork", "Ġharder", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġpromise", "Ġof", "Ġeasier", "Ġlives", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġwind", "mill", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġfind", "Ġthe", "Ġwind", "mill", "Ġcollapsed", "Ġafter", "Ġa", "Ġviolent", "Ġstorm", ",", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġand", "ĠSqu", "eal", 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"\",", "Ġwhile", "Ġan", "Ġanthem", "Ġglor", "ifying", "ĠNapoleon", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġappears", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġadopting", "Ġthe", "Ġlifestyle", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġman", "Ġ(\"", "Com", "rade", "ĠNapoleon", "\"),", "Ġis", "Ġcomposed", "Ġand", "Ġsung", ".", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġthen", "Ġconducts", "Ġa", "Ġsecond", "Ġpurge", ",", "Ġduring", "Ġwhich", "Ġmany", "Ġanimals", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġalleged", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġhelping", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġin", "Ġplots", "Ġare", "Ġexecuted", "Ġby", "ĠNapoleon", "'s", "Ġdogs", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġtroubles", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", ".", "ĠDespite", "Ġtheir", "Ġhardships", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġeasily", "Ġplac", "ated", "Ġby", "ĠNapoleon", "'s", "Ġret", "ort", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġbetter", "Ġoff", "Ġthan", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġunder", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġsheep", "'s", "Ġcontinual", "Ġble", "ating", "Ġof", "ĠâĢ", "ľ", "four", "Ġlegs", "Ġgood", ",", "Ġtwo", "Ġlegs", "Ġbad", "âĢ", "Ŀ", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠFrederick", ",", "Ġa", "Ġneighbouring", "Ġfarmer", ",", "Ġattacks", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġusing", "Ġblasting", "Ġpowder", "Ġto", "Ġblow", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġrestored", "Ġwind", "mill", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġwin", "Ġthe", "Ġbattle", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġdo", "Ġso", "Ġat", "Ġgreat", "Ġcost", ",", "Ġas", "Ġmany", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠBox", "er", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", "horse", ",", "Ġare", "Ġwounded", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġhe", "Ġrecovers", "Ġfrom", "Ġthis", ",", "ĠBox", "er", "Ġeventually", "Ġcollapses", "Ġwhile", "Ġworking", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġwind", "mill", "Ġ(", "being", "Ġalmost", "Ġ12", "Ġyears", "Ġold", "Ġat", "Ġthat", "Ġpoint", ").", "ĠHe", "Ġis", "Ġtaken", "Ġaway", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġkn", "acker", "'s", "Ġvan", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġdonkey", "Ġcalled", "ĠBenjamin", "Ġalerts", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġof", "Ġthis", ",", "Ġbut", "ĠSqu", "eal", "er", "Ġquickly", "Ġwaves", "Ġoff", "Ġtheir", "Ġalarm", "Ġby", "Ġpersu", "ading", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġvan", 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"Ġincluding", "Ġstalls", "Ġwith", "Ġelectric", "Ġlighting", ",", "Ġheating", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrunning", "Ġwater", ",", "Ġare", "Ġforgotten", ",", "Ġwith", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġadvocating", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġhappiest", "Ġanimals", "Ġlive", "Ġsimple", "Ġlives", ".", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġforgotten", ",", "Ġalongside", "ĠBox", "er", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġexception", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfew", "Ġwho", "Ġknew", "Ġhim", "\".", "ĠMany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġwho", "Ġparticipated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġrebellion", "Ġare", "Ġdead", "Ġor", "Ġold", ".", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġdead", ",", "Ġsaying", "Ġhe", "Ġ\"", "d", "ied", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġin", "eb", "ri", "ates", "'", "Ġhome", "Ġin", "Ġanother", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcountry", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġpigs", "Ġstart", "Ġto", "Ġresemble", "Ġhumans", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthey", "Ġwalk", "Ġupright", ",", "Ġcarry", "Ġwh", "ips", ",", "Ġdrink", "Ġalcohol", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwear", "Ġclothes", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠSeven", "ĠCommand", 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"Ġrestores", "Ġthe", "Ġname", "Ġ\"" ]
246
he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England". When Old Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and stage a revolt, driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. To commemorate the start of Animal Farm, Snowball raises a green flag with a white hoof and horn. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm (later dubbed the "Battle of the Cowshed"), Snowball announces his plans to modernise the farm by building a windmill. Napoleon disputes this idea, and matters come to head, which culminate in Napoleon's dogs chasing Snowball away and Napoleon declaring himself supreme commander. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young porker named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea, claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals to his side. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project, and begin to purge the farm of animals accused by Napoleon of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones, even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage while falsely representing himself as the main hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with "Animal Farm", while an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man ("Comrade Napoleon"), is composed and sung. Napoleon then conducts a second purge, during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by Napoleon's dogs, which troubles the rest of the animals. Despite their hardships, the animals are easily placated by Napoleon's retort that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones, as well as by the sheep's continual bleating of “four legs good, two legs bad”. Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Although he recovers from this, Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill (being almost 12 years old at that point). He is taken away in a knacker's van, and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this, but Squealer quickly waves off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day. (However, Napoleon had in fact engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy whisky for themselves.) Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt, and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals that Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water, are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Snowball has been forgotten, alongside Boxer, with "the exception of the few who knew him". Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones is also dead, saying he "died in an inebriates' home in another part of the country". The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, drink alcohol, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." The maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad" is similarly changed to "Four legs good, two legs better." Other changes include the Hoof and Horn flag being replaced with a plain green banner and Old Major's skull, which was previously put on display, being reburied. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "
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"har", "in", ",", "Ġand", "ĠAlex", "ei", "ĠRy", "kov", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPin", "keye", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠA", "Ġminor", "Ġpig", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġmentioned", "Ġonly", "Ġonce", ";", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġtaste", "Ġt", "ester", "Ġthat", "Ġsamples", "ĠNapoleon", "'s", "Ġfood", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġsure", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġpoisoned", ",", "Ġin", "Ġresponse", "Ġto", "Ġrumours", "Ġabout", "Ġan", "Ġassassination", "Ġattempt", "Ġon", "ĠNapoleon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHumans", "Ġ", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠA", "Ġheavy", "Ġdrink", "er", "Ġwho", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġowner", "Ġof", "ĠManor", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġa", "Ġfarm", "Ġin", "Ġdis", "repair", "Ġwith", "Ġfarm", "hands", "Ġwho", "Ġoften", "Ġloaf", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġjob", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġalleg", "ory", "Ġof", "ĠRussian", "ĠTs", "ar", "ĠNicholas", "ĠII", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġab", "d", "icated", "Ġfollowing", "Ġthe", "ĠFebruary", "ĠRevolution", "Ġof", "Ġ1917", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġmurdered", ",", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġfamily", ",", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠBolshe", "viks", "Ġon", "Ġ17", "ĠJuly", "Ġ1918", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġanimals", "Ġrevolt", "Ġafter", "ĠJones", "Ġgoes", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġdrinking", "Ġbinge", ",", "Ġreturns", "Ġhung", "over", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġday", "Ġand", "Ġneglect", "s", "Ġthem", "Ġcompletely", ".", "Ġ", "ĠJones", "Ġis", "Ġmarried", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhis", "Ġwife", "Ġplays", "Ġno", "Ġactive", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", ".", "Ġ", "ĠShe", "Ġseems", "Ġto", "Ġlive", "Ġwith", "Ġher", "Ġhusband", "'s", "Ġdrunken", "ness", ",", "Ġgoing", "Ġto", "Ġbed", "Ġwhile", "Ġhe", "Ġstays", "Ġup", "Ġdrinking", "Ġtill", "Ġlate", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġnight", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġher", "Ġonly", "Ġother", "Ġappearance", ",", "Ġshe", "Ġhastily", "Ġthrows", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġthings", "Ġinto", "Ġa", "Ġtravel", "Ġbag", "Ġand", "Ġfle", "es", "Ġwhen", "Ġshe", "Ġsees", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġrevol", "ting", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTowards", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", ",", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", "Ġs", "ows", "Ġwears", "Ġher", "Ġold", "ĠSunday", "Ġdress", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠFrederick", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠThe", "Ġtough", "Ġowner", "Ġof", "ĠP", "inch", "field", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġbut", "Ġwell", "-", "kept", "Ġneighbouring", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġbriefly", "Ġenters", "Ġinto", "Ġan", "Ġalliance", "Ġwith", "ĠNapoleon", ".", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġshares", "Ġland", "Ġboundaries", "Ġwith", "ĠP", "inch", "field", "Ġon", "Ġone", "Ġside", "Ġand", "ĠFox", "wood", "Ġon", "Ġanother", ",", "Ġmaking", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "buffer", "Ġzone", "\"", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġb", "ick", "ering", "Ġfarmers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġanimals", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġare", "Ġterrified", "Ġof", "ĠFrederick", ",", "Ġas", "Ġrumours", "Ġabound", "Ġof", "Ġhim", "Ġabusing", "Ġhis", "Ġanimals", "Ġand", "Ġentertaining", "Ġhimself", "Ġwith", "Ġcock", "fighting", ".", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġenters", "Ġinto", "Ġan", "Ġalliance", "Ġwith", "ĠFrederick", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġsell", "Ġsurplus", "Ġtimber", "Ġthat", "ĠPil", "king", "ton", "Ġalso", "Ġsought", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġis", "Ġenraged", "Ġto", "Ġlearn", "ĠFrederick", "Ġpaid", "Ġhim", "Ġin", "Ġcounterfeit", "Ġmoney", ".", "ĠShortly", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġsw", "ind", "ling", ",", "ĠFrederick", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġmen", "Ġinvade", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġkilling", "Ġmany", "Ġanimals", "Ġand", "Ġdestroying", "Ġthe", "Ġwind", "mill", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbrief", "Ġalliance", "Ġand", "Ġsubsequent", "Ġinvasion", "Ġmay", "Ġall", "ude", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠMol", "ot", "ov", "âĢĵ", "R", "ib", "bent", "rop", "ĠPact", "Ġand", "ĠOperation", "ĠBarbar", "oss", "a", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠPil", "king", "ton", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠThe", "Ġeasy", "-", "going", "Ġbut", "Ġcraft", "y", "Ġand", "Ġwell", "-", "to", "-", "do", "Ġowner", "Ġof", "ĠFox", "wood", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġneighbouring", "Ġfarm", "Ġover", "grown", "Ġwith", "Ġweeds", ".", "ĠPil", "king", "ton", "Ġis", "Ġwealthier", "Ġthan", "ĠFrederick", "Ġand", "Ġowns", "Ġmore", "Ġland", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhis", "Ġfarm", "Ġis", "Ġin", "Ġneed", "Ġof", "Ġcare", "Ġas", "Ġopposed", "Ġto", "ĠFrederick", "'s", "Ġsmaller", "Ġbut", "Ġmore", "Ġefficiently", "Ġrun", "Ġfarm", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġon", "Ġbad", "Ġterms", "Ġwith", "ĠFrederick", ",", "ĠPil", "king", "ton", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġconcerned", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "Ġanimal", "Ġrevolution", "Ġthat", "Ġdep", "osed", "ĠJones", "Ġand", "Ġworried", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġcould", "Ġalso", "Ġhappen", "Ġto", "Ġhim", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠWhy", "m", "per", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠA", "Ġman", "Ġhired", "Ġby", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġto", "Ġact", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġliaison", "Ġbetween", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġand", "Ġhuman", "Ġsociety", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġfirst", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġacquire", "Ġnecessities", "Ġthat", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġproduced", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġdog" ]
247
The Manor Farm". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the Ace of Spades at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two. Characters Pigs Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is also called Willingdon Beauty when showing. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Vladimir Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was left in indefinite repose. By the end of the book, the skull is reburied. Napoleon – "A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the leader of Animal Farm. Snowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. His life parallels that of Leon Trotsky, but may also combine elements from Lenin. Squealer – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Vyacheslav Molotov. Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned. Literary theorist John Rodden compares him to the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky. The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Probably based on the Great Purge of Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov. Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the taste tester that samples Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. Humans Mr. Jones – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones goes on a drinking binge, returns hungover the following day and neglects them completely. Jones is married, but his wife plays no active role in the book. She seems to live with her husband's drunkenness, going to bed while he stays up drinking till late into the night. In her only other appearance, she hastily throws a few things into a travel bag and flees when she sees that the animals are revolting. Towards the end of the book, one of the farm sows wears her old Sunday dress. Mr. Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield Farm, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a "buffer zone" between the two bickering farmers. The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with cockfighting. Napoleon enters into an alliance with Frederick in order to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and destroying the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Operation Barbarossa. Mr. Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood Farm, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Pilkington is wealthier than Frederick and owns more land, but his farm is in need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones and worried that this could also happen to him. Mr. Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first, he is used to acquire necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog
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"Ġden", "izens", "Ġwith", "Ġtales", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġwond", "rous", "Ġplace", "Ġbeyond", "Ġthe", "Ġclouds", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "S", "ug", "arc", "andy", "ĠMountain", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġhappy", "Ġcountry", "Ġwhere", "Ġwe", "Ġpoor", "Ġanimals", "Ġshall", "Ġrest", "Ġforever", "Ġfrom", "Ġour", "Ġlab", "ours", "!\"", "ĠOrwell", "Ġportrays", "Ġestablished", "Ġreligion", "Ġas", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġblack", "Ġraven", "Ġof", "Ġpriest", "craft", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġpromising", "Ġpie", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsky", "Ġwhen", "Ġyou", "Ġdie", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfaithfully", "Ġserving", "Ġwhoever", "Ġhappens", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġin", "Ġpower", ".\"", "ĠHis", "Ġpreaching", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġheart", "ens", "Ġthem", ",", "Ġand", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġallows", "ĠMoses", "Ġto", "Ġreside", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", "Ġ\"", "with", "Ġan", "Ġallowance", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġg", "ill", "Ġof", "Ġbeer", "Ġdaily", "\",", "Ġakin", "Ġto", "Ġhow", "ĠStalin", "Ġbrought", "Ġback", "Ġthe", "ĠRussian", "ĠOrthodox", "ĠChurch", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "ĠSecond", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġsheep", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠThey", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġgiven", "Ġindividual", "Ġnames", "Ġor", "Ġpersonalities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThey", "Ġshow", "Ġlimited", "Ġunderstanding", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġpolitical", "Ġatmosphere", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġyet", "Ġnonetheless", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġvoice", "Ġof", "Ġblind", "Ġconformity", "Ġas", "Ġthey", "Ġble", "at", "Ġtheir", "Ġsupport", "Ġof", "ĠNapoleon", "'s", "Ġideals", "Ġwith", "Ġj", "ing", "les", "Ġduring", "Ġhis", "Ġspeeches", "Ġand", "Ġmeetings", "Ġwith", "ĠSnow", "ball", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġconstant", "Ġble", "ating", "Ġof", "Ġ\"", "four", "Ġlegs", "Ġgood", ",", "Ġtwo", "Ġlegs", "Ġbad", "\"", "Ġwas", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġdevice", "Ġto", "Ġdrown", "Ġout", "Ġany", "Ġopposition", "Ġor", "Ġalternative", "Ġviews", "Ġfrom", "ĠSnow", "ball", ",", "Ġmuch", "Ġas", "ĠStalin", "Ġused", "Ġhysterical", "Ġcrowds", "Ġto", "Ġdrown", "Ġout", "ĠTrotsky", ".", "ĠTowards", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", ",", "ĠSqu", "eal", "er", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġpropag", "and", "ist", ")", "Ġtrains", "Ġthe", "Ġsheep", "Ġto", "Ġalter", "Ġtheir", "Ġslogan", "Ġto", "Ġ\"", "four", "Ġlegs", "Ġgood", ",", "Ġtwo", "Ġlegs", "Ġbetter", "\",", "Ġwhich", "Ġthey", "Ġd", "ut", "ifully", "Ġdo", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġhe", "ns", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAlso", "Ġunnamed", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhe", "ns", "Ġare", "Ġpromised", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġstart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġrevolution", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġwill", "Ġget", "Ġto", "Ġkeep", "Ġtheir", "Ġeggs", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġstolen", "Ġfrom", "Ġthem", "Ġunder", "ĠMr", ".", "ĠJones", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġtheir", "Ġeggs", "Ġare", "Ġsoon", "Ġtaken", "Ġfrom", "Ġthem", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġpremise", "Ġof", "Ġbuying", "Ġgoods", "Ġfrom", "Ġoutside", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġhe", "ns", "Ġare", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġto", "Ġrebel", ",", "Ġalbeit", "Ġunsuccessfully", ",", "Ġagainst", "ĠNapoleon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcows", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAlso", "Ġunnamed", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcows", "Ġare", "Ġent", "iced", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġrevolution", "Ġby", "Ġpromises", "Ġthat", "Ġtheir", "Ġmilk", "Ġwill", "Ġnot", "Ġbe", "Ġstolen", "Ġbut", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġraise", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġcalves", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġmilk", "Ġis", "Ġthen", "Ġstolen", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġpigs", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġlearn", "Ġto", "Ġmilk", "Ġthem", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmilk", "Ġis", "Ġstirred", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġpigs", "'", "Ġmash", "Ġevery", "Ġday", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġother", "Ġanimals", "Ġare", "Ġdenied", "Ġsuch", "Ġlux", "uries", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcat", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠUn", "named", "Ġand", "Ġnever", "Ġseen", "Ġto", "Ġcarry", "Ġout", "Ġany", "Ġwork", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcat", "Ġis", "Ġabsent", "Ġfor", "Ġlong", "Ġperiods", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġforgiven", "Ġbecause", "Ġher" ]
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biscuits and paraffin wax, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. Equines Boxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard-working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labour on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that "Napoleon is always right." At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to Alexey Stakhanov, a diligent and enthusiastic role model of the Stakhanovite movement. He has been described as "faithful and strong"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. When Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky, and Squealer gives a moving account, falsifying Boxer's death. Mollie – A self-centred, self-indulgent, and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. She is only once mentioned again. Clover – A gentle, caring mare, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot "put words together". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer. Benjamin – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly." The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless scepticism" and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in Animal Farm." Other animals Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. Similarly to Benjamin, Muriel is one of the few animals on the farm who is not a pig but can read. The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, the puppies were taken away at birth by Napoleon and raised by him to serve as his powerful security force. Moses – The Raven, "Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker." Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays established religion as "the black raven of priestcraft – promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power." His preaching to the animals heartens them, and Napoleon allows Moses to reside at the farm "with an allowance of a gill of beer daily", akin to how Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church during the Second World War. The sheep – They are not given individual names or personalities. They show limited understanding of Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm, yet nonetheless they are the voice of blind conformity as they bleat their support of Napoleon's ideals with jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. Their constant bleating of "four legs good, two legs bad" was used as a device to drown out any opposition or alternative views from Snowball, much as Stalin used hysterical crowds to drown out Trotsky. Towards the end of the book, Squealer (the propagandist) trains the sheep to alter their slogan to "four legs good, two legs better", which they dutifully do. The hens – Also unnamed, the hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr. Jones. However, their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside Animal Farm. The hens are among the first to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully, against Napoleon. The cows – Also unnamed, the cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is then stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries. The cat – Unnamed and never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven because her
[ "Ġexcuses", "Ġare", "Ġso", "Ġconvincing", "Ġand", "Ġshe", "Ġ\"", "p", "urred", "Ġso", "Ġaffection", "ately", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġimpossible", "Ġnot", "Ġto", "Ġbelieve", "Ġin", "Ġher", "Ġgood", "Ġintentions", ".\"", "ĠShe", "Ġhas", "Ġno", "Ġinterest", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġpolitics", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġtime", "Ġshe", "Ġis", "Ġrecorded", "Ġas", "Ġhaving", "Ġparticipated", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġelection", ",", "Ġshe", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġactually", "Ġ\"", "v", "oted", "Ġon", "Ġboth", "Ġsides", ".\"", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġducks", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAlso", "Ġunnamed", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġro", "ost", "ers", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠOne", "Ġarr", "anges", "Ġto", "Ġwake", "ĠBox", "er", "Ġearly", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġblack", "Ġone", "Ġacts", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġtrump", "eter", "Ġfor", "ĠNapoleon", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġge", "ese", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠAlso", "Ġunnamed", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġg", "ander", "Ġcommits", "Ġsuicide", "Ġby", "Ġeating", "Ġnight", "sh", "ade", "Ġberries", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGen", "re", "Ġand", "Ġstyle", "Ġ", "ĠGeorge", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġexample", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġpolitical", "Ġsatire", "Ġthat", "Ġwas", "Ġintended", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "w", "ider", "Ġapplication", "\",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "ĠOrwell", "Ġhimself", ",", "Ġin", "Ġterms", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġrelevance", ".", "ĠSt", "yl", "istically", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", "Ġshares", "Ġmany", "Ġsimilarities", "Ġwith", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġother", "Ġworks", ",", "Ġmost", "Ġnotably", "Ġ1984", ",", "Ġas", "Ġboth", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġconsidered", "Ġworks", "Ġof", "ĠSwift", "ian", "ĠSat", "ire", ".", "ĠFurthermore", ",", "Ġthese", "Ġtwo", "Ġprominent", "Ġworks", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġsuggest", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġbleak", "Ġview", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfuture", "Ġfor", "Ġhumanity", ";", "Ġhe", "Ġseems", "Ġto", "Ġstress", "Ġthe", "Ġpotential", "/", "current", "Ġthreat", "Ġof", "Ġdystop", "ias", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthose", "Ġin", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġand", "Ġ1984", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthese", "Ġkinds", "Ġof", "Ġworks", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġdistinctly", "Ġreferences", "Ġthe", "Ġdis", "array", "Ġand", "Ġtraumatic", "Ġconditions", "Ġof", "ĠEurope", "Ġfollowing", "Ġthe", "ĠSecond", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", ".", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġstyle", "Ġand", "Ġwriting", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġwhole", "Ġwere", "Ġvery", "Ġconcerned", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġpursuit", "Ġof", "Ġtruth", "Ġin", "Ġwriting", ".", "ĠOrwell", "Ġwas", "Ġcommitted", "Ġto", "Ġcommunicating", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġway", "Ġthat", "Ġwas", "Ġstraightforward", ",", "Ġgiven", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġfelt", "Ġwords", "Ġwere", "Ġcommonly", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġpolitics", "Ġto", "Ġdeceive", "Ġand", "Ġconfuse", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġthis", "Ġreason", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġis", "Ġcareful", ",", "Ġin", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġsure", "Ġthe", "Ġnarrator", "Ġspeaks", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġunbiased", "Ġand", "Ġuncom", "pl", "icated", "Ġfashion", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġdifference", "Ġis", "Ġseen", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġspeak", "Ġand", "Ġinteract", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġgenerally", "Ġmoral", "Ġanimals", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġspeak", "Ġtheir", "Ġminds", "Ġclearly", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġwicked", "Ġanimals", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠNapoleon", ",", "Ġtwist", "Ġlanguage", "Ġin", "Ġsuch", "Ġa", "Ġway", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġmeets", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġinsidious", "Ġdesires", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġstyle", "Ġreflects", "ĠOrwell", "'s", "Ġclose", "Ġprox", "imation", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġissues", "Ġfacing", "ĠEurope", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġdetermination", "Ġto", "Ġcomment", "Ġcritically", "Ġon", "ĠStalin", "'s", "ĠSoviet", "ĠRussia", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBackground", "Ġ", "ĠOrigin", "Ġand", "Ġwriting", "ĠGeorge", "ĠOrwell", "Ġwrote", "Ġthe", "Ġmanuscript", "Ġbetween", "ĠNovember", "Ġ1943", "Ġand", "ĠFebruary", "Ġ1944", "Ġafter", "Ġhis", "Ġexperiences", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "ĠSpanish", "ĠCivil", "ĠWar", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġdescribed", "Ġin", "ĠHom", "age", "Ġto", "ĠCatalonia", "Ġ(", "19", "38", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "face", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġ1947", "ĠUkrainian", "Ġedition", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġexplained", "Ġhow", "Ġescaping", "Ġthe", "Ġcommunist", "Ġpur", "ges", "Ġin", "ĠSpain", "Ġtaught", "Ġhim", "Ġ\"", "how", "Ġeasily", "Ġtotalitarian", "Ġpropaganda", "Ġcan", "Ġcontrol", "Ġthe", "Ġopinion", "Ġof", "Ġenlightened", "Ġpeople", "Ġin", "Ġdemocratic", "Ġcountries", ".\"", "ĠThis", "Ġmotivated", "ĠOrwell", "Ġto", "Ġexpose", "Ġand", "Ġstrongly", "Ġcondemn", "Ġwhat", "Ġhe", "Ġsaw", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠStalin", "ist", "Ġcorruption", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġsocialist", "Ġideals", ".", "ĠHom", "age", "Ġto", "ĠCatalonia", "Ġsold", "Ġpoorly", ";", "Ġafter", "Ġseeing", "ĠArthur", "ĠKo", "est", "ler", "'s", "Ġbest", "-", "selling", ",", "ĠDarkness", "Ġat", "ĠNoon", ",", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "ĠMoscow", "ĠTrials", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġdecided", "Ġthat", "Ġfiction", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġdescribe", "Ġtotalitarian", "ism", ".", "Ġ", "ĠImmediately", "Ġprior", "Ġto", "Ġwriting", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġhad", "Ġquit", "Ġthe", "ĠBBC", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġupset", "Ġabout", "Ġa", "Ġbooklet", "Ġfor", "Ġpropag", "and", "ists", "Ġthe", "ĠMinistry", "Ġof", "ĠInformation", "Ġhad", "Ġput", "Ġout", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbooklet", "Ġincluded", "Ġinstructions", "Ġon", "Ġhow", "Ġto", "Ġqu", "ell", "Ġideological", "Ġfears", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġdirections", "Ġto", "Ġclaim", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "ĠRed", "ĠTerror", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġfig", "ment", "Ġof", "ĠNazi", "Ġimagination", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "face", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġdescribed", "Ġthe", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġidea", "Ġof", "Ġsetting", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġfarm", ":", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ1944", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmanuscript", "Ġwas", "Ġalmost", "Ġlost", "Ġwhen", "Ġa", "ĠGerman", "ĠV", "-", "1", "Ġflying", "Ġbomb", "Ġdestroyed", "Ġhis", "ĠLondon", "Ġhome", ".", "ĠOrwell", "Ġspent", "Ġhours", "Ġs", "ifting", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġrubble", "Ġto", "Ġfind", "Ġthe", "Ġpages", "Ġintact", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPublication", "Ġ", "ĠPublishing", "ĠOrwell", "Ġinitially", "Ġencountered", "Ġdifficulty", "Ġgetting", "Ġthe", "Ġmanuscript", "Ġpublished", ",", "Ġlargely", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġfears", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġmight", "Ġupset", "Ġthe", "Ġalliance", "Ġbetween", "ĠBritain", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "ĠUnion", ".", "ĠFour", "Ġpublishers", "Ġrefused", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ",", "Ġyet", "Ġone", "Ġhad", "Ġinitially", "Ġaccepted", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġdeclined", "Ġit", "Ġafter", "Ġconsulting", "Ġthe", "ĠMinistry", "Ġof", "ĠInformation", ".", "ĠEventually", ",", "ĠSe", "cker", "Ġand", "ĠWar", "burg", "Ġpublished", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", "Ġin", "Ġ1945", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "ĠSecond", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", ",", "Ġit", "Ġbecame", "Ġclear", "Ġto", "ĠOrwell", "Ġthat", "Ġanti", "-", "Soviet", "Ġliterature", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġsomething", "Ġwhich", "Ġmost", "Ġmajor", "Ġpublishing", "Ġhouses", "Ġwould", "Ġtouch", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġincluding", "Ġhis", "Ġregular", "Ġpublisher", "ĠG", "oll", "anc", "z", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġalso", "Ġsubmitted", "Ġthe", "Ġmanuscript", "Ġto", "ĠFab", "er", "Ġand", "ĠFab", "er", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġthe", "Ġpoet", "ĠT", ".", "ĠS", ".", "ĠEliot", "Ġ(", "who", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġdirector", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfirm", ")", "Ġrejected", "Ġit", ";", "ĠEliot", "Ġwrote", "Ġback", "Ġto", "ĠOrwell", "Ġpraising", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "'s", "Ġ\"", "good", "Ġwriting", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "fund", "amental", "Ġintegrity", "\",", "Ġbut", "Ġdeclared", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġwould", "Ġonly", "Ġaccept", "Ġit", "Ġfor", "Ġpublication", "Ġif", "Ġthey", "Ġhad", "Ġsome", "Ġsympathy", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġviewpoint", "Ġ\"", "which", "ĠI", "Ġtake", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġgenerally", "ĠTrotsky", "ite", "\".", "ĠEliot", "Ġsaid", "Ġhe", "Ġfound", "Ġthe", "Ġview", "Ġ\"", "not", "Ġconvincing", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġcontended", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġpigs", "Ġwere", "Ġmade", "Ġout", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "Ġto", "Ġrun", "Ġthe", "Ġfarm", ";", "Ġhe", "Ġpos", "ited", "Ġthat", "Ġsomeone", "Ġmight", "Ġargue", "Ġ\"", "what", "Ġwas", "Ġneeded", "Âł", "...", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġmore", "Ġcommunism", "Ġbut", "Ġmore", "Ġpublic", "-", "spir", "ited", "Ġpigs", "\".", "ĠOrwell", "Ġlet", "ĠAnd", "ré", "ĠDe", "utsch", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwas", "Ġworking", "Ġfor", "ĠNicholson", "Ġ&", "ĠWatson", "Ġin", "Ġ1944", ",", "Ġread", "Ġthe", "Ġtyp", "esc", "ript", ",", "Ġand", "ĠDe", "utsch", "Ġwas", "Ġconvinced", "Ġthat", "ĠNicholson", "Ġ&", "ĠWatson", "Ġwould", "Ġwant", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "Ġit", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "lect", "ured", "ĠOrwell", "Ġon", "Ġwhat", "Ġthey", "Ġperceived", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġerrors", "Ġin", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ".\"", "ĠIn", "Ġhis", "ĠLondon", "ĠLetter", "Ġon", "Ġ17", "ĠApril", "Ġ1944", "Ġfor", "ĠPart", "isan", "ĠReview", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġwrote", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġ\"", "now", "Ġnext", "Ġdoor", "Ġto", "Ġimpossible", "Ġto", "Ġget", "Ġanything", "Ġovertly", "Ġanti", "-", "Russian", "Ġprinted", ".", "ĠAnti", "-", "Russian", "Ġbooks", "Ġdo", "Ġappear", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġmostly", "Ġfrom", "ĠCatholic", "Ġpublishing", "Ġfirms", "Ġand" ]
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excuses are so convincing and she "purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions." She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually "voted on both sides." The ducks – Also unnamed. The roosters – One arranges to wake Boxer early, and a black one acts as a trumpeter for Napoleon. The geese – Also unnamed. One gander commits suicide by eating nightshade berries. Genre and style George Orwell's Animal Farm is an example of a political satire that was intended to have a "wider application", according to Orwell himself, in terms of its relevance. Stylistically, the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works, most notably 1984, as both have been considered works of Swiftian Satire. Furthermore, these two prominent works seem to suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for humanity; he seems to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar to those in Animal Farm and 1984. In these kinds of works, Orwell distinctly references the disarray and traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War. Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with the pursuit of truth in writing. Orwell was committed to communicating in a way that was straightforward, given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and confuse. For this reason, he is careful, in Animal Farm, to make sure the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion. The difference is seen in the way that the animals speak and interact, as the generally moral animals seem to speak their minds clearly, while the wicked animals on the farm, such as Napoleon, twist language in such a way that it meets their own insidious desires. This style reflects Orwell's close proximation to the issues facing Europe at the time and his determination to comment critically on Stalin's Soviet Russia. Background Origin and writing George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and February 1944 after his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries." This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals. Homage to Catalonia sold poorly; after seeing Arthur Koestler's best-selling, Darkness at Noon, about the Moscow Trials, Orwell decided that fiction was the best way to describe totalitarianism. Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination. In the preface, Orwell described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm: In 1944, the manuscript was almost lost when a German V-1 flying bomb destroyed his London home. Orwell spent hours sifting through the rubble to find the pages intact. Publication Publishing Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused to publish Animal Farm, yet one had initially accepted the work, but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945. During the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally Trotskyite". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed ... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs". Orwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm." In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and
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"Ġeven", "Ġfrom", "Ġpeople", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġown", "Ġoffice", "Ġand", "Ġfrom", "Ġhis", "Ġwife", "ĠPamela", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġfelt", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġthe", "Ġmoment", "Ġfor", "Ġing", "rat", "itude", "Ġtowards", "ĠStalin", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġheroic", "ĠRed", "ĠArmy", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġhad", "Ġplayed", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġpart", "Ġin", "Ġdefeating", "ĠAdolf", "ĠHitler", ".", "ĠA", "ĠRussian", "Ġtranslation", "Ġwas", "Ġprinted", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġpaper", "ĠPose", "v", ",", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġgiving", "Ġpermission", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "ĠRussian", "Ġtranslation", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġrefused", "Ġin", "Ġadvance", "Ġall", "Ġroyalties", ".", "ĠA", "Ġtranslation", "Ġin", "ĠUkrainian", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġproduced", "Ġin", "ĠGermany", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġconfiscated", "Ġin", "Ġlarge", "Ġpart", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "Ġwartime", "Ġauthorities", "Ġand", "Ġhanded", "Ġover", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "Ġrepatri", "ation", "Ġcommission", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠOctober", "Ġ1945", ",", "ĠOrwell", "Ġwrote", "Ġto", "ĠFreder", "ic", "ĠWar", "burg", "Ġexpressing", "Ġinterest", "Ġin", "Ġpursuing", "Ġthe", "Ġpossibility", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġpolitical", "Ġcartoon", "ist", "ĠDavid", "ĠLow", "Ġmight", "Ġillustrate", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ".", "ĠLow", "Ġhad", "Ġwritten", "Ġa", "Ġletter", "Ġsaying", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġhad", "Ġ\"", "a", "Ġgood", "Ġtime", "Ġwith", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġan", "Ġexcellent", "Ġbit", "Ġof", "Ġsatire", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġit", "Ġwould", "Ġillustrate", "Ġperfectly", ".\"", "ĠNothing", "Ġcame", "Ġof", "Ġthis", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġtrial", "Ġissue", "Ġproduced", "Ġby", "ĠSe", "cker", "Ġ&", "ĠWar", "burg", "Ġin", "Ġ1956", "Ġillustrated", "Ġby", "ĠJohn", "ĠDriver", "Ġwas", "Ġabandoned", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "ĠFol", "io", "ĠSociety", "Ġpublished", "Ġan", "Ġedition", "Ġin", "Ġ1984", "Ġillustrated", "Ġby", "ĠQuentin", "ĠBlake", "Ġand", "Ġan", "Ġedition", "Ġillustrated", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġcartoon", "ist", "ĠRalph", "ĠStead", "man", "Ġwas", "Ġpublished", "Ġby", "ĠSe", "cker", "Ġ&", "ĠWar", "burg", "Ġin", "Ġ1995", "Ġto", "Ġcelebrate", "Ġthe", "Ġf", "ift", "ieth", "Ġanniversary", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPre", "face", "ĠOrwell", "Ġoriginally", "Ġwrote", "Ġa", "Ġpre", "face", "Ġcomplaining", "Ġabout", "ĠBritish", "Ġself", "-", "cens", "orship", "Ġand", "Ġhow", "Ġthe", "ĠBritish", "Ġpeople", "Ġwere", "Ġsuppressing", "Ġcriticism", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUSSR", ",", "Ġtheir", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", "ĠII", "Ġally", ":", "Ġ", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", "Ġallowed", "Ġspace", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "face", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġincluded", ",", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġof", "ĠJune", "Ġ2009", "Ġmost", "Ġeditions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġincluded", "Ġit", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSe", "cker", "Ġand", "ĠWar", "burg", "Ġpublished", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġin", "Ġ1945", "Ġwithout", "Ġan", "Ġintroduction", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthe", 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"Ġof", "Ġunfl", "attering", "Ġdescriptions", "Ġof", "ĠStalin", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠSoviet", "Ġgovernment", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsame", "Ġessay", "Ġalso", "Ġappeared", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠItalian", "Ġ1976", "Ġedition", "Ġof", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġwith", "Ġanother", "Ġintroduction", "Ġby", "ĠCr", "ick", ",", "Ġclaiming", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġedition", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġpre", "face", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġpublishers", "Ġwere", "Ġstill", "Ġdeclining", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "Ġit", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRe", "ception", "ĠContemporary", "Ġreviews", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġuniversally", "Ġpositive", ".", "ĠWriting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "ĠNew", "ĠRepublic", "Ġmagazine", ",", "ĠGeorge", "ĠSou", "le", "Ġexpressed", "Ġhis", "Ġdisappointment", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", ",", "Ġwriting", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġ\"", "p", "uzz", "led", "Ġand", "Ġsaddened", "Ġme", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġseemed", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġwhole", "Ġdull", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġalleg", "ory", "Ġturned", "Ġout", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġcre", "aking", "Ġmachine", "Ġfor", "Ġsaying", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġclumsy", "Ġway", "Ġthings", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġsaid", "Ġbetter", "Ġdirectly", ".\"", "ĠSou", "le", "Ġbelieved", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġwere", "Ġnot", "Ġconsistent", "Ġenough", "Ġwith", "Ġtheir", "Ġreal", "-", "world", "Ġinspir", "ations", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsaid", ",", "Ġ\"", "It", "Ġseems", "Ġto", "Ġme", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġfailure", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġbook", "Ġ(", "com", "mer", "cially", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġalready", "Ġassured", "Ġof", "Ġtremendous", "Ġsuccess", ")", "Ġarises", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġfact", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġsatire", "Ġdeals", "Ġnot", "Ġwith", "Ġsomething", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "Ġhas", "Ġexperienced", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġrather", "Ġwith", "Ġstereotyp", "ed", "Ġideas", "Ġabout", "Ġa", "Ġcountry", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġprobably", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġknow", "Ġvery", "Ġwell", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠGuardian", "Ġon", "Ġ24", "ĠAugust", "Ġ1945", "Ġcalled", "ĠAnimal", "ĠFarm", "Ġ\"", "a", "Ġdelight", "fully", "Ġhumorous", "Ġand", "Ġca", "ust", "ic", "Ġsatire", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġrule", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmany", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġfew", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠTos", "co", "ĠF", "y", "vel", ",", "Ġwriting", "Ġin", "ĠTribune", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġday", ",", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġ\"", "a", "Ġgentle", "Ġsatire", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġcertain", "ĠState", "Ġand", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġillusions", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġage", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġalready", "Ġbe", "Ġbehind", "Ġus", ".\"", "ĠJulian", "ĠSy", "mons", "Ġresponded", ",", "Ġon", "Ġ7", "ĠSeptember", ",", "Ġ\"", "Should", "Ġwe", "Ġnot", "Ġexpect", ",", "Ġin", "ĠTribune", "Ġat", "Ġleast", ",", "Ġacknowledgement", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfact", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġsatire", "Ġnot", "Ġat", "Ġall", "Ġgentle", "Ġupon", "Ġa", "Ġparticular", "ĠState", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠSoviet", "ĠRussia", "?", "ĠIt", "Ġseems", "Ġto", "Ġme", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġreviewer", "Ġshould", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġcourage", "Ġto", "Ġidentify", "ĠNapoleon", "Ġwith", "ĠStalin", ",", "Ġand", "ĠSnow", "ball", "Ġwith", 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250
always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle." The publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off – although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the "important official" was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying: Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Adolf Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in giving permission for a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission. In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with Animal Farm – an excellent bit of satire – it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm. Preface Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it. Secker and Warburg published the first edition of Animal Farm in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute. In 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it. Reception Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly." Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real-world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well". The Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few". Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." Julian Symons responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may
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251
be simply a fairy story; today it is a political satire with a good deal of point." Animal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks. The CIA, from 1952 to 1957 in Operation Aedinosaur, sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down. Time magazine chose Animal Farm as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection. Popular reading in schools, Animal Farm was ranked the UK's favourite book from school in a 2016 poll. Animal Farm has also faced an array of challenges in school settings around the US. The following are examples of this controversy that has existed around Orwell's work: The John Birch Society in Wisconsin challenged the reading of Animal Farm in 1965 because of its reference to masses revolting. New York State English Council's Committee on Defense Against Censorship found that in 1968, Animal Farm had been widely deemed a "problem book". A censorship survey conducted in DeKalb County, Georgia, relating to the years 1979–1982, revealed that many schools had attempted to limit access to Animal Farm due to its "political theories". A superintendent in Bay County, Florida, banned Animal Farm at the middle school and high school levels in 1987. The Board quickly brought back the book, however, after receiving complaints of the ban as "unconstitutional". Animal Farm was removed from the Stonington, Connecticut school district curriculum in 2017. Animal Farm has also faced similar forms of resistance in other countries. The ALA also mentions the way that the book was prevented from being featured at the International Book Fair in Moscow, Russia, in 1977 and banned from schools in the United Arab Emirates for references to practices or actions that defy Arab or Islamic beliefs, such as pigs or alcohol. In the same manner, Animal Farm has also faced relatively recent issues in China. In 2018, the government made the decision to censor all online posts about or referring to Animal Farm. However the book itself, as of 2019, remains sold in stores. Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of The Atlantic stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in Mainland China for several reasons: censors believe the general public is unlikely to read a highbrow book , because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway, and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products as a liability. The authors stated "It was—and remains—as easy to buy 1984 and Animal Farm in Shenzhen or Shanghai as it is in London or Los Angeles." An enhanced version of the book, launched in India in 2017, was widely praised for capturing the author's intent, by republishing the proposed preface of the First Edition and the preface he wrote for the Ukrainian edition. Analysis Animalism The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism, not to be confused with the philosophy Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society. The original commandments are: Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. No animal shall wear clothes. No animal shall sleep in a bed. No animal shall drink alcohol. No animal shall kill any other animal. All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad!" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda. Significance and
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252
allegory Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution ... [and] that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power-hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert." In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages." The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to preeminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald, stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their non-existent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten. Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison contend that the Battle of the Windmill, specifically referencing the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow, represents World War II. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Józef Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion. Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), parallelling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, parallelling the Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill. The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Tehran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West" – but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, each "played an ace of spades simultaneously". Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with "Beasts of England" and the later anthems, parallels "The Internationale" and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. Adaptations Stage productions In 2021, the National Youth Theatre toured a stage version of Animal Farm. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since. A theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. A new adaptation written and
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directed by Robert Icke, designed by Bunny Christie with puppetry designed and directed by Toby Olié opened at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in January 2022 before touring the UK. Films Animal Farm has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. Animal Farm (1954) is an animated film, in which Napoleon is eventually overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the CIA's Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency. Animal Farm (1999) is a live-action TV version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism. Andy Serkis is directing a film adaptation for Netflix, with Matt Reeves producing. Serkis began work on the film after finishing directing duties for Venom: Let There Be Carnage. Radio dramatisations A BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes." A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated, and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer. Comic strip In 1950, Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired by the Information Research Department (IRD), a secret wing of the British Foreign Office, to adapt Animal Farm into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K. but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers. See also Information Research Department Authoritarian personality History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927) History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) Ideocracy New class Anthems in Animal Farm Animals, an album based on Animal Farm Books Gulliver's Travels was a favourite book of Orwell's. Swift reverses the role of horses and human beings in the fourth book. Orwell brought to Animal Farm "a dose of Swiftian misanthropy, looking ahead to a time 'when the human race had finally been overthrown.'" Bunt (Revolt), published in 1924, is a book by Polish Nobel laureate Władysław Reymont with a theme similar to Animal Farms. White Acre vs. Black Acre, published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for slavery in the United States similar to Animal Farms portrayal of Soviet history. George Orwell's own Nineteen Eighty-Four, a classic dystopian novel about totalitarianism. References Explanatory notes Citations General sources Further reading O'Neill, Terry, Readings on Animal Farm (1998), Greenhaven Press. . External links Animal Farm Book Notes from Literapedia Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning Animal Farm Literary Journal review Orwell's original preface to the book Animal Farm Revisited by John Molyneux, International Socialism, 44 (1989) Animal Farm at the British Library Animal Farm (1954) 1945 British novels Allegory British novellas British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays British novels adapted into television shows British political novels British satirical novels Cats in literature Cattle in literature Censored books Dogs in literature Dystopian novels English novels Hugo Award for Best Novella winning works Novels about animals Novels about propaganda Novels about revolutionaries Novels about totalitarianism Novels adapted into comics Novels adapted into radio programs Novels by George Orwell Pigs in literature Political literature Roman à clef novels Satirical novels Secker & Warburg books <|endoftext|>Amphibians are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to lizards
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but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often ecological indicators; in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians ("crown") evolved in the Carboniferous period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia. The three modern orders of amphibians are Anura (the frogs), Urodela (the salamanders), and Apoda (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from New Guinea (Paedophryne amauensis) with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the South China giant salamander (Andrias sligoi), but this is dwarfed by the extinct Prionosuchus from the middle Permian of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. Classification The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term (), which means 'both kinds of life', meaning 'of both kinds' and meaning 'life'. The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense () was divided into three subclasses, two of which are extinct: Subclass Lepospondyli† (small Paleozoic group, which are more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) Subclass Temnospondyli† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade) Subclass Lissamphibia (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) Salientia (frogs, toads and relatives): Jurassic to present—7,360 current species in 53 families Caudata (salamanders, newts and relatives): Jurassic to present—764 current species in 9 families Gymnophiona (caecilians and relatives): Jurassic to present—215 current species in 10 families Allocaudata† (Albanerpetontidae) Middle Jurassic - Early Pleistocene The actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, University of California, Berkeley and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History, available as the online reference database "Amphibian Species of the World". The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species as of March 31, 2019 is exactly 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy, and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group. All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three
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modern orders are Anura (the frogs), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians). It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians, and thus of amniotes. Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest "true frog" is Prosalirus bitis, from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, Eocaecilia micropodia, also from Arizona. The earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China. Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders, but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, Triadobatrachus. Evolutionary history The first major groups of amphibians ("stem") developed in the Devonian period, around 370 million years ago, from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods, including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills. Many examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered. Ichthyostega was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, Eusthenopteron. Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land. They developed "hands" and "feet" with five or more digits; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills diminished in size and became the stapes of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra-occipital bones at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom. At the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, though some, such as Ichthyostega, may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal. In the early Carboniferous (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with mosses, ferns, horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the am
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256
niotic egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed. After the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles, and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian–Triassic extinction event. During the Triassic Period (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the biosphere. According to the fossil record, Lissamphibia, which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating, but the most recent molecular study, based on multilocus sequence typing, suggests a Late Carboniferous/Early Permian origin for extant amphibians. The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on rDNA analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the fossil record, but the discovery of a Gerobatrachus hottoni from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. Molecular analysis suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence indicates. Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago, and that stereospondyls are the closest relatives to the caecilians. As they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss. Characteristics The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps; the Anderson's salamander meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp. Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to paedomorphosis, caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates. Another reason for their size is associated with their rapid metamorphosis, which seems to have evolved only in the ancestors of lissamphibia; in all other known lines the development was much more gradual. Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they don't eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small. (The largest species of salamanders don't go through a metamorphosis.) Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis inside the egg. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a microhylid frog
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from New Guinea (Paedophryne amauensis) first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct Prionosuchus, a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil. The largest frog is the African Goliath frog (Conraua goliath), which can reach and weigh . Amphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes. Their metabolic rate is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae with articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands (a type of granular gland). The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin. Anura The order Anura (from the Ancient Greek a(n)- meaning "without" and oura meaning "tail") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin. Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with warty skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the "true toads". Frogs range in size from the Goliath frog (Conraua goliath) of West Africa to the Paedophryne amauensis, first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas. Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships. The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of primitive frogs. These are Ascaphidae, Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages. The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae, Pelobatidae, Pelodytidae, Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and the obligatorily aquatic Pipidae. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. Neobatrachia is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species. Ninety-six percent of the over 5,000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians. Caudata The order Caudata (from the Latin cauda meaning "tail") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with tubercles, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), which has been reported to grow to a length of , to the diminutive Thorius pennatulus from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length. Salamanders have a mostly Laur
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"3", "Ġto", "Ġ30", "Ġinches", ")", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġexception", "Ġof", "ĠThomson", "'s", "Ġca", "ec", "ilian", "Ġ(", "Ca", "ec", "ilia", "Ġth", "om", "pson", "i", "),", "Ġwhich", "Ġcan", "Ġreach", "Ġ.", "ĠA", "Ġca", "ec", "ilian", "'s", "Ġskin", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġtrans", "verse", "Ġfolds", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġspecies", "Ġcontains", "Ġtiny", "Ġembedded", "Ġder", "mal", "Ġscales", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġrudimentary", "Ġeyes", "Ġcovered", "Ġin", "Ġskin", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġprobably", "Ġlimited", "Ġto", "Ġdisc", "erning", "Ġdifferences", "Ġin", "Ġlight", "Ġintensity", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġalso", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġpair", "Ġof", "Ġshort", "Ġtentacles", "Ġnear", "Ġthe", "Ġeye", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġextended", "Ġand", "Ġwhich", "Ġhave", "Ġtactile", "Ġand", "Ġo", "lf", "actory", "Ġfunctions", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġlive", "Ġunderground", "Ġin", "Ġbur", "rows", "Ġin", "Ġdamp", "Ġsoil", ",", "Ġin", "Ġrotten", "Ġwood", "Ġand", "Ġunder", 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258
asian distribution, being present in much of the Holarctic region of the northern hemisphere. The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin; South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the Miocene, 23 million years ago. Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the extant species of salamanders. Members of several salamander families have become paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults. Most salamanders are under long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates. The suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), the Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus) and the hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right. The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has capillaries close to the surface. The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the spermatophore, and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid. The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name "newt" is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae. The third suborder, Sirenoidea, contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, Sirenidae. Members of this order are eel-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation. Gymnophiona The order Gymnophiona (from the Greek gymnos meaning "naked" and ophis meaning "serpent") or Apoda comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or worm-like form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres (3 to 30 inches) with the exception of Thomson's caecilian (Caecilia thompsoni), which can reach . A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic. Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct. Caecilians have a mostly Gondwanan distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America. Anatomy and physiology Skin The integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast
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"Ġof", "Ġmuscle", "Ġcontract", "ions", "Ġmoving", "Ġalong", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠOn", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġground", "Ġor", "Ġin", "Ġwater", "Ġthey", "Ġmove", "Ġby", "Ġund", "ulating", "Ġtheir", "Ġbody", "Ġfrom", "Ġside", "Ġto", "Ġside", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġfrogs", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhind", "Ġlegs", "Ġare", "Ġlarger", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġfore", "Ġlegs", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġso", "Ġin", "Ġthose", "Ġspecies", "Ġthat", "Ġprincipally", "Ġmove", "Ġby", "Ġjumping", "Ġor", "Ġswimming", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġwalk", "ers", "Ġand", "Ġrunners", "Ġthe", "Ġhind", "Ġlimbs", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġso", "Ġlarge", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġbur", "row", "ers", "Ġmostly", "Ġhave", "Ġshort", "Ġlimbs", "Ġand", "Ġbroad", "Ġbodies", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfeet", "Ġhave", "Ġadaptations", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġway", "Ġof", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġweb", "bing", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġtoes", "Ġfor", "Ġswimming", ",", "Ġbroad", "Ġadhesive", "Ġtoe", "Ġpads", "Ġfor", "Ġclimbing", ",", "Ġand", "Ġker", "atin", "ised", "Ġtuber", "cles", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġhind", "Ġfeet", "Ġfor", "Ġdigging", "Ġ(", "frog", "s", "Ġusually", "Ġdig", "Ġbackwards", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġsoil", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġmost", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlimbs", "Ġare", "Ġshort", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġor", "Ġless", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġlength", "Ġand", "Ġproject", "Ġat", "Ġright", "Ġangles", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠLoc", "om", "otion", "Ġon", "Ġland", "Ġis", "Ġby", "Ġwalking", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġtail", "Ġoften", "Ġswings", "Ġfrom", "Ġside", "Ġto", "Ġside", "Ġor", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġprop", ",", "Ġparticularly", "Ġwhen", "Ġclimbing", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġtheir", "Ġnormal", "Ġg", "ait", ",", "Ġonly", "Ġone", "Ġleg", "Ġis", "Ġadvanced", "Ġat", "Ġa", "Ġtime", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmanner", "Ġadopted", "Ġby", "Ġtheir", "Ġancestors", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlobe", "-", "fin", "ned", "Ġfish", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġgenus", "ĠA", "ne", "ides", "Ġand", "Ġcertain", "Ġple", "th", "od", "ont", "ids", "Ġclimb", "Ġtrees", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġlong", "Ġlimbs", ",", "Ġlarge", "Ġto", "ep", "ads", "Ġand", "Ġpre", "hens", "ile", "Ġtails", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġaquatic", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġfrog", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtail", "Ġhas", "Ġdorsal", "Ġand", "Ġvent", "ral", "Ġfins", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġmoved", "Ġfrom", "Ġside", "Ġto", "Ġside", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmeans", "Ġof", "Ġpropulsion", ".", "ĠAdult", "Ġfrogs", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġtails", "Ġand", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġhave", "Ġonly", "Ġvery", "Ġshort", "Ġones", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSalam", "anders", "Ġuse", "Ġtheir", "Ġtails", "Ġin", "Ġdefence", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġare", "Ġprepared", "Ġto", "Ġj", "ett", "ison", "Ġthem", "Ġto", "Ġsave", "Ġtheir", "Ġlives", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġprocess", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġaut", "otomy", "." ]
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to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the dermis between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages. Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin (cutaneous respiration) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds. To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved mucous glands, principally on their heads, backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect. The main poison-producing glands, the parotoids, produce the neurotoxin bufotoxin and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians. The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators. Skeletal system and locomotion Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle, and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals. In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side. In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Some salamanders in the genus Aneides and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails. In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has dorsal and ventral fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones. Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy.
[ "ĠCertain", "Ġspecies", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠPle", "th", "od", "ont", "idae", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġweak", "Ġzone", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġbase", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtail", "Ġand", "Ġuse", "Ġthis", "Ġstrategy", "Ġreadily", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtail", "Ġoften", "Ġcontinues", "Ġto", "Ġtwitch", "Ġafter", "Ġseparation", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġdistract", "Ġthe", "Ġattacker", "Ġand", "Ġallow", "Ġthe", "Ġsal", "am", "ander", "Ġto", "Ġescape", ".", "ĠBoth", "Ġtails", "Ġand", "Ġlimbs", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġregener", "ated", ".", "ĠAdult", "Ġfrogs", "Ġare", "Ġunable", "Ġto", "Ġreg", "row", "Ġlimbs", "Ġbut", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġcan", "Ġdo", "Ġso", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCirc", "ulatory", "Ġsystem", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAmph", "ib", "ians", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġjuvenile", "Ġstage", "Ġand", "Ġan", "Ġadult", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcirc", "ulatory", "Ġsystems", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġare", "Ġdistinct", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġjuvenile", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġtad", "pole", ")", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcirculation", "Ġis", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġfish", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "-", "ch", "amb", "ered", "Ġheart", "Ġpumps", "Ġthe", "Ġblood", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġwhere", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġoxygen", "ated", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġspread", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġand", "Ġback", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġheart", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġloop", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġadult", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġ(", "especially", "Ġfrogs", ")", "Ġlose", "Ġtheir", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġand", "Ġdevelop", "Ġlungs", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġheart", "Ġthat", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġvent", "ric", "le", "Ġand", "Ġtwo", "Ġat", "ria", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġthe", "Ġvent", "ric", "le", "Ġstarts", "Ġcontracting", ",", "Ġde", "oxy", "gen", "ated", "Ġblood", "Ġis", "Ġpumped", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġpulmonary", "Ġartery", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġlungs", ".", "ĠContinued", "Ġcontraction", "Ġthen", "Ġpumps", "Ġoxygen", "ated", "Ġblood", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠMix", "ing", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġbloodstream", "s", "Ġis", "Ġminimized", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġanatomy", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġchambers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠN", "erv", "ous", "Ġand", "Ġsensory", "Ġsystems", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġis", "Ġbasically", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġother", "Ġverte", "brates", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġcentral", "Ġbrain", ",", "Ġa", "Ġspinal", "Ġcord", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnerves", "Ġthroughout", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġamphib", "ian", "Ġbrain", "Ġis", "Ġless", "Ġwell", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġthan", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġreptiles", ",", "Ġbirds", "Ġand", "Ġmammals", "Ġbut", "Ġis", "Ġsimilar", "Ġin", "Ġmorphology", "Ġand", "Ġfunction", "Ġto", "Ġthat", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġfish", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġbelieved", "Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġare", "Ġcapable", "Ġof", "Ġperce", "iving", "Ġpain", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġbrain", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġequal", "Ġparts", ",", "Ġcere", "br", "um", ",", "Ġmid", "brain", "Ġand", "Ġcere", "bell", "um", ".", "ĠVarious", "Ġparts", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcere", "br", "um", "Ġprocess", "Ġsensory", "Ġinput", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġsmell", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġo", "lf", "actory", "Ġlobe", "Ġand", "Ġsight", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġoptic", "Ġlobe", ",", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġadditionally", "Ġthe", "Ġcentre", "Ġof", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġand", "Ġlearning", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcere", "bell", "um", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcenter", "Ġof", "Ġmuscular", "Ġcoordination", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġmed", "ulla", "Ġob", "long", "ata", "Ġcontrols", "Ġsome", "Ġorgan", "Ġfunctions", "Ġincluding", "Ġheartbeat", "Ġand", "Ġresp", "iration", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbrain", "Ġsends", "Ġsignals", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġspinal", "Ġcord", "Ġand", "Ġnerves", "Ġto", "Ġregulate", "Ġactivity", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpine", "al", "Ġbody", ",", "Ġknown", "Ġto", "Ġregulate", "Ġsleep", "Ġpatterns", "Ġin", "Ġhumans", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthought", "Ġto", "Ġproduce", "Ġthe", "Ġhormones", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġhiber", "nation", "Ġand", "Ġaest", "ivation", "Ġin", "Ġamphib", "ians", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTad", "p", "oles", "Ġretain", "Ġthe", "Ġlateral", "Ġline", "Ġsystem", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġancestral", "Ġfishes", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġlost", "Ġin", "Ġterrestrial", "Ġadult", "Ġamphib", "ians", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġpossess", "Ġelectro", "re", "cept", "ors", "Ġthat", "Ġallow", "Ġthem", "Ġto", "Ġlocate", "Ġobjects", "Ġaround", "Ġthem", "Ġwhen", "Ġsubmerged", "Ġin", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġears", "Ġare", "Ġwell", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġin", "Ġfrogs", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġexternal", "Ġear", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġlarge", "Ġcircular", "Ġe", "ard", "rum", "Ġlies", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhead", "Ġjust", "Ġbehind", "Ġthe", "Ġeye", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġvibr", "ates", "Ġand", "Ġsound", "Ġis", "Ġtransmitted", "Ġthrough", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġbone", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġst", "apes", ",", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġinner", "Ġear", ".", "ĠOnly", "Ġhigh", "-", "frequency", "Ġsounds", "Ġlike", "Ġmating", "Ġcalls", "Ġare", "Ġheard", "Ġin", "Ġthis", "Ġway", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġlow", "-", "frequency", "Ġnoises", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġdetected", "Ġthrough", "Ġanother", "Ġmechanism", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġpatch", "Ġof", "Ġspecialized", "Ġhair", "cells", ",", "Ġcalled", "Ġpap", "illa", "Ġamphib", "ior", "um", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġinner", "Ġear", "Ġcapable", "Ġof", "Ġdetecting", "Ġdeeper", "Ġsounds", ".", "ĠAnother", "Ġfeature", ",", "Ġunique", "Ġto", "Ġfrogs", "Ġand", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcol", "um", "ella", "-", "op", "erc", "ulum", "Ġcomplex", "Ġadjoining", "Ġthe", "Ġauditory", "Ġcapsule", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtransmission", "Ġof", "Ġboth", "Ġairborne", "Ġand", "Ġseismic", "Ġsignals", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġears", "Ġof", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġand", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġare", "Ġless", "Ġhighly", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġthan", "Ġthose", "Ġof", "Ġfrogs", "Ġas", "Ġthey", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġnormally", "Ġcommunicate", "Ġwith", "Ġeach", "Ġother", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġmedium", "Ġof", "Ġsound", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġeyes", "Ġof", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġlack", "Ġl", "ids", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġat", "Ġmet", "amorph", "osis", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġcor", "nea", "Ġbecomes", "Ġmore", "Ġdome", "-", "shaped", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlens", "Ġbecomes", "Ġfl", "atter", ",", "Ġand", "Ġeyel", "ids", "Ġand", "Ġassociated", "Ġglands", "Ġand", "Ġduct", "s", "Ġdevelop", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġadult", "Ġeyes", "Ġare", "Ġan", "Ġimprovement", "Ġon", "Ġinver", "te", "brate", "Ġeyes", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġa", "Ġfirst", "Ġstep", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġmore", "Ġadvanced", "Ġverte", "brate", "Ġeyes", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġallow", "Ġcolour", "Ġvision", "Ġand", "Ġdepth", "Ġof", "Ġfocus", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġret", "inas", "Ġare", "Ġgreen", "Ġrods", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġreceptive", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġwide", "Ġrange", "Ġof", "Ġwavelengths", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDigest", "ive", "Ġand", "Ġexc", "ret", "ory", "Ġsystems", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠMany", "Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġcatch", "Ġtheir", "Ġprey", "Ġby", "Ġfl", "icking", "Ġout", "Ġan", "Ġelong", "ated", "Ġtongue", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġsticky", "Ġtip", "Ġand", "Ġdrawing", "Ġit", "Ġback", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġmouth", "Ġbefore", "Ġseizing", "Ġthe", "Ġitem", "Ġwith", "Ġtheir", "Ġjaws", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġuse", "Ġinert", "ial", "Ġfeeding", "Ġto", "Ġhelp", "Ġthem", "Ġswallow", "Ġthe", "Ġprey", ",", "Ġrepeatedly", "Ġthrust", "ing", "Ġtheir", "Ġhead", "Ġforward", "Ġsharply", "Ġcausing", "Ġthe", "Ġfood", "Ġto", "Ġmove", "Ġbackwards", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġmouth", "Ġby", "Ġinertia", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġswallow", "Ġtheir", "Ġprey", "Ġwhole", "Ġwithout", "Ġmuch", "Ġchewing", "Ġso", "Ġthey", "Ġpossess", "Ġvol", "umin", "ous", "Ġstomach", "s", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġshort", "Ġo", "es", "oph", "agus", "Ġis", "Ġlined", "Ġwith", "Ġc", "ilia", "Ġthat", "Ġhelp", "Ġto", "Ġmove", "Ġthe", "Ġfood", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstomach", "Ġand", "Ġmuc", "us", "Ġproduced", "Ġby", "Ġglands", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmouth", "Ġand", "Ġph", "aryn", "x", "Ġe", "ases", "Ġits", "Ġpassage", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġenzyme", "Ġch", "it", "in", "ase", "Ġproduced", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstomach", "Ġhelps", "Ġdigest", "Ġthe", "Ġch", "it", "inous", "Ġcut", "icle", "Ġof", "Ġar", "throp", "od", "Ġprey", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAmph", "ib", "ians", "Ġpossess", "Ġa", "Ġpanc", "re", "as", ",", "Ġliver", "Ġand", "Ġgall", "Ġbladder", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġliver", "Ġis", "Ġusually", "Ġlarge", "Ġwith", "Ġtwo", "Ġlob", "es", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġsize", "Ġis", "Ġdetermined", "Ġby", "Ġits", "Ġfunction", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġglyc", "ogen", "Ġand", "Ġfat", "Ġstorage", "Ġunit", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmay", "Ġchange", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġseasons", "Ġas", "Ġthese", "Ġreserves", "Ġare", "Ġbuilt", "Ġor", "Ġused", "Ġup", ".", "ĠAd", "ip", "ose", "Ġtissue", "Ġis", "Ġanother", "Ġimportant", "Ġmeans", "Ġof", "Ġstoring", "Ġenergy", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġoccurs", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġabdomen", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġinternal", "Ġstructures", "Ġcalled", "Ġfat", "Ġbodies", "),", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġskin", "Ġand", ",", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġsal", "am", "anders" ]
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Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so. Circulatory system Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers. Nervous and sensory systems The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain. The brain consists of equal parts, cerebrum, midbrain and cerebellum. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians. Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes, to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called papilla amphibiorum, in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals. The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound. The eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the cornea becomes more dome-shaped, the lens becomes flatter, and eyelids and associated glands and ducts develop. The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths. Digestive and excretory systems Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage. The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey. Amphibians possess a pancreas, liver and gall bladder. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen (in internal structures called fat bodies), under the skin and, in some salamanders
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, in the tail. There are two kidneys located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid. Respiratory system The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal septa and large alveoli, and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping. Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration, the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the Titicaca water frog and the hellbender salamander. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the plethodontid salamanders, which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the axolotl) retaining gills as aquatic adults. Reproduction For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. Fejervarya raja) can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in 2010. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., Eleutherodactylus, the Pacific Platymantis, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for breeding in the wild. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing. In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active. In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an intromittent organ, the , and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct. The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the substrate either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass. With a few exceptions, frogs use external
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262
fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of Epipedobates tricolor, around the neck. They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm. Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet. An exception is the granular poison frog (Oophaga granulifera) where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. The tailed frog (Ascaphus truei) exhibits internal fertilisation. The "tail" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the oviduct until the following spring. Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females. There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with. Some species store sperm through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm. Life cycle Most amphibians go through metamorphosis, a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and prolactin, which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of Teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made. Eggs The egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides. This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality. Most eggs contain the pigment melanin which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against ultraviolet radiation. Caecilians, some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to warmer than its surroundings, which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat. The eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in
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"Ġamphib", "ians", "Ġlay", "Ġtheir", "Ġeggs", "Ġon", "Ġland", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnewly", "Ġhatched", "Ġlarvae", "Ġwr", "iggle", "Ġor", "Ġare", "Ġtransported", "Ġto", "Ġwater", "Ġbodies", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġal", "pine", "Ġsal", "am", "ander", "Ġ(", "Sal", "am", "andra", "Ġat", "ra", ")", "Ġand", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAfrican", "Ġlive", "-", "bearing", "Ġto", "ads", "Ġ(", "N", "ect", "oph", "ry", "no", "ides", "Ġs", "pp", ".)", "Ġare", "Ġv", "iv", "ip", "ar", "ous", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġlarvae", "Ġfeed", "Ġon", "Ġgland", "ular", "Ġsecret", "ions", "Ġand", "Ġdevelop", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġfemale", "'s", "Ġo", "vid", "uct", ",", "Ġoften", "Ġfor", "Ġlong", "Ġperiods", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġamphib", "ians", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġnot", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", ",", "Ġare", "Ġov", "ov", "iv", "ip", "ar", "ous", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġeggs", "Ġare", "Ġretained", "Ġin", "Ġor", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġparent", "'s", "Ġbody", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġlarvae", "Ġsubs", "ist", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġy", "ol", "ks", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġeggs", "Ġand", "Ġreceive", "Ġno", "Ġnour", "ishment", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġadult", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlarvae", "Ġemerge", "Ġat", "Ġvarying", "Ġstages", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġgrowth", ",", "Ġeither", "Ġbefore", "Ġor", "Ġafter", "Ġmet", "amorph", "osis", ",", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġspecies", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġto", "ad", "Ġgenus", "ĠN", "ect", "oph", "ry", "no", "ides", "Ġexhibits", "Ġall", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġdevelopmental", "Ġpatterns", "Ġamong", "Ġits", "Ġdozen", "Ġor", "Ġso", "Ġmembers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFrog", "s", "Ġ", "ĠFrog", "Ġlarvae", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġand", "Ġtypically", "Ġhave", "Ġoval", "Ġbodies", "Ġand", "Ġlong", ",", "Ġvertically", "Ġflattened", "Ġtails", "Ġwith", "Ġfins", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfree", "-", "living", "Ġlarvae", "Ġare", "Ġnormally", "Ġfully", "Ġaquatic", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġof", "Ġsome", "Ġspecies", "Ġ(", "such", "Ġas", "ĠN", "ann", "oph", "rys", "Ġce", "ylon", "ensis", ")", "Ġare", "Ġsemi", "-", "ter", "restrial", "Ġand", "Ġlive", "Ġamong", "Ġwet", "Ġrocks", ".", "ĠTad", "p", "oles", "Ġhave", "Ġcart", "il", "agin", "ous", "Ġskeletons", ",", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġfor", "Ġresp", "iration", "Ġ(", "external", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġat", "Ġfirst", ",", "Ġinternal", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġlater", "),", "Ġlateral", "Ġline", "Ġsystems", "Ġand", "Ġlarge", "Ġtails", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġuse", "Ġfor", "Ġswimming", ".", "ĠNewly", "Ġhatched", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġsoon", "Ġdevelop", "Ġg", "ill", "Ġp", "ou", "ches", "Ġthat", "Ġcover", "Ġthe", "Ġg", "ills", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlungs", "Ġdevelop", "Ġearly", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġaccessory", "Ġbreathing", "Ġorgans", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġrising", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġwater", "Ġsurface", "Ġto", "Ġg", "ulp", "Ġair", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġspecies", "Ġcomplete", "Ġtheir", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġinside", "Ġthe", "Ġegg", "Ġand", "Ġhatch", "Ġdirectly", "Ġinto", "Ġsmall", "Ġfrogs", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġlarvae", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġbut", "Ġinstead", "Ġhave", "Ġspecial", "ised", "Ġareas", "Ġof", "Ġskin", "Ġthrough", "Ġwhich", "Ġresp", "iration", "Ġtakes", "Ġplace", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġtrue", "Ġteeth", ",", "Ġin", "Ġmost", "Ġspecies", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġjaws", "Ġhave", "Ġlong", ",", "Ġparallel", "Ġrows", "Ġof", "Ġsmall", "Ġker", "atin", "ized", "Ġstructures", "Ġcalled", "Ġker", "ad", "ont", "s", "Ġsurrounded", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġhorny", "Ġbe", "ak", ".", "ĠFront", "Ġlegs", "Ġare", "Ġformed", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "Ġg", "ill", "Ġsac", "Ġand", "Ġhind", "Ġlegs", "Ġbecome", "Ġvisible", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġdays", "Ġlater", ".", "Ġ", "ĠI", "od", "ine", "Ġand", "ĠT", "4", "Ġ(", "over", "Ġstimulate", "Ġthe", "Ġspectacular", "Ġapopt", "osis", "Ġ[", "program", "med", "Ġcell", "Ġdeath", "]", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcells", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlar", "val", "Ġg", "ills", ",", "Ġtail", "Ġand", "Ġfins", ")", "Ġalso", "Ġstimulate", "Ġthe", "Ġevolution", "Ġof", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystems", "Ġtransforming", "Ġthe", "Ġaquatic", ",", "Ġvegetarian", "Ġtad", "pole", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġterrestrial", ",", "Ġcarniv", "orous", "Ġfrog", "Ġwith", "Ġbetter", "Ġneurological", ",", "Ġvis", "u", "osp", "atial", ",", "Ġo", "lf", "actory", "Ġand", "Ġcognitive", "Ġabilities", "Ġfor", "Ġhunting", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġfact", ",", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġin", "Ġponds", "Ġand", "Ġstreams", "Ġare", "Ġtypically", "Ġherb", "iv", "orous", ".", "ĠPond", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġtend", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġdeep", "Ġbodies", ",", "Ġlarge", "Ġca", "ud", "al", "Ġfins", "Ġand", "Ġsmall", "Ġmouths", ";", "Ġthey", "Ġswim", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġquiet", "Ġwaters", "Ġfeeding", "Ġon", "Ġgrowing", "Ġor", "Ġloose", "Ġfragments", "Ġof", "Ġvegetation", ".", "ĠStream", "Ġdwell", "ers", "Ġmostly", "Ġhave", "Ġlarger", "Ġmouths", ",", "Ġshallow", "Ġbodies", "Ġand", "Ġca", "ud", "al", "Ġfins", ";", "Ġthey", "Ġattach", "Ġthemselves", "Ġto", "Ġplants", "Ġand", "Ġstones", "Ġand", "Ġfeed", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġfilms", "Ġof", "Ġalgae", "Ġand", "Ġbacteria", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġalso", "Ġfeed", "Ġon", "Ġdi", "at", "oms", ",", "Ġfiltered", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġwater", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġg", "ills", ",", "Ġand", "Ġstir", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġsediment", "Ġat", "Ġbottom", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpond", ",", "Ġingest", "ing", "Ġedible", "Ġfragments", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġrelatively", "Ġlong", ",", "Ġspiral", "-", "shaped", "Ġgut", "Ġto", "Ġenable", "Ġthem", "Ġto", "Ġdigest", "Ġthis", "Ġdiet", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġspecies", "Ġare", "Ġcarniv", "orous", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġtad", "pole", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġeating", "Ġinsects", ",", "Ġsmaller", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġand", "Ġfish", ".", "ĠYoung", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCuban", "Ġtree", "Ġfrog", "Ġ(", "O", "ste", "op", "ilus", "Ġse", "pt", "ent", "r", "ional", "is", ")", "Ġcan", "Ġoccasionally", "Ġbe", "Ġcannibal", "istic", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġyounger", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", "Ġattacking", "Ġa", "Ġlarger", ",", "Ġmore", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġtad", "pole", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġundergoing", "Ġmet", 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263
burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander Ensatina attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The greenhouse frog (Eleutherodactylus planirostris) lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage. The tungara frog (Physalaemus pustulosus) builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female. Larvae The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the alpine salamander (Salamandra atra) and some of the African live-bearing toads (Nectophrynoides spp.) are viviparous. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are ovoviviparous. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species. The toad genus Nectophrynoides exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members. Frogs Frog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species (such as Nannophrys ceylonensis) are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks. Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), lateral line systems and large tails that they use for swimming. Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak. Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later. Iodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular apoptosis [programmed cell death] of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria. They also feed on diatoms, filtered from the water through the gills, and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) can occasionally be cannibalistic, the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis. At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural
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".", "Ġ", "ĠLung", "less", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġfamily", "ĠPle", "th", "od", "ont", "idae", "Ġare", "Ġterrestrial", "Ġand", "Ġlay", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġunp", "ig", "mented", "Ġeggs", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġcluster", "Ġamong", "Ġdamp", "Ġleaf", "Ġlitter", ".", "ĠEach", "Ġegg", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġy", "olk", "Ġsac", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġlar", "va", "Ġfeeds", "Ġon", "Ġthis", "Ġwhile", "Ġit", "Ġdevelops", "Ġinside", "Ġthe", "Ġegg", ",", "Ġemerging", "Ġfully", "Ġformed", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġjuvenile", "Ġsal", "am", "ander", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfemale", "Ġsal", "am", "ander", "Ġoften", "Ġbro", "ods", "Ġthe", "Ġeggs", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġgenus", "ĠEns", "atin", "as", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfemale", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġobserved", "Ġto", "Ġcoil", "Ġaround", "Ġthem", "Ġand", "Ġpress", "Ġher", "Ġthroat", "Ġarea", "Ġagainst", "Ġthem", ",", "Ġeffectively", "Ġmass", "aging", "Ġthem", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġmuc", "ous", "Ġsecretion", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġnew", "ts", "Ġand", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", ",", "Ġmet", "amorph", "osis", "Ġis", "Ġless", "Ġdramatic", "Ġthan", "Ġin", "Ġfrogs", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġis", "Ġbecause", "Ġthe", "Ġlarvae", "Ġare", "Ġalready", "Ġcarniv", "orous", "Ġand", "Ġcontinue", "Ġto", "Ġfeed", "Ġas", "Ġpredators", "Ġwhen", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġadults", "Ġso", "Ġfew", "Ġchanges", "Ġare", "Ġneeded", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġdigestive", "Ġsystems", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġlungs", "Ġare", "Ġfunctional", "Ġearly", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġlarvae", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġmake", "Ġas", "Ġmuch", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġas", "Ġdo", "Ġtad", "p", "oles", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġare", "Ġnever", "Ġcovered", "Ġby", "Ġg", "ill", "Ġsac", "s", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġre", "absor", "bed", "Ġjust", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġanimals", "Ġleave", "Ġthe", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġchanges", "Ġinclude", "Ġthe", "Ġreduction", "Ġin", "Ġsize", "Ġor", "Ġloss", "Ġof", "Ġtail", "Ġfins", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġclosure", "Ġof", "Ġg", "ill", "Ġsl", "its", ",", "Ġthick", "ening", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġskin", ",", "Ġthe", 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"Ġfirst", "Ġtime", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCa", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠMost", "Ġterrestrial", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġthat", "Ġlay", "Ġeggs", "Ġdo", "Ġso", "Ġin", "Ġbur", "rows", "Ġor", "Ġmoist", "Ġplaces", "Ġon", "Ġland", "Ġnear", "Ġbodies", "Ġof", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġyoung", "Ġof", "ĠIch", "thy", "oph", "is", "Ġglut", "inos", "us", ",", "Ġa", "Ġspecies", "Ġfrom", "ĠSri", "ĠLanka", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġmuch", "Ġstudied", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġe", "el", "-", "like", "Ġlarvae", "Ġhatch", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġeggs", "Ġand", "Ġmake", "Ġtheir", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġwater", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġhave", "Ġthree", "Ġpairs", "Ġof", "Ġexternal", "Ġred", "Ġfeather", "y", "Ġg", "ills", ",", "Ġa", "Ġblunt", "Ġhead", "Ġwith", "Ġtwo", "Ġrudimentary", "Ġeyes", ",", "Ġa", "Ġlateral", "Ġline", "Ġsystem", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġshort", "Ġtail", "Ġwith", "Ġfins", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġswim", "Ġby", "Ġund", "ulating", "Ġtheir", "Ġbody", "Ġfrom", "Ġside", "Ġto", "Ġside", ".", "ĠThey", 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264
networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place. Salamanders At hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera Ambystoma and Dicamptodon have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The northwestern salamander (Ambystoma gracile) is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as neoteny, or transforms into an adult. Both of these are able to breed. Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine. Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from conspecifics. The tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of Necturus, Proteus and Amphiuma, and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances. Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus Ensatinas, the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion. In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time. Caecilians Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of Ichthyophis glutinosus, a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land. In the majority of species of caec
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265
ilians, the young are produced by viviparity. Typhlonectes compressicauda, a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth. The ringed caecilian (Siphonops annulatus) has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca. Parental care The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young. Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young. Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The black mountain salamander (Desmognathus welteri) does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen. The male Colostethus subpunctatus, a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off. The male midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The female gastric-brooding frog (Rheobatrachus spp.) reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply. The pouched frog (Assa darlingtoni) lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. The aquatic Surinam toad (Pipa pipa) raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis. The granular poison frog (Oophaga granulifera) is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family Dendrobatidae. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles. Genetics and genomics Amphibians are notable among vertebrates for their diversity of chromosomes and genomes. The karyotypes (chromosomes) have been determined for at least 1,193 (14.5%) of the ~8,200 known (diploid) species, including 963 anurans, 209 salamanders, and 21 caecilians. Generally, the karyotypes of diploid amphibians are characterized by 20–26 bi
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",", "Ġfrogs", "Ġthat", "Ġactively", "Ġhunt", "Ġprey", "Ġhave", "Ġnarrow", "Ġmouths", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġslim", ",", "Ġoften", "Ġbrightly", "Ġcoloured", "Ġand", "Ġtoxic", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġamb", "us", "hers", "Ġhave", "Ġwide", "Ġmouths", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġbroad", "Ġand", "Ġwell", "-", "cam", "oufl", "aged", ".", "ĠCa", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġflick", "Ġtheir", "Ġtongues", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġcatch", "Ġtheir", "Ġprey", "Ġby", "Ġgrabbing", "Ġit", "Ġwith", "Ġtheir", "Ġslightly", "Ġbackward", "-", "point", "ing", "Ġteeth", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstruggles", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprey", "Ġand", "Ġfurther", "Ġjaw", "Ġmovements", "Ġwork", "Ġit", "Ġin", "wards", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġca", "ec", "ilian", "Ġusually", "Ġretreat", "s", "Ġinto", "Ġits", "Ġbur", "row", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsubdued", "Ġprey", "Ġis", "Ġgul", "ped", "Ġdown", "Ġwhole", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWhen", "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġnewly", "Ġhatched", ",", "Ġfrog", "Ġlarvae", "Ġfeed", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġy", "olk", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġegg", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġexhausted", "Ġsome", "Ġmove", "Ġon", "Ġto", "Ġfeed", "Ġon", "Ġbacteria", ",", "Ġal", "gal", "Ġcrust", "s", ",", "Ġdet", "rit", "us", "Ġand", "Ġr", "asp", "ings", "Ġfrom", "Ġsubmerged", "Ġplants", ".", "ĠWater", "Ġis", "Ġdrawn", "Ġin", "Ġthrough", "Ġtheir", "Ġmouths", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġare", "Ġusually", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġbottom", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġheads", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpasses", "Ġthrough", "Ġbranch", "ial", "Ġfood", "Ġtraps", "Ġbetween", "Ġtheir", "Ġmouths", "Ġand", "Ġtheir", "Ġg", "ills", "Ġwhere", "Ġfine", "Ġparticles", "Ġare", "Ġtrapped", "Ġin", "Ġmuc", "us", "Ġand", "Ġfiltered", "Ġout", ".", "ĠOthers", "Ġhave", "Ġspecial", "ised", "Ġmouth", "parts", "Ġconsisting", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġhorny", "Ġbe", "ak", "Ġedged", "Ġby", "Ġseveral", "Ġrows", "Ġof", "Ġlab", "ial", "Ġteeth", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġscrape", "Ġand", "Ġbite", "Ġfood", "Ġof", "Ġmany", "Ġkinds", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġstirring", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġbottom", "Ġsediment", ",", "Ġfiltering", "Ġout", "Ġlarger", "Ġparticles", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġpap", "ill", "ae", "Ġaround", "Ġtheir", "Ġmouths", ".", "ĠSome", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġsp", "ade", "foot", "Ġto", "ads", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġstrong", "Ġbiting", "Ġjaws", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġcarniv", "orous", "Ġor", "Ġeven", "Ġcannibal", "istic", ".", "Ġ", "ĠV", "ocal", "ization", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcalls", "Ġmade", "Ġby", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", "Ġand", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġare", "Ġlimited", "Ġto", "Ġoccasional", "Ġsoft", "Ġsque", "aks", ",", "Ġgr", "unts", "Ġor", "Ġhis", "ses", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġbeen", "Ġmuch" ]
266
-armed chromosomes. Amphibians have also very large genomes compared to other taxa of vertebrates and corresponding variation in genome size (C-value: picograms of DNA in haploid nuclei). The genome sizes range from 0.95 to 11.5 pg in frogs, from 13.89 to 120.56 pg in salamanders, and from 2.94 to 11.78 pg in caecilians. The large genome sizes have prevented whole-genome sequencing of amphibians although a number of genomes have been published recently. The 1.7GB draft genome of Xenopus tropicalis was the first to be reported for amphibians in 2010. Compared to some salamanders this frog genome is tiny. For instance, the genome of the Mexican axolotl turned out to be 32 Gb, which is more than 10 times larger than the human genome (3GB). Feeding and diet With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are predators, feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (Siren spp.) often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog (Xenohyla truncata) includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet. The Mexican burrowing toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis) has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front. Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs (Rana clamitans) have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past. Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness. Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. They typically have small hinged pedicellate teeth, a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs (Rana spp.) lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads (Bufo spp.) have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also vomerine teeth attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth. The tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians, such as the Bufo spp. toads, actively search for prey, while the Argentine horned frog (Ceratophrys ornata) lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes. Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged. Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole. When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic. Vocalization The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much
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"Ġmales", "Ġfrom", "Ġintr", "uding", "Ġon", "Ġits", "Ġterritory", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġcall", "Ġis", "Ġmodified", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġquieter", "Ġcourts", "hip", "Ġcall", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġapproach", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġfemale", "Ġor", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġmore", "Ġaggressive", "Ġversion", "Ġif", "Ġa", "Ġmale", "Ġintruder", "Ġdraws", "Ġnear", ".", "ĠCalling", "Ġcarries", "Ġthe", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġattracting", "Ġpredators", "Ġand", "Ġinvolves", "Ġthe", "Ġexpenditure", "Ġof", "Ġmuch", "Ġenergy", ".", "ĠOther", "Ġcalls", "Ġinclude", "Ġthose", "Ġgiven", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġfemale", "Ġin", "Ġresponse", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġadvertisement", "Ġcall", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġrelease", "Ġcall", "Ġgiven", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġmale", "Ġor", "Ġfemale", "Ġduring", "Ġunwanted", "Ġattempts", "Ġat", "Ġam", "plex", "us", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġa", "Ġfrog", "Ġis", "Ġattacked", ",", "Ġa", "Ġdistress", "Ġor", "Ġfright", "Ġcall", "Ġis", "Ġemitted", ",", "Ġoften", "Ġresembling", "Ġa", "Ġscream", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġusually", "Ġno", "ct", "urnal", "ĠCuban", "Ġtree", "Ġfrog", "Ġ(", "O", "ste", "op", "ilus", "Ġse", "pt", "ent", "r", "ional", "is", ")", "Ġproduces", "Ġa", "Ġrain", "Ġcall", "Ġwhen", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġrainfall", "Ġduring", "Ġdaylight", "Ġhours", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTerrit", "orial", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġ", "ĠLittle", "Ġis", "Ġknown", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġterritorial", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġof", "Ġca", "ec", "il", "ians", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġsome", "Ġfrogs", "Ġand", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġdefend", "Ġhome", "Ġranges", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġare", "Ġusually", "Ġfeeding", ",", "Ġbreeding", "Ġor", "Ġshelter", "ing", "Ġsites", ".", "ĠMales", "Ġnormally", "Ġexhibit", "Ġsuch", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġthough", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġspecies", ",", "Ġfemales", "Ġand", "Ġeven", "Ġjuveniles", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġinvolved", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġfrog", "Ġspecies", ",", "Ġfemales", "Ġare", "Ġlarger", "Ġthan", "Ġmales", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġthe", "Ġcase", "Ġin", "Ġmost", "Ġspecies", "Ġwhere", "Ġmales", "Ġare", "Ġactively", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġterritorial", "Ġdefence", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġhave", "Ġspecific", "Ġadaptations", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġenlarged", "Ġteeth", "Ġfor", "Ġbiting", "Ġor", "Ġsp", "ines", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġchest", ",", "Ġarms", "Ġor", "Ġthumbs", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", ",", "Ġdefence", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġterritory", "Ġinvolves", "Ġadopting", "Ġan", "Ġaggressive", "Ġposture", "Ġand", "Ġif", "Ġnecessary", "Ġattacking", "Ġthe", "Ġintruder", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġmay", "Ġinvolve", "Ġsnapping", ",", "Ġchasing", "Ġand", "Ġsometimes", "Ġbiting", ",", "Ġoccasionally", "Ġcausing", "Ġthe", "Ġloss", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtail", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġof", "Ġred", "Ġback", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġ(", "P", "le", "th", "odon", "Ġc", "ine", "re", "us", ")", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġmuch", "Ġstudied", ".", "Ġ91", "%", "Ġof", "Ġmarked", "Ġindividuals", "Ġthat", "Ġwere", "Ġlater", "Ġrecapt", "ured", "Ġwere", "Ġwithin", "Ġa", "Ġmetre", "Ġ(", "yard", ")", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġoriginal", "Ġdaytime", "Ġretreat", "Ġunder", "Ġa", "Ġlog", "Ġor", "Ġrock", ".", "ĠA", "Ġsimilar", "Ġproportion", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġmoved", "Ġexperiment", "ally", "Ġa", "Ġdistance", "Ġof", "Ġ,", "Ġfound", "Ġtheir", "Ġway", "Ġback", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġhome", "Ġbase", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsal", "am", "anders", "Ġleft", "Ġod", "our", "Ġmarks", "Ġaround", "Ġtheir", "Ġterritories", "Ġwhich", "Ġaveraged", "Ġ", "Ġin", "Ġsize", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġsometimes", "Ġinhabited", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġmale", "Ġand", "Ġfemale", "Ġpair", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġdeter", "red", "Ġthe", "Ġintrusion", "Ġof", "Ġothers", "Ġand", "Ġdeline", "ated", "Ġthe", "Ġboundaries", "Ġbetween", "Ġneighbouring", "Ġareas", ".", "ĠMuch", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġbehaviour", "Ġseemed", "Ġstereotyp", "ed", "Ġand", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġinvolve", "Ġany", "Ġactual", "Ġcontact", "Ġbetween", "Ġindividuals", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġaggressive", "Ġposture", "Ġinvolved", "Ġraising", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġoff", "Ġthe", "Ġground", "Ġand", "Ġglaring", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġopponent", "Ġwho", "Ġoften", "Ġturned", "Ġaway", "Ġsub", "miss", 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",", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġsufficient", "Ġto", "Ġprevent", "Ġintrusion", "Ġby", "Ġsmaller", "Ġmales", ".", "ĠMuch", "Ġenergy", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġvocal", "ization", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġtakes", "Ġa", "Ġtoll", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġterritory", "Ġholder", "Ġwho", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġdisplaced", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġf", "itter", "Ġrival", "Ġif", "Ġhe", "Ġtires", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtendency", "Ġfor", "Ġmales", "Ġto", "Ġtolerate", "Ġthe", "Ġholders", "Ġof", "Ġneighbouring", "Ġterritories", "Ġwhile", "Ġvigorously", "Ġattacking", "Ġunknown", "Ġintr", "uders", ".", "ĠHold", "ers", "Ġof", "Ġterritories", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "home", "Ġadvantage", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġusually", "Ġcome", "Ġoff", "Ġbetter", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġencounter", "Ġbetween", "Ġtwo", "Ġsimilar", "-", "sized", "Ġfrogs", ".", "ĠIf", "Ġthreats", "Ġare", "Ġinsufficient", ",", "Ġchest", "Ġto", "Ġchest", "Ġt", "uss", "les", "Ġmay", "Ġtake", "Ġplace", ".", "ĠFighting", "Ġmethods", "Ġinclude", "Ġpushing", "Ġand", "Ġsh", 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"Ġsticky", "Ġand", "Ġdist", "ast", "eful", "Ġor", "Ġtoxic", ".", "ĠSn", "akes", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġobserved", "Ġyawn", "ing", "Ġand", "Ġgaping", "Ġwhen", "Ġtrying", "Ġto", "Ġswallow", "ĠAfrican", "Ġclaw", "ed" ]
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studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the California giant salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus) has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked. Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged. The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream. The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours. Territorial behaviour Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs. In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of red back salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock. A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of , found their way back to their home base. The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair. These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food. In frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a "home advantage" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water. Defence mechanisms Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed
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268
frogs (Xenopus laevis), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape. Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (Typhlonectes compressicauda) produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity. Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity. Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether, over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated. Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad (Bombina spp.), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog Allobates zaparo is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators. Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands. A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant. Some frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads (Pelobates spp) scream and leap towards the attacker. Giant salamanders of the genus Andrias, as well as Ceratophrine and Pyxicephalus frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The blackbelly salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus) can bite an attacking common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape. Cognition In amphibians, there is evidence of habituation, associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning, and discrimination abilities. In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (Drosophila virilis), salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area. Conservation Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinction, have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. In 2004, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds, mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1
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]
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,024 times higher. In 2006, there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including habitat destruction and modification, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, global warming, endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the ozone layer (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like chytridiomycosis. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators. In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes. Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The western terrestrial garter snake (Thamnophis elegans) in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the Yosemite toad (Bufo canorus) and the mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences. A global strategy to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation. Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians. One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis. See also List of amphibians List of amphibian genera List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States References Cited texts Further reading External links Amphibians – AnimalSpot.net ArchéoZooThèque : Amphibians skeletons drawings : available in vector, image and PDF formats Amphibian Specialist Group Amphibian Ark AmphibiaWeb Global Amphibian Assessment Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings Amphibious organisms Extant Late Devonian first appearances Taxa named by John Edward Gray <|endoftext|>Alaska (; ; ; ; Yup'ik: Alaskaq; ) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., it borders the Canadian province of British Columbia and the territory of Yukon to the east and shares a maritime border with the Russian Federation's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug to the west, just across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas of the Arctic Ocean, while the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area, comprising more total area than the next three largest states (Texas, California, and Montana) combined. It represents the seventh largest subnational division in the world. It is the third-least populous and the most sparsely populated state, but by far the continent's most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel, with a population of 736,081 as of 2020—more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half
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"Ġand", "Ġlater", "Ġthe", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "ĠCongress", ",", "Ġgranted", "Ġthem", "Ġpermission", "Ġto", "Ġsettle", "Ġon", "ĠAn", "nette", "ĠIsland", "Ġand", "Ġfound", "Ġthe", "Ġtown", "Ġof", "ĠMet", "l", "ak", "at", "la", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġthree", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġpeoples", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġother", "Ġindigenous", "Ġpeoples", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPacific", "ĠNorthwest", "ĠCoast", ",", "Ġexperienced", "Ġsmall", "pox", "Ġoutbreaks", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ18", "th", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġmid", "-", "19", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġdevastating", "Ġepidem", "ics", "Ġoccurring", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ1830", "s", "Ġand", "Ġ1860", "s", ",", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġhigh", "Ġfatalities", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "Ġdisruption", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠAle", "ut", "ian", "ĠIslands", "Ġare", "Ġstill", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠAle", "ut", "Ġpeople", "'s", "Ġseaf", "aring", "Ġsociety", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠNative", "ĠAl", "ask", "ans", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġexploited", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠRussians", ".", "ĠWestern", "Ġand", "ĠSouth", "western", "ĠAlaska", "Ġare", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠY", "up", "'", "ik", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġtheir", "Ġcousins", "Ġthe", "ĠAl", "ut", "ii", "q", "Ġ~", "ĠSug", "p", "ia", "q", "Ġlive", "Ġin", "Ġwhat", "Ġis", "Ġnow", "ĠSouth", "central", "ĠAlaska", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠG", "wich", "'", "in", "Ġpeople", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "ĠInterior", "Ġregion", "Ġare", "ĠAth", "ab", "ask", "an", "Ġand", "Ġprimarily", "Ġknown", "Ġtoday", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġdependence", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġcar", "ib", "ou", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġmuch", "-", "cont", "ested", "ĠArctic", "ĠNational", "ĠWildlife", "ĠRefuge", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠNorth", "ĠSl", "ope", "Ġand", "ĠLittle", "ĠDi", "omed", "e", "ĠIsland", "Ġare", "Ġoccupied", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġwidespread", "ĠIn", "up", "iat", "Ġpeople", ".", "Ġ", "ĠColon", "ization", "Ġ", "ĠSome", "Ġresearchers", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠRussian", "Ġsettlement", "Ġin", "ĠAlaska", "Ġwas", 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of Alaska's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. The state capital of Juneau is the second-largest city in the United States by area, comprising more territory than the states of Rhode Island and Delaware. The former capital of Alaska, Sitka, is the largest U.S. city by area. Alaska was occupied by various indigenous peoples for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. The state is considered the entry point for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Russians were the first Europeans to settle the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing Russian America, which spanned most of the current state. The expense and difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. in 1867 for US$7.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ), or approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km2). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959. While it has one of the smallest state economies in the country, Alaska's per capita income is among the highest, owing to a diversified economy dominated by fishing, natural gas, and oil, all of which it has in abundance. United States armed forces bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy; more than half the state is federally owned public land, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and wildlife refuges. The indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally the highest of any U.S. state, at over 15 percent. Close to two dozen native languages are spoken, and Alaskan Natives exercise considerable influence in local and state politics. Etymology The name "Alaska" () was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom, "alaxsxaq", meaning "the mainland" or, more literally, "the object towards which the action of the sea is directed". It is also known as "Alyeska", the "great land", an Aleut word derived from the same root. History Pre-colonization Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringians. The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption. The Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people's seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by the Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the Yup'ik, while their cousins the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq live in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people. Colonization Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the icons". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with
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271
Koyuk River. The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian Cossack A. F. Shestakov and Russian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735). Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789, a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. Sitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeastern Alaska. William H. Seward, the 24th United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Russia's contemporary ruler Tsar Alexander II, the Emperor of the Russian Empire, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland, also planned the sale; the purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor's house at "Castle Hill", where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day, a legal holiday on October 18. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government", which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959. Alaska as an incorporated U.S. territory Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. During World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu, Agattu and Kiska, all which were occupied by the Empire of Japan. During the Japanese occupation, a white American civilian and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively, and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment. Unalaska/Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases for the United States Army, United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy. The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. Statehood Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by the U.S. Congress on July
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7, 1958; Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. Good Friday earthquake On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history, with a moment magnitude of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the 1989 San Francisco earthquake). The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year (spring) and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. Alaska oil boom The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling more than of crude oil over of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine. Geography Located at the northwest corner of North America, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States, but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about of British Columbia (Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called "the Lower 48". The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The state is bordered by Canada's Yukon and British Columbia to the east (making it the only state to border a Canadian territory); the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west; and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined. At in area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States, and is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state, Texas. Alaska is the seventh largest subnational division in the world, and if it was an independent nation would be the 16th largest country in the world, as it is larger than Iran. With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building. One of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than . Alaska has more than three million lakes. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about of Alaska. The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering alone. Regions There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions: South Central The most populous region of Alaska, containing Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez. Southeast Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time
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Alaska's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system. Interior The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali, formerly Mount McKinley, is the highest mountain in North America, and is also located here. Southwest Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below). North Slope The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. The city of Utqiaġvik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people. Aleutian Islands More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches more than into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. Land ownership According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages , or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising . Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns , its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded. Alaska Heritage Resources Survey The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the U.S. state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are more than fifty years old. , more than 35,000 sites have been reported. Cities, towns and boroughs Alaska is not divided into counties, as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs. Delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention wanted to avoid the pitfalls of the traditional county system and adopted their own unique model. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area
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274
not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough. The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A recording district is a mechanism for management of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a state recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record. Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population. Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks). The state's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 291,247 people in 2020. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Denali ($42,245). Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area. Cities and census-designated places (by population) As reflected in the 2020 United States census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as "The Bush" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order. Of Alaska's 2020 U.S. census population figure of 733,391, 16,655 people, or 2.27% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North Tongass Highway, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas. Climate The climate in south and southeastern Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts. On an annual basis, the southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over . This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives of precipitation a year, with around of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers. The climate of western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i.e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around of precipitation. The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic
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275
. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is in Fort Yukon (which is just inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada). The climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Utqiaġvik is . Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year. Demographics The United States Census Bureau found in the 2020 United States census that the population of Alaska was 736,081 on April 1, 2020, a 3.6% increase since the 2010 United States census. According to the 2010 United States census, the U.S. state of Alaska had a population of 710,231, increasing from 626,932 at the 2000 U.S. census. In 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming (and Washington, D.C.). Estimates show North Dakota ahead . Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). due to its population size, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still have only one telephone area code. Race and ethnicity The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 60.2% of the population was non-Hispanic white, 3.7% Black or African American, 15.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.5% Asian, 1.4% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 7.5% two or more races, and 7.3% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. At the survey estimates, 7.8% of the total population was foreign-born from 2015 to 2019. In 2015, 61.3% was non-Hispanic white, 3.4% Black or African American, 13.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 0.3% some other race, and 7.7% multiracial. Hispanics and Latin Americans were 7% of the state population in 2015. From 2015 to 2019, the largest Hispanic and Latin American groups were Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans. The largest Asian groups living in the state were Filipinos, Korean Americans, and Japanese and Chinese Americans. The state was 66.7% White (64.1% non-Hispanic white), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from some other race, and 7.3% from two or more races in 2010. Hispanics or Latin Americans of any race made up 5.5% of the population in 2010. , 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry). In 1960, the United States Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native. Languages According to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home, 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language, about 4.3% spoke an Asian language (including Tagalog), and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home. In 2019, the American Community Survey determined 83.7% spoke only English, and 16.3% spoke another language other than English. The most spoken European language after English was Spanish, spoken by approximately 4.0% of the state population. Collectively, Asian and Pacific Islander languages were spoken by 5.6% of Alaskans. Since 2010, a total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak
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"ĠKodi", "ak", ".", "ĠInter", "marriage", "Ġwith", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "ĠN", "atives", "Ġhelped", "Ġthe", "ĠRussian", "Ġimmigrants", "Ġintegrate", "Ġinto", "Ġsociety", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġresult", ",", "Ġan", "Ġincreasing", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "ĠRussian", "ĠOrthodox", "Ġchurches", "Ġgradually", "Ġbecame", "Ġestablished", "Ġwithin", "ĠAlaska", ".", "ĠAlaska", "Ġalso", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġlargest", "ĠQu", "aker", "Ġpopulation", "Ġ(", "by", "Ġpercentage", ")", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġstate", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ2009", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġwere", "Ġ6", ",", "000", "ĠJews", "Ġin", "ĠAlaska", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġwhom", "Ġobserv", "ance", "Ġof", "Ġhal", "ak", "ha", "Ġmay", "Ġpose", "Ġspecial", "Ġproblems", ").", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "ĠHindus", "Ġoften", "Ġshare", "Ġvenues", "Ġand", "Ġcelebrations", "Ġwith", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġother", "ĠAsian", "Ġreligious", "Ġcommunities", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠSik", "hs", "Ġand", "ĠJ", "ains", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ2010", ",", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "ĠHindus", "Ġestablished", "Ġthe", "ĠSri", 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"Ġmosque", "Ġwill", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġand", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "most", "Ġmosques", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ".", "ĠThere", "'s", "Ġalso", "Ġa", "ĠBahá", "Ê", "¼", "ÃŃ", "Ġcenter", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEconomy", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġof", "Ġ2016", ",", "ĠAlaska", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġtotal", "Ġemployment", "Ġof", "Ġ266", ",", "07", "2", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġemployer", "Ġestablishments", "Ġwas", "Ġ21", ",", "07", "7", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġ2018", "Ġgross", "Ġstate", "Ġproduct", "Ġwas", "Ġ$", "55", "Ġbillion", ",", "Ġ48", "th", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠU", ".", "S", "..", "ĠIts", "Ġper", "Ġcapita", "Ġpersonal", "Ġincome", "Ġfor", "Ġ2018", "Ġwas", "Ġ$", "73", ",", "000", ",", "Ġranking", "Ġ7", "th", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnation", ".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġ2013", "Ġstudy", "Ġby", "ĠPhoenix", "ĠMarketing", "ĠInternational", ",", "ĠAlaska", "Ġhad", "Ġthe", "Ġfifth", "-", "largest", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġmillionaires", "Ġper", "Ġcapita", "Ġin", "Ġthe", 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276
one of the state's 20 indigenous languages, known locally as "native languages". The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families; however, some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic). nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages. In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages to have official status. This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are: Inupiaq Siberian Yupik Central Alaskan Yup'ik Alutiiq Unangax Dena'ina Deg Xinag Holikachuk Koyukon Upper Kuskokwim Gwich'in Tanana Upper Tanana Tanacross Hän Ahtna Eyak Tlingit Haida Tsimshian Religion According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. Of the religious population, 100,960 people identified as evangelical Protestants; 50,866 as Roman Catholic; and 32,550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4% were Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 1% Buddhist, 0.2% Baháʼí, and 0.5% Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska was the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents; non-denominational Evangelicals with 38,070 adherents; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being the least religious states of the USA, in terms of church membership. The Pew Research Center in 2014 determined 62% of the adult population practiced Christianity. Protestantism was the largest Christian tradition, dominated by Evangelicalism. Mainline Protestants were the second largest Protestant Christian group, followed by predominantly African American churches. The Catholic Church remained the largest single Christian tradition practiced in Alaska. Of the unaffiliated population, they made up the largest non-Christian religious affiliation. Atheists made up 5% of the population and the largest non-Christian religion was Buddhism. In 1795, the first Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009, there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains. In 2010, Alaskan Hindus established the Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska, making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world. There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska. The vast majority of Hindus live in Anchorage or Fairbanks. Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world. There's also a Baháʼí center. Economy As of 2016, Alaska had a total employment of 266,072. The number of employer establishments was 21,077. The 2018 gross state product was $55 billion, 48th in the U.S.. Its per capita personal income for 2018 was $73,000, ranking 7th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab. Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products
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"Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġcreation", ".", "ĠFrom", "Ġits", "Ġinitial", "Ġprincipal", "Ġof", "Ġ$", "7", "34", ",", "000", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfund", "Ġhas", "Ġgrown", "Ġto", "Ġ$", "50", "Âł", "billion", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġresult", "Ġof", "Ġoil", "Ġroyalties", "Ġand", "Ġcapital", "Ġinvestment", "Ġprograms", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġif", "Ġnot", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġprincipal", "Ġis", "Ġinvested", "Ġconservative", "ly", "Ġoutside", "ĠAlaska", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġhas", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġfrequent", "Ġcalls", "Ġby", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "Ġpoliticians", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠFund", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġinvestments", "Ġwithin", "ĠAlaska", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġsuch", "Ġa", "Ġstance", "Ġhas", "Ġnever", "Ġgained", "Ġmomentum", ".", "Ġ", "ĠStarting", "Ġin", "Ġ1982", ",", "Ġdividends", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġfund", "'s", "Ġannual", "Ġgrowth", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġpaid", "Ġout", "Ġeach", "Ġyear", "Ġto", "Ġeligible", "ĠAl", "ask", "ans", ",", "Ġranging", "Ġfrom", "Ġan", "Ġinitial", "Ġ$", "1", ",", "000", "Ġin", "Ġ1982", "Ġ(", "equal", "Ġto", "Ġthree", "Ġyears", "'", "Ġpayout", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġdistribution", "Ġof", "Ġpayments", "Ġwas", "Ġheld", "Ġup", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġlawsuit", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġdistribution", "Ġscheme", ")", "Ġto", "Ġ$", "3", ",", "269", "Ġin", "Ġ2008", "Ġ(", "which", "Ġincluded", "Ġa", "Ġone", "-", "time", "Ġ$", "1", ",", "200", "Ġ\"", "Resource", "ĠReb", "ate", "\").", "ĠEvery", "Ġyear", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġlegislature", "Ġtakes", "Ġout", "Ġ8", "%", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġearnings", ",", "Ġputs", "Ġ3", "%", "Ġback", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġprincipal", "Ġfor", "Ġinflation", "Ġproof", "ing", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġremaining", "Ġ5", "%", "Ġis", "Ġdistributed", "Ġto", "Ġall", "Ġqualifying", "ĠAl", "ask", "ans", ".", "ĠTo", "Ġqualify", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠPermanent", "ĠFund", "ĠD", "ivid", "end", ",", "Ġone", "Ġmust", "Ġhave", "Ġlived", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġminimum", "Ġof", "Ġ12", "Ġmonths", ",", "Ġmaintain", "Ġconstant", "Ġresidency", "Ġsubject", "Ġto", "Ġallowable", "Ġabs", "ences", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnot", "Ġbe", "Ġsubject", "Ġto", "Ġcourt", "Ġjudgments", "Ġor", "Ġcriminal", "Ġconvictions", "Ġwhich", "Ġfall", "Ġunder", "Ġvarious", "Ġdisqual", "ifying", "Ġclass", "ifications", "Ġor", "Ġmay", "Ġsubject", "Ġthe", "Ġpayment", "Ġamount", "Ġto", "Ġcivil", "Ġgarn", "ishment", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe" ]
277
, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging. Energy Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about , although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over . Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well. Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually thirty to sixty cents higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors. Permanent Fund The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund. The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 "Resource Rebate"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment. The
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"Ġand", "Ġcabbage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠTan", "ana", "ĠValley", "Ġis", "Ġanother", "Ġnotable", "Ġagricultural", "Ġloc", "us", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġthe", "ĠDelta", "ĠJunction", "Ġarea", ",", "Ġabout", "Ġ", "Ġsoutheast", "Ġof", "ĠFair", "banks", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġsizable", "Ġconcentration", "Ġof", "Ġfarms", "Ġgrowing", "Ġag", "ron", "omic", "Ġcrops", ";", "Ġthese", "Ġfarms", "Ġmostly", "Ġlie", "Ġnorth", "Ġand", "Ġeast", "Ġof", "ĠFort", "ĠGree", "ly", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġarea", "Ġwas", "Ġlargely", "Ġset", "Ġaside", "Ġand", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġunder", "Ġa", "Ġstate", "Ġprogram", "Ġspearheaded", "Ġby", "ĠHammond", "Ġduring", "Ġhis", "Ġsecond", "Ġterm", "Ġas", "Ġgovernor", ".", "ĠDelta", "-", "area", "Ġcrops", "Ġconsist", "Ġpredominantly", "Ġof", "Ġbarley", "Ġand", "Ġhay", ".", "ĠWest", "Ġof", "ĠFair", "banks", "Ġlies", "Ġanother", "Ġconcentration", "Ġof", "Ġsmall", "Ġfarms", "Ġcatering", "Ġto", "Ġrestaurants", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhotel", "Ġand", "Ġtourist", "Ġindustry", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcommunity", "-", "supported", "Ġagriculture", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "Ġagriculture", "Ġhas", "Ġexperienced", "Ġa", "Ġsurge", "Ġin", "Ġgrowth", "Ġof", "Ġmarket", "Ġgarden", "ers", ",", "Ġsmall", "Ġfarms", "Ġand", "Ġfarmers", "'", "Ġmarkets", "Ġin", "Ġrecent", "Ġyears", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġpercentage", "Ġincrease", "Ġ(", "46", "%)", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnation", "Ġin", "Ġgrowth", "Ġin", "Ġfarmers", "'", "Ġmarkets", "Ġin", "Ġ2011", ",", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġ17", "%", "Ġnationwide", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpe", "ony", "Ġindustry", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġtaken", "Ġoff", ",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġgrowing", "Ġseason", "Ġallows", "Ġfarmers", "Ġto", "Ġharvest", "Ġduring", "Ġa", "Ġgap", "Ġin", "Ġsupply", "Ġelsewhere", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġthereby", "Ġfilling", "Ġa", "Ġniche", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġflower", "Ġmarket", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlaska", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġno", "Ġcounties", ",", "Ġlacks", "Ġcounty", "Ġfair", "s", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġassortment", "Ġof", "Ġstate", "Ġand", "Ġlocal", 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"Ġstate", "Ġthan", "Ġoutside", "Ġit", ".", "ĠMany", "ĠAl", "ask", "ans", "Ġtake", "Ġadvantage", "Ġof", "Ġsalmon", "Ġseasons", "Ġto", "Ġharvest", "Ġportions", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġhousehold", "Ġdiet", "Ġwhile", "Ġfishing", "Ġfor", "Ġsubsistence", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġsport", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġincludes", "Ġfish", "Ġtaken", "Ġby", "Ġhook", ",", "Ġnet", "Ġor", "Ġwheel", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHunting", "Ġfor", "Ġsubsistence", ",", "Ġprimarily", "Ġcar", "ib", "ou", ",", "Ġmo", "ose", ",", "Ġand", "ĠD", "all", "Ġsheep", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġcommon", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġparticularly", "Ġin", "Ġremote", "ĠBush", "Ġcommunities", ".", "ĠAn", "Ġexample", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtraditional", "Ġnative", "Ġfood", "Ġis", "ĠAk", "uta", "q", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠEsk", "imo", "Ġice", "Ġcream", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġcan", "Ġconsist", "Ġof", "Ġre", "ind", "eer", "Ġfat", ",", "Ġseal", "Ġoil", ",", "Ġdried", "Ġfish", "Ġmeat", "Ġand", "Ġlocal", "Ġberries", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlaska", "'s", "Ġre", "ind", "eer", "Ġher", "ding", 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"Ġgroups", ".", "ĠTheir", "Ġpurpose", "Ġis", "Ġto", "Ġencourage", "Ġcross", "-", "cultural", "Ġexchanges", "Ġamong", "Ġall", "Ġpeople", "Ġand", "Ġenhance", "Ġself", "-", "esteem", "Ġamong", "ĠNative" ]
278
Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a basic income policy in the world. Cost of living The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country. Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Agriculture and fishing Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage. The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community-supported agriculture. Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers' markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market. Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. "Alaska Grown" is used as an agricultural slogan. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel. Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries. Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer. Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from "Outside" (the other 49 US states), and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely twenty to thirty cents higher than the contiguous United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices. Culture Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world. The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native
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279
people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet. Music Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man. There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well. The official state song of Alaska is "Alaska's Flag", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska. Alaska in film and on television Alaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was The Chechahcos, produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made. One of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent, starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932, an expedition set out from MGM's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as "The Biggest Picture Ever Made". Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up "Camp Hollywood" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals. When Eskimo premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history. Eskimo was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. Eskimo won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film. The 1983 Disney movie Never Cry Wolf was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film White Fang, based on Jack London's 1906 novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 On Deadly Ground, starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. The 1999 John Sayles film Limbo, starring David Strathairn, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and Kris Kristofferson, was filmed in Juneau. The psychological thriller Insomnia, starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams, was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, Into The Wild, was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless, who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992. Many films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, Northern Exposure, set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in Roslyn, Washington. The 2007 horror feature 30 Days of Night is set in Barrow, Alaska, but was filmed in New Zealand. Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011, the Anchorage Daily News found ten set in the state. Public health and public safety The Alaska State Troopers are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on "Public Safety Officers" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles. Many rural communities in Alaska are considered "dry", having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban. Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four
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280
out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances. Education The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena. There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of NCAA Division I. The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer one-week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics. Alaska has had a problem with a "brain drain". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program. Beginning in 1998, schools in rural Alaska must have at least 10 students to retain funding from the state, and campuses not meeting the number close. This was due to the loss in oil revenues that previously propped up smaller rural schools. In 2015, there was a proposal to raise that minimum to 25, but legislators in the state largely did not agree. Transportation Roads Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system, covering a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry; this has spurred debate over decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska. The Interstate Highways in Alaska consists of a total of . One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America. Rail Built around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as "The Railbelt". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy. The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward, such as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage. It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service. The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route. In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways. The Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. (The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the Canadian National Railway at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, several hundred miles to the southeast.) In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska
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"Ġand", "Ġwarehouse", "Ġclubs", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2006", ",", "ĠAlaska", "Ġhad", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġpilots", "Ġper", "Ġcapita", "Ġof", "Ġany", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġstate", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠAlaska", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġ8", ",", "795", "Ġactive", "Ġpilot", "Ġcertificates", "Ġas", "Ġof", "Ġ2020", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠOf", "Ġthese", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġ2", ",", "507", "ĠPrivate", ",", "Ġ1", ",", "496", "ĠCommercial", ",", "Ġ2", ",", "180", "ĠAir", "line", "ĠTransport", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ2", ",", "239", "ĠStudent", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġalso", "Ġ3", ",", "987", "Ġpilots", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "ĠInstrument", "Ġrating", "Ġand", "Ġ1", ",", "511", "ĠFlight", "ĠInstruct", "ors", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġtransport", "Ġ", "ĠAnother", "ĠAl", "ask", "an", "Ġtransportation", "Ġmethod", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġdogs", "led", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmodern", "Ġtimes", "Ġ(", "that", "Ġis", ",", "Ġany", "Ġtime", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġmid", "-", "late", "Ġ1920", "s", "),", "Ġdog", "Ġmus", "hing", "Ġis", "Ġmore", 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"ĠAnchorage", "Ġeach", "ĠMarch", "Ġto", "Ġcompete", "Ġfor", "Ġcash", ",", "Ġprizes", ",", "Ġand", "Ġprestige", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ\"", "Ser", "um", "ĠRun", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġanother", "Ġsled", "Ġdog", "Ġrace", "Ġthat", "Ġmore", "Ġaccurately", "Ġfollows", "Ġthe", "Ġroute", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfamous", "Ġ1925", "Ġrelay", ",", "Ġleaving", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġcommunity", "Ġof", "ĠN", "en", "ana", "Ġ(", "south", "west", "Ġof", "ĠFair", "banks", ")", "Ġto", "ĠN", "ome", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġareas", "Ġnot", "Ġserved", "Ġby", "Ġroad", "Ġor", "Ġrail", ",", "Ġprimary", "Ġtransportation", "Ġin", "Ġsummer", "Ġis", "Ġby", "Ġall", "-", "ter", "rain", "Ġvehicle", "Ġand", "Ġin", "Ġwinter", "Ġby", "Ġsnow", "mobile", "Ġor", "Ġ\"", "s", "now", "Ġmachine", "\",", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġcommonly", "Ġreferred", "Ġto", "Ġin", "ĠAlaska", ".", "Ġ", "ĠData", "Ġtransport", "Ġ", "ĠAlaska", "'s", "Ġinternet", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġdata", "Ġtransport", "Ġsystems", "Ġare", "Ġprovided", "Ġlargely", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", 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, Canada, and the lower 48. Some private companies provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle. Marine transport Many cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea. Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan for example fluctuates dramatically on many days—up to four large cruise ships can dock there at the same time. Air transport Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost two million visitors). Regular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006, Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state. In Alaska there are 8,795 active pilot certificates as of 2020. Of these, there are 2,507 Private, 1,496 Commercial, 2,180 Airline Transport, and 2,239 Student. There are also 3,987 pilots with a Instrument rating and 1,511 Flight Instructors. Other transport Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at ). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome. In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or "snow machine", as it is commonly referred to in Alaska. Data transport Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and
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operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and, as of late 2011, Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government. Law and government State government Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the governor of Alaska and his or her appointees which head executive departments; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts. The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide. The Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket. Alaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts hear only certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000. The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals. State politics Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship. Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force. The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party. Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994. Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over 21 can consume small amounts of cannabis. The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016. Voter registration Taxes To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no sales tax, one of seven states with no individual income tax, and—along with New Hampshire—one of two that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. In 2014, the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly" tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada. While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0 to 7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska. The fall in oil prices after the fracking boom in the early 2010s has decimated Alaska's state treasury, which has historically received about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes and fees imposed on oil and gas companies. The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget, and has brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in 2016 to under $500 million by 2018. In 2020, Alaska's state government budget was $4.8 billion, while projected government revenues were only $4.5 billion. Federal politics Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections
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"if", "ers", ",", "Ġdeforestation", ",", "Ġantibiotic", "Ġresistance", ",", "Ġand", "Ġgrowth", "Ġhormones", "Ġin", "Ġindustrial", "Ġmeat", "Ġproduction", ".", "ĠAgriculture", "Ġis", "Ġboth", "Ġa", "Ġcause", "Ġof", "Ġand", "Ġsensitive", "Ġto", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġdegradation", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġbiodiversity", "Ġloss" ]
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and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. Elections In a 2020 study, Alaska was ranked as the 15th hardest state for citizens to vote in. In the 2020 election cycle, Alaskan voters approved Ballot Measure 2. The measure passed by a margin of 1.1%, or about 4,000 votes. The measure requires campaigns to disclose the original source and any intermediaries for campaign contributions over $2,000. The measure establishes non-partisan blanket primaries for statewide elections (like in Washington state and California) and ranked-choice voting (like in Maine). Alaska is the third state with jungle primaries for all statewide races, the second state with ranked voting, and the only state with both. The first race to use the new system of elections will be the 2022 Senate election in which Lisa Murkowski will run for re-election. See also Index of Alaska-related articles Outline of Alaska Notes References External links Alaska's Digital Archives Alaska Inter-Tribal Council Who Owns/Manages Alaska? (map) Carl J. Sacarlasen Diary Extracts at Dartmouth College Library M.E. Diemer Alaska Photographs at Dartmouth College Library Alfred Hulse Brooks Photographs and Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. U.S. federal government Alaska State Guide from the Library of Congress Energy & Environmental Data for Alaska USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alaska US Census Bureau Alaska State Facts Alaska Statehood Subject Guide from the Eisenhower Presidential Library Alaska Statehood documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Alaska state government State of Alaska website Alaska State Databases Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Recorder's Office Arctic Ocean Former Russian colonies States and territories established in 1959 States of the United States States of the West Coast of the United States U.S. states with multiple time zones 1959 establishments in the United States Western United States Northern America Enclaves and exclaves Beringia <|endoftext|>Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meat, milk, eggs and fungi. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although in recent decades, the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural workers continues, especially in developing countries where smallholding is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and mechanization that brings an enormous crop yield increase. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields, but causing ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and growth hormones in industrial meat production. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss
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, desertification, soil degradation and global warming, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries. Etymology and scope The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin , from 'field' and 'cultivation' or 'growing'. While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant, termite and beetle have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years. Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services". Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded. History Origins The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin. Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago. Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia, where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago. Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated. Civilizations In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs. Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats. Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC. Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilisation. In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC, followed by irrigation. By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These spread westwards across Eurasia. Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used – on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon. In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products. In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart
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from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cacao. Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC. The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC. Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC. Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there. In North America, the indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco, squash and Chenopodium. Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested. The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America. The indigenous people of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture. A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing beans. Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers, practised systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming. Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wild karuka fruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life. The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago. There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period. In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements. Revolution In the Middle Ages, both in Europe and in the Islamic world, agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange) to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After 1492 the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas. Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution, allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population. Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to alternative approaches such as the organic movement. Types Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India. In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin. Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land. Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries. Contemporary agriculture Status From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, but caused
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increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies, also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management, selective breeding, and controlled-environment agriculture. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food. Demand for non-food biofuel crops, development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change, growing consumer demand in China and India, and population growth, are threatening food security in many parts of the world. The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam. Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally; approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States. Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948. Workforce Following the three-sector theory, the number of people employed in agriculture and other primary activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries. Since the Industrial Revolution, many countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%. In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%. At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry. The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007. Safety Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects. As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Ages 0–6 May be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture; common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles. The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors". It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported. The organization has developed the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play. In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues. In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry. The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety. Production Overall production varies by country as listed. Crop cultivation systems Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population
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"and", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpast", "ures", "Ġfor", "Ġfeeding", "Ġr", "umin", "ant", "Ġanimals", ".", "ĠOutside", "Ġnutrient", "Ġinputs", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġused", ",", "Ġhowever", "Ġmanure", "Ġis", "Ġreturned", "Ġdirectly", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġgrass", "land", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġnutrient", "Ġsource", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġsystem", "Ġis", "Ġparticularly", "Ġimportant", "Ġin", "Ġareas", "Ġwhere", "Ġcrop", "Ġproduction", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġfeasible", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġclimate", "Ġor", "Ġsoil", ",", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġ30", "âĢĵ", "40", "Âł", "million", "Ġpastoral", "ists", ".", "ĠMixed", "Ġproduction", "Ġsystems", "Ġuse", "Ġgrass", "land", ",", "Ġfodder", "Ġcrops", "Ġand", "Ġgrain", "Ġfeed", "Ġcrops", "Ġas", "Ġfeed", "Ġfor", "Ġr", "umin", "ant", "Ġand", "Ġmonog", "ast", "ric", "Ġ(", "one", "Ġstomach", ";", "Ġmainly", "Ġchickens", "Ġand", "Ġpigs", ")", "Ġlivestock", ".", "ĠMan", "ure", "Ġis", "Ġtypically", "Ġrecycled", "Ġin", "Ġmixed", "Ġsystems", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġfertilizer", "Ġfor", "Ġcrops", ".", 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"Ġfeeding", "Ġoperations", ",", "Ġsometimes", "Ġcalled", "Ġfactory", "Ġfarming", ".", "ĠMuch", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġgrowth", "Ġis", "Ġhappening", "Ġin", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġcountries", "Ġin", "ĠAsia", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġmuch", "Ġsmaller", "Ġamounts", "Ġof", "Ġgrowth", "Ġin", "ĠAfrica", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpractices", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġcommercial", "Ġlivestock", "Ġproduction", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġusage", "Ġof", "Ġgrowth", "Ġhormones", ",", "Ġare", "Ġcontroversial", ".", "Ġ", "ĠProduction", "Ġpractices", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠTill", "age", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġpractice", "Ġof", "Ġbreaking", "Ġup", "Ġthe", "Ġsoil", "Ġwith", "Ġtools", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġpl", "ow", "Ġor", "Ġhar", "row", "Ġto", "Ġprepare", "Ġfor", "Ġplanting", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġnutrient", "Ġincorporation", ",", "Ġor", "Ġfor", "Ġpest", "Ġcontrol", ".", "ĠTill", "age", "Ġvaries", "Ġin", "Ġintensity", "Ġfrom", "Ġconventional", "Ġto", "Ġno", "-", "t", "ill", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġmay", "Ġimprove", "Ġproductivity", "Ġby", "Ġwarming", "Ġthe", "Ġsoil", ",", "Ġincorporating", "Ġfertilizer", "Ġand", "Ġcontrolling", "Ġweeds", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġalso", "Ġrenders", "Ġsoil", "Ġmore", "Ġprone", "Ġto", "Ġerosion", ",", "Ġtriggers", "Ġthe", "Ġdecom", "position", "Ġof", "Ġorganic", "Ġmatter", "Ġreleasing", "ĠCO", "2", ",", "Ġand", "Ġreduces", "Ġthe", "Ġabundance", "Ġand", "Ġdiversity", "Ġof", "Ġsoil", "Ġorganisms", ".", "Ġ" ]
287
density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers. Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures. In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system. Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables. Natural fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates. Livestock production systems Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool, and for work and transport. Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless. , 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050. Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007. During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds. Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists. Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops. Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution. Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa. Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial. Production practices Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.
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Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort. Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures. Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide. According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water. Crop alteration and biotechnology Plant breeding Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism. Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley. The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging). Genetic engineering Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering. For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops. Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs.
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"ĠLiv", "est", "ock", "Ġexpansion", "Ġis", "Ġcited", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġkey", "Ġfactor", "Ġdriving", "Ġdeforestation", ";", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAmazon", "Ġbasin", "Ġ70", "%", "Ġof", "Ġpreviously", "Ġforest", "ed", "Ġarea", "Ġis", "Ġnow", "Ġoccupied", "Ġby", "Ġpast", "ures", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġremainder", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġfeed", "cro", "ps", ".", "ĠThrough", "Ġdeforestation", "Ġand", "Ġland", "Ġdegradation", ",", "Ġlivestock", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġdriving", "Ġreductions", "Ġin", "Ġbiodiversity", ".", "ĠFurthermore", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠUN", "EP", "Ġstates", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "m", "eth", "ane", "Ġemissions", "Ġfrom", "Ġglobal", "Ġlivestock", "Ġare", "Ġprojected", "Ġto", "Ġincrease", "Ġby", "Ġ60", "Ġper", "Ġcent", "Ġby", "Ġ2030", "Ġunder", "Ġcurrent", "Ġpractices", "Ġand", "Ġconsumption", "Ġpatterns", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠLand", "Ġand", "Ġwater", "Ġissues", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠLand", "Ġtransformation", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġland", "Ġto", "Ġyield", "Ġgoods", "Ġand", "Ġservices", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", 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There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not. Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide. With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications. Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects. Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes. Environmental impact Effects and costs Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation and global warming, which cause decrease in crop yield. Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs. Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare. A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million. Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society. Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing hedges, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land. Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage. Livestock issues A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2.) It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops. Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns." Land and water issues Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is the driving force causing biodiversity loss. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%. Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function
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and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented. Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, acidification, or salinization. Eutrophication, excessive nutrient enrichment in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations. Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients. Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources. Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia. Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources. Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly. Pesticides Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant. The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide. An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable, and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation. The Push–pull agricultural pest management technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull). Climate change Climate change and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world. Future climate change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative. Global warming will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor. Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO2 and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use. Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010. A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture, and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector. Sustainability Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights. Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable. Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances
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carbon sequestration. Other potential practices include conservation agriculture, agroforestry, improved grazing, avoided grassland conversion, and biochar. Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy. The International Food Policy Research Institute states that agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, it found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset. Energy dependence Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area) as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output. Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery. Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery. In particular, the production of nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of agricultural energy usage. Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined. Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US. Disciplines Agricultural economics Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services". Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century. Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States to the European feudal system of manorialism. In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities. National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other measures. Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions. However, , there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy. Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers. Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight. Agricultural science Agricultural science is a broad mult
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"Ġprograms", "Ġcan", "Ġrange", "Ġfrom", "Ġfinancial", "Ġprograms", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġsubsidies", ",", "Ġto", "Ġencouraging", "Ġproducers", "Ġto", "Ġenroll", "Ġin", "Ġvoluntary", "Ġquality", "Ġassurance", "Ġprograms", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġmany", "Ġinfluences", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġcreation", "Ġof", "Ġagricultural", "Ġpolicy", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġconsumers", ",", "Ġag", "rib", "us", "iness", ",", "Ġtrade", "Ġlobb", "ies", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġgroups", ".", "ĠAg", "rib", "us", "iness", "Ġinterests", "Ġhold", "Ġa", "Ġlarge", "Ġamount", "Ġof", "Ġinfluence", "Ġover", "Ġpolicy", "Ġmaking", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġlobbying", "Ġand", "Ġcampaign", "Ġcontributions", ".", "ĠPolitical", "Ġaction", "Ġgroups", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthose", "Ġinterested", "Ġin", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġissues", "Ġand", "Ġlabor", "Ġunions", ",", "Ġalso", "Ġprovide", "Ġinfluence", ",", "Ġas", "Ġdo", "Ġlobbying", "Ġorganizations", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġindividual", "Ġagricultural", "Ġcommodities", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠFood", "Ġand", "ĠAgriculture", "ĠOrganization", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠNations", "Ġ(", "FA", "O", ")", "Ġleads", "Ġinternational", "Ġefforts", "Ġto", "Ġdefeat", "Ġhunger", "Ġand", "Ġprovides", "Ġa", "Ġforum", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġnegotiation", "Ġof", "Ġglobal", "Ġagricultural", "Ġregulations", "Ġand", "Ġagreements", ".", "ĠSamuel", "ĠJ", "ut", "zi", ",", "Ġdirector", "Ġof", "ĠFA", "O", "'s", "Ġanimal", "Ġproduction", "Ġand", "Ġhealth", "Ġdivision", ",", "Ġstates", "Ġthat", "Ġlobbying", "Ġby", "Ġlarge", "Ġcorporations", "Ġhas", "Ġstopped", "Ġreforms", "Ġthat", "Ġwould", "Ġimprove", "Ġhuman", "Ġhealth", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġenvironment", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġproposals", "Ġin", "Ġ2010", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġvoluntary", "Ġcode", "Ġof", "Ġconduct", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġlivestock", "Ġindustry", "Ġthat", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġprovided", "Ġincentives", "Ġfor", "Ġimproving", "Ġstandards", "Ġfor", "Ġhealth", ",", "Ġand", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġregulations", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġanimals", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġof", "Ġland", "Ġcan", "Ġsupport", "Ġwithout", "Ġlong", "-", "term", "Ġdamage", ",", "Ġwere", "Ġsuccessfully", "Ġdefeated", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġlarge", "Ġfood", "Ġcompany", "Ġpressure", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAer", "op", "onics", "Ġ", "ĠAgricultural", "Ġaircraft", "Ġ", "ĠAgricultural", "Ġengineering", "Ġ", "ĠAgricultural", "Ġrobot", "Ġ", "ĠAg", "ro", "ec", "ology", "Ġ", "ĠAg", "rom", "iner", "als", "Ġ", "ĠBuilding", "-", "integ", "rated", "Ġagriculture", "Ġ", "ĠContract", "Ġfarming", "Ġ", "ĠCorporate", "Ġfarming", "Ġ", "ĠCro", "ft", "ing", "Ġ", "ĠEco", "ag", "ric", "ulture", "Ġ", "ĠHill", "Ġfarming", "Ġ", "ĠList", "Ġof", "Ġdocumentary", "Ġfilms", "Ġabout", "Ġagriculture", "Ġ", "ĠPh", "arming", "Ġ(", "gen", "etics", ")", "Ġ", "ĠRemote", "Ġsensing", "Ġ", "ĠSub", "s", "istence", "Ġeconomy", "Ġ", "ĠVertical", "Ġfarming", "Ġ", "ĠVeget", "able", "Ġfarming", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠC", "ited", "Ġsources", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠFood", "Ġand", "ĠAgriculture", "ĠOrganization", "Ġ", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "ĠDepartment", "Ġof", "ĠAgriculture", "Ġ", "ĠAgriculture", "Ġmaterial", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠWorld", "ĠBank", "ĠGroup", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAgriculture", "ĠAg", "ron", "omy", "ĠFood", "Ġindustry", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "A", "ld", "ous", "ĠLeonard", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġ(", "26", "ĠJuly", "Ġ18", "94", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġ22", "ĠNovember", "Ġ1963", ")", "Ġwas", "Ġan", "ĠEnglish", "Ġwriter", "Ġand", "Ġphilosopher", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwrote", "Ġnearly", "Ġ50", "Ġbooks", "âĢĶ", "both", "Ġnovels", "Ġand", "Ġnon", "-", "fiction", "Ġworks", "âĢĶ", "as", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġwide", "-", "ranging", "Ġessays", ",", "Ġnarratives", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpoems", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBorn", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġprominent", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġfamily", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġgraduated", "Ġfrom", "ĠBall", "iol", "ĠCollege", ",", "ĠOxford", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġundergraduate", "Ġdegree", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġliterature", ".", "ĠEarly", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġcareer", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġpublished", "Ġshort", "Ġstories", "Ġand", "Ġpoetry", "Ġand", "Ġedited", "Ġthe", "Ġliterary", "Ġmagazine", "ĠOxford", "ĠPo", "etry", ",", "Ġbefore", "Ġgoing", "Ġon", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "Ġtravel", "Ġwriting", ",", "Ġsatire", ",", "Ġand", "Ġscreen", "plays", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġspent", "Ġthe", "Ġlatter", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġlife", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ",", "Ġliving", "Ġin", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1937", "Ġuntil", "Ġhis", "Ġdeath", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġlife", ",", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġwas", "Ġwidely", "Ġacknowledged", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġforemost", "Ġintellectuals", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġtime", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġnominated", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠNobel", "ĠPrize", "Ġin", "ĠLiterature", "Ġnine", "Ġtimes", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġelected", "ĠCompanion", "Ġof", "ĠLiterature", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠRoyal", "ĠSociety", "Ġof", "ĠLiterature", "Ġin", "Ġ1962", ".", "Ġ", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġpacif", "ist", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġgrew", "Ġinterested", "Ġin", "Ġphilosophical", "Ġmystic", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġuniversal", "ism", ",", "Ġaddressing", "Ġthese", "Ġsubjects", "Ġwith", "Ġworks", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠThe", "ĠP", "erenn", "ial", "ĠPhilosophy", "Ġ(", "1945", ")âĢĶ", "which", "Ġillustrates", "Ġcommon", "alities", "Ġbetween", "ĠWestern", "Ġand", "ĠEastern", "Ġmystic", "ism", "âĢĶ", "and", "ĠThe", "ĠDoors", "Ġof", "ĠPerception", "Ġ(", "19", "54", ")âĢĶ", "which", "Ġinterpre", "ts", "Ġhis", "Ġown", "Ġpsychedelic", "Ġexperience", "Ġwith", "Ġm", "esc", "aline", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġhis", "Ġmost" ]
292
idisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation. The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer. Research became more systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running. In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers. In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA. Policy Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries). Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs. There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure. See also Aeroponics Agricultural aircraft Agricultural engineering Agricultural robot Agroecology Agrominerals Building-integrated agriculture Contract farming Corporate farming Crofting Ecoagriculture Hill farming List of documentary films about agriculture Pharming (genetics) Remote sensing Subsistence economy Vertical farming Vegetable farming References Cited sources External links Food and Agriculture Organization United States Department of Agriculture Agriculture material from the World Bank Group Agriculture Agronomy Food industry <|endoftext|>Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. He wrote nearly 50 books—both novels and non-fiction works—as well as wide-ranging essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the prominent Huxley family, he graduated from Balliol College, Oxford, with an undergraduate degree in English literature. Early in his career, he published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine Oxford Poetry, before going on to publish travel writing, satire, and screenplays. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature nine times and was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature in 1962. Huxley was a pacifist. He grew interested in philosophical mysticism and universalism, addressing these subjects with works such as The Perennial Philosophy (1945)—which illustrates commonalities between Western and Eastern mysticism—and The Doors of Perception (1954)—which interprets his own psychedelic experience with mescaline. In his most
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famous novel Brave New World (1932) and his final novel Island (1962), he presented his vision of dystopia and utopia, respectively. Early life Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited The Cornhill Magazine, and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphry Ward. Julia named him Aldous after a character in one of her sister's novels. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevenen Huxley (1889–1914), who took his own life after a period of clinical depression. As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie", short for "Ogre". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently "[contemplated] the strangeness of things". According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing. Huxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside he went on to Eton College. His mother died in 1908, when he was 14 (his father later remarried). He contracted the eye disease Keratitis punctata in 1911; this "left [him] practically blind for two to three years". This "ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor". In October 1913, Huxley entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied English literature. He volunteered for the British Army in January 1916, for the Great War; however, he was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. His eyesight later partly recovered. He edited Oxford Poetry in 1916, and in June of that year graduated BA with first class honours. His brother Julian wrote: Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. He taught French for a year at Eton College, where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name George Orwell) and Steven Runciman were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language. Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond, an advanced chemical plant in Billingham in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his science fiction novel Brave New World (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel. Career Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early twenties, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, Crome Yellow (1921), Antic Hay (1923), Those Barren Leaves (1925), and Point Counter Point (1928). Brave New World (1932) was his fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s, he was also a contributor to Vanity Fair and British Vogue magazines. Contact with the Bloomsbury Set During the First World War, Huxley spent much of his time at Garsington Manor near Oxford, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, working as a farm labourer. While at the Manor, he met several Bloomsbury Group figures, including Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Clive Bell. Later, in Crome Yellow (1921), he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919, John Middleton Murry was reorganising the Athenaeum and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys (1899-1955), also at Garsington. They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend D. H. Lawrence. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932). Very early in 1929, in London, Huxley met Gerald Heard, a brilliant writer and broadcaster, philosopher and interpreter of contemporary science. Works of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously Brave New World, and on pacifist themes (for example,
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Eyeless in Gaza). In Brave New World, set in a dystopian London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and Pavlovian conditioning. Huxley was strongly influenced by F. Matthias Alexander, and included him as a character in Eyeless in Gaza (1936). Beginning in this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including Ends and Means (1937), An Encyclopedia of Pacifism, and Pacifism and Philosophy, and was an active member of the Peace Pledge Union. Life in the United States In 1937, Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son Matthew Huxley, and friend Gerald Heard. He lived in the U.S., mainly in southern California, until his death, and also for a time in Taos, New Mexico, where he wrote Ends and Means (published in 1937). The book contains tracts on war, religion, nationalism, and ethics. Heard introduced Huxley to Vedanta (Upanishad-centered philosophy), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of ahimsa. In 1938, Huxley befriended Jiddu Krishnamurti, whose teachings he greatly admired. Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into an enduring exchange (sometimes edging on debate) over many years, with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley, with his pragmatic concerns, the more socially and historically informed position. Huxley provided an introduction to Krishnamurti's quintessential statement, The First and Last Freedom (1954). Huxley also became a Vedantist in the circle of Hindu Swami Prabhavananda, and introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle. Not long afterwards, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, The Perennial Philosophy, which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted "five senses" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of Occidental College. He spent much time at the college, which is in the Eagle Rock neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel After Many a Summer (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; Christopher Isherwood, in his autobiography My Guru and His Disciple, states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (approximately $50,000 in 2020 dollars) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the US. In March 1938, Huxley's friend Anita Loos, a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), which hired him for Madame Curie which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed by George Cukor. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for Pride and Prejudice (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including Jane Eyre (1944). He was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however. Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of J. D. Unwin's 1940 book Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society. On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, congratulating him on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is". In his letter to Orwell, he predicted: In 1953, Huxley and Maria applied for United States citizenship and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the McCarran Act, the judge had to adjourn the proceedings. He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the U.S. In 1959, Huxley turned down an offer to be made a Knight Bachelor by the Macmillan government without putting forward a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while another brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974. In the fall semester of 1960 Huxley was invited by Professor Huston Smith to be the Carnegie Visiting Professor of
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"Ġthe", "Ġworld", "Ġand", "Ġbecause", "Ġit", "Ġmay", "Ġhelp", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġlead", "Ġa", "Ġless", "Ġself", "-", "centered", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġcreative", "Ġlife", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠEyes", "ight", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠDiff", "ering", "Ġaccounts", "Ġexist", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "Ġdetails", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "'s", "Ġeyes", "ight", "Ġat", "Ġspecific", "Ġpoints", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġlife", ".", "ĠCirc", "a", "Ġ1939", ",", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġencountered", "Ġthe", "ĠBates", "Ġmethod", ",", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġinstructed", "Ġby", "ĠMargaret", "ĠDar", "st", "ĠCor", "bett", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1940", ",", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġrelocated", "Ġfrom", "ĠHollywood", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġ", "Ġranch", "ito", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġhigh", "Ġdesert", "Ġham", "let", "Ġof", "ĠLl", "ano", ",", "ĠCalifornia", ",", "Ġin", "Ġnorthern", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "ĠCounty", ".", "ĠH", "ux", "ley", "Ġthen", "Ġsaid", "Ġthat", "Ġhis", "Ġsight", "Ġimproved", "Ġdramatically", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠBates", "ĠMethod", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġextreme", "Ġand", "Ġpure", "Ġnatural", "Ġlighting", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsouthwestern", "ĠAmerican", "Ġdesert" ]
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Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). As part of the MIT centennial program of events organised by the Department of Humanities, Huxley presented a series of lectures titled, "What a Piece of Work is a Man" which concerned history, language, and art. Late-in-life perspectives Biographer Harold H. Watts wrote that Huxley's writings in the "final and extended period of his life" are "the work of a man who is meditating on the central problems of many modern men". Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist Mike Wallace, Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency towards distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities. In a December 1962 letter to brother Julian, summarizing a paper he had presented in Santa Barbara, he wrote, "What I said was that if we didn't pretty quickly start thinking of human problems in ecological terms rather than in terms of power politics we should very soon be in a bad way." Huxley's engagement with Eastern wisdom traditions was entirely compatible with a strong appreciation of modern science. Biographer Milton Birnbaum wrote that Huxley "ended by embracing both science and Eastern religion". In his last book, Literature and Science, Huxley wrote that "The ethical and philosophical implications of modern science are more Buddhist than Christian...." In "A Philosopher's Visionary Prediction," published one month before he died, Huxley endorsed training in general semantics and "the nonverbal world of culturally uncontaminated consciousness," writing that "We must learn how to be mentally silent, we must cultivate the art of pure receptivity.... [T]he individual must learn to decondition himself, must be able to cut holes in the fence of verbalized symbols that hems him in." Association with Vedanta Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood and other followers, he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices. In 1944, Huxley wrote the introduction to the "Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God", translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by the Vedanta Society of Southern California. From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to Vedanta and the West, published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John Van Druten from 1951 through 1962. Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: Knowledge and Understanding and Who Are We? from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalised religion. Psychedelic drug use and mystical experiences In the spring of 1953, Huxley had his first experience with the psychedelic drug mescaline. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Doctor Humphry Osmond, a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution, and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California. After the publication of The Doors of Perception, in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. Huxley later had an experience on mescaline that he considered more profound than those detailed in The Doors of Perception. Huxley wrote that "The mystical experience is doubly valuable; it is valuable because it gives the experiencer a better understanding of himself and the world and because it may help him to lead a less self-centered and more creative life." Eyesight Differing accounts exist about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. Circa 1939, Huxley encountered the Bates method, in which he was instructed by Margaret Darst Corbett. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a ranchito in the high desert hamlet of Llano, California, in northern Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert
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. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his experiences with the Bates Method, The Art of Seeing, which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight. It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of The Art of Seeing, in 1952, Bennett Cerf was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: "Then suddenly he faltered—and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment." Brazilian author João Ubaldo Ribeiro, who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in the late 1950s, wrote that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile: "I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really." On the other hand, Huxley's second wife, Laura Archera, later emphasised in her biographical account, This Timeless Moment: "One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight." After revealing a letter she wrote to the Los Angeles Times disclaiming the label of Huxley as a "poor fellow who can hardly see" by Walter C. Alvarez, she tempered her statement: "Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens." Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, agrees with the following sample of Huxley's own words from The Art of Seeing: "The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable." Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight has continued to endure similar, significant controversy. American popular science author Steven Johnson, in his book Mind Wide Open, quotes Huxley about his difficulties with visual encoding: "I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, do not evoke pictures in my mind. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon ..." Personal life Huxley married on 10 July 1919 Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian epidemiologist from Bellem, a village near Aalter, he met at Garsington, Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, Matthew Huxley (19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005), who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent epidemiologist. In 1955, Maria Huxley died of cancer. In 1956, Huxley married Laura Archera (1911–2007), also an author, as well as a violinist and psychotherapist. She wrote This Timeless Moment, a biography of Huxley. She told the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, Huxley on Huxley. Huxley was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer in 1960; in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel Island, and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" both at the UCSF Medical Center and at the Esalen Institute. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the Human Potential Movement. Huxley was a close friend of Jiddu Krishnamurti and Rosalind Rajagopal and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School, now Besant Hill School of Happy Valley, in Ojai, California. The most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers, following the destruction of most in the 1961 Bel Air Fire, is at the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles. Some are also at
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the Stanford University Libraries. On 9 April 1962 Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962. The correspondence between Huxley and the society is kept at the Cambridge University Library. The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at Somerset House, London, in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society; however, his deteriorating health meant he was not able to attend. Death On his deathbed, unable to speak owing to advanced laryngeal cancer, Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "LSD, 100 µg, intramuscular." According to her account of his death in This Timeless Moment, she obliged with an injection at 11:20 a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20 p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963. Media coverage of Huxley's death, along with that of fellow British author C. S. Lewis, was overshadowed by the assassination of American President John F. Kennedy on the same day, less than seven hours before Huxley's death. In a 2009 article for New York magazine titled "The Eclipsed Celebrity Death Club", Christopher Bonanos wrote: This coincidence served as the basis for Peter Kreeft's book Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley, which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths. Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963; it was led by his elder brother Julian. On 27 October 1971, his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the Watts Mortuary Chapel in Compton, Guildford, Surrey, England. Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. What became Variations: Aldous Huxley in memoriam was begun in July 1963, completed in October 1964, and premiered by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra on 17 April 1965. Awards 1939: James Tait Black Memorial Prize 1959: American Academy of Arts and Letters Award of Merit . 1962: Companion of Literature Film adaptations of Huxley's work 1950: Prelude to Fame based upon Young Archimedes 1968: Point Counter Point 1971: The Devils 1980: Brave New World 1998: Brave New World 2020: Brave New World Bibliography See also List of peace activists References Sources . Reprinted in Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky, revised edition, edited by Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone. New York: W. W. Norton, 1972. Further reading Anderson, Jack. 4 July 1982. "Ballet: Suzanne Farrell in Variations Premiere". The New York Times. Atkins, John. Aldous Huxley: A Literary Study, J. Calder, 1956 Barnes, Clive. 1 April 1966. "Ballet: Still Another Balanchine-Stravinsky Pearl; City Troupe Performs in Premiere Here Variations for Huxley at State Theater". The New York Times, p. 28. Firchow, Peter. Aldous Huxley: Satirist and Novelist, U of Minnesota P, 1972 Firchow, Peter. The End of Utopia: A Study of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Bucknell UP, 1984 Huxley, Aldous. The Human Situation: Aldous Huxley Lectures at Santa Barbara 1959, Flamingo Modern Classic, 1994, Huxley, Laura Archera. This Timeless Moment, Celestial Arts, 2001, Meckier, Jerome. Aldous Huxley: Modern Satirical Novelist of Ideas, Firchow and Nugel editors, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2006, Morgan, W. John, 'Pacifism or Bourgeois Pacifism? Huxley, Orwell, and Caudwell', Chapter 5 in Morgan, W. John and Guilherme, Alexandre (Eds.),Peace and War-Historical, Philosophical, and Anthropological Perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, 2020, pp, 71–96. . Murray, Nicholas. Aldous Huxley, Macmillan, 2003, Poller, Jake. Aldous Huxley, Reaktion Critical Lives, 2021.
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. Poller, Jake. Aldous Huxley and Alternative Spirituality, Brill, 2019. . Rolo, Charles J. (ed.). The World of Aldous Huxley, Grosset Universal Library, 1947. Shaw, Jeffrey M. Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. 2014. . Shadurski, Maxim. The Nationality of Utopia: H. G. Wells, England, and the World State. New York and London: Routledge, 2020. (Chapter 5) Watt, Conrad (ed.). Aldous Huxley, Routledge, 1997, External links Aldous Huxley full interview 1958: The Problems of Survival and Freedom in America Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery Raymond Fraser, George Wickes (Spring 1960). "Interview: Aldous Huxley: The Art of Fiction No. 24". The Paris Review. BBC discussion programme In our time: "Brave New World". Huxley and the novel. 9 April 2009. (Audio, 45 minutes) BBC In their own words series. 12 October 1958 (video, 12 mins) "The Ultimate Revolution" (talk at UC Berkeley, 20 March 1962) Huxley interviewed on The Mike Wallace Interview 18 May 1958 (video) Centre for Huxley Research Aldous Huxley Papers at University of California, Los Angeles Library Special Collections Online editions 1894 births 1963 deaths 20th-century English novelists 20th-century essayists Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Anti-consumerists Bates method English emigrants to the United States 20th-century British short story writers Burials in Surrey Consciousness researchers and theorists Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from laryngeal cancer Duke University faculty English agnostics English essayists English expatriates in the United States English male novelists English male poets English male short story writers English pacifists English people of Cornish descent English satirists English science fiction writers English short story writers English travel writers Futurologists Human Potential Movement Aldous James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients Male essayists Moral philosophers Mystics Neo-Vedanta People educated at Eton College People from Godalming Perennial philosophy Philosophers of culture Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of literature Philosophers of mind Philosophers of technology Psychedelic drug advocates Writers from Los Angeles Writers from Taos, New Mexico 20th-century English philosophers Lost Generation writers <|endoftext|>Ada may refer to: Places Africa Ada Foah or Ada, Ghana, a town Ada (Ghana parliament constituency) Ada, Osun, a town in Osun State, Nigeria Asia Adeh, Urmia, also known as Ada, a village in West Azerbaijan Province Ada, Karaman, a village in Karaman Province, Turkey Australia and New Zealand Ada River (disambiguation), three rivers Europe Ada, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a village Ada, Croatia, a village Ada, Serbia, a town and municipality Ada Ciganlija or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia North America United States Ada, Alabama, an unincorporated community Ada County, Idaho Ada, Kansas, an unincorporated community Ada Township, Michigan Ada, Minnesota, a city Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota Ada, Ohio, a village Ada, Oklahoma, a city Ada, Oregon, an unincorporated community Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota Ada, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Ada, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Outer space 523 Ada, an asteroid Film and television Ada TV, a television channel in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Ada (1961 film), a 1961 film by Daniel Mann Ada (2019 film), a short biopic about Ada Lovelace Ada... A Way of Life, a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed Ada (dog actor), a dog that played Colin on the sitcom Spaced Ada, one of the main characters in 1991 movie Armour of God II: Operation Condor Biology Ada (plant), a genus of orchids Adenosine deaminase, an enzyme involved in purine metabolism Ada (protein), an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells Computer science Ada (programming language), programming language based on Pascal Ada (computer virus) Air travel Ada Air, a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania Ada International Airport or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands Aerolínea de Antioquia, a Colombian airline Airline Deregulation Act
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"ĠAp", "ĠLei", "ĠChau", "Ġor", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠIsland", ",", "Ġan", "Ġisland", "Ġof", "ĠHong", "ĠKong", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "Ġ(", "const", "itu", "ency", "),", "Ġa", "Ġconstituency", "Ġof", "ĠSouthern", "ĠDistrict", "ĠCouncil", "Ġ", "ĠIndia", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠB", "azaar", ",", "Ġa", "Ġshopping", "Ġcentre", "Ġin", "ĠPort", "ĠBlair", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠAnd", "aman", "ĠIsland", "Ġ", "ĠSri", "ĠLanka", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠFalls", ",", "Ġa", "Ġwaterfall", "Ġin", "ĠSri", "ĠLanka", "Ġ", "ĠAustralia", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠNew", "ĠSouth", "ĠWales", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠSouth", "ĠAustralia", ",", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġtowns", "hips", "Ġthat", "Ġmerged", "Ġin", "Ġ1940", "Ġto", "Ġcreate", "Ġthe", "Ġtown", "Ġof", "ĠBur", "ra", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠTasmania", ",", "Ġa", "Ġsuburb", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCity", "Ġof", "ĠDevon", "port", "Ġ", "ĠCaribbean", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠJamaica", ",", "Ġa", "Ġtown", "Ġin", "ĠSaint", "ĠElizabeth", ",", "ĠJamaica", "Ġ", "ĠEurope", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "Ġ(", "Par", "liament", "Ġof", "ĠScotland", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "Ġ(", "UK", "ĠParliament", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ18", "32", "-", "18", "85", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠBur", "gh", "s", "Ġ(", "UK", "ĠParliament", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ18", "01", "-", "18", "32", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠCentral", "Ġ(", "Scott", "ish", "ĠParliament", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠCentral", "Ġ(", "UK", "ĠParliament", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠD", "ons", "ide", "Ġ(", "Scott", "ish", "ĠParliament", "Ġconstituency", ")", "Ġ", "ĠCounty", "Ġof", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "Ġa", "Ġhistoric", "Ġcounty", "Ġof", "ĠScotland", "Ġwhose", "Ġcounty", "Ġtown", "Ġwas", "ĠAberdeen", "Ġ", "ĠOld", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "Ġa", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠAberdeen", "Ġin", "ĠScotland", "Ġ", "ĠNorth", "ĠAmerica", "Ġ", "ĠCanada", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "Ġcommunity", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtownship", "Ġof", "ĠCham", "plain", ",", "ĠPrescott", "Ġand", "ĠRussell", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠOntario", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠAb", "bots", "ford", ",", "Ġa", "Ġneighbourhood", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCity", "Ġof", "ĠAb", "bots", "ford", ",", "ĠBritish", "ĠColumbia", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠCentre", ",", "Ġa", "Ġshopping", "Ġmall", "Ġin", "ĠRichmond", ",", "ĠBritish", "ĠColumbia", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠGrey", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠOntario", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠKam", "lo", "ops", ",", "Ġan", "Ġarea", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCity", "Ġof", "ĠKam", "lo", "ops", ",", "ĠBritish", "ĠColumbia", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠLake", "Ġ(", "N", "un", "av", "ut", "),", "Ġa", "Ġlake", "Ġin", "ĠK", "iv", "all", "iq", "ĠRegion", ",", "ĠNun", "av", "ut", ",", "ĠCanada", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠNova", "ĠScotia", ",", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMunicip", "ality", "Ġof", "ĠIn", "vern", "ess", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠNova", "ĠScotia", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠParish", ",", "ĠNew", "ĠBrunswick", "Ġ", "ĠRural", "ĠMunicip", "ality", "Ġof", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠNo", ".", "Ġ373", ",", "ĠSaskatchewan", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠSaskatchewan", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠBay", ",", "Ġa", "Ġbay", "Ġbetween", "Ġsouthern", "ĠB", "aff", "in", "ĠIsland", "Ġand", "Ġnorth", "-", "e", "astern", "ĠHector", "ĠIsland", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠNun", "av", "ut", "Ġterritory", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠTownship", ",", "ĠQuebec", ",", "Ġuntil", "Ġ1960", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠSheen", "-", "Es", "her", "-", "A", "ber", "deen", "-", "et", "-", "Mal", "ak", "off", ",", "Ġnow", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠRap", "ides", "-", "des", "-", "Jo", "ach", "ims", ",", "ĠQuebec", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠRiver", ",", "Ġa", "Ġt", "ribut", "ary", "Ġof", "Ġr", "iv", "i", "ère", "Ġaux", "ĠCast", "ors", "ĠNo", "irs", "Ġin", "ĠMaur", "ic", "ie", ",", "ĠQué", "bec", "Ġ", "ĠNew", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠNova", "ĠScotia", "Ġ", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠArkansas", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠFlorida", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠGeorgia", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠIdaho", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠOhio", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠIndiana", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠPorter", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠIndiana", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠKentucky", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠMaryland", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠPro", "ving", "ĠGround", ",", "Ġa", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "ĠArmy", "Ġfacility", "Ġlocated", "Ġnear", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠMaryland", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠMassachusetts", ",", "Ġa", "Ġneighborhood", "Ġof", "ĠBrighton", ",", "ĠBoston", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", ",", "ĠMississippi", "Ġ", "ĠAberdeen", "ĠLake", "Ġ(", "Miss", "iss", "ippi", "),", "Ġa", "Ġlake", "Ġin", "Ġnortheast", "ĠMississippi", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠTennessee", "-", "T", "omb", "ig", "bee", "ĠWater", "way" ]
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, a 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation Schools Ada, the National College for Digital Skills, a further education college in Tottenham Hale, London Ada High School (Ohio), Ada, Ohio Ada High School (Oklahoma), Ada, Oklahoma People Ada (name), a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), computer scientist sometimes regarded as the first computer programmer Other uses List of tropical storms named Ada Ada (food), a traditional Kerala delicacy Ada, the cryptocurrency of the Cardano blockchain platform Ada Bridge, Belgrade, Serbia , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway Ada (ship), a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle, novel by Vladimir Nabokov Dangme language, spoken in Ghana (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code "ada") Ada Health GmbH, a symptom checker app See also ADA (disambiguation) Ada regulon, an Escherichia coli adaptive response protein Adah (disambiguation) Adha (disambiguation) Ada'a, a woreda in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia Ade (disambiguation) USS Little Ada (1864), a steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War <|endoftext|>Aberdeen is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom. Aberdeen may also refer to: Places Africa Aberdeen, Sierra Leone Aberdeen, Eastern Cape, South Africa Asia Hong Kong Aberdeen, Hong Kong, an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island Aberdeen Channel, a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong Aberdeen Country Park, a country park in Hong Kong Island Aberdeen floating village, at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between Aberdeen, Hong Kong and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) Aberdeen Tunnel, a tunnel in Hong Kong Island Aberdeen Tunnel Underground Laboratory, an underground particle physics laboratory in Hong Kong Island Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong Aberdeen (constituency), a constituency of Southern District Council India Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in Port Blair, South Andaman Island Sri Lanka Aberdeen Falls, a waterfall in Sri Lanka Australia Aberdeen, New South Wales Aberdeen, South Australia, one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra Aberdeen, Tasmania, a suburb of the City of Devonport Caribbean Aberdeen, Jamaica, a town in Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica Europe Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency) Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency) 1832-1885 Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) 1801-1832 Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency) Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency) Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency) County of Aberdeen, a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen Old Aberdeen, a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland North America Canada Aberdeen, community in the township of Champlain, Prescott and Russell County, Ontario Aberdeen, Abbotsford, a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia Aberdeen Centre, a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario Aberdeen, Kamloops, an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut), a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada Aberdeen, Nova Scotia, part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick Rural Municipality of Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan Aberdeen, Saskatchewan Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern Baffin Island and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec Aberdeen River, a tributary of rivière aux Castors Noirs in Mauricie, Québec New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia United States Aberdeen, Arkansas Aberdeen, Florida Aberdeen, Georgia Aberdeen, Idaho Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana Aberdeen, Kentucky Aberdeen, Maryland Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army facility located near Aberdeen, Maryland Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of Brighton, Boston Aberdeen, Mississippi Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi), a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway