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0
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state, which it holds to be unnecessary, undesirable, and harmful. As a historically left-wing movement, placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, it is usually described alongside communalism and libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing (libertarian socialism) of the socialist movement, and has a strong historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism. Humans lived in societies without formal hierarchies long before the establishment of formal states, realms, or empires. With the rise of organised hierarchical bodies, scepticism toward authority also rose. Although traces of anarchist thought are found throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more. Anarchism employs a diversity of tactics in order to meet its ideal ends which can be broadly separated into revolutionary and evolutionary tactics; there is significant overlap between the two, which are merely descriptive. Revolutionary tactics aim to bring down authority and state, having taken a violent turn in the past, while evolutionary tactics aim to prefigure what an anarchist society would be like. Anarchist thought, criticism, and praxis have played a part in diverse areas of human society. Criticism of anarchism include claims that it is internally inconsistent, violent, or utopian. Etymology, terminology, and definition The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism. While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently diluted with wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism. Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberals and socialists but more so, while most scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles. While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. History Pre-modern era Before the establishment of towns and cities, an established authority did not exist. It was after the creation of institutions of authority that anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Tao
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1
ist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between rules set by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state. In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I. In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism. Modern era During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism. Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs. At the turn of the century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalism movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from countries of the far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence. This strategy became known as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to exclude them from American immigration, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period. Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was stabilised. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, notably leading to the Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories
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"Ġachieve", "Ġthe", "Ġfree", "Ġpotential", "Ġof", "Ġsociety", "Ġthrough", "Ġequality", "Ġand", "Ġsocial", "Ġownership", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġa", "Ġchronological", "Ġsense", ",", "Ġanarchism", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġsegment", "ed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġclassical", "Ġcurrents", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġpost", "-", "class", "ical", "Ġcurrents", "Ġ(", "an", "arch", "a", "-", "femin", "ism", ",", "Ġgreen", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpost", "-", "an", "arch", "ism", ")", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġthereafter", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBeyond", "Ġthe", "Ġspecific", "Ġfactions", "Ġof", "Ġanarchist", "Ġmovements", "Ġwhich", "Ġconstitute", "Ġpolitical", "Ġanarchism", "Ġlies", "Ġphilosophical", "Ġanarchism", "Ġwhich", "Ġholds", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġlacks", "Ġmoral", "Ġlegitimacy", ",", "Ġwithout", "Ġnecessarily", "Ġaccepting", "Ġthe", "Ġimperative", "Ġof", "Ġrevolution", "Ġto", "Ġeliminate", "Ġit", ".", "ĠA", "Ġcomponent", "Ġespecially", "Ġof", "Ġindividual", "ist", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġphilosophical", "Ġanarchism", "Ġmay", "Ġtolerate", "Ġthe", "Ġexistence", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġminimal", "Ġstate", "Ġbut", "Ġclaims", "Ġthat", "Ġcitizens", "Ġhave", "Ġno", "Ġmoral", "Ġobligation", "Ġto", "Ġobey", "Ġgovernment", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġconflicts", "Ġwith", "Ġindividual", "Ġautonomy", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "Ġpays", "Ġsignificant", "Ġattention", "Ġto", "Ġmoral", "Ġarguments", "Ġsince", "Ġethics", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġcentral", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġanarchist", "Ġphilosophy", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "'s", "Ġemphasis", "Ġon", "Ġanti", "-", "capital", "ism", ",", "Ġegalitarian", "ism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġextension", "Ġof", "Ġcommunity", "Ġand", "Ġindividuality", "Ġsets", "Ġit", "Ġapart", "Ġfrom", "Ġanarch", "o", "-", "capital", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġeconomic", "Ġlibertarian", "ism", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "Ġis", "Ġusually", "Ġplaced", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġfar", "-", "left", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpolitical", "Ġspectrum", ".", "ĠMuch", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġeconomics", 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2
of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to communist parties which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International. In the Spanish Civil War of 1936, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight among communists and anarchists at a series of events named May Days as Joseph Stalin tried to seize control of the Republicans. Post-war era At the end of World War II, the anarchist movement was severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria. Thought Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism. Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of uniform principles such as individual
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"ism", "Ġhas", "Ġcontinued", "Ġto", "Ġgenerate", "Ġmany", "Ġphilosophies", "Ġand", "Ġmovements", ",", "Ġat", "Ġtimes", "Ġeclectic", ",", "Ġdrawing", "Ġupon", "Ġvarious", "Ġsources", "Ġand", "Ġcombining", "Ġdisparate", "Ġconcepts", "Ġto", "Ġcreate", "Ġnew", "Ġphilosophical", "Ġapproaches", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġanti", "-", "capitalist", "Ġtradition", "Ġof", "Ġclassical", "Ġanarchism", "Ġhas", "Ġremained", "Ġprominent", "Ġwithin", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġcurrents", ".", "Ġ", "ĠContemporary", "Ġnews", "Ġcoverage", "Ġwhich", "Ġemphasizes", "Ġblack", "Ġbloc", "Ġdemonstrations", "Ġhas", "Ġreinforced", "Ġanarchism", "'s", "Ġhistorical", "Ġassociation", "Ġwith", "Ġchaos", "Ġand", "Ġviolence", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġpublicity", "Ġhas", "Ġalso", "Ġled", "Ġmore", "Ġscholars", "Ġin", "Ġfields", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġanthropology", "Ġand", "Ġhistory", "Ġto", "Ġengage", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġanarchist", "Ġmovement", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġanarchism", "Ġfav", "ours", "Ġactions", "Ġover", "Ġacademic", "Ġtheory", ".", "ĠVarious", "Ġanarchist", "Ġgroups", ",", "Ġtendencies", ",", "Ġand", "Ġschools", "Ġof", "Ġthought", "Ġexist", "Ġtoday", ",", "Ġmaking", "Ġit", "Ġdifficult", "Ġto", "Ġdescribe", "Ġthe", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġanarchist", "Ġmovement", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġtheorists", "Ġand", "Ġactivists", "Ġhave", "Ġestablished", "Ġ\"", "rel", "atively", "Ġstable", "Ġconst", "ell", "ations", "Ġof", "Ġanarchist", "Ġprinciples", "\",", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġconsensus", "Ġon", "Ġwhich", "Ġprinciples", "Ġare", "Ġcore", "Ġand", "Ġcommentators", "Ġdescribe", "Ġmultiple", "Ġanarch", "isms", ",", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġsingular", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġcommon", "Ġprinciples", "Ġare", "Ġshared", "Ġbetween", "Ġschools", "Ġof", "Ġanarchism", "Ġwhile", "Ġeach", "Ġgroup", "Ġprior", "itiz", "es", "Ġthose", "Ġprinciples", "Ġdifferently", ".", "ĠGender", "Ġequality", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġprinciple", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġit", "Ġranks", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġhigher", "Ġpriority", "Ġto", "Ġanarch", "a", "-", "femin", "ists", "Ġthan", "Ġanarch", "o", "-", "commun", "ists", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġare", "Ġgenerally", "Ġcommitted", "Ġagainst", "Ġcoercive", "Ġauthority", "Ġin", "Ġall", "Ġforms", ",", "Ġnamely", "Ġ\"", "all", "Ġcentralized", "Ġand", "Ġhierarchical", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "Ġgovernment", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġmonarchy", ",", "Ġrepresentative", "Ġdemocracy", ",", "Ġstate", "Ġsocialism", ",", "Ġetc", ".),", "Ġeconomic", "Ġclass", "Ġsystems", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġcapitalism", ",", "ĠBolshe", "v", "ism", ",", "Ġfeudal", "ism", ",", "Ġslavery", ",", "Ġetc", ".),", "Ġaut", "ocratic", "Ġreligions", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġfundamentalist", "ĠIslam", ",", "ĠRoman", "ĠCatholicism", ",", "Ġetc", ".),", "Ġpatriarchy", ",", "Ġheter", "ose", "x", "ism", ",", "Ġwhite", "Ġsupremacy", ",", "Ġand", "Ġimperialism", ".\"", "ĠAnarch", "ist", "Ġschools", "Ġdisagree", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġmethods", "Ġby", "Ġwhich", "Ġthese", "Ġforms", "Ġshould", "Ġbe", "Ġopposed", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġof", "Ġequal", "Ġliberty", "Ġis", "Ġcloser", "Ġto", "Ġanarchist", "Ġpolitical", "Ġethics", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġtransc", "ends", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġliberal", "Ġand", "Ġsocialist", "Ġtraditions", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġentails", "Ġthat", "Ġliberty", "Ġand", "Ġequality", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġimplemented", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġquestioning", "Ġof", "Ġall", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "Ġdomination", "Ġand", "Ġhierarchy", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTactics", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "'", "Ġtactics", "Ġtake", "Ġvarious", "Ġforms", "Ġbut", "Ġin", "Ġgeneral", "Ġserve", "Ġtwo", "Ġmajor", "Ġgoals", ",", "Ġnamely", "Ġto", "Ġfirst", "Ġoppose", "Ġthe", "ĠEstablishment", "Ġand", "Ġsecondly", "Ġto", "Ġpromote", "Ġanarchist", "Ġethics", "Ġand", "Ġreflect", "Ġan", "Ġanarchist", "Ġvision", "Ġof", "Ġsociety", ",", "Ġillustrating", "Ġthe", "Ġunity", "Ġof", "Ġmeans", "Ġand" ]
3
and local autonomy, mutual aid, network organisation, communal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation. Classical Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society. Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils and worker cooperatives, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management. Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation. Post-classical and contemporary Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists. Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy. Tactics Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and
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"Ġtheir", "Ġpropaganda", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġarts", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġwhom", "Ġpracticed", "Ġn", "atur", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġnud", "ism", ".", "ĠThose", "Ġanarchists", "Ġalso", "Ġbuilt", "Ġcommunities", "Ġwhich", "Ġwere", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġfriendship", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġinvolved", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnews", "Ġmedia", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRevolutionary", "Ġtactics", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġcurrent", "Ġera", ",", "ĠItalian", "Ġanarchist", "ĠAlfred", "o", "ĠBon", "ann", "o", ",", "Ġa", "Ġproponent", "Ġof", "Ġinsurrection", "ary", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġreinstated", "Ġthe", "Ġdebate", "Ġon", "Ġviolence", "Ġby", "Ġrejecting", "Ġthe", "Ġnon", "violence", "Ġtactic", "Ġadopted", "Ġsince", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġby", "ĠK", "rop", "ot", "kin", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġprominent", "Ġanarchists", "Ġafterwards", ".", "ĠBoth", "ĠBon", "ann", "o", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġgroup", "ĠThe", "ĠInvisible", "ĠCommittee", "Ġadvocate", "Ġfor", "Ġsmall", ",", "Ġinformal", "Ġaffiliation", "Ġgroups", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġeach", "Ġmember", "Ġis", "Ġresponsible", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġactions", "Ġbut", "Ġworks", "Ġtogether", "Ġto", "Ġbring", "Ġdown", "Ġoppression", "Ġutilizing", "Ġsabotage", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġviolent", "Ġmeans", "Ġagainst", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġcapitalism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġenemies", ".", "ĠMembers", "Ġof", "ĠThe", "ĠInvisible", "ĠCommittee", "Ġwere", "Ġarrested", "Ġin", "Ġ2008", "Ġon", "Ġvarious", "Ġcharges", ",", "Ġterrorism", "Ġincluded", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOverall", ",", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġanarchists", "Ġare", "Ġmuch", "Ġless", "Ġviolent", "Ġand", "Ġmilitant", "Ġthan", "Ġtheir", "Ġideological", "Ġancestors", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġmostly", "Ġengage", "Ġin", "Ġconfronting", "Ġthe", "Ġpolice", "Ġduring", "Ġdemonstrations", "Ġand", "Ġriots", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġin", "Ġcountries", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠCanada", ",", "ĠGreece", ",", "Ġand", "ĠMexico", ".", "ĠMil", "itant", "Ġblack", "Ġbloc", "Ġprotest", "Ġgroups", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġfor", "Ġcl", "ashing", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġpolice", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġanarchists", "Ġnot", "Ġonly", "Ġclash", "Ġwith", "Ġstate", "Ġoperators", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġalso", "Ġengage", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstruggle", "Ġagainst", "Ġfascists", "Ġand", "Ġracists", ",", "Ġtaking", "Ġanti", "-", "fascist", "Ġaction", "Ġand", "Ġmobil", "izing", "Ġto", "Ġprevent", "Ġhate", "Ġrallies", "Ġfrom", "Ġhappening", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEvolution", "ary", "Ġtactics", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġcommonly", "Ġemploy", "Ġdirect", "Ġaction", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġcan", "Ġtake", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġdisrupting", "Ġand", "Ġprotesting", "Ġagainst", "Ġunjust", "Ġhierarchy", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġself", "-", "man", "aging", "Ġtheir", "Ġlives", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġcreation", "Ġof", "Ġcounter", "-", "inst", "it", "utions", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġcommun", "es", "Ġand", "Ġnon", "-", "h", "ier", "arch", "ical", "Ġcollect", "ives", ".", "ĠDecision", "-", "making", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġhandled", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġanti", "-", "author", "itarian", "Ġway", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġeveryone", "Ġhaving", "Ġequal", "Ġsay", "Ġin", "Ġeach", "Ġdecision", ",", "Ġan", "Ġapproach", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġhorizontal", "ism", ".", "ĠContemporary", "-", "era", "Ġanarchists", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġengaging", "Ġwith", "Ġvarious", "Ġgrassroots", "Ġmovements", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġmore", "Ġor", "Ġless", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġhorizontal", "ism", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġnot", "Ġexplicitly", "Ġanarchist", ",", "Ġrespecting", "Ġpersonal", "Ġautonomy", "Ġand", "Ġparticipating", "Ġin", "Ġmass", "Ġactivism", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġstrikes", "Ġand", "Ġdemonstrations", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġcontrast", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġbig", "-", "A", "Ġanarchism", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġclassical", "Ġera", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġnewly", "Ġcoined", "Ġterm", "Ġsmall", "-", "a", "Ġanarchism", "Ġsignals", "Ġtheir", "Ġtendency", "Ġnot", "Ġto", "Ġbase", "Ġtheir", "Ġthoughts", "Ġand", "Ġactions", "Ġon", "Ġclassical", "-", "era", "Ġanarchism", "Ġor", "Ġto", "Ġrefer", "Ġto", "Ġclassical", "Ġanarchists", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠPeter", "ĠK", "rop", "ot", "kin", "Ġand", "ĠPierre", "-", "Joseph", "ĠProud", "hon", "Ġto", "Ġjustify", "Ġtheir", "Ġopinions", ".", "ĠThose", "Ġanarchists", "Ġwould", "Ġrather", "Ġbase", "Ġtheir", "Ġthought", "Ġand", "Ġpra", "x", "is", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġexperience", "Ġwhich", "Ġthey", "Ġwill", "Ġlater", "Ġtheor", "ize", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġdecision", "-", "making", "Ġprocess", "Ġof", "Ġsmall", "Ġanarchist", "Ġaffinity", "Ġgroups", "Ġplays", "Ġa", "Ġsignificant", "Ġtactical", "Ġrole", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġhave", "Ġemployed", "Ġvarious", "Ġmethods", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġbuild", "Ġa", "Ġrough", "Ġconsensus", "Ġamong", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġgroup", "Ġwithout", "Ġthe", "Ġneed", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġleader", "Ġor", "Ġa", "Ġleading", "Ġgroup", ".", "ĠOne", "Ġway", "Ġis", "Ġfor", "Ġan", "Ġindividual", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġgroup", "Ġto", "Ġplay", "Ġthe", "Ġrole", "Ġof", "Ġfacilit", "ator", "Ġto", "Ġhelp", "Ġachieve", "Ġa", "Ġconsensus", "Ġwithout", "Ġtaking", "Ġpart", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdiscussion", "Ġthemselves", "Ġor", "Ġpromoting", "Ġa", "Ġspecific", "Ġpoint", ".", "ĠMinor", "ities", "Ġusually", "Ġaccept", "Ġrough", "Ġconsensus", ",", "Ġexcept", "Ġwhen", "Ġthey", "Ġfeel", "Ġthe", "Ġproposal", "Ġcontradicts", "Ġanarchist", "Ġethics", ",", "Ġgoals", "Ġand", "Ġvalues", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġusually", "Ġform", "Ġsmall", "Ġgroups", "Ġ(", "5", "âĢĵ", "20", "Ġindividuals", ")", "Ġto", "Ġenhance", "Ġautonomy", "Ġand", "Ġfriendships", "Ġamong", "Ġtheir", "Ġmembers", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġkinds", "Ġof", "Ġgroups", "Ġmore", "Ġoften", "Ġthan", "Ġnot", "Ġinter", "connect", "Ġwith", "Ġeach", "Ġother", ",", "Ġforming", "Ġlarger", "Ġnetworks", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists" ]
4
ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches. Classical era tactics During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil. Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media. Revolutionary tactics In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening. Evolutionary tactics Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the big-A anarchism of the classical era, the newly coined term small-a anarchism signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize. The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists
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"Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġsharply", "Ġcriticised", "Ġwithin", "Ġsome", "Ġanarchist", "Ġtendencies", "Ġand", "Ġsimultaneously", "Ġlauded", "Ġin", "Ġothers", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGender", ",", "Ġsexuality", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfree", "Ġlove", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġgender", "Ġand", "Ġsexuality", "Ġcarry", "Ġalong", "Ġthem", "Ġdynamics", "Ġof", "Ġhierarchy", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġanarchists", "Ġaddress", ",", "Ġanalyse", ",", "Ġand", "Ġoppose", "Ġthe", "Ġsuppression", "Ġof", "Ġone", "'s", "Ġautonomy", "Ġimposed", "Ġby", "Ġgender", "Ġroles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSexual", "ity", "Ġwas", "Ġnot", "Ġoften", "Ġdiscussed", "Ġby", "Ġclassical", "Ġanarchists", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġfew", "Ġthat", "Ġdid", "Ġfelt", "Ġthat", "Ġan", "Ġanarchist", "Ġsociety", "Ġwould", "Ġlead", "Ġto", "Ġsexuality", "Ġnaturally", "Ġdeveloping", ".", "ĠSexual", "Ġviolence", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġconcern", "Ġfor", "Ġanarchists", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠBenjamin", "ĠTucker", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġopposed", "Ġage", "Ġof", "Ġconsent", "Ġlaws", ",", "Ġbelieving", "Ġthey", "Ġwould", 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"Ġestablishment", "Ġof", "Ġcommunal", "Ġhouses", ",", "Ġwhere", "Ġlarge", "Ġgroups", "Ġof", "Ġtravelers", ",", "Ġanarchists", "Ġand", "Ġother", "Ġactivists", "Ġslept", "Ġin", "Ġbeds", "Ġtogether", ".", "ĠFree", "Ġlove", "Ġhad", "Ġroots", "Ġboth", "Ġin", "ĠEurope", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġsome", "Ġanarchists", "Ġstruggled", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġjealousy", "Ġthat", "Ġarose", "Ġfrom", "Ġfree", "Ġlove", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ist", "Ġfeminists", "Ġwere", "Ġadvocates", "Ġof", "Ġfree", "Ġlove", ",", "Ġagainst", "Ġmarriage", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpro", "-", "choice", "Ġ(", "util", "ising", "Ġa", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġterm", "),", "Ġand", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġsimilar", "Ġagenda", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ist", "Ġand", "Ġnon", "-", "an", "arch", "ist", "Ġfeminists", "Ġdiffered", "Ġon", "Ġsuff", "rage", "Ġbut", "Ġwere", "Ġsupportive", "Ġof", "Ġone", "Ġanother", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġanarchism", "Ġinter", "ming", 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5
still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate. As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity. Key issues As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought; disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Gender, sexuality, and free love As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles. Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory and queer anarchism. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another. During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation. Anarchism and education The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ("The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in
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"Ġgovernment", "Ġand", "Ġnationalism", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLate", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġand", "Ġcontemporary", "Ġanarchist", "Ġwriters", "Ġ(", "Paul", "ĠGoodman", ",", "ĠHerbert", "ĠRead", ",", "Ġand", "ĠColin", "ĠWard", ")", "Ġintensified", "Ġand", "Ġexpanded", "Ġthe", "Ġanarchist", "Ġcritique", "Ġof", "Ġstate", "Ġeducation", ",", "Ġlargely", "Ġfocusing", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġneed", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġsystem", "Ġthat", "Ġfocuses", "Ġon", "Ġchildren", "'s", "Ġcreativity", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġattain", "Ġa", "Ġcareer", "Ġor", "Ġparticipate", "Ġin", "Ġconsumer", "ism", "Ġas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġconsumer", "Ġsociety", ".", "ĠContemporary", "Ġanarchists", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠWard", "Ġclaim", "Ġthat", "Ġstate", "Ġeducation", "Ġserves", "Ġto", "Ġperpetuate", "Ġsocioeconomic", "Ġinequality", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWhile", "Ġfew", "Ġanarchist", "Ġeducation", "Ġinstitutions", "Ġhave", "Ġsurvived", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "-", "day", ",", "Ġmajor", "Ġtenets", "Ġof", "Ġanarchist", "Ġschools", ",", "Ġamong", "Ġthem", "Ġrespect", "Ġfor", "Ġchild", "Ġautonomy", "Ġand", "Ġrelying", "Ġon", "Ġreasoning", "Ġrather", "Ġthan", "Ġindoctr", "ination", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġteaching", "Ġmethod", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġspread", "Ġamong", "Ġmainstream", "Ġeducational", "Ġinstitutions", ".", "ĠJudith", "ĠSu", "issa", "Ġnames", "Ġthree", "Ġschools", "Ġas", "Ġexplicitly", "Ġanarchists", "Ġschools", ",", "Ġnamely", "Ġthe", "ĠFree", "ĠSk", "ool", "ĠSanta", "ĠCruz", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġwider", "ĠAmerican", "-", "Canadian", "Ġnetwork", "Ġof", "Ġschools", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSelf", "-", "Man", "aged", "ĠLearning", "ĠCollege", "Ġin", "ĠBrighton", ",", "ĠEngland", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠPa", "ide", "ia", "ĠSchool", "Ġin", "ĠSpain", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠObject", "ion", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġinstitutions", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġs", "ine", "Ġqu", "a", "Ġnon", "Ġof", "Ġanarchism", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġconsider", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġtool", "Ġof", "Ġdomination", "Ġand", "Ġbelieve", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġillegitimate", "Ġregardless", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġpolitical", "Ġtendencies", ".", "ĠInstead", "Ġof", "Ġpeople", "Ġbeing", "Ġable", "Ġto", "Ġcontrol", "Ġthe", "Ġaspects", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġmajor", "Ġdecisions", "Ġare", "Ġtaken", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġelite", ".", "ĠAuthority", "Ġultimately", "Ġrests", "Ġsolely", "Ġon", "Ġpower", ",", "Ġregardless", "Ġof", "Ġwhether", "Ġthat", "Ġpower", "Ġis", "Ġopen", "Ġor", "Ġtransparent", ",", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġstill", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġcoer", "ce", "Ġpeople", ".", "ĠAnother", "Ġanarchist", "Ġargument", "Ġagainst", "Ġstates", "Ġis", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġpeople", "Ġconstit", "uting", "Ġa", "Ġgovernment", ",", "Ġeven", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġaltru", "istic", "Ġamong", "Ġofficials", ",", "Ġwill", "Ġunavoid", "ably", "Ġseek", "Ġto", "Ġgain", "Ġmore", "Ġpower", ",", "Ġleading", "Ġto", "Ġcorruption", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġconsider", "Ġthe", "Ġidea", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcollective", "Ġwill", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpeople", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġan", "Ġun", "ach", "iev", "able", "Ġfiction", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġfact", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġruling", "Ġclass", "Ġis", "Ġdistinct", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġrest", "Ġof", "Ġsociety", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSpecific", "Ġanarchist", "Ġattitudes", "Ġtowards", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġvary", ".", "ĠRobert", "ĠPaul", "ĠWol", "ff", "Ġbelieved", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġtension", "Ġbetween", "Ġauthority", "Ġand", "Ġautonomy", "Ġwould", "Ġmean", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġcould", "Ġnever", "Ġbe", "Ġlegitimate", ".", "ĠBak", "unin", "Ġsaw", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġas", "Ġmeaning", "Ġ\"", "co", "erc", "ion", ",", "Ġdomination", "Ġby", "Ġmeans", "Ġof", "Ġcoercion", ",", "Ġcamoufl", "aged", "Ġif", "Ġpossible", "Ġbut", "Ġun", "ce", "re", "mon", "ious", "Ġand", "Ġovert", "Ġif", "Ġneed", "Ġbe", ".\"", "ĠA", ".", "ĠJohn", "ĠSimmons", "Ġand", "ĠLeslie", "ĠGreen", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġleaned", "Ġtoward", "Ġphilosophical", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġbelieved", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġcould", "Ġbe", "Ġlegitimate", "Ġif", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġgoverned", "Ġby", "Ġconsensus", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġthey", "Ġsaw", "Ġthis", "Ġas", "Ġhighly", "Ġunlikely", ".", "ĠBelief", "s", "Ġon", "Ġhow", "Ġto", "Ġabolish", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġalso", "Ġdiffer", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġarts", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġconnection", "Ġbetween", "Ġanarchism", "Ġand", "Ġart", "Ġwas", "Ġquite", "Ġprofound", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġclassical", "Ġera", "Ġof", "Ġanarchism", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġamong", "Ġartistic", "Ġcurrents", "Ġthat", "Ġwere", "Ġdeveloping", "Ġduring", "Ġthat", "Ġera", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġfut", "ur", "ists", ",", "Ġsurreal", "ists", "Ġand", "Ġothers", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġliterature", ",", "Ġanarchism", "Ġwas", "Ġmostly", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠNew", "ĠAp", "ocaly", "pt", "ics", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġneo", "-", "rom", "antic", "ism", "Ġmovement", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġmusic", ",", "Ġanarchism", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġmusic", "Ġscenes", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġpunk", ".", "ĠAnarch", "ists", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠLeo", "ĠTol", "st", "oy", "Ġand", "ĠHerbert", "ĠRead", "Ġstated", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġborder", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġartist", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnon", "-", "artist", ",", "Ġwhat", "Ġseparates", "Ġart", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġdaily", "Ġact", ",", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġconstruct", "Ġproduced", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġalienation", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġcapitalism", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġprevents", "Ġhumans", "Ġfrom", "Ġliving", "Ġa", "Ġjoyful", "Ġlife", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġanarchists", "Ġadvocated", "Ġfor", "Ġor", "Ġused", "Ġart", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmeans", "Ġto", "Ġachieve", "Ġanarchist", "Ġends", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġhis", "Ġbook", "ĠBreaking", "Ġthe", "ĠSpell", ":", "ĠA", "ĠHistory", "Ġof", "ĠAnarch", "ist", "ĠFil", "mm", "akers", ",", "ĠVide", "ot", "ape", "ĠGu", "err", "illas", ",", "Ġand", "ĠDigital", "ĠNin", "jas", ",", "ĠChris", "ĠRob", "é", "Ġclaims", 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"ĠAs", "Ġit", "Ġappeals", "Ġto", "Ġboth", "Ġemotion", "Ġand", "Ġreason", ",", "Ġart", "Ġcould", "Ġappeal", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġwhole", "Ġhuman", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġpowerful", "Ġeffect", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ19", "th", "-", "century", "Ġneo", "-", "imp", "ression", "ist", "Ġmovement", "Ġhad", "Ġan", "Ġecological", "Ġaesthetic", "Ġand", "Ġoffered", "Ġan", "Ġexample", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġanarchist", "Ġperception", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġroad", "Ġtowards", "Ġsocialism", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠLes", "Ġch", "ata", "ign", "iers" ]
6
planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free." In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism. Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality. While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain. Anarchism and the state Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ. Anarchism and the arts The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life. Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts. Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In Les chataigniers
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"Ġvalues", ".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠMarxist", "Ġview", ",", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġsocial", "Ġidea", "Ġwould", "Ġfollow", "Ġdirectly", "Ġfrom", "Ġthis", "Ġhuman", "Ġideal", "Ġand", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfree", "Ġwill", "Ġof", "Ġevery", "Ġindividual", "Ġformed", "Ġits", "Ġessence", ".", "ĠMarx", "ists", "Ġstate", "Ġthat", "Ġthis", "Ġcontradiction", "Ġwas", "Ġresponsible", "Ġfor", "Ġtheir", "Ġinability", "Ġto", "Ġact", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġanarchist", "Ġvision", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġconflict", "Ġbetween", "Ġliberty", "Ġand", "Ġequality", "Ġwas", "Ġresolved", "Ġthrough", "Ġco", "existence", "Ġand", "Ġintertw", "ining", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAnarch", "ism", "Ġby", "Ġcountry", "Ġ", "ĠGovern", "ance", "Ġwithout", "Ġgovernment", "Ġ", "ĠList", "Ġof", "Ġanarchist", "Ġpolitical", "Ġideologies", "Ġ", "ĠList", "Ġof", "Ġbooks", "Ġabout", "Ġanarchism", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠCit", "ations", "Ġ", "ĠNotes", "Ġ", "ĠSources", "Ġ", "ĠPrimary", "Ġsources", "Ġ", "ĠSecondary", 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7
a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community. Analysis The most common critique of anarchism is that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government." Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism. Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory. While it advocates for no-one to archiei, if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the self-contradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion." One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining. See also Anarchism by country Governance without government List of anarchist political ideologies List of books about anarchism References Citations Notes Sources Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources Further reading Criticism of philosophical anarchism. A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." (p. 137) Anarchistic popular fiction novel. An argument for philosophical anarchism. External links Anarchy Archives. Anarchy Archives is an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism. Anti-capitalism Anti-fascism Economic ideologies Left-wing politics Libertarian socialism Libertarianism Political culture Political movements Political ideologies Social theories Socialism Far-left politics <|endoftext|>Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of
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"typ", "icals", ",", "Ġor", "Ġpeople", "Ġwith", "Ġtypical", "Ġneural", "Ġdevelopment", ",", "Ġas", "Ġleaving", "Ġher", "Ġfeeling", "Ġ\"", "like", "Ġan", "Ġanthrop", "ologist", "Ġon", "ĠMars", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠUn", "usual", "Ġsocial", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġbecomes", "Ġapparent", "Ġearly", "Ġin", "Ġchildhood", ".", "ĠAut", "istic", "Ġinfants", "Ġshow", "Ġless", "Ġattention", "Ġto", "Ġsocial", "Ġstimuli", ",", "Ġsmile", "Ġand", "Ġlook", "Ġat", "Ġothers", "Ġless", "Ġoften", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrespond", "Ġless", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġname", ".", "ĠAut", "istic", "Ġtoddlers", "Ġdiffer", "Ġmore", "Ġstrikingly", "Ġfrom", "Ġsocial", "Ġnorms", ";", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġhave", "Ġless", "Ġeye", "Ġcontact", "Ġand", "Ġturn", "-", "taking", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġuse", "Ġsimple", "Ġmovements", "Ġto", "Ġexpress", "Ġthemselves", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġpointing", "Ġat", "Ġthings", ".", "ĠThree", "-", "Ġto", "Ġfive", "-", "year", "-", "old", "Ġautistic", "Ġchildren", "Ġare", "Ġless", "Ġlikely", "Ġto", "Ġexhibit", "Ġsocial", "Ġunderstanding", ",", "Ġapproach", "Ġothers", "Ġspontaneously", ",", "Ġimitate", "Ġand", "Ġrespond", "Ġto", "Ġemotions", ",", "Ġcommunicate", "Ġnon", "verb", "ally", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtake", "Ġturns", "Ġwith", "Ġothers", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġdo", "Ġform", "Ġattachments", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġprimary", "Ġcaregivers", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġautistic", "Ġchildren", "Ġdisplay", "Ġmoderately", "Ġless", "Ġattachment", "Ġsecurity", "Ġthan", "Ġneuro", "typ", "ical", "Ġchildren", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġthis", "Ġdifference", "Ġdisappears", "Ġin", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "Ġhigher", "Ġmental", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġor", "Ġless", "Ġpronounced", "Ġautistic", "Ġtraits", ".", "ĠOlder", "Ġchildren", "Ġand", "Ġadults", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", "Ġperform", "Ġworse", "Ġon", "Ġtests", "Ġof", "Ġface", "Ġand", "Ġemotion", "Ġrecognition", "Ġalthough", "Ġthis", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġpartly", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġlower", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġdefine", "Ġa", "Ġperson", "'s", "Ġown", "Ġemotions", ".", "Ġ", "ĠChildren", "Ġwith", "Ġhigh", "-", "function", "ing", "Ġautism", "Ġhave", "Ġmore", "Ġintense", "Ġand", "Ġfrequent", "Ġloneliness", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġnon", "-", "aut", "istic", "Ġpeers", ",", "Ġdespite", "Ġthe", "Ġcommon", "Ġbelief", "Ġthat", "Ġautistic", "Ġchildren", "Ġprefer", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġalone", ".", "ĠMaking", "Ġand", "Ġmaintaining", "Ġfriendships", "Ġoften", "Ġproves", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġdifficult", "Ġfor", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġthem", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "Ġfriendships", ",", "Ġnot", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġfriends", ",", "Ġpredicts", "Ġhow", "Ġlonely", "Ġthey", "Ġfeel", ".", "ĠFunctional", "Ġfriendships", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthose", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġinvitations", "Ġto", "Ġparties", ",", "Ġmay", "Ġaffect", "Ġthe", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "Ġlife", "Ġmore", "Ġdeeply", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġare", "Ġmany", "Ġanecdotal", "Ġreports", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġfew", "Ġsystematic", "Ġstudies", ",", "Ġof", "Ġaggression", "Ġand", "Ġviolence", "Ġin", "Ġindividuals", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlimited", "Ġdata", "Ġsuggest", "Ġthat", ",", "Ġin", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "Ġintellectual", "Ġdisability", ",", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġaggression", ",", "Ġdestruction", "Ġof", "Ġproperty", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmelt", "downs", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCommunication", "ĠAbout", "Ġone", "Ġthird", "Ġto", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġdevelop", "Ġenough", "Ġnatural", "Ġspeech", "Ġto", "Ġmeet", "Ġtheir", "Ġdaily", "Ġcommunication", "Ġneeds", ".", "ĠDifferences", "Ġin", "Ġcommunication", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġpresent", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġyear", "Ġof", "Ġlife", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmay", "Ġinclude", "Ġdelayed", "Ġonset", "Ġof", "Ġb", "abbling", ",", "Ġunusual" ]
8
their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience regression in their communication and social skills after reaching developmental milestones at a normal pace. Autism is associated with a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors during pregnancy include certain infections, such as rubella, toxins including valproic acid, alcohol, cocaine, pesticides, lead, and air pollution, fetal growth restriction, and autoimmune diseases. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example, the vaccine hypothesis, which has been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain and how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) combines forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of autistic people to function and participate independently in the community. Behavioral, psychological, education, and/or skill-building interventions may be used to assist autistic people to learn life skills necessary for living independently, as well as other social, communication, and language skills. Therapy also aims to reduce challenging behaviors and build upon strengths. Some autistic adults are unable to live independently. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference to be accommodated instead of cured. Globally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people . In the 2000s, the number of autistic people worldwide was estimated at 1–2 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5% of children are diagnosed with ASD , up from 0.7% in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased considerably since the 1990s, which may be partly due to increased recognition of the condition. Characteristics Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder whose symptoms first appear during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. Autistic people may be severely impaired in some respects but average, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction, impairments in communication, and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits. Social development Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders. Autistic people have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with typical neural development, as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars". Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most autistic children display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less pronounced autistic traits. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions. Children with high-functioning autism have more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that autistic children prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for autistic people. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply. There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and meltdowns. Communication About one third to half of autistic people do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual
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"Ġdevelopmental", "Ġdisorders", ".", "ĠDifferences", "Ġare", "Ġgreater", "Ġfor", "Ġunder", "-", "respons", "ivity", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġwalking", "Ġinto", "Ġthings", ")", "Ġthan", "Ġfor", "Ġover", "-", "respons", "ivity", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġdistress", "Ġfrom", "Ġloud", "Ġnoises", ")", "Ġor", "Ġfor", "Ġsensation", "Ġseeking", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġrhyth", "mic", "Ġmovements", ").", "ĠAn", "Ġestimated", "Ġ60", "âĢĵ", "80", "%", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", "Ġhave", "Ġmotor", "Ġsigns", "Ġthat", "Ġinclude", "Ġpoor", "Ġmuscle", "Ġtone", ",", "Ġpoor", "Ġmotor", "Ġplanning", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtoe", "Ġwalking", ";", "Ġ", "Ġdeficits", "Ġin", "Ġmotor", "Ġcoordination", "Ġare", "Ġpervasive", "Ġacross", "ĠASD", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġgreater", "Ġin", "Ġautism", "Ġproper", ".", "ĠUn", "usual", "Ġeating", "Ġbehavior", "Ġoccurs", "Ġin", "Ġabout", "Ġthree", "-", "quarters", "Ġof", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", ",", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġextent", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġformerly", "Ġa", "Ġdiagnostic", "Ġindicator", ".", "ĠSelect", "ivity", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġproblem", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġeating", "Ġrituals", "Ġand", "Ġfood", "Ġrefusal", "Ġalso", "Ġoccur", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġtentative", "Ġevidence", "Ġthat", "Ġgender", "Ġdysph", "oria", "Ġoccurs", "Ġmore", "Ġfrequently", "Ġin", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", "Ġ(", "see", "ĠAutism", "Ġand", "ĠLGBT", "Ġidentities", ").", "ĠAs", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġthat", ",", "Ġa", "Ġ2021", "Ġanonym", "ized", "Ġonline", "Ġsurvey", "Ġof", "Ġ16", "-", "90", "Ġyear", "-", "olds", "Ġrevealed", "Ġthat", "Ġautistic", "Ġmales", "Ġare", "Ġmore", "Ġlikely", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġbisexual", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġautistic", "Ġfemales", "Ġare", "Ġmore", "Ġlikely", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġhomosexual", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGast", "ro", "intestinal", "Ġproblems", "Ġare", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommonly", "Ġco", "-", "occ", "urring", "Ġmedical", "Ġconditions", "Ġin", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġare", "Ġlinked", "Ġto", "Ġgreater", "Ġsocial", "Ġimpairment", ",", "Ġirrit", "ability", ",", "Ġbehavior", "Ġand", "Ġsleep", "Ġproblems", ",", "Ġlanguage", "Ġimpair", "ments", "Ġand", "Ġmood", "Ġchanges", ".", "Ġ", "ĠParents", "Ġof", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", "Ġhave", "Ġhigher", "Ġlevels", "Ġof", "Ġstress", ".", "ĠS", "iblings", "Ġof", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", "Ġreport", "Ġgreater", "Ġadmiration", "Ġof", "Ġand", "Ġless", "Ġconflict", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġaffected", "Ġsibling", "Ġthan", "Ġsiblings", "Ġof", "Ġunaffected", "Ġchildren", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġsiblings", "Ġof", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠDown", "Ġsyndrome", "Ġin", "Ġthese", "Ġaspects", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsibling", "Ġrelationship", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġreported", "Ġlower", "Ġlevels", "Ġof", "Ġclos", "eness", "Ġand", "Ġintimacy", "Ġthan", "Ġsiblings", "Ġof", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠDown", "Ġsyndrome", ";", "Ġsiblings", "Ġof", "Ġindividuals", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", "Ġhave", "Ġgreater", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġnegative", "Ġwell", "-", "being", "Ġand", "Ġpoorer", "Ġsibling", "Ġrelationships", "Ġas", "Ġadults", ".", "Ġ", "ĠCauses", "Ġ", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġlong", "Ġbeen", "Ġpresumed", "Ġthat", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġcause", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġgenetic", ",", "Ġcognitive", ",", "Ġand", "Ġneural", "Ġlevels", "Ġfor", "Ġautism", "'s", "Ġcharacteristic", "Ġtri", "ad", "Ġof", "Ġsymptoms", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġincreasing", "Ġsuspicion", "Ġthat", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġinstead", "Ġa", "Ġcomplex", "Ġdisorder", "Ġwhose" ]
9
gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the object to which the hand is pointing, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language. In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and as adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension, and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends. Repetitive behavior Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows. Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce the anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or handwashing. Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors. Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. Self-injury: Behaviors such as eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging. No single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors. Other symptoms Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family. An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of autistic people, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur. There is tentative evidence that gender dysphoria occurs more frequently in autistic people (see Autism and LGBT identities). As well as that, a 2021 anonymized online survey of 16-90 year-olds revealed that autistic males are more likely to be bisexual, while autistic females are more likely to be homosexual. Gastrointestinal problems are one of the most commonly co-occurring medical conditions in autistic people. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes. Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults. Causes It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose
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"Ġparents", ".", "ĠStudies", "Ġof", "Ġtwins", "Ġsuggest", "Ġthat", "Ġher", "itability", "Ġis", "Ġ0", ".", "7", "Ġfor", "Ġautism", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġhigh", "Ġas", "Ġ0", ".", "9", "Ġfor", "ĠASD", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsiblings", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġwith", "Ġautism", "Ġare", "Ġabout", "Ġ25", "Ġtimes", "Ġmore", "Ġlikely", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġautistic", "Ġthan", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġpopulation", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmutations", "Ġthat", "Ġincrease", "Ġautism", "Ġrisk", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġbeen", "Ġidentified", ".", "ĠTypically", ",", "Ġautism", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġtraced", "Ġto", "Ġa", "ĠMend", "el", "ian", "Ġ(", "single", "-", "g", "ene", ")", "Ġmutation", "Ġor", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġchromosome", "Ġabnorm", "ality", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgenetic", "Ġsynd", "rom", "es", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "ĠAS", "Ds", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġshown", "Ġto", "Ġselectively", "Ġcause", "ĠASD", ".", "ĠNumerous", "Ġcandidate", "Ġgenes", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġlocated", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġonly", "Ġsmall", "Ġeffects", "Ġattributable", "Ġto", "Ġany", "Ġparticular", "Ġgene", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġloc", "i", "Ġindividually", "Ġexplain", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġ1", "%", "Ġof", "Ġcases", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlarge", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġindividuals", "Ġwith", "Ġunaffected", "Ġfamily", "Ġmembers", "Ġmay", "Ġresult", "Ġfrom", "Ġspontaneous", "Ġstructural", "Ġvariation", "âĢĶ", "such", "Ġas", "Ġdelet", "ions", ",", "Ġdupl", "ications", "Ġor", "Ġin", "versions", "Ġin", "Ġgenetic", "Ġmaterial", "Ġduring", "Ġme", "iosis", ".", "ĠHence", ",", "Ġa", "Ġsubstantial", "Ġfraction", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġcases", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġtrace", "able", "Ġto", "Ġgenetic", "Ġcauses", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġhighly", "Ġher", "itable", "Ġbut", "Ġnot", "Ġinherited", ":", "Ġthat", "Ġis", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmutation", "Ġthat", "Ġcauses", "Ġthe", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġparental", "Ġgenome", ".", "ĠAutism", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġunder", "diagn", "osed", "Ġin", "Ġwomen", "Ġand", "Ġgirls", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġan", "Ġassumption", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġprimarily", "Ġa", "Ġmale", "Ġcondition", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġgenetic", "Ġphenomena", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġimprint", "ing", "Ġand", "ĠX", "Ġlinkage", "Ġhave", "Ġthe", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġraise", "Ġthe", "Ġfrequency", "Ġand", "Ġseverity", "Ġof", "Ġconditions", "Ġin", "Ġmales", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtheories", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġput", "Ġforward", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġgenetic", "Ġreason", "Ġwhy", "Ġmales", "Ġare", "Ġdiagnosed", "Ġmore", "Ġoften", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġimprint", "ed", "Ġbrain", "Ġhypothesis", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġextreme", "Ġmale", "Ġbrain", "Ġtheory", ".", "Ġ", "ĠM", "aternal", "Ġnutrition", "Ġand", "Ġinflammation", "Ġduring", "Ġprecon", "ception", "Ġand", "Ġpregnancy", "Ġinfluences", "Ġfetal", "Ġneuro", "development", ".", "ĠInt", "ra", "uter", "ine", "Ġgrowth", "Ġrestriction", "Ġis", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", ",", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "Ġterm", "Ġand", "Ġpre", "term", "Ġinfants", ".", "ĠM", "aternal", "Ġinflammatory", "Ġand", "Ġautoimmune", "Ġdiseases", "Ġmay", "Ġdamage", "Ġfetal", "Ġtissues", ",", "Ġaggrav", "ating", "Ġa", "Ġgenetic", "Ġproblem", "Ġor", "Ġdamaging", "Ġthe", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", ".", "Ġ", "ĠExposure", "Ġto", "Ġair", "Ġpollution", "Ġduring", "Ġpregnancy", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġheavy", "Ġmetals", "Ġand", "Ġpartic", "ulates", ",", "Ġmay", "Ġincrease", "Ġthe", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠEnvironmental", "Ġfactors", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġclaimed", "Ġwithout", "Ġevidence", "Ġto", "Ġcontribute", "Ġto", "Ġor", "Ġexacerbate", "Ġautism", "Ġinclude", "Ġcertain", "Ġfoods", ",", "Ġinfectious", "Ġdiseases", ",", "Ġsol", "v", "ents", ",", "ĠPCB", "s", ",", "Ġph", "thal", "ates", "Ġand", "Ġphen", "ols", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġplastic", "Ġproducts", ",", "Ġpesticides", ",", "Ġb", "rom", "inated", "Ġflame", "Ġretard", "ants", ",", "Ġalcohol", ",", "Ġsmoking", ",", "Ġillicit", "Ġdrugs", ",", "Ġvaccines", ",", "Ġand", "Ġprenatal", "Ġstress", ".", "ĠSome", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "ĠMMR", "Ġvaccine", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġcompletely", "Ġdispro", "ven", ".", "Ġ", "ĠParents", "Ġmay", "Ġfirst", "Ġbecome", "Ġaware", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġsymptoms", "Ġin", "Ġtheir", "Ġchild", "Ġaround", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġroutine", "Ġvaccination", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġhas", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġunsupported", "Ġtheories", "Ġblaming", "Ġvaccine", "Ġ\"", "over", "load", "\",", "Ġa", "Ġvaccine", "Ġpres", "ervative", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "ĠMMR", "Ġvaccine", "Ġfor", "Ġcausing", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlatter", "Ġtheory", "Ġwas", "Ġsupported", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġlitigation", "-", "funded", "Ġstudy", "Ġthat", "Ġhas", "Ġsince", "Ġbeen", "Ġshown", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġ\"", "an", "Ġelaborate", "Ġfraud", "\".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthese", "Ġtheories", "Ġlack", "Ġconvincing", "Ġscientific", "Ġevidence", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġbiologically", "Ġimpl", "ausible", ",", "Ġparental", "Ġconcern", "Ġabout", "Ġa", "Ġpotential", "Ġvaccine", "Ġlink", "Ġwith", "Ġautism", "Ġhas", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġlower", "Ġrates", "Ġof", "Ġchildhood", "Ġimmun", "izations", ",", "Ġoutbreaks", "Ġof", "Ġpreviously", "Ġcontrolled", "Ġchildhood", "Ġdiseases", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġcountries", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġprevent", "able", "Ġdeaths", "Ġof", "Ġseveral", "Ġchildren", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMechan", "ism", "Ġ", "ĠAutism", "'s", "Ġsymptoms", "Ġresult", "Ġfrom", "Ġm", "aturation", "-", "related", "Ġchanges", "Ġin", "Ġvarious", "Ġsystems", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbrain", ".", "ĠHow", "Ġautism", "Ġoccurs", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġwell", "Ġunderstood", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġmechanism", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġdivided", "Ġinto", "Ġtwo", "Ġareas", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġpath", "ophys", "iology", "Ġof", "Ġbrain", "Ġstructures", "Ġand", "Ġprocesses", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġautism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġneuro", "psych", "ological", "Ġlink", "ages", "Ġbetween", "Ġbrain", "Ġstructures", "Ġand", "Ġbehaviors", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbehaviors", "Ġappear", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġmultiple", "Ġpath", "ophys", "i", "ologies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġevidence", "Ġthat", "Ġgut", "âĢĵ", "brain", "Ġaxis", "Ġabnormalities", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġinvolved", ".", "ĠA", "Ġ2015", "Ġreview", "Ġproposed", "Ġthat", "Ġimmune", "Ġdys", "regulation", ",", "Ġgastrointestinal", "Ġinflammation", ",", "Ġmalfunction", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġautonom", "ic", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", ",", "Ġgut", "Ġflora", "Ġalterations", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfood", "Ġmetabolites", "Ġmay", "Ġcause", "Ġbrain", "Ġneuro", "inflamm", "ation", "Ġand", "Ġdysfunction", ".", "ĠA", "Ġ2016", "Ġreview", "Ġconcludes", "Ġthat", "Ġenter", "ic", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġabnormalities", "Ġmight", "Ġplay", "Ġa", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġneurological", "Ġdisorders", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠNeural", "Ġconnections", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġimmune", "Ġsystem", "Ġare", "Ġa", "Ġpathway", "Ġthat", "Ġmay", "Ġallow", "Ġdiseases", "Ġoriginated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġintestine", "Ġto", "Ġspread", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġbrain", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSeveral", "Ġlines", "Ġof", "Ġevidence", "Ġpoint", "Ġto", "Ġsynaptic", "Ġdysfunction", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġcause", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġrare", "Ġmutations", "Ġmay", "Ġlead", "Ġto", "Ġautism", "Ġby", "Ġdisrupting", "Ġsome", "Ġsynaptic", "Ġpathways", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthose", "Ġinvolved", "Ġwith", "Ġcell", "Ġad", "hesion", ".", "ĠGene", "Ġreplacement", "Ġstudies", "Ġin", "Ġmice", "Ġsuggest", "Ġthat", "Ġautistic", "Ġsymptoms", "Ġare", "Ġclosely", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġlater", "Ġdevelopmental", "Ġsteps", "Ġthat", "Ġdepend", "Ġon", "Ġactivity", "Ġin", "Ġsyn", "apses", "Ġand", "Ġon", "Ġactivity", "-", "dependent", "Ġchanges", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġknown", "Ġter", "at", "ogens", "Ġ(", "agents", "Ġthat", "Ġcause", "Ġbirth", "Ġdefects", ")", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġappear", "Ġto", "Ġact", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġeight", "Ġweeks", "Ġfrom", "Ġconception", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthough", "Ġthis", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġexclude", "Ġthe", "Ġpossibility", "Ġthat", "Ġautism", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġinitiated", "Ġor", "Ġaffected", "Ġlater", ",", 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10
core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents. Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation—such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Autism may be underdiagnosed in women and girls due to an assumption that it is primarily a male condition, but genetic phenomena such as imprinting and X linkage have the ability to raise the frequency and severity of conditions in males, and theories have been put forward for a genetic reason why males are diagnosed more often, such as the imprinted brain hypothesis and the extreme male brain theory. Maternal nutrition and inflammation during preconception and pregnancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system. Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially heavy metals and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. Some, such as the MMR vaccine, have been completely disproven. Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine "overload", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children. Mechanism Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies. There is evidence that gut–brain axis abnormalities may be involved. A 2015 review proposed that immune dysregulation, gastrointestinal inflammation, malfunction of the autonomic nervous system, gut flora alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine to spread to the brain. Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development. Diagnosis Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three,
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11
and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition. Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used. A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression. Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine. ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Signs of autism may be more challenging for clinicians to detect in females. Autistic females have been shown to engage in masking more frequently than autistic males. Masking may include making oneself perform normative facial expressions and eye contact. A notable percentage of autistic females may be misdiagnosed, diagnosed after a considerable delay, or not diagnosed at all. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms. Classification Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, severely restricted interests, and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance. Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or sometimes the autistic disorders, whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism. In this article, autism refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, autism, ASD, and PDD are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact. Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology,
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"Ġthe", "ĠModified", "ĠCheck", "list", "Ġfor", "ĠAutism", "Ġin", "ĠTodd", "lers", "Ġ(", "M", "-", "CHAT", "),", "Ġthe", "ĠEarly", "ĠScreen", "ing", "Ġof", "ĠAut", "istic", "ĠTra", "its", "ĠQuestion", "naire", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠFirst", "ĠYear", "ĠInventory", ";", "Ġinitial", "Ġdata", "Ġon", "ĠM", "-", "CHAT", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġpredecessor", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCheck", "list", "Ġfor", "ĠAutism", "Ġin", "ĠTodd", "lers", "Ġ(", "CHAT", "),", "Ġon", "Ġchildren", "Ġaged", "Ġ18", "âĢĵ", "30", "Ġmonths", "Ġsuggests", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġbest", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġclinical", "Ġsetting", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġhas", "Ġlow", "Ġsensitivity", "Ġ(", "many", "Ġfalse", "-", "neg", "atives", ")", "Ġbut", "Ġgood", "Ġspecificity", "Ġ(", "few", "Ġfalse", "-", "pos", "itives", ").", "ĠIt", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġmore", "Ġaccurate", "Ġto", "Ġpreced", "e", "Ġthese", "Ġtests", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġbroadband", "Ġsc", "re", "ener", "Ġthat", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġdistinguish", "ĠASD", "Ġfrom", "Ġother", "Ġdevelopmental", "Ġdisorders", ".", "ĠScreen", "ing", "Ġtools", "Ġdesigned", "Ġfor", "Ġone", "Ġculture", "'s", "Ġnorms", "Ġfor", "Ġbehaviors", "Ġlike", "Ġeye", "Ġcontact", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġinappropriate", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġdifferent", "Ġculture", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġgenetic", "Ġscreening", "Ġfor", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġgenerally", "Ġstill", "Ġimpractical", ",", "Ġit", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġconsidered", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġcases", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "Ġneurological", "Ġsymptoms", "Ġand", "Ġdys", "morph", "ic", "Ġfeatures", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSome", "Ġauthors", "Ġsuggest", "Ġthat", "Ġautomatic", "Ġmotor", "Ġassessment", "Ġcould", "Ġbe", "Ġuseful", "Ġto", "Ġscreen", "Ġthe", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "ĠASD", "Ġfor", "Ġinstance", "Ġwith", "Ġbehavioural", "Ġmotor", "Ġand", "Ġemotion", "als", "Ġreactions", "Ġduring", "Ġsmartphone", "Ġwatching", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPrevention", "ĠWhile", "Ġinfection", "Ġwith", "Ġrub", "ella", "Ġduring", "Ġpregnancy", "Ġcauses", "Ġfewer", "Ġthan", "Ġ1", "%", "Ġof", 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"Ġteachers", ",", "Ġspeech", "Ġpath", "ologists", ",", "Ġand", "Ġlicensed", "Ġpsychologists", ".", "ĠStudies", "Ġof", "Ġinterventions", "Ġhave", "Ġmethodological", "Ġproblems", "Ġthat", "Ġprevent", "Ġdefinitive", "Ġconclusions", "Ġabout", "Ġefficacy", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġevidence", "-", "based", "Ġinterventions", "Ġhas", "Ġadvanced", "Ġin", "Ġrecent", "Ġyears", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġmany", "Ġpsych", "os", "ocial", "Ġinterventions", "Ġhave", "Ġsome", "Ġpositive", "Ġevidence", ",", "Ġsuggesting", "Ġthat", "Ġsome", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġtreatment", "Ġis", "Ġpreferable", "Ġto", "Ġno", "Ġtreatment", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġmethodological", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "Ġsystematic", "Ġreviews", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġstudies", "Ġhas", "Ġgenerally", "Ġbeen", "Ġpoor", ",", "Ġtheir", "Ġclinical", "Ġresults", "Ġare", "Ġmostly", "Ġtentative", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġlittle", "Ġevidence", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġrelative", "Ġeffectiveness", "Ġof", "Ġtreatment", "Ġoptions", ".", "ĠInt", 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12
neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior. (For more, see Brett Abrahams, geneticist and neuroscientist) Spectrum Autism has long been thought to cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and prone to frequent repetitive behavior such as hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. Screening About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article, failure to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome". No response to name (or eye-to-eye gaze) by 6 months. No babbling by 12 months. No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months. No single words by 16 months. No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months. Loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concern. The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features. Some authors suggest that automatic motor assessment could be useful to screen the children with ASD for instance with behavioural motor and emotionals reactions during smartphone watching. Prevention While infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism, vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases. Management The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Services should be carried out by behavior analysts, special education teachers, speech pathologists, and licensed psychologists. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. However, the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, communication, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. While medications have not been found to help with core symptoms, they may be used for associated symptoms, such as irritability, inattention, or repetitive behavior patterns. Education Educational interventions often used include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy and cognitive behavioral interventions in adults without intellectual disability to reduce depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit
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13
. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI)—a treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the structured type of ABA that is carried out with very young children—is currently low, and more vigorous research designs with larger sample sizes are needed. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include structured and naturalistic ABA interventions, and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment. Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children; it is also well-established for improving the intellectual performance of that age group. Similarly, a teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes a more naturalistic form of ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be beneficial in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers. Medication Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. They may also be used for associated health problems, such as ADHD or anxiety. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. The atypical antipsychotic drugs risperidone and aripiprazole are FDA-approved for treating associated aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. However, their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and autistic people may respond atypically. Side effects, for example, may include weight gain, tiredness, drooling, and aggression. SSRI antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with co-morbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism. Alternative medicine Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. The preference that autistic children have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on casein-free diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastrointestinal disorders. In 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. Chelation is not recommended for autistic people since the associated risks outweigh any potential benefits. Another alternative medicine practice with no evidence is CEASE therapy, a mixture of homeopathy, supplements, and 'vaccine detoxing'. Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for autistic people, as of 2018 there is no good evidence to recommend a gluten- and casein-free diet as a standard treatment. A 2018 review concluded that it may be a therapeutic option for specific groups of children with autism, such as those with known food intolerances or allergies, or with food intolerance markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten- and casein-free diet in children with ASD (4 in total). All of them compared gluten- and casein-free diet versus normal diet with a control group (2 double-blind randomized controlled trials, 1 double-blind crossover trial, 1 single-blind trial). In two of the studies, whose duration was 12 and 24 months, a significant improvement in ASD symptoms (efficacy rate 50%) was identified. In the other two studies, whose duration was 3 months, no significant effect was observed. The authors concluded that a longer duration of the diet may be necessary to achieve the improvement
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"Ġenvironmental", "Ġrisk", "Ġfactors", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġruled", "Ġout", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġavailable", "Ġevidence", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġrule", "Ġout", "Ġthe", "Ġpossibility", "Ġthat", "Ġautism", "'s", "Ġtrue", "Ġprevalence", "Ġhas", "Ġincreased", ";", "Ġa", "Ġreal", "Ġincrease", "Ġwould", "Ġsuggest", "Ġdirecting", "Ġmore", "Ġattention", "Ġand", "Ġfunding", "Ġtoward", "Ġpsych", "os", "ocial", "Ġfactors", "Ġand", "Ġchanging", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġfactors", "Ġinstead", "Ġof", "Ġcontinuing", "Ġto", "Ġfocus", "Ġon", "Ġgenetics", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġestablished", "Ġthat", "Ġvaccination", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "Ġrisk", "Ġfactor", "Ġfor", "Ġautism", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġbehind", "Ġany", "Ġincrease", "Ġin", "Ġautism", "Ġprevalence", "Ġrates", ",", "Ġif", "Ġany", "Ġchange", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġrate", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġexists", "Ġat", "Ġall", ".", "Ġ", "ĠMales", "Ġare", "Ġat", "Ġhigher", "Ġrisk", "Ġfor", "ĠASD", "Ġthan", "Ġfemales", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġsex", "Ġratio", "Ġaverages", "Ġ4", ".", "3", ":", "1", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġgreatly", "Ġmodified", "Ġby", "Ġcognitive", "Ġimpairment", ":", "Ġit", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġ2", ":", "1", "Ġwith", "Ġintellectual", "Ġdisability", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ5", ".", "5", ":", "1", "Ġwithout", ".", "ĠSeveral", "Ġtheories", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "Ġhigher", "Ġprevalence", "Ġin", "Ġmales", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġinvestigated", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġcause", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdifference", "Ġis", "Ġun", "confirmed", ";", "Ġone", "Ġtheory", "Ġis", "Ġthat", "Ġfemales", "Ġare", "Ġunder", "diagn", "osed", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthe", "Ġevidence", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġimpl", "icate", "Ġany", "Ġsingle", "Ġpregnancy", "-", "related", "Ġrisk", "Ġfactor", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġcause", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġadvanced", "Ġage", "Ġin", "Ġeither", "Ġparent", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwith", "Ġdiabetes", ",", "Ġbleeding", ",", "Ġand", "Ġuse", "Ġof", "Ġpsychiatric", "Ġdrugs", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmother", "Ġduring", "Ġpregnancy", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġrisk", "Ġis", "Ġgreater", "Ġwith", "Ġolder", "Ġfathers", "Ġthan", "Ġwith", "Ġolder", "Ġmothers", ";", "Ġtwo", "Ġpotential", "Ġexplanations", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġknown", "Ġincrease", "Ġin", "Ġmutation", "Ġburden", "Ġin", "Ġolder", "Ġsperm", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġhypothesis", "Ġthat", "Ġmen", "Ġmarry", "Ġlater", "Ġif", "Ġthey", "Ġcarry", "Ġgenetic", "Ġliability", "Ġand", "Ġshow", "Ġsome", "Ġsigns", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġprofessionals", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "Ġrace", ",", "Ġethnicity", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsocioeconomic", "Ġbackground", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġaffect", "Ġthe", "Ġoccurrence", "Ġof", "Ġautism", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSeveral", "Ġother", "Ġconditions", "Ġare", "Ġcommon", "Ġin", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠThey", "Ġinclude", ":", "Ġ", "ĠGenetic", "Ġdisorders", ".", "ĠAbout", "Ġ10", "âĢĵ", "15", "%", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġcases", "Ġhave", "Ġan", "Ġidentifiable", "ĠMend", "el", "ian", "Ġ(", "single", "-", "g", "ene", ")", "Ġcondition", ",", "Ġchromosome", "Ġabnorm", "ality", ",", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġgenetic", "Ġsyndrome", ",", "Ġand", "ĠASD", "Ġis", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġseveral", "Ġgenetic", "Ġdisorders", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIntellectual", "Ġdisability", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġpercentage", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġindividuals", "Ġwho", "Ġalso", "Ġmeet", "Ġcriteria", "Ġfor", "Ġintellectual", "Ġdisability", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġreported", "Ġas", "Ġanywhere", "Ġfrom" ]
14
of the ASD symptoms. Other problems documented in the trials carried out include transgressions of the diet, small sample size, the heterogeneity of the participants and the possibility of a placebo effect. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten-free diet may improve some autistic behaviors. Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support mindfulness-based interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression. There is tentative evidence that music therapy may improve social interactions, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication skills. There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism. Studies on pet therapy have shown positive effects. Prognosis There is no known cure for autism. The degree of symptoms can decrease, occasionally to the extent that people lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often this outcome happens; reported rates in unselected samples have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most autistic children acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Many autistic children lack social support, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age. Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism. Many autistic people face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood. Compared to the general population autistic people are more likely to be unemployed and to have never had a job. About half of people in their 20s with autism are not employed. Autistic people tend to face increased stress levels related to psychosocial factors, such as stigma, which may increase the rates of mental health issues in the autistic population. Epidemiology As of 2007, reviews estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD. A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC estimates about 1 out of 59 (1.7%) for 2014, an increase from 1 out of every 68 children (1.5%) for 2010. In the UK, from 1998 to 2018, the autism diagnoses increased by 787%. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness (particularly among women), though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors and changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. It has been established that vaccination is not a risk factor for autism and is not behind any increase in autism prevalence rates, if any change in the rate of autism exists at all. Males are at higher risk for ASD than females. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed. Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism. Several other conditions are common in children with autism. They include: Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders. Intellectual disability. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from
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"Ġlabel", "Ġearly", "Ġinfant", "ile", "Ġautism", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġ1943", "Ġreport", "Ġof", "Ġ11", "Ġchildren", "Ġwith", "Ġstriking", "Ġbehavioral", "Ġsimilarities", ".", "ĠAlmost", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġcharacteristics", "Ġdescribed", "Ġin", "ĠKan", "ner", "'s", "Ġfirst", "Ġpaper", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsubject", ",", "Ġnotably", "Ġ\"", "aut", "istic", "Ġal", "on", "eness", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "ins", "istence", "Ġon", "Ġsam", "eness", "\",", "Ġare", "Ġstill", "Ġregarded", "Ġas", "Ġtypical", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġautistic", "Ġspectrum", "Ġof", "Ġdisorders", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġknown", "Ġwhether", "ĠKan", "ner", "Ġderived", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "Ġindependently", "Ġof", "ĠAs", "per", "ger", ".", "Ġ", "ĠKan", "ner", "'s", "Ġreuse", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġdecades", "Ġof", "Ġconfused", "Ġterminology", "Ġlike", "Ġinfant", "ile", "Ġschizophrenia", ",", "Ġand", "Ġchild", "Ġpsychiatry", "'s", "Ġfocus", "Ġon", "Ġmaternal", "Ġdeprivation", "Ġled", "Ġto", "Ġmisconceptions", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġas", "Ġan", "Ġinfant", "'s", "Ġresponse", "Ġto", "Ġ\"", "ref", "riger", "ator", "Ġmothers", "\".", "ĠStarting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ1960", "s", "Ġautism", "Ġwas", "Ġestablished", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġseparate", "Ġsyndrome", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTermin", "ology", "Ġand", "Ġdistinction", "Ġfrom", "Ġschizophrenia", "Ġ", "ĠAs", "Ġlate", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġmid", "-", "1970", "s", "Ġthere", "Ġwas", "Ġlittle", "Ġevidence", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġgenetic", "Ġrole", "Ġin", "Ġautism", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġin", "Ġ2007", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġbelieved", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġher", "itable", "Ġpsychiatric", "Ġconditions", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthe", "Ġrise", "Ġof", "Ġparent", "Ġorganizations", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġdest", "igmat", "ization", "Ġof", "Ġchildhood", "ĠASD", "Ġhave", "Ġaffected", "Ġhow", "ĠASD", "Ġis", "Ġviewed", ",", "Ġparents", "Ġcontinue", "Ġto", "Ġfeel", "Ġsocial", "Ġstigma", "Ġin", "Ġsituations", "Ġwhere", "Ġtheir", "Ġchild", "'s", "Ġautistic", "Ġbehavior", "Ġis", "Ġperceived", "Ġnegatively", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmany", "Ġprimary", "Ġcare", "Ġphysicians", "Ġand", "Ġmedical", "Ġspecialists", "Ġexpress", "Ġsome", "Ġbeliefs", "Ġconsistent", "Ġwith", "Ġoutdated", "Ġautism", "Ġresearch", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIt", "Ġtook", "Ġuntil", "Ġ1980", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "ĠDSM", "-", "III", "Ġto", "Ġdifferentiate", "Ġautism", "Ġfrom", "Ġchildhood", "Ġschizophrenia", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1987", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠDSM", "-", "III", "-", "R", "Ġprovided", "Ġa", "Ġchecklist", "Ġfor", "Ġdiagn", "osing", "Ġautism", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠMay", "Ġ2013", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠDSM", "-", "5", "Ġwas", "Ġreleased", ",", "Ġupdating", "Ġthe", "Ġclassification", "Ġfor", "Ġpervasive", "Ġdevelopmental", "Ġdisorders", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġgrouping", "Ġof", "Ġdisorders", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠPD", "D", "-", "N", "OS", ",", "Ġautism", ",", "ĠAs", "per", "ger", "Ġsyndrome", ",", "ĠR", "ett", "Ġsyndrome", ",", "Ġand", "ĠCD", "D", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġremoved", "Ġand", "Ġreplaced", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġgeneral", "Ġterm", "Ġof", "ĠAutism", "ĠSpectrum", "ĠDisorders", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtwo", "Ġcategories", "Ġthat", "Ġexist", "Ġare", "Ġimpaired", "Ġsocial", "Ġcommunication", "Ġand", "/", "or", "Ġinteraction", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrestricted", "Ġand", "/", "or", "Ġrepetitive", "Ġbehaviors", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠInternet", "Ġhas", "Ġhelped", "Ġautistic", "Ġindividuals", "Ġbypass", "Ġnon", "verbal", "Ġcues", "Ġand", "Ġemotional", "Ġsharing", "Ġthat", "Ġthey", "Ġfind" ]
15
25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing intelligence of individuals on the autism spectrum. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability. Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms. Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder. Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms. Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population. Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out the concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these co-occurrent conditions are increasingly accepted. Sleep problems affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis. History A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The Table Talk of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation. The New Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word autós (αὐτός, meaning "self"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". A Soviet child psychiatrist, Grunya Sukhareva, described a similar syndrome that was published in Russian in 1925, and in German in 1926. Clinical development and diagnoses The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology autistic psychopaths in a lecture in German about child psychology. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger. Kanner's reuse of autism led to decades of confused terminology like infantile schizophrenia, and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "refrigerator mothers". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome. Terminology and distinction from schizophrenia As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism, while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research. It took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors. The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find
[ "Ġdifficult", "Ġto", "Ġdeal", "Ġwith", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġgiven", "Ġthem", "Ġa", "Ġway", "Ġto", "Ġform", "Ġonline", "Ġcommunities", "Ġand", "Ġwork", "Ġremotely", ".", "ĠSoc", "ietal", "Ġand", "Ġcultural", "Ġaspects", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġhave", "Ġdeveloped", ":", "Ġsome", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcommunity", "Ġseek", "Ġa", "Ġcure", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġothers", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġsimply", "Ġanother", "Ġway", "Ġof", "Ġbeing", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSociety", "Ġand", "Ġculture", "Ġ", "ĠAn", "Ġautistic", "Ġculture", "Ġhas", "Ġemerged", ",", "Ġaccompanied", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġautistic", "Ġrights", "Ġand", "Ġneuro", "d", "iversity", "Ġmovements", ".", "ĠEvents", "Ġinclude", "ĠWorld", "ĠAutism", "ĠAwareness", "ĠDay", ",", "ĠAutism", "ĠSunday", ",", "ĠAut", "istic", "ĠPride", "ĠDay", ",", "ĠAut", "reat", ",", "Ġand", "Ġothers", ".", "ĠSocial", "-", "science", "Ġscholars", "Ġstudy", "Ġthose", "Ġwith", "Ġautism", "Ġin", "Ġhopes", "Ġto", "Ġlearn", "Ġmore", "Ġabout", "Ġ\"", "aut", "ism", "Ġas", 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"Ġthose", "Ġwithout", "Ġautism", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġrecognition", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġautistic", "Ġcommunity", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġminority", "Ġgroup", ".", "ĠAutism", "Ġrights", "Ġor", "Ġneuro", "d", "iversity", "Ġadvocates", "Ġbelieve", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġautism", "Ġspectrum", "Ġis", "Ġgenetic", "Ġand", "Ġshould", "Ġbe", "Ġaccepted", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġnatural", "Ġexpression", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhuman", "Ġgenome", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġperspective", "Ġis", "Ġdistinct", "Ġfrom", "Ġfringe", "Ġtheories", "Ġthat", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġfactors", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġvaccines", ".", "ĠA", "Ġcommon", "Ġcriticism", "Ġagainst", "Ġautistic", "Ġactivists", "Ġis", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "Ġthem", "Ġare", "Ġ\"", "high", "-", "function", "ing", "\"", "Ġor", "Ġhave", "ĠAs", "per", "ger", "Ġsyndrome", "Ġand", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġrepresent", "Ġthe", "Ġviews", "Ġof", "Ġ\"", "low", "-", "function", "ing", "\"", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", ".", "Ġ", "ĠEmployment", "ĠAbout", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", "Ġare", "Ġunemployed", ",", "Ġand", "Ġone", "Ġthird", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġwith", "Ġgraduate", "Ġdegrees", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġunemployed", ".", "ĠAmong", "Ġthose", "Ġwho", "Ġfind", "Ġwork", ",", "Ġmost", "Ġare", "Ġemployed", "Ġin", "Ġsheltered", "Ġsettings", "Ġworking", "Ġfor", "Ġwages", "Ġbelow", "Ġthe", "Ġnational", "Ġminimum", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġemployers", "Ġstate", "Ġhiring", "Ġconcerns", "Ġabout", "Ġproductivity", "Ġand", "Ġsupervision", ",", "Ġexperienced", "Ġemployers", "Ġof", "Ġautistic", "Ġpeople", "Ġgive", "Ġpositive", "Ġreports", "Ġof", "Ġabove", "Ġaverage", "Ġmemory", "Ġand", "Ġdetail", "Ġorientation", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġhigh", "Ġregard", "Ġfor", "Ġrules", "Ġand", "Ġprocedure", "Ġin", "Ġautistic", "Ġemployees", ".", "ĠA", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġeconomic", "Ġburden", "Ġof", "Ġautism", "Ġis", "Ġcaused", "Ġby", "Ġdecreased", "Ġearnings", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġjob", "Ġmarket", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġstudies", "Ġalso", "Ġfind", "Ġdecreased", "Ġearning", "Ġamong", "Ġparents", "Ġwho", "Ġcare", "Ġfor", "Ġautistic", "Ġchildren", ".", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ1910", "s", "Ġne", "olog", "isms", "ĠArticles", "Ġcontaining", "Ġvideo", "Ġclips", "ĠCommunication", "Ġdisorders", "ĠNeurolog", "ical", "Ġdisorders", "Ġin", "Ġchildren", "ĠP", "erv", "asive", "Ġdevelopmental", "Ġdisorders", "ĠWikipedia", "Ġmedicine", "Ġarticles", "Ġready", "Ġto", "Ġtranslate", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Al", "bed", "o", "Ġ(", ";", "Ġ)", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġmeasure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdiffuse", "Ġreflection", "Ġof", "Ġsolar", "Ġradiation", "Ġout", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtotal", "Ġsolar", "Ġradiation", "Ġand", "Ġmeasured", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġscale", "Ġfrom", "Ġ0", ",", "Ġcorresponding", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġblack", "Ġbody", "Ġthat", "Ġabsorbs", "Ġall", "Ġincident", "Ġradiation", ",", "Ġto", "Ġ1", ",", "Ġcorresponding", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġbody", "Ġthat", "Ġreflects", "Ġall", "Ġincident", "Ġradiation", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSurface", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġis", "Ġdefined", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġratio", "Ġof", "Ġrad", "iosity", "ĠJe", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġirrad", "iance", "ĠE", "e", "Ġ(", "f", "lux", "Ġper", "Ġunit", "Ġarea", ")", "Ġreceived", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġsurface", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġproportion", "Ġreflected", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġonly", "Ġdetermined", "Ġby", "Ġproperties", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġitself", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġalso", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġspectral", "Ġand", "Ġangular", "Ġdistribution", "Ġof", "Ġsolar", "Ġradiation", "Ġreaching", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "'s", "Ġsurface", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġfactors", "Ġvary", "Ġwith", "Ġatmospheric", "Ġcomposition", ",", "Ġgeographic", "Ġlocation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġtime", "Ġ(", "see", "Ġposition", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSun", ").", "ĠWhile", "Ġbi", "-", "hem", "isp", "herical", "Ġreflect", "ance", "Ġis", "Ġcalculated", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġangle", "Ġof", "Ġincidence", "Ġ(", "i", ".", "e", ".,", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġgiven", "Ġposition", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSun", "),", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġdirectional", "Ġintegration", "Ġof", "Ġreflect", "ance", "Ġover", "Ġall", "Ġsolar", "Ġangles", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġgiven", "Ġperiod", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtemporal", "Ġresolution", "Ġmay", "Ġrange", "Ġfrom", "Ġseconds", "Ġ(", "as", "Ġobtained", "Ġfrom", "Ġflux", "Ġmeasurements", ")", "Ġto", "Ġdaily", ",", "Ġmonthly", ",", "Ġor", "Ġannual", "Ġaverages", ".", "Ġ", "ĠUnless", "Ġgiven", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġspecific", "Ġwavelength", "Ġ(", "spect", "ral", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "),", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġrefers", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġentire", "Ġspectrum", "Ġof", "Ġsolar", "Ġradiation", ".", "ĠDue", "Ġto", "Ġmeasurement", "Ġconstraints", ",", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġgiven", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġspectrum", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġmost", "Ġsolar", "Ġenergy", "Ġreaches", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġ(", "between", "Ġ0", ".", "3", "Ġand", "Ġ3", "Ġμ", "m", ").", "ĠThis", "Ġspectrum", "Ġincludes", "Ġvisible", "Ġlight", "Ġ(", "0", ".", "4", "âĢĵ", "0", ".", "7", "Ġμ", "m", "),", "Ġwhich", "Ġexplains", "Ġwhy", "Ġsurfaces", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġlow", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġappear", "Ġdark", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġtrees", "Ġabsorb", "Ġmost", "Ġradiation", "),", "Ġwhereas", "Ġsurfaces", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġhigh", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġappear", "Ġbright", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġsnow", "Ġreflects", "Ġmost", "Ġradiation", ").", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "bed", "o", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġimportant", "Ġconcept", "Ġin", "Ġclim", "at", "ology", ",", "Ġastronomy", ",", "Ġand", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġmanagement", "Ġ(", "e", ".", "g", ".,", "Ġas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠLeadership", "Ġin", "ĠEnergy", "Ġand", "ĠEnvironmental", "ĠDesign", "Ġ(", "LE", "ED", ")", "Ġprogram", "Ġfor", "Ġsustainable", "Ġrating", "Ġof", "Ġbuildings", ").", "ĠThe", "Ġaverage", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠEarth", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġupper", "Ġatmosphere", ",", "Ġits", "Ġplanetary", "Ġal", "bed", "o", ",", "Ġis", "Ġ30", "âĢĵ", "35", "%", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġcloud", "Ġcover", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwidely", "Ġvaries", "Ġlocally", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "Ġsurface", "Ġbecause", "Ġof", "Ġdifferent", "Ġgeological", "Ġand", "Ġenvironmental", "Ġfeatures", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġterm", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġwas", "Ġintroduced", "Ġinto", "Ġoptics", "Ġby", "ĠJohann", "ĠHein", "rich", "ĠLambert", "Ġin", "Ġhis", "Ġ17", "60", "Ġwork", "ĠPhot", "omet", "ria", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTer", "restrial", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġ", "ĠAny", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġin", "Ġvisible", "Ġlight", "Ġfalls", "Ġwithin", "Ġa", "Ġrange", "Ġof", "Ġabout", "Ġ0", ".", "9", "Ġfor", "Ġfresh", "Ġsnow", "Ġto", "Ġabout", "Ġ0", ".", "04", "Ġfor", "Ġcharcoal", ",", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġdarkest", "Ġsubstances", ".", "ĠDeep", "ly", "Ġshadow", "ed", "Ġcav", "ities", "Ġcan", "Ġachieve", "Ġan", "Ġeffective", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġapproaching", "Ġthe", "Ġzero", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġblack", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠWhen", "Ġseen", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġdistance", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġocean", "Ġsurface", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlow", "Ġal", "bed", "o", ",", "Ġas", "Ġdo", "Ġmost", "Ġforests", ",", "Ġwhereas", "Ġdesert", "Ġareas", "Ġhave", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġal", "bed", "os", "Ġamong", "Ġland", "forms", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġland", "Ġareas", "Ġare", "Ġin", "Ġan", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġrange", "Ġof", "Ġ0", ".", "1", "Ġto", "Ġ0", ".", "4", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġaverage", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġof", "ĠEarth", "Ġis", "Ġabout", "Ġ0", ".", "3" ]
16
difficult to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being. Society and culture An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements. Events include World Autism Awareness Day, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others. Social-science scholars study those with autism in hopes to learn more about "autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons ... and research on social movements." Many autistic individuals have been successful in their fields. Autism rights movement The autism rights movement is a social movement within the context of disability rights that emphasizes the concept of neurodiversity, viewing the autism spectrum as a result of natural variations in the human brain rather than a disorder to be cured. The autism rights movement advocates for including greater acceptance of autistic behaviors; therapies that focus on coping skills rather than on imitating the behaviors of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from fringe theories that autism is caused by environmental factors such as vaccines. A common criticism against autistic activists is that the majority of them are "high-functioning" or have Asperger syndrome and do not represent the views of "low-functioning" autistic people. Employment About half of autistic people are unemployed, and one third of those with graduate degrees may be unemployed. Among those who find work, most are employed in sheltered settings working for wages below the national minimum. While employers state hiring concerns about productivity and supervision, experienced employers of autistic people give positive reports of above average memory and detail orientation as well as a high regard for rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children. References External links 1910s neologisms Articles containing video clips Communication disorders Neurological disorders in children Pervasive developmental disorders Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate <|endoftext|>Albedo (; ) is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation. Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30–35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria. Terrestrial albedo Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3
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17
. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about . If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below . If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about . In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called ocean planet – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost . In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998-2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend. White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle θi can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, , sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, , sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. with being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Illumination Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics. Insolation effects The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect. Climate and weather Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather. Albedo–temperature feedback When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic
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"Ġregions", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSmall", "-", "scale", "Ġeffects", "ĠAl", "bed", "o", "Ġworks", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġsmaller", "Ġscale", ",", "Ġtoo", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsunlight", ",", "Ġdark", "Ġclothes", "Ġabsorb", "Ġmore", "Ġheat", "Ġand", "Ġlight", "-", "col", "oured", "Ġclothes", "Ġreflect", "Ġit", "Ġbetter", ",", "Ġthus", "Ġallowing", "Ġsome", "Ġcontrol", "Ġover", "Ġbody", "Ġtemperature", "Ġby", "Ġexploiting", "Ġthe", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġeffect", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcolour", "Ġof", "Ġexternal", "Ġclothing", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSolar", "Ġphot", "ov", "olt", "aic", "Ġeffects", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "bed", "o", "Ġcan", "Ġaffect", "Ġthe", "Ġelectrical", "Ġenergy", "Ġoutput", "Ġof", "Ġsolar", "Ġphot", "ov", "olt", "aic", "Ġdevices", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġeffects", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġspect", "r", "ally", "Ġresponsive", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġare", "Ġillustrated", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġdifferences", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġspect", "r", "ally", "Ġweighted", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġof", "Ġsolar", "Ġphot", "ov", "olt", "aic", "Ġtechnology", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġhydrogen", "ated", "Ġam", "orph", "ous", "Ġsilicon", "Ġ(", "a", "-", "Si", ":", "H", ")", "Ġand", "Ġcrystall", "ine", "Ġsilicon", "Ġ(", "c", "-", "Si", ")-", "based", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "Ġtraditional", "Ġspectral", "-", "integ", "rated", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġpredictions", ".", "ĠResearch", "Ġshowed", "Ġimpacts", "Ġof", "Ġover", "Ġ10", "%.", "ĠMore", "Ġrecently", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġanalysis", "Ġwas", "Ġextended", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeffects", "Ġof", "Ġspectral", "Ġbias", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġspec", "ular", "Ġreflect", "ivity", "Ġof", "Ġ22", "Ġcommonly", "Ġoccurring", "Ġsurface", "Ġmaterials", "Ġ(", "both", "Ġhuman", "-", "made", "Ġand", "Ġnatural", ")", "Ġand", "Ġanaly", "zes", "Ġthe", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġeffects", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġperformance", "Ġof", "Ġseven", "Ġphot", "ov", "olt", "aic", "Ġmaterials", "Ġcovering", "Ġthree", "Ġcommon", "Ġphot", "ov", "olt", "aic", "Ġsystem", "Ġtop", "ologies", ":", "Ġindustrial", "Ġ(", "s", "olar", "Ġfarms", "),", "Ġcommercial", "Ġflat", "Ġrooft", "ops", "Ġand", "Ġresidential", "Ġpitched", "-", "ro", "of", "Ġapplications", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTrees", "ĠBecause", "Ġforests", "Ġgenerally", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġlow", "Ġal", "bed", "o", ",", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġultraviolet", "Ġand", "Ġvisible", "Ġspectrum", "Ġis", "Ġabsorbed", "Ġthrough", "Ġphotos", "ynthesis", "),", "Ġsome", "Ġscientists", "Ġhave", "Ġsuggested", "Ġthat", "Ġgreater", "Ġheat", "Ġabsorption", "Ġby", "Ġtrees", "Ġcould", "Ġoffset", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcarbon", "Ġbenefits", "Ġof", "Ġaff", "ore", "station", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġoffset", "Ġthe", "Ġnegative", "Ġclimate", "Ġimpacts", "Ġof", "Ġdeforestation", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġcase", "Ġof", "Ġever", "green", "Ġforests", "Ġwith", "Ġseasonal", "Ġsnow", "Ġcover", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġreduction", "Ġmay", "Ġbe", "Ġgreat", "Ġenough", "Ġfor", "Ġdeforestation", "Ġto", "Ġcause", "Ġa", "Ġnet", "Ġcooling", "Ġeffect", ".", "ĠTrees", "Ġalso", "Ġimpact", "Ġclimate", "Ġin", "Ġextremely", "Ġcomplicated", "Ġways", "Ġthrough", "Ġev", "ap", "ot", "rans", "piration", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġwater", "Ġvapor", "Ġcauses", "Ġcooling", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġland", "Ġsurface", ",", "Ġcauses", "Ġheating", "Ġwhere", "Ġit", "Ġcond", "enses", ",", "Ġacts", "Ġa", "Ġstrong", "Ġgreenhouse", "Ġgas", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcan", "Ġincrease", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġcond", "enses", "Ġinto", "Ġclouds", ".", "ĠScientists", "Ġgenerally", "Ġtreat", "Ġev", "ap", "ot", "rans", "piration", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġnet", "Ġcooling", "Ġimpact", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġnet", "Ġclimate", "Ġimpact", "Ġof", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġand", "Ġev", "ap", "ot", "rans", "piration", "Ġchanges", "Ġfrom", "Ġdeforestation", "Ġdepends", "Ġgreatly", "Ġon", "Ġlocal", "Ġclimate", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġseason", "ally", "Ġsnow", "-", "covered", "Ġzones", ",", "Ġwinter", "Ġal", "bed", "os", "Ġof", "Ġtre", "eless", "Ġareas", "Ġare", "Ġ10", "%", "Ġto", "Ġ50", "%", "Ġhigher", "Ġthan", "Ġnearby", "Ġforest", "ed", "Ġareas", "Ġbecause", "Ġsnow", 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"Ġabsorbed", "Ġby", "Ġother", "Ġsurfaces", "Ġlower" ]
18
due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. Snow Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback). Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming. Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. Small-scale effects Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. Solar photovoltaic effects Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. Trees Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower
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"ĠFor", "Ġsmall", "Ġand", "Ġfar", "Ġobjects", "Ġthat", "Ġcannot", "Ġbe", "Ġresolved", "Ġby", "Ġtelescopes", ",", "Ġmuch", "Ġof", "Ġwhat", "Ġwe" ]
19
in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. Water Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations. At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9. Clouds Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies. Aerosol effects Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: Aerosol direct effect. Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. Aerosol indirect effect. Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (first indirect effect), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (second indirect effect). In extremely polluted cities like Delhi, aerosol pollutants influence local weather and induce an urban cool island effect during the day. Black carbon Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m−2, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m−2. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. Human activities Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult, further study is required to determine anthropogenic effects. Albedo in Astronomy In astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. Optical or Visual Albedo The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we
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"Ġtotal", "Ġ(", "OC", "+", "SC", ")", "Ġradar", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġreported", "Ġin", "Ġthose", "Ġreferences", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRelationship", "Ġto", "ĠSurface", "ĠBulk", "ĠD", "ensity", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġevent", "Ġthat", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġecho", "Ġis", "Ġfrom", "Ġfirst", "Ġsurface", "Ġreflections", "Ġ(", "Ġor", "Ġso", "),", "Ġthe", "ĠOC", "Ġradar", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġfirst", "-", "order", "Ġapproximation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠFres", "nel", "Ġreflection", "Ġcoefficient", "Ġ(", "aka", "Ġreflect", "ivity", ")", "Ġand", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġestimate", "Ġthe", "Ġbulk", "Ġdensity", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġplanetary", "Ġsurface", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġdepth", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġmeter", "Ġor", "Ġso", "Ġ(", "a", "Ġfew", "Ġwavelengths", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġradar", "Ġwavelength", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġtypically", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġdec", "imeter", "Ġscale", ")", "Ġusing", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġempirical", "Ġrelationships", ":", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠCool", "Ġroof", "Ġ", "ĠDaisy", "world", "Ġ", "ĠEm", "iss", "ivity", "Ġ", "ĠExit", "ance", "Ġ", "ĠGlobal", "Ġdim", "ming", "Ġ", "ĠIr", "rad", "iance", "Ġ", "ĠKir", "ch", "hoff", "'s", "Ġlaw", "Ġof", "Ġthermal", "Ġradiation", "Ġ", "ĠOpposition", "Ġsurge", "Ġ", "ĠPolar", "Ġsee", "-", "saw", "Ġ", "ĠRadar", "Ġastronomy", "Ġ", "ĠSolar", "Ġradiation", "Ġmanagement", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "bed", "o", "ĠProject", "Ġ", "ĠAl", "bed", "o", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠEncyclopedia", "Ġof", "ĠEarth", "Ġ", "ĠNASA", "ĠMOD", "IS", "ĠBR", "DF", "/", "al", "bed", "o", "Ġproduct", "Ġsite", "Ġ", "ĠOcean", "Ġsurface", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġlook", "-", "up", "-", "table", "Ġ", "ĠSurface", "Ġal", "bed", "o", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "ĠMet", "e", "os", "at", "Ġobservations", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġdiscussion", "Ġof", "ĠLunar", "Ġal", "bed" ]
20
know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids. Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds. The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by: where is the astronomical albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, and is the absolute magnitude. Radar Albedo In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC). The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, , , or (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering. For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo): where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, . A smooth metallic sphere would have . Radar Albedos of Solar System Objects The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references. Relationship to Surface Bulk Density In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships: . See also Cool roof Daisyworld Emissivity Exitance Global dimming Irradiance Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation Opposition surge Polar see-saw Radar astronomy Solar radiation management References External links Albedo Project Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site Ocean surface albedo look-up-table Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations A discussion of Lunar albed
[ "os", "Ġ", "Ġreflect", "ivity", "Ġof", "Ġmetals", "Ġ(", "chart", ")", "Ġ", "ĠLand", "Ġsurface", "Ġeffects", "Ġon", "Ġclimate", "ĠClimate", "Ġchange", "Ġfeedback", "s", "ĠClimate", "Ġforcing", "ĠClim", "at", "ology", "ĠElect", "rom", "agnetic", "Ġradiation", "ĠRad", "i", "ometry", "ĠSc", "attering", ",", "Ġabsorption", "Ġand", "Ġradi", "ative", "Ġtransfer", "Ġ(", "opt", "ics", ")", "ĠRadiation", "Ġ17", "60", "s", "Ġne", "olog", "isms", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "A", ",", "Ġor", "Ġa", ",", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġletter", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġvowel", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "ĠEnglish", "Ġalphabet", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠISO", "Ġbasic", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġname", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġ(", "pron", "ounced", "Ġ),", "Ġplural", "Ġa", "es", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġsimilar", "Ġin", "Ġshape", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠAncient", "ĠGreek", "Ġletter", "Ġalpha", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "Ġit", "Ġderives", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġu", "pperc", "ase", "Ġversion", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġsl", "anting", "Ġsides", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtriangle", ",", "Ġcrossed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmiddle", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġhorizontal", "Ġbar", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlower", "case", "Ġversion", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġwritten", "Ġin", "Ġtwo", "Ġforms", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġdouble", "-", "store", "y", "Ġa", "Ġand", "Ġsingle", "-", "store", "y", "Ġ", "É", "ij", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlatter", "Ġis", "Ġcommonly", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġhandwriting", "Ġand", "Ġfonts", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġit", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġfonts", "Ġintended", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġread", "Ġby", "Ġchildren", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġital", "ic", "Ġtype", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠEnglish", "Ġgrammar", ",", "Ġ\"", "a", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġvariant", "Ġ\"", "an", "\",", "Ġare", "Ġindefinite", "Ġarticles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġearliest", "Ġcertain", "Ġancestor", "Ġof", "Ġ\"", "A", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġale", "ph", "Ġ(", "also", "Ġwritten", "Ġ'", "al", "eph", "),", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġletter", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġconsisted", "Ġentirely", "Ġof", "Ġconson", "ants", "Ġ(", "for", "Ġthat", "Ġreason", ",", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġcalled", "Ġan", "Ġab", "jad", "Ġto", "Ġdistinguish", "Ġit", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġalphabet", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġturn", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġancestor", "Ġof", "Ġale", "ph", "Ġmay", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġa", "Ġpict", "ogram", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġox", "Ġhead", "Ġin", "Ġproto", "-", "S", "ina", "itic", "Ġscript", "Ġinfluenced", "Ġby", "ĠEgyptian", "Ġhier", "ogly", "ph", "s", ",", "Ġstyled", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġtriangular", "Ġhead", "Ġwith", "Ġtwo", "Ġhorns", "Ġextended", ".", "Ġ", "ĠWhen", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "ĠGreeks", "Ġadopted", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġhad", "Ġno", "Ġuse", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġletter", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġthe", "Ġgl", "ott", "al", "Ġstop", "âĢĶ", "the", "Ġconson", "ant", "Ġsound", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġden", "oted", "Ġin", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġand", "Ġother", "ĠSem", "itic", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠPh", "oen", "ician", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "âĢĶ", "so", "Ġthey", "Ġused", "Ġtheir", "Ġversion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsign", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġthe", "Ġvowel", "Ġ,", "Ġand", "Ġcalled", "Ġit", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġsimilar", "Ġname", "Ġof", "Ġalpha", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġearliest", "ĠGreek", "Ġins", "criptions", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "ĠDark", "ĠAges", ",", "Ġdating", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġ8", "th", "Ġcentury", "ĠBC", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġrests", "Ġupon", "Ġits", "Ġside", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġalphabet", "Ġof", "Ġlater", "Ġtimes", "Ġit", "Ġgenerally", "Ġresembles", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "Ġcapital", "Ġletter", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġmany", "Ġlocal", "Ġvarieties", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġdistinguished", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġshort", "ening", "Ġof", "Ġone", "Ġleg", ",", "Ġor", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġangle", "Ġat", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġcross", "Ġline", "Ġis", "Ġset", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠE", "tr", "usc", "ans", "Ġbrought", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġalphabet", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġcivilization", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠItalian", "ĠPeninsula", "Ġand", "Ġleft", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġunchanged", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠRomans", "Ġlater", "Ġadopted", "Ġthe", "ĠE", "tr", "us", "can", "Ġalphabet", "Ġto", "Ġwrite", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġlanguage", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġresulting", "Ġletter", "Ġwas", "Ġpreserved", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", "Ġthat", "Ġwould", "Ġcome", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġwrite", "Ġmany", "Ġlanguages", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠEnglish", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTyp", "ographic", "Ġvariants", "Ġ", "ĠDuring", "ĠRoman", "Ġtimes", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġwere", "Ġmany", "Ġvariant", "Ġforms", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġ\"", "A", "\".", "ĠFirst", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġmonumental", "Ġor", "Ġlap", "id", "ary", "Ġstyle", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġused", "Ġwhen", "Ġins", "c", "ribing", "Ġon", "Ġstone", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġ\"", "per", "manent", "\"", "Ġmedia", ".", "ĠThere", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġa", "Ġcurs", "ive", "Ġstyle", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġeveryday", "Ġor", "Ġutilitarian", "Ġwriting", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġdone", "Ġon", "Ġmore", "Ġper", "ishable", "Ġsurfaces", ".", "ĠDue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "per", "ishable", "\"", "Ġnature", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġsurfaces", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġas", "Ġmany", "Ġexamples", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġstyle", "Ġas", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmonumental", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġstill", "Ġmany", "Ġsurviving", "Ġexamples", "Ġof", "Ġdifferent", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġcurs", "ive", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġmaj", "usc", "ule", "Ġcurs", "ive", ",", "Ġmin", "usc", "ule", "Ġcurs", "ive", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsemic", "ursive", "Ġmin", "usc", "ule", ".", "ĠVari", "ants", "Ġalso", "Ġexisted", "Ġthat", "Ġwere", "Ġintermediate", "Ġbetween", "Ġthe", "Ġmonumental", "Ġand", "Ġcurs", "ive", "Ġstyles", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġknown", "Ġvariants", "Ġinclude", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġsemi", "-", "un", "cial", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġun", "cial", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġlater", "Ġsemi", "-", "un", "cial", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġend", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠRoman", "ĠEmpire", "Ġ(", "5", "th", "Ġcentury", "ĠAD", "),", "Ġseveral", "Ġvariants", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcurs", "ive", "Ġmin", "usc", "ule", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġthrough", "ĠWestern", "ĠEurope", ".", "ĠAmong", "Ġthese", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "Ġsemic", "ursive", "Ġmin", "usc", "ule", "Ġof", "ĠItaly", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMer", "oving", "ian", "Ġscript", "Ġin", "ĠFrance", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠVis", "ig", "oth", "ic", "Ġscript", "Ġin", "ĠSpain", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠIns", "ular", "Ġor", "ĠAnglo", "-", "Irish", "Ġsemi", "-", "un", "cial", "Ġor", "ĠAnglo", "-", "Sax", "on", "Ġmaj", "usc", "ule", "Ġof", "ĠGreat", "ĠBritain", ".", "ĠBy", "Ġthe", "Ġ9", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠCaroline", "Ġscript", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġvery", "Ġsimilar", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpresent", "-", "day", "Ġform", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġprincipal", "Ġform", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġbook", "-", "making", ",", "Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġadvent", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġprinting", "Ġpress", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġform", "Ġwas", "Ġderived", "Ġthrough", "Ġa", "Ġcombining", "Ġof", "Ġprior", "Ġforms", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ15", "th", "-", "century", "ĠItaly", "Ġsaw", "Ġthe", "Ġformation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġmain", "Ġvariants", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġknown", "Ġtoday", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġvariants", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠItal", "ic", "Ġand", "ĠRoman", "Ġforms", ",", "Ġwere", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠCaroline", "ĠScript", "Ġversion", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠItal", "ic", "Ġform", ",", "Ġalso", "Ġcalled", "Ġscript", "Ġa", ",", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġmost", "Ġcurrent", "Ġhandwriting", ";", "Ġit", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġcircle", "Ġand", "Ġvertical", "Ġstroke", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġright", "Ġ(\"", "É", "ij", "\").", "ĠThis", "Ġslowly", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġfifth", "-", "century", "Ġform", "Ġresembling", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġletter", "Ġt", "au", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġhands", "Ġof", "Ġmedieval", "ĠIrish", "Ġand", "ĠEnglish", "Ġwriters", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠRoman", "Ġform", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġmost", "Ġprinted", "Ġmaterial", ";", "Ġit", "Ġconsists", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġloop", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġarc", "Ġover", "Ġit", "Ġ(\"", "a", "\").", "ĠBoth", "Ġderive", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġmaj", "usc", "ule", "Ġ(", "capital", ")", "Ġform", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠGreek", "Ġhandwriting", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġcommon", "Ġto", "Ġjoin", "Ġthe", "Ġleft", "Ġleg", "Ġand", "Ġhorizontal", "Ġstroke", "Ġinto", "Ġa", "Ġsingle", "Ġloop", ",", "Ġas", "Ġdemonstrated", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġun", "cial", "Ġversion", "Ġshown", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġfonts", "Ġthen", "Ġmade", "Ġthe", "Ġright", "Ġleg", "Ġvertical", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthese", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġser", "if", "Ġthat", "Ġbegan", "Ġthe", "Ġright", "Ġleg", "Ġstroke", "Ġdeveloped", "Ġinto", "Ġan", "Ġarc", ",", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġprinted", "Ġform", ",", "Ġwhile", "Ġin", "Ġothers", "Ġit" ]
21
os reflectivity of metals (chart) Land surface effects on climate Climate change feedbacks Climate forcing Climatology Electromagnetic radiation Radiometry Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics) Radiation 1760s neologisms <|endoftext|>A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes. It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", are indefinite articles. History The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English. Typographic variants During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting; it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right ("ɑ"). This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it
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";", "Ġthe", "Ġrounded", "Ġvowel", "Ġof", "Ġwater", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġshorter", "Ġrounded", "Ġvowel", "Ġ(", "not", "Ġpresent", "Ġin", "ĠGeneral", "ĠAmerican", ")", "Ġin", "Ġwas", "Ġand", "Ġwhat", ";", "Ġa", "Ġsch", "wa", ",", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġunst", "ressed", "Ġsyll", "ables", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġabout", ",", "Ġcomma", ",", "Ġsolar", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġdouble", "Ġ", "Ġsequence", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġoccur", "Ġin", "Ġnative", "ĠEnglish", "Ġwords", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġis", "Ġfound", "Ġin", "Ġsome", "Ġwords", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġforeign", "Ġlanguages", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠAaron", "Ġand", "Ġa", "ard", "v", "ark", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġ", "Ġoccurs", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġcommon", "Ġdig", "raph", "s", ",", "Ġall", "Ġwith", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġsound", "Ġor", "Ġsounds", ",", "Ġparticularly", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġ", "Ġand", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġthird", "-", "most", "-", "common", "ly", "Ġused", "Ġletter", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġ(", "after", "Ġ", "Ġand", "Ġ)", "Ġand", "ĠFrench", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġin", "ĠSpanish", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġcommon", "Ġin", "ĠPortuguese", ".", "ĠAbout", "Ġ8", ".", "167", "%", "Ġof", "Ġletters", "Ġused", "Ġin", "ĠEnglish", "Ġtexts", "Ġtend", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġ;", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġis", "Ġaround", "Ġ7", ".", "6", "36", "%", "Ġin", "ĠFrench", ",", "Ġ11", ".", "525", "%", "Ġin", "ĠSpanish", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ14", ".", "6", "34", "%", "Ġfor", "ĠPortuguese", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġlanguages", "ĠIn", "Ġmost", "Ġlanguages", "Ġthat", "Ġuse", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġ", "Ġdenotes", "Ġan", "Ġopen", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġ,", "Ġ,", "Ġor", "Ġ.", "ĠAn", "Ġexception", "Ġis", "ĠSa", "an", "ich", ",", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġ", "Ġ(", "and", "Ġthe", "Ġglyph", "ĠÃ", "ģ", ")", "Ġstands", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġclose", "-", "mid", "Ġfront", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġsystems", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġphon", "etic", "Ġand", "Ġphon", "emic", "Ġnotation", ":", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠInternational", "ĠPh", "on", "etic", "ĠAlphabet", ",", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġopen", "Ġfront", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", ",", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġopen", "Ġcentral", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġopen", "Ġback", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", ".", "Ġin", "ĠX", "-", "SAM", "PA", ",", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġopen", "Ġfront", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġopen", "Ġback", "Ġun", "rounded", "Ġvowel", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġuses", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġalgebra", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġa", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġvarious", "Ġother", "Ġletters", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġdenote", "Ġa", "Ġvariable", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġvarious", "Ġconventional", "Ġmeanings", "Ġin", "Ġdifferent", "Ġareas", "Ġof", "Ġmathematics", ".", "ĠMoreover", ",", "Ġin", "Ġ16", "37", ",", "ĠRen", "é", "ĠDes", "cart", "es", "Ġ\"", "in", "vent", "ed", "Ġthe", "Ġconvention", "Ġof", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġunknown", "s", "Ġin", "Ġequations", "Ġby", "Ġx", ",", "Ġy", ",", "Ġand", "Ġz", ",", "Ġand", "Ġknown", "s", "Ġby", "Ġa", ",", "Ġb", ",", "Ġand", "Ġc", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġconvention", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġoften", "Ġfollowed", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġin", "Ġelementary", "Ġalgebra", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġgeometry", ",", "Ġcapital", "ĠA", ",", "ĠB", ",", "ĠC", "Ġetc", ".", "Ġare", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġdenote", "Ġsegments", ",", "Ġlines", ",", "Ġrays", ",", "Ġetc", ".", "ĠA", "Ġcapital", "ĠA", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġtypically", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġletters", "Ġto", "Ġrepresent", "Ġan", "Ġangle", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġtriangle", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlower", "case", "Ġa", "Ġrepresenting", "Ġthe", "Ġside", "Ġopposite", "Ġangle", "ĠA", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ\"", "A", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġoften", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġdenote", "Ġsomething", "Ġor", "Ġsomeone", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġbetter", "Ġor", "Ġmore", "Ġprestigious", "Ġquality", "Ġor", "Ġstatus", ":", "ĠA", "-,", "ĠA", "Ġor", "ĠA", "+,", "Ġthe", "Ġbest", "Ġgrade", "Ġthat", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġassigned", "Ġby", "Ġteachers", "Ġfor", "Ġstudents", "'", "Ġschool", "work", ";", "Ġ\"", "A", "Ġgrade", "\"", "Ġfor", "Ġclean", "Ġrestaurants", ";", "ĠA", "-", "list", "Ġcelebrities", ",", "Ġetc", ".", "ĠSuch", "Ġassociations", "Ġcan", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġmotivating", "Ġeffect", ",", "Ġas", "Ġexposure", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "ĠA", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġfound", "Ġto", "Ġimprove", "Ġperformance", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġcompared", "Ġwith", "Ġother", "Ġletters", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ\"", "A", "\"", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġprefix", "Ġon", "Ġsome", "Ġwords", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġasymm", "etry", ",", "Ġto", "Ġmean", "Ġ\"", "not", "\"", "Ġor", "Ġ\"", "without", "\"", "Ġ(", "from", "ĠGreek", ").", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠEnglish", "Ġgrammar", ",", "Ġ\"", "a", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġvariant", "Ġ\"", "an", "\",", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġindefinite", "Ġarticle", ",", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġintroduce", "Ġnoun", "Ġphrases", ".", "Ġ", "ĠFinally", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "ĠA", "Ġis", "Ġused", "Ġto", "Ġdenote", "Ġsize", ",", "Ġas", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġnarrow", "Ġsize", "Ġshoe", ",", "Ġor", "Ġa", "Ġsmall", "Ġcup", "Ġsize", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġbrass", "iere", ".", "Ġ", "ĠRelated", "Ġcharacters", "Ġ", "ĠDes", "cend", "ants", "Ġand", "Ġrelated", "Ġcharacters", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠLatin", "Ġalphabet", "ĠÃ", "Ĩ", "ĠÃ", "¦", "Ġ:", "ĠLatin", "ĠAE", "Ġlig", "ature", "ĠA", "Ġwith", "Ġdi", "ac", "rit", "ics", ":", "ĠÃ", "ħ", "ĠÃ", "¥", "Ġ", "Ç", "º", "Ġ", "Ç", "»", "Ġá", "¸", "Ģ", "Ġá", "¸", "ģ", "Ġá", "º", "ļ", "ĠÄ", "Ĥ", "ĠÄ", "ĥ", "Ġá", "º", "¶", "Ġá", "º", "·", "Ġá", "º", "®", "Ġá", "º", "¯", "Ġá", "º", "°", "Ġá", "º", "±", "Ġá", "º", "²", "Ġá", "º", "³", "Ġá", "º", "´", "Ġá", "º", "µ", "Ġ", "È", "Ĥ", "Ġ", "È", "ĥ", "Ġ", "ÃĤ", "ĠÃ", "¢", "Ġá", "º", "¬", "Ġá", "º", "Ń", "Ġá", "º", "¤", "Ġá", "º", "¥", "Ġá", "º", "¦", "Ġá", "º", "§", "Ġá", "º", "ª", "Ġá", "º", "«", "Ġá", "º", "¨", "Ġá", "º", "©", "Ġá", "º", "¢", "Ġá", "º", "£", "Ġ", "Ç", "į", "Ġ", "Ç", "İ", "Ġ", "È", "º", "Ġâ", "±", "¥", "Ġ", "È", "¦", "Ġ", "È", "§", "Ġ", "Ç", "ł", "Ġ", "Ç", "¡", "Ġá", "º", "ł", "Ġá", "º", "¡", "ĠÃ" ]
22
was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the Italic and Roman forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively. Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet). Use in writing systems English In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: the near-open front unrounded vowel as in pad; the open back unrounded vowel as in father, which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; the diphthong as in ace and major (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift; the modified form of the above sound that occurs before , as in square and Mary; the rounded vowel of water; the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in was and what; a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in about, comma, solar. The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark. However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and . is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ) and French, the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese. About 8.167% of letters used in English texts tend to be ; the number is around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese. Other languages In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel . Other systems In phonetic and phonemic notation: in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. Other uses In algebra, the letter a along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics. Moreover, in 1637, René Descartes "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra. In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A. "A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters. "A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek). In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article, used to introduce noun phrases. Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere. Related characters Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet Æ æ : Latin AE ligature A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ �
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"Ġuniversal", "Ġquant", "ification", "Ġ(\"", "for", "Ġall", "\")", "Ġ@", "Ġ:", "ĠAt", "Ġsign", "Ġâ", "Ĥ", "³", "Ġ:", "ĠArgentine", "Ġaust", "ral", "Ġ", "ĠAncest", "ors", "Ġand", "Ġsiblings", "Ġin", "Ġother", "Ġal", "ph", "ab", "ets", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ð", "IJ", "¤", "Ģ", "Ġ:", "ĠSem", "itic", "Ġletter", "ĠAle", "ph", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġsymbols", "Ġoriginally", "Ġderive", "ĠÎ", "ij", "Ġα", "Ġ:", "ĠGreek", "Ġletter", "ĠAlpha", ",", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", "Ġletters", "Ġderive", "ĠÐ", "IJ", "ĠÐ", "°", "Ġ:", "ĠCyr", "ill", "ic", "Ġletter", "ĠA", "Ġ", "Ġ:", "ĠCop", "tic", "Ġletter", "ĠAlpha", "Ġ", "ð", "IJ", "Į", "Ģ", "Ġ:", "ĠOld", "ĠItal", "ic", "ĠA", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġancestor", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "ĠLatin", "ĠA", "Ġ", "Ġ:", "ĠRun", "ic", "Ġletter", "Ġan", "su", "z", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġprobably", "Ġderives", "Ġfrom", "Ġold", "ĠItal", "ic", "ĠA", "Ġ", "Ġ:", "ĠGothic", "Ġletter", "Ġa", "za", "/", "asks", "Ġ", "Ô", "±", "Ġ", "Õ", "¡", "Ġ:", "ĠArmenian", "Ġletter", "ĠAy", "b", "Ġ", "ĠComputing", "Ġcodes", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ1", "Ġ", "ĠOther", "Ġrepresentations", "Ġ", "ĠNotes", "Ġ", "ĠFoot", "notes", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAlphabet", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠISO", "Ġbasic", "ĠLatin", "Ġletters", "ĠV", "ow", "el", "Ġletters", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Alabama", "Ġ()", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġstate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠS", "outheastern", "Ġregion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ",", "Ġb", "ordered", "Ġby", "ĠTennessee", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġnorth", ";", "ĠGeorgia", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeast", ";", "ĠFlorida", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠGulf", "Ġof", "ĠMexico", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsouth", ";", "Ġand", "ĠMississippi", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġwest", ".", "ĠAlabama", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġ30", "th", "Ġlargest", "Ġby", "Ġarea", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġ24", "th", "-", "most", "Ġpopulous", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġstates", ".", "ĠWith", "Ġa", "Ġtotal", "Ġof", "Ġ", "Ġof", "Ġinland", "Ġwaterways", ",", "ĠAlabama", "Ġhas", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġstate", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlabama", "Ġis", "Ġnicknamed", "Ġthe", "ĠYellow", "hammer", "ĠState", ",", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġbird", ".", "ĠAlabama", "Ġis", "Ġalso", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "Heart", "Ġof", "ĠD", "ixie", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "C", "otton", "ĠState", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġstate", "Ġtree", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġlong", "leaf", "Ġpine", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġflower", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġcame", "ll", "ia", ".", "ĠAlabama", "'s", "Ġcapital", "Ġis", "ĠMontgomery", ",", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġlargest", "Ġcity", "Ġby", "Ġpopulation", "Ġand", "Ġarea", "Ġis", "ĠHunts", "ville", ".", "ĠIts", "Ġoldest", "Ġcity", "Ġis", "ĠMobile", ",", "Ġfounded", "Ġby", "ĠFrench", "Ġcolonists", "Ġin", "Ġ17", "02", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġcapital", "Ġof", "ĠFrench", "ĠLouisiana", ".", "ĠGreater", "ĠBirmingham", "Ġis", "ĠAlabama", "'s", "Ġlargest", "Ġmetropolitan", "Ġarea", "Ġand", "Ġits", "Ġeconomic", "Ġcenter", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOriginally", "Ġhome", "Ġto", "Ġmany", "Ġnative", "Ġtribes", ",", "Ġpresent", "-", "day", "ĠAlabama", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "ĠSpanish", "Ġterritory", "Ġbeginning", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsix", "teenth", "Ġcentury", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġacquired", "Ġit", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġeighteenth", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠBritish", "Ġwon", "Ġthe", "Ġterritory", "Ġin", "Ġ17", "63", "Ġuntil", "Ġlosing", "Ġit", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "ĠRevolutionary", "ĠWar", ".", "ĠSpain", "Ġheld", "ĠMobile", "Ġas", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "ĠSpanish", "ĠWest", "ĠFlorida", "Ġuntil", "Ġ18", "13", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠDecember", "Ġ18", "19", ",", "ĠAlabama", "Ġwas", "Ġrecognized", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġstate", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthe", "Ġante", "bell", "um", "Ġperiod", ",", "ĠAlabama", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġproducer", "Ġof", "Ġcotton", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwidely", "Ġused", "ĠAfrican", "ĠAmerican", "Ġslave", "Ġlabor", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ1861", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġse", "ced", "ed", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġto", "Ġbecome", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠConfederate", "ĠStates", "Ġof", "ĠAmerica", ",", "Ġwith", "ĠMontgomery", "Ġacting", "Ġas", "Ġits", "Ġfirst", "Ġcapital", ",", "Ġand", "Ġrejo", "ined", "Ġthe", "ĠUnion", "Ġin", "Ġ18", "68", ".", "ĠFollowing", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "ĠCivil", "ĠWar", ",", "ĠAlabama", "Ġwould", "Ġsuffer", "Ġdecades", "Ġof", "Ġeconomic", "Ġhardship", ",", "Ġin", "Ġpart", "Ġdue", "Ġto", "Ġagriculture", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġcash", "Ġcrops", "Ġbeing", "Ġthe", "Ġmain", "Ġdriver", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġstates", "Ġeconomy", ".", "ĠSimilar", "Ġto", "Ġother", "Ġformer", "Ġslave", "Ġstates", ",", "ĠAl", "ab", "am", "ian", "Ġlegislators", "Ġemployed", "ĠJim", "ĠCrow", "Ġlaws", "Ġto", "Ġdisenfranch", "ise", "Ġand", "Ġdiscriminate", "Ġagainst", "ĠAfrican", "ĠAmericans", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", "Ġup", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġ1960", "s", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġ20", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġdespite", "Ġthe", "Ġgrowth", "Ġof", "Ġmajor", "Ġindustries", "Ġand", "Ġurban", "Ġcenters", ",", "Ġwhite", "Ġrural", "Ġinterests", "Ġdominated", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġlegislature", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġmid", "-", "20", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠDuring", "Ġthis", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġurban", "Ġinterests", "Ġand", "ĠAfrican", "ĠAmericans", "Ġwere", "Ġmarkedly", "Ġunder", "-", "represented", ".", "ĠHigh", "-", "profile", "Ġevents", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe" ]
23
� ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA Λ ʌ : Turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha ᴀ : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels) A a ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) (sometimes encoded with Unicode subscripts and superscripts) a : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system Ꞻ ꞻ : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations ª : an ordinal indicator Å : Ångström sign ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all") @ : At sign ₳ : Argentine austral Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets 𐤀 : Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive А а : Cyrillic letter A : Coptic letter Alpha 𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A : Gothic letter aza/asks Ա ա : Armenian letter Ayb Computing codes 1 Other representations Notes Footnotes References External links History of the Alphabet ISO basic Latin letters Vowel letters <|endoftext|>Alabama () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered by Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south; and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states. With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state. Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State". The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville. Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center. Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868. Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the states economy. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and discriminate against African Americans from the late 19th century up until the 1960s. In the early 20th century, despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature through the mid-20th century. During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented. High-profile events such as the
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24
Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. During and after World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology. The state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay, a historically significant port. Politically, as part of the Deep South, Alabama is predominantly a conservative state, and culturally is known for its Southern culture. Within Alabama, American football, particularly at the college level at schools such as the University of Alabama, Auburn University, Alabama A&M University, Alabama State University, Troy University, the University of South Alabama, and Jacksonville State University, play a major part of the state's culture. Etymology The European-American naming of the Alabama River and state was derived from the Alabama people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is (or variously or in different dialects; the plural form is ). The suggestion that "Alabama" was borrowed from the Choctaw language is unlikely. The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively, in transliterations of the term. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the , with French maps identifying the river as . Other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. and possibly Alabahmu. The use of state names derived from Native American languages is common in the U.S.; an estimated 27 states have names of Native American origin. Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') and (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', or 'to gather'). The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket' or 'herb gatherers', referring to clearing land for cultivation or collecting medicinal plants. The state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language. An 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek. Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. History Pre-European settlement Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000BCE700CE) and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture, but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee, an Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama (Alibamu), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Koasati. While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. European settlement The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French
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25
founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane. After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War, it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813. Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County. What is now the counties of Baldwin and Mobile became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783, part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, and was finally added to the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed. With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819. Early 19th century Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory. The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. St. Stephens, now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County. Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded. The economy of the central Black Belt (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor. The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830. Most Native American tribes were completely removed from the state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830. From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine. Civil War and Reconstruction By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined
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"\"", "Ġtable", "Ġbelow", ")", "Ġdropped", "Ġby", "Ġnearly", "Ġhalf", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1910", "Ġto", "Ġ1920", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġrural", "Ġpeople", "Ġmigrated", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġcity", "Ġof", "ĠBirmingham", "Ġto", "Ġwork", "Ġin", "Ġnew", "Ġindustrial", "Ġjobs", ".", "ĠBirmingham", "Ġexperienced", "Ġsuch", "Ġrapid", "Ġgrowth", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "Magic", "ĠCity", "\".", "ĠBy", "Ġ1920", ",", "ĠBirmingham", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġ36", "th", "-", "largest", "Ġcity", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ".", "ĠHeavy", "Ġindustry", "Ġand", "Ġmining", "Ġwere", "Ġthe" ]
26
Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coattails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier. Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation. Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, these included the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, and the White League. Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875, and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment, prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools. The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. 20th century The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor European Americans, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a poll tax and literacy test. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945. While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax. By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African-Americans. Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama these schools were designed and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well. Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African-American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Continued racial discrimination and lynchings, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the "Magic City". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the
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"ĠCenter", "Ġin", "Ġ1960", ",", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġfacility", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠSaturn", "Ġrocket", "Ġprogram", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġspace", "Ġshuttle", ".", "ĠTechnology", "Ġand", "Ġmanufacturing", "Ġindustries", ",", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġautomobile", "Ġassembly", ",", "Ġreplaced", "Ġsome", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "'s", "Ġolder", "Ġindustries", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlate", "Ġtwentieth", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "'s", "Ġeconomy", "Ġand", "Ġgrowth" ]
27
basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature." In the United States Supreme Court cases of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties. In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to The New York Times, by 2017, many of Alabama's African-Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry." Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v. Crenshaw County, challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions. As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in Conecuh County. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens. Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth
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",", "Ġa", "Ġcategory", "Ġ3", "Ġstorm", "Ġupon", "Ġlandfall", ",", "Ġstruck", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġand", "Ġcaused", "Ġover", "Ġ$", "18", "Ġbillion", "Ġof", "Ġdamage", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġamong", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġdestructive", "Ġstorms", "Ġto", "Ġstrike", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġin", "Ġits", "Ġmodern", "Ġhistory", ".", "ĠA", "Ġsuper", "Ġoutbreak", "Ġof", "Ġ62", "Ġtorn", "adoes", "Ġhit", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġin", "ĠApril", "Ġ2011", "Ġand", "Ġkilled", "Ġ238", "Ġpeople", ",", "Ġdevastating", "Ġmany", "Ġcommunities", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGe", "ography", "Ġ", "ĠAlabama", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġth", "irt", "ieth", "-", "largest", "Ġstate", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġwith", "Ġ", "Ġof", "Ġtotal", "Ġarea", ":", "Ġ3", ".", "2", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġarea", "Ġis", "Ġwater", ",", "Ġmaking", "ĠAlabama", "Ġ23", "rd", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġamount", "Ġof", "Ġsurface", "Ġwater", ",", "Ġalso", "Ġgiving", "Ġit", "Ġthe", "Ġsecond", "-", "largest", "Ġinland", "Ġwater", "way", "Ġsystem", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", 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28
lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida. 21st century In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003. A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities. Geography Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain, a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. The state ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay to more than in the northeast, to Mount Cheaha at . Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of the state's total land area. Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. Notable natural wonders include: the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, located just south of Haleyville; Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County, named for its cathedral-like appearance, features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge in Fairhope, the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico; DeSoto Caverns in Childersburg, the first officially recorded cave in the United States; Noccalula Falls in Gadsden features a 90-foot waterfall; Dismals Canyon near Phil Campbell, home to two waterfalls, six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James; Stephens Gap Cave in Jackson County boasts a 143-foot pit, two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; Little River Canyon near Fort Payne, one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the Walls of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee state line. A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth. Climate The state is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Koppen Climate Classification. The average annual temperature is 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an
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29
average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and hurricanes. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. South Alabama reports many thunderstorms. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. Alabama, along with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62. The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of Centerville. The record low of occurred on January 30, 1966, in New Market. Flora and fauna Alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna in habitats that range from the Tennessee Valley, Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians of the north to the Piedmont, Canebrake, and Black Belt of the central region to the Gulf Coastal Plain and beaches along the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity. Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant species. Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species, 93 reptile species, 73 amphibian species, roughly 307 native freshwater fish species, and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state. Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state. Census-designated and metropolitan areas Cities Demographics According to the 2020 United States census the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 on April 1, 2020, which represents an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, since the 2010 census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state. Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000). The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County, outside the town of Jemison. Ancestry Those citing "American" ancestry in
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"Ġthe", "ĠDavis", "âĢĵ", "Strong", "ĠAct", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġlegislature", "Ġestablished", "Ġthe", "ĠAlabama", "ĠIndian", "ĠAffairs", "ĠCommission", ".", "ĠNative", "ĠAmerican", "Ġgroups", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġhad", "Ġincreasingly", "Ġbeen", "Ġdemanding", "Ġrecognition", "Ġas", "Ġethnic", "Ġgroups", "Ġand", "Ġseeking", "Ġan", "Ġend", "Ġto", "Ġdiscrimination", ".", "ĠGiven", "Ġthe", "Ġlong", "Ġhistory", "Ġof", "Ġslavery", "Ġand", "Ġassociated", "Ġracial", "Ġsegregation", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠNative", "ĠAmerican", "Ġpeoples", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġhave", "Ġsometimes", "Ġbeen", "Ġof", "Ġmixed", "Ġrace", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġinsisted", "Ġon", "Ġhaving", "Ġtheir", "Ġcultural", "Ġidentification", "Ġrespected", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġpast", ",", "Ġtheir", "Ġself", "-", "ident", "ification", "Ġwas", "Ġoften", "Ġoverlooked", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġtried", "Ġto", "Ġimpose", "Ġa", "Ġbinary", "Ġbreakdown", "Ġof", "Ġsociety", "Ġinto", "Ġwhite", "Ġand", "Ġblack", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstate", "Ġhas", "Ġofficially", "Ġrecognized", "Ġnine", "ĠAmerican", "ĠIndian", "Ġtribes", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġdescended", "Ġmostly", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠFive", "ĠCivil", "ized", "ĠTrib", "es", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAmerican", "ĠSoutheast", ".", "ĠThese", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPo", "arch", "ĠBand", "Ġof", "ĠCreek", "ĠIndians", "Ġ(", "who", "Ġalso", "Ġhave", "Ġfederal", "Ġrecognition", ")", "Ġ", "ĠM", "OW", "A", "ĠBand", "Ġof", "ĠCho", "ct", "aw", "ĠIndians", "Ġ", "ĠStar", "ĠClan", "Ġof", "ĠMus", "co", "gee", "ĠCree", "ks", "Ġ", "ĠE", "ch", "ota", "ĠCherokee", "ĠTribe", "Ġof", "ĠAlabama", "Ġ", "ĠCherokee", "ĠTribe", "Ġof", "ĠNortheast", "ĠAlabama", "Ġ", "ĠCher", "-", "O", "-", "C", "reek", "ĠInt", "ra", "ĠTribal", "ĠIndians", "Ġ", "ĠMa", "-", "Ch", "is", "ĠLower", "ĠCreek", "ĠIndian", "ĠTribe", "Ġ", "ĠP", "iqu", "a", "ĠShawn", "ee", "ĠTribe", "Ġ", "ĠAn", "i", "-", "Y", "un", "-", "W", "iya", "ĠNation", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġstate", "Ġgovernment", "Ġhas", "Ġpromoted", "Ġrecognition", "Ġof", "ĠNative", "ĠAmerican", "Ġcontributions", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġdesignation", "Ġin", "Ġ2000", "Ġfor", "ĠColumbus", "ĠDay", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġjointly", "Ġcelebrated", "Ġas", "ĠAmerican", "ĠIndian", "ĠHeritage", "ĠDay", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLanguage", "ĠMost", "ĠAlabama", "Ġresidents", "Ġ(", "95", ".", "1", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġfive", "Ġand", "Ġolder", ")", "Ġspoke", "Ġonly", "ĠEnglish", "Ġat", "Ġhome", "Ġin", "Ġ2010", ",", "Ġa", "Ġminor", "Ġdecrease", "Ġfrom", "Ġ96", ".", "1", "%", "Ġin", "Ġ2000", ".", "ĠAlabama", "ĠEnglish", "Ġis", "Ġpredominantly", "ĠSouthern", ",", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "ĠSouth", "ĠMid", "land", "Ġspeech", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġtaken", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "Ġborder", "Ġfrom", "ĠTennessee", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġmajor", "ĠSouthern", "Ġspeech", "Ġregion", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġdecreasing", "Ġloss", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfinal", "Ġr", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", "Ġthe", "Ġ\"", "boy", "d", "\"", "Ġpronunciation", "Ġof", "Ġ\"", "bird", "\".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġnorthern", "Ġthird", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "ĠSouth", "ĠMid", "land", "Ġ\"", "arm", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "bar", "b", "\"", "Ġrhy", "ming", "Ġwith", "Ġ\"", "form", "\"", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "orb", "\".", "ĠUnique", "Ġwords", "Ġin", "ĠAlabama", "ĠEnglish", "Ġinclude", ":", "Ġred", "worm", "Ġ(", "earth", "worm", "),", "Ġpe", "cker", "wood", "Ġ(", "wood", "pe", "cker", "),", "Ġsnake", "Ġdoctor", "Ġand", "Ġsnake", "Ġfeed", "er", "Ġ(", "dragon", "fly", "),", "Ġtow", "Ġsack", "Ġ(", "bur", "lap", "Ġbag", "),", "Ġplum", "Ġpeach", "Ġ(", "cling", "stone", "),", "ĠFrench", "Ġhar", "p", "Ġ(", "harm", "onica", "),", "Ġand", "Ġdog", "Ġir", "ons", "Ġ(", "and", "ir", "ons", ").", "Ġ", "ĠReligion", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġ2008", "ĠAmerican", "ĠReligious", "ĠIdentification", "ĠSurvey", ",", "Ġ86", "%", "Ġof", "ĠAlabama", "Ġrespondents", "Ġreported", "Ġtheir", "Ġreligion", "Ġas", "ĠChristian", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġ6", "%", "ĠCatholic", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġ11", "%", "Ġas", "Ġhaving", "Ġno", "Ġreligion", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcomposition", "Ġof", "Ġother", "Ġtraditions", "Ġis", "Ġ0", ".", "5", "%", "ĠMormon", ",", "Ġ0", ".", "5", "%", "ĠJewish", ",", "Ġ0", ".", "5", "%", "ĠMuslim", ",", "Ġ0", ".", "5", "%", "ĠBuddhist", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ0", ".", "5", "%", "ĠHindu", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlabama", "Ġis", "Ġlocated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmiddle", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠBible", "ĠBelt", ",", "Ġa", "Ġregion", "Ġof", "Ġnumerous", "ĠProtestant", "ĠChristians", ".", "ĠAlabama", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġidentified", "Ġas", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmost", "Ġreligious", "Ġstates", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġabout", "Ġ58", "%", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpopulation", "Ġattending", "Ġchurch", "Ġregularly", ".", "ĠA", "Ġmajority", "Ġof", "Ġpeople", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġidentify", "Ġas", "ĠEvangel", "ical", "ĠProtestant", ".", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "Ġthree", "Ġlargest", "Ġdenomin", "ational", "Ġgroups", "Ġin", "ĠAlabama", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "ĠSouthern", "ĠBaptist", "ĠConvention", ",", "ĠThe", "ĠUnited", "ĠMethodist", "ĠChurch", ",", "Ġand", "Ġnon", "-", "den", "omin", "ational", "ĠEvangel", "ical", "ĠProtestant", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "ĠAlabama", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠSouthern", "ĠBaptist", "ĠConvention", "Ġhas", "Ġthe", "Ġhighest", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġadherents", "Ġwith", "Ġ1", ",", "380", ",", "121", ";", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠMethodist", "ĠChurch", "Ġwith", "Ġ327", ",", "7", "34", "Ġadherents", ",", "Ġnon", "-", "den", "omin", "ational", "ĠEvangel", "ical", "ĠProtestant", "Ġwith", "Ġ220", ",", "9", "38", "Ġadherents", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠCatholic", "ĠChurch", "Ġwith", "Ġ150", ",", "647", "Ġadherents", ".", "ĠMany", "ĠBaptist", "Ġand", "ĠMethodist", "Ġcongreg", "ations", "Ġbecame", "Ġestablished", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "ĠAwakening", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġearly", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġpre", "achers", "Ġprose", "ly", "t", "ized", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "ĠSouth", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAs", "semb", "lies", "Ġof", 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30
Alabama are of overwhelmingly English extraction, however most English Americans identify simply as having American ancestry because their roots have been in North America for so long, in many cases since the early sixteen hundreds. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and state that the figure is probably much higher. In the 1980 census 1,139,976 people in Alabama cited that they were of English ancestry out of a total state population of 2,824,719 making them 41% of the state at the time and the largest ethnic group. In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities. The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are American (13.4%), Irish (10.5%), English (10.2%), German (7.9%), and Scots-Irish (2.5%) based on 2006-2008 Census data. The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed. In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission. Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast. These are the following. Poarch Band of Creek Indians (who also have federal recognition) MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians Star Clan of Muscogee Creeks Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians Ma-Chis Lower Creek Indian Tribe Piqua Shawnee Tribe Ani-Yun-Wiya Nation The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day. Language Most Alabama residents (95.1% of those five and older) spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000. Alabama English is predominantly Southern, and is related to South Midland speech which was taken across the border from Tennessee. In the major Southern speech region, there is the decreasing loss of the final r, for example the "boyd" pronunciation of "bird". In the northern third of the state, there is a South Midland "arm" and "barb" rhyming with "form" and "orb". Unique words in Alabama English include: redworm (earthworm), peckerwood (woodpecker), snake doctor and snake feeder (dragonfly), tow sack (burlap bag), plum peach (clingstone), French harp (harmonica), and dog irons (andirons). Religion In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu. Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant. In Alabama, the Southern Baptist Convention has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members, the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members. The Presbyterian churches, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 (PCA—28,009 members in 108 congregations, PC(USA)—26,247 members in 147 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church—6,000 members in 59 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America—5,000 members and fifty congregations plus the EPC and
[ "ĠAssociate", "ĠRe", "formed", "ĠPresbyter", "ians", "Ġwith", "Ġ230", "Ġmembers", "Ġand", "Ġnine", "Ġcongreg", "ations", ").", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġa", "Ġ2007", "Ġsurvey", ",", "Ġnearly", "Ġ70", "%", "Ġof", "Ġrespondents", "Ġcould", "Ġname", "Ġall", "Ġfour", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠChristian", "ĠG", "ospels", ".", "ĠOf", "Ġthose", "Ġwho", "Ġindicated", "Ġa", "Ġreligious", "Ġpreference", ",", "Ġ59", "%", "Ġsaid", "Ġthey", "Ġpossessed", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "full", "Ġunderstanding", "\"", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġfaith", "Ġand", "Ġneeded", "Ġno", "Ġfurther", "Ġlearning", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġa", "Ġ2007", "Ġpoll", ",", "Ġ92", "%", "Ġof", "ĠAl", "ab", "am", "ians", "Ġreported", "Ġhaving", "Ġat", "Ġleast", "Ġsome", "Ġconfidence", "Ġin", "Ġchurches", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlthough", "Ġin", "Ġmuch", "Ġsmaller", "Ġnumbers", ",", "Ġmany", "Ġother", "Ġreligious", "Ġfaiths", "Ġare", "Ġrepresented", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġas", "Ġwell", ",", "Ġincluding", "ĠJudaism", ",", "ĠIslam", ",", "ĠHindu", "ism", ",", 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31
Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations). In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state. Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Unitarian Universalism. Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic Jews immigrated from London. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two Orthodox, four Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic synagogue. Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa. There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan. The first community of adherents of the Baháʼí Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to Fairhope. Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, and Florence. Health In 2018, life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and gun crimes. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults. On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act, banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and incest. The law, if enacted, would punish doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment and be the most restrictive abortion law in the country. However, on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson blocked the law from taking effect. Economy The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil
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"Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ67", ",", "800", "Ġnew", "Ġjobs", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", ".", "ĠAlabama", "Ġcurrently", "Ġranks", "Ġ4", "th", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġnation", "Ġfor", "Ġvehicle", "Ġexports", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAutom", "akers", "Ġaccounted", "Ġfor", "Ġapproximately", "Ġa", "Ġthird", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġindustrial", "Ġexpansion", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "Ġin", "Ġ2012", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġeight", "Ġmodels", "Ġproduced", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "'s", "Ġauto", "Ġfactories", "Ġtotaled", "Ġcombined", "Ġsales", "Ġof", "Ġ74", ",", "335", "Ġvehicles", "Ġfor", "Ġ2012", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstrongest", "Ġmodel", "Ġsales", "Ġduring", "Ġthis", "Ġperiod", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "ĠHyundai", "ĠEl", "ant", "ra", "Ġcompact", "Ġcar", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠMercedes", "-", "Benz", "ĠGL", "-", "Class", "Ġsport", "Ġutility", "Ġvehicle", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠHonda", "ĠRid", "g", "eline", "Ġsport", "Ġutility", "Ġtruck", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSteel", "Ġproducers", "ĠOut", "ok", "ump", "u", ",", "ĠN", "uc", "or", ",", "ĠS", "SA", "B", ",", "ĠThy", "ss", "en", "K", "ru", "pp", ",", "Ġand", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "ĠSteel", "Ġhave", "Ġfacilities", "Ġin", "ĠAlabama", "Ġand", "Ġemploy", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ10", ",", "000", "Ġpeople", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠMay", "Ġ2007", ",", "ĠGerman", "Ġsteel", "maker", "ĠThy", "ss", "en", "K", "ru", "pp", "Ġselected", "ĠCal", "vert", "Ġin", "ĠMobile", "ĠCounty", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġ4", ".", "65", "billion", "Ġcombined", "Ġstainless", "Ġand", "Ġcarbon", "Ġsteel", "Ġprocessing", "Ġfacility", ".", "ĠThy", "ss", "en", "K", "ru", "pp", "'s", "Ġstainless", "Ġsteel", "Ġdivision", ",", "ĠIn", "ox", "um", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġstainless", "Ġportion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠCal", "vert", "Ġplant", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġsold", "Ġto", "ĠFinnish", "Ġstainless", "Ġsteel", "Ġcompany", "ĠOut", "ok", "ump", "u", "Ġin", "Ġ2012", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġremaining", "Ġportion", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠThy", "ss", "en", "K", "ru", "pp", "Ġplant", "Ġhad", "Ġfinal", "Ġbids", "Ġsubmitted", "Ġby", "ĠAr", "ce", "lor", "M", "ittal", "Ġand", "ĠN", "ipp", "on", 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32
extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving. According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2008 total gross state product was $170billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information. In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984. The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%. Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham city ordinance would have raised theirs to $10.10.) , Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world. Largest employers The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were: The next twenty largest employers, , included: Agriculture Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports, with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three. Aquaculture Aquaculture is a large part of the economy of Alabama. Alabamians began to practice aquaculture in the early 1960s. U.S. farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America. By 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed by the catfish industry and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish. In 2020, Alabama produced ⅓ of the United States' farm-raised catfish. The total 2020 sales of catfish raised in Alabama equaled $307 million but by 2020 the total employment of Alabamians fell to 2,442. From the early 2000s to 2020, the Alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms and 4 processors to 66 farms and 2 processors. Reasons for this decline include increased feed prices, catfish alternatives, COVID-19’s impact on restaurant sales, disease, and fish size. Industry Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and apparel. In addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, the location of NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Army Materiel Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal. A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz U.S. International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports. Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck. Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and U.S. Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6billion in March 2013. Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion. In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel. The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a
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"K", ",", "ĠHo", "ar", "ĠConstruction", ",", "Ġand", "ĠB", ".", "L", ".", "ĠHar", "bert", "ĠInternational", ",", "Ġbased", "Ġin", "ĠAlabama", "Ġand", "Ġsubsidiaries", "Ġof", "ĠU", "RS", "ĠCorporation", ",", "Ġare", "Ġall", "Ġroutinely", "Ġare", "Ġincluded", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠEngineering", "ĠNews", "-", "Record", "Ġlists", "Ġof", "Ġtop", "Ġdesign", ",", "Ġinternational", "Ġconstruction", ",", "Ġand", "Ġengineering", "Ġfirms", ".", "Ġ", "ĠLaw", "Ġand", "Ġgovernment", "Ġ", "ĠState", "Ġgovernment", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġfoundational", "Ġdocument", "Ġfor", "ĠAlabama", "'s", "Ġgovernment", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "ĠAlabama", "ĠConstitution", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġratified", "Ġin", "Ġ1901", ".", "ĠWith", "Ġover", "Ġ850", "Ġamendments", "Ġand", "Ġalmost", "Ġ87", ",", "000", "Ġwords", ",", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġby", "Ġsome", "Ġaccounts", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", "'s", "Ġlongest", "Ġconstitution", "Ġand", "Ġis", "Ġroughly", "Ġforty", "Ġtimes", "Ġthe", "Ġlength", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "ĠConstitution", ".", 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33
refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville. JVC America, Inc. operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden which employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility. Tourism and entertainment According to Business Insider, Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 jobs in the state, which includes 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million. The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual Hangout Music Festival, held on the public beaches of Gulf Shores; the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, one of the ten largest Shakespeare festivals in the world; the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as Victoryland; amusement parks such as Alabama Splash Adventure; the Riverchase Galleria, one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; Guntersville Lake, voted the best lake in Alabama by Southern Living Magazine readers; and the Alabama Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in the state. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day. Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties. In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543,090. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors. Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include: Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Get Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The Final Destination, Due Date, Need For Speed and many more. Healthcare UAB Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama having a market share of 84% followed by UnitedHealth Group at 7%. Banking Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in or operating in Alabama. PNC Financial Services and Wells Fargo also have a major presence in Alabama. Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation. Electronics and communications Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. Many technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as ADTRAN, a network access company; Intergraph, a computer graphics company; and Avocent, an IT infrastructure company. Construction Brasfield & Gorrie, BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L. Harbert International, based in Alabama and subsidiaries of URS Corporation, are all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. Law and government State government The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, which was ratified in 1901. With over 850 amendments and almost 87,000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution. There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics argue that Alabama's constitution maintains highly
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34
centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. One criticism of the current constitution claims that its complexity and length intentionally codify segregation and racism. Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "one man, one vote", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the governor of Alabama. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama Secretary of State, the Alabama State Treasurer, and the State Auditor of Alabama. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the Constitution of Alabama and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate appellate courts, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four trial courts: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts. Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger. However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas. Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017. Taxes Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue. Alabama levies a 2%, 4%, or5% personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the standard deduction; those who itemize can also deduct FICA (the Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases.</ref> For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile County, Alabama is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile County, Alabama would pay an 11% tax on a meal. In 2020, sales and excise taxes in Alabama accounted for 38% of all state and local revenue. Only Alabama, Mississippi, and South Dakota tax groceries at the full state sales tax rate. The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax
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35
-burdened state in the country. Property taxes of .40% of assessed value per year, are the second-lowest in the U.S., after Hawaii. The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. County and local governments Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the Alabama Constitution, which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing home rule for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Legislative delegations retain certain powers over each county. United States Supreme Court decisions in Baker v. Carr (1964) required that both houses have districts established on the basis of population, and redistricted after each census, to implement the principle of "one man, one vote". Before that, each county was represented by one state senator, leading to under-representation in the state senate for more urbanized, populous counties. The rural bias of the state legislature, which had also failed to redistrict seats in the state house, affected politics well into the 20th century, failing to recognize the rise of industrial cities and urbanized areas. "The lack of home rule for counties in Alabama has resulted in the proliferation of local legislation permitting counties to do things not authorized by the state constitution. Alabama's constitution has been amended more than 700 times, and almost one-third of the amendments are local in nature, applying to only one county or city. A significant part of each legislative session is spent on local legislation, taking away time and attention of legislators from issues of statewide importance." Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state, meaning the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. A total of 25 of the 67 counties are "dry counties" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales. Politics During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud, and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the civil rights movement, when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor George Wallace, the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 did African Americans regain the ability to exercise suffrage, among other civil rights. In many jurisdictions, they continued to be excluded from representation by at-large electoral systems, which allowed the majority of the population to dominate elections. Some changes at the county level have occurred following court challenges to establish single-member districts that enable a more diverse representation among county boards. In 2007, the Alabama Legislature passed, and Republican governor Bob Riley signed a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. In a symbolic ceremony, the bill was signed in the Alabama State Capitol, which housed Congress of the Confederate States of America. In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years. , there are a total of 3,589,839 registered voters, with 3,518,285 active, and the others inactive in the state. Elections In a 2020 study, Alabama was ranked as the 12th most difficult state for citizens to vote. State elections With the disfranch
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36
isement of Blacks in 1901, the state became part of the "Solid South", a system in which the Democratic Party operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the General Election. Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, Ernest C. Hornsby, refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican Perry O. Hooper Sr. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission, was defeated in 2012. Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated freedmen who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are Steve Windom (1999–2003), Kay Ivey (2011–2017), and Will Ainsworth (2019–present). Local elections Many local offices (county commissioners, boards of education, tax assessors, tax collectors, etc.) in the state are still held by Democrats. Many rural counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly many metropolitan and suburban counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary, although there are exceptions. Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, at-large races, and Democrats still retain the narrow majority of those posts. The current split is 35 Democrats, 31 Republicans, and one Independent Fayette. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over rural and less populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more urban/suburban and heavily populated counties. , the state of Alabama has one female sheriff, in Morgan County, Alabama, and ten African-American sheriffs. Federal elections The state's two U.S. senators are Republican Richard C. Shelby and Republican Tommy Tuberville. Shelby was originally elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1986 and re-elected in 1992, but switched parties immediately following the November 1994 general election. In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, six of whom are Republicans: (Bradley Byrne, Mike D. Rogers, Robert Aderholt, Morris J. Brooks, Martha Roby, and Gary Palmer) and one Democrat: Terri Sewell who represents the Black Belt as well as most of the predominantly black portions of Birmingham, Tuscaloosa and Montgomery. Education Primary and secondary education Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students. Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi). The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees. Generally prohibited in the West at large, school corporal punishment is not unusual in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. The rate of school corporal punishment in Alabama is surpassed by only Mississippi and Arkansas. Colleges and universities
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37
Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) (University of Alabama School of Medicine, University of South Alabama and Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges (Auburn University and Tuskegee University), a dental school (University of Alabama School of Dentistry), an optometry college (University of Alabama at Birmingham), two pharmacy schools (Auburn University and Samford University), and five law schools (University of Alabama School of Law, Birmingham School of Law, Cumberland School of Law, Miles Law School, and the Thomas Goode Jones School of Law). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs. The largest single campus is the University of Alabama, located in Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. Troy University was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses (Troy, Dothan, Montgomery, and Phenix City), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public University of North Alabama in Florence and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill College in Mobile, both founded in 1830. Accreditation of academic programs is through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), the Council on Occupational Education (COE), and the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS). According to the 2011 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (University of Alabama at 31, Auburn University at 36, and University of Alabama at Birmingham at 73). According to the 2012 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had four tier one universities (University of Alabama, Auburn University, University of Alabama at Birmingham and University of Alabama in Huntsville). Media Major newspapers include Birmingham News, Mobile Press-Register, and Montgomery Advertiser. Major television network affiliates in Alabama include: ABC WGWW 40.2 ABC, Anniston WBMA 58/WABM 68.2 ABC, Birmingham WDHN 18 ABC, Dothan WAAY 31 ABC, Huntsville WEAR 3 ABC Pensacola, Florida/Mobile WNCF 32 ABC, Montgomery WDBB 17.2 ABC, Tuscaloosa CBS WIAT 42 CBS, Birmingham WTVY 4 CBS, Dothan WHNT 19 CBS, Huntsville WKRG 5 CBS, Mobile WAKA 8 CBS, Selma/Montgomery Fox WBRC 6 FOX, Birmingham WZDX 54 FOX, Huntsville WALA 10 FOX, Mobile WCOV 20 FOX, Montgomery WDFX 34 FOX, Ozark/Dothan NBC WVTM 13 NBC, Birmingham WRGX 23 NBC, Dothan WAFF 48 NBC, Huntsville WPMI 15 NBC, Mobile WSFA 12 NBC, Montgomery PBS/Alabama Public Television WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham WIIQ 41 PBS, Demopolis WDIQ 2 PBS, Dozier WFIQ 36 PBS, Florence WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville WGIQ 43 PBS, Louisville WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery WCIQ 7 PBS, Mount Cheaha The CW WTTO 21, Homewood/Birmingham WTVY 4.3, Dothan WHDF 15, Florence/Huntsville WFNA 55, Gulf Shores/Mobile/Pensacola, FL WDBB 17, Tuscaloosa WBMM 22, Tuskegee/Montgomery Culture Literature Sports Professional sports Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three minor league baseball teams. Notes The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of NASCAR events. It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car Series races. The ATP Birmingham was a World Championship Tennis tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 PGA Championship at Shoal Creek, the Barbasol Championship (
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38
PGA Tour), the Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions, Airbus LPGA Classic, and Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic (LPGA Tour), and The Tradition (Champions Tour). College sports College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the University of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern Conference. Alabama averages over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averages over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a seating capacity of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451. Legion Field is home of the UAB Blazers football program and the Birmingham Bowl. It seats 71,594. Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile is the home of the University of South Alabama football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA Senior Bowl, LendingTree Bowl, and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the Alabama High School Athletic Association state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham. Transportation Aviation Major airports with sustained operations in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport (BHM), Huntsville International Airport (HSV), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Mobile Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport (MGM), Northwest Alabama Regional Airport (MSL) and Northeast Alabama Regional Airport (GAD). Rail For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the Crescent, a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. Roads Alabama has six major interstate routes: Interstate 65 (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; I-20/I-59 travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; I-85 originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. I-22 enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: I-165 in Mobile, I-359 in Tuscaloosa, I-459 around Birmingham, I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville, and I-759 in Gadsden. A sixth route, I-685, will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as I-422. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, I-222 has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as U.S. Route 11 (US-11), US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in Montgomery; Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in Tuscaloosa and Northport; Emerald Mountain Expressway in Wetumpka; and Beach Express in Orange Beach. Ports The Port of Mobile, Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the Gulf of Mexico with inland waterway access to the Midwest by way of the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009. The newly expanded container terminal at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011. The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. Water ports of Alabama, listed from north to south: See also Index of Alabama-related articles Outline of Alabama—organized list of topics about Alabama Notes References Further reading Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (1994). Flynt, Wayne. Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004). Owen Thomas M. History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography (4 vols, 1921). Jackson, Harvey H. Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State (2004).
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"Ġquick", ",", "Ġclever", "\"),", "Ġwhereas", "Ġá", "¼", "Ħ", "Ï", "ĩ", "ο", "ÏĤ", "Ġstems", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġroot", "Ġ*", "h", "â", "Ĥ", "Ĥ", "eg" ]
39
Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review (2002, 55(4): 243–274). Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974). Williams, Benjamin Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century (1979). WPA Guide to Alabama (1939). External links Alabama State Guide, from the Library of Congress Your Not So Ordinary Alabama Tourist Guide All About Alabama, at the Alabama Department of Archives and History Code of Alabama 1975 USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alabama Alabama QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau Alabama State Fact Sheet 1819 establishments in the United States Southern United States States and territories established in 1819 States of the Confederate States States of the Gulf Coast of the United States States of the United States U.S. states with multiple time zones Contiguous United States <|endoftext|>In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus () was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of Homer's Iliad. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia. Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic Achilleid, written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel, because when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is also named after him due to these legends. Etymology Linear B tablets attest to the personal name Achilleus in the forms a-ki-re-u and a-ki-re-we, the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (Achilleía), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form Achillia, on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of () "distress, pain, sorrow, grief" and () "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-form *Akhí-lāu̯os "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of ("glory", usually in war). Furthermore, laós has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound *h₂eḱ-pṓds "sharp foot" which first gave an Illyrian *āk̂pediós, evolving through time into *ākhpdeós and then *akhiddeús. The shift from -dd- to -ll- is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part *h₂eḱ- "sharp, pointed" also gave Greek ἀκή (akḗ "point, silence, healing"), ἀκμή (akmḗ "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς (oxús "sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root *h₂eg
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"Ġold", "Ġwater", "Ġdiv", "inity", "Ġ(", "see", "Ġbelow", "ĠW", "orship", ").", "ĠRobert", "ĠS", ".", "ĠP", ".", "ĠBe", "ek", "es", "Ġhas", "Ġsuggested", "Ġa", "ĠPre", "-", "Greek", "Ġorigin", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġname", ",", "Ġbased", "Ġamong", "Ġother", "Ġthings", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġco", "existence", "Ġof", "Ġ-", "λ", "λ", "-", "Ġand", "Ġ-", "λ", "-", "Ġin", "Ġepic", "Ġlanguage", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġmay", "Ġaccount", "Ġfor", "Ġa", "Ġpal", "atal", "ized", "Ġphon", "eme", "Ġ/", "ly", "/", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", "Ġlanguage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBirth", "Ġand", "Ġearly", "Ġyears", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠThe", "tis", ",", "Ġa", "Ġne", "re", "id", ",", "Ġand", "ĠPe", "le", "us", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġking", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠMyr", "mid", "ons", ".", "ĠZeus", "Ġand", "ĠPose", "idon", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġrivals", "Ġfor", "ĠThe", "tis", "'s", "Ġhand", "Ġin", "Ġmarriage", "Ġuntil", "ĠPrometheus", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfore", "-", "think", "er", ",", "Ġwarned", "ĠZeus", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġprophecy", "Ġ(", "orig", "inally", "Ġuttered", "Ġby", "ĠThe", "mis", ",", "Ġgoddess", "Ġof", "Ġdivine", "Ġlaw", ")", "Ġthat", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġwould", "Ġbear", "Ġa", "Ġson", "Ġgreater", "Ġthan", "Ġhis", "Ġfather", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġthis", "Ġreason", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtwo", "Ġgods", "Ġwithdrew", "Ġtheir", "Ġpursuit", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhad", "Ġher", "Ġwed", "ĠPe", "le", "us", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThere", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtale", "Ġwhich", "Ġoffers", "Ġan", "Ġalternative", "Ġversion", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġevents", ":", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠArgon", "aut", "ica", "Ġ(", "4", ".", "760", ")", "ĠZeus", "'", "Ġsister", "Ġand", "Ġwife", "ĠHera", "Ġall", "udes", "Ġto", "ĠThe", "tis", "'", "Ġch", "aste", "Ġresistance", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġadvances", "Ġof", "ĠZeus", ",", "Ġpointing", "Ġout", "Ġthat", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġwas", "Ġso", "Ġloyal", "Ġto", "ĠHera", "'s", "Ġmarriage", "Ġbond", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġco", "olly", "Ġrejected", "Ġthe", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġgods", ".", "ĠThe", "tis", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġa", "Ġdaughter", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsea", "-", "god", "ĠN", "ere", "us", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġbrought", "Ġup", "Ġby", "ĠHera", ",", "Ġfurther", "Ġexplaining", "Ġher", "Ġresistance", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġadvances", "Ġof", "ĠZeus", ".", "ĠZeus", "Ġwas", "Ġfurious", "Ġand", "Ġdecre", "ed", "Ġthat", "Ġshe", "Ġwould", "Ġnever", "Ġmarry", "Ġan", "Ġimmortal", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠAch", "ille", "id", ",", "Ġwritten", "Ġby", "ĠStat", "ius", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ1", "st", "Ġcentury", "ĠAD", ",", "Ġand", "Ġto", "Ġnon", "-", "surv", "iving", "Ġprevious", "Ġsources", ",", "Ġwhen", "ĠAchilles", "Ġwas", "Ġborn", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġtried", "Ġto", "Ġmake", "Ġhim", "Ġimmortal", "Ġby", "Ġdipping", "Ġhim", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġriver", "ĠSt", "yx", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġleft", "Ġvulnerable", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġpart", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbody", "Ġby", "Ġwhich", "Ġshe", "Ġheld", "Ġhim", ":", "Ġhis", "Ġleft", "Ġheel", "Ġ(", "see", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġheel", ",", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġtendon", ").", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġclear", "Ġif", "Ġthis", "Ġversion", "Ġof", "Ġevents", "Ġwas", "Ġknown", "Ġearlier", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġanother", "Ġversion", "Ġof", "Ġthis", "Ġstory", ",", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġan", "ointed", "Ġthe", "Ġboy", "Ġin", "Ġamb", "ros", "ia", "Ġand", "Ġput", "Ġhim", "Ġon", "Ġtop", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġfire", "Ġin", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġburn", "Ġaway", "Ġthe", "Ġmortal", "Ġparts", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġbody", ".", "ĠShe", "Ġwas", "Ġinterrupted", "Ġby", "ĠPe", "le", "us", "Ġand", "Ġabandoned", "Ġboth", "Ġfather", "Ġand", "Ġson", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġrage", ".", "Ġ", "ĠNone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsources", "Ġbefore", "ĠStat", "ius", "Ġmake", "Ġany", "Ġreference", "Ġto", "Ġthis", "Ġgeneral", "Ġinv", "ulnerability", ".", "ĠTo", "Ġthe", "Ġcontrary", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", ",", "ĠHomer", "Ġmentions", "ĠAchilles", "Ġbeing", "Ġwounded", ":", "Ġin", "ĠBook", "Ġ21", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "ae", "onian", "Ġhero", "ĠAster", "op", "aeus", ",", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠPel", "agon", ",", "Ġchallenged", "ĠAchilles", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġriver", "ĠSc", "am", "ander", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġamb", "ide", "xt", "rous", ",", "Ġand", "Ġcast", "Ġa", "Ġspear", "Ġfrom", "Ġeach", "Ġhand", ";", "Ġone", "Ġgraz", "ed", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġelbow", ",", "Ġ\"", "draw", "ing", "Ġa", "Ġsp", "urt", "Ġof", "Ġblood", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġfew", "Ġfragment", "ary", "Ġpoems", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠEpic", "ĠCycle", "Ġwhich", "Ġdescribe", "Ġthe", "Ġhero", "'s", "Ġdeath", "Ġ(", "i", ".", "e", ".", "Ġthe", "ĠCy", "pri", "a", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠLittle", "ĠI", "li", "ad", "Ġby", "ĠLes", "ches", "Ġof", "ĠPyrrha", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠA", "ith", "iop", "is", "Ġand", "ĠI", "li", "ou", "Ġpers", "is", "Ġby", "ĠAr", "ct", "inus", "Ġof", "ĠMile", "t", "us", "),", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġtrace", "Ġof", "Ġany", "Ġreference", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġgeneral", "Ġinv", "ulnerability", "Ġor", "Ġhis", "Ġfamous", "Ġweakness", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġheel", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġlater", "Ġv", "ase", "Ġpaintings", "Ġpresenting", "Ġthe", "Ġdeath", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġarrow", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġcases", ",", "Ġarrows", ")", "Ġhit", "Ġhis", "Ġtorso", ".", "Ġ", "ĠPe", "le", "us", "Ġentrusted", "ĠAchilles", "Ġto", "ĠCh", "iron", "Ġthe", "ĠCent", "aur", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġlived", "Ġon", "ĠMount", "ĠPel", "ion", ",", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġre", "ared", ".", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġfore", "told", "Ġthat", "Ġher", "Ġson", "'s", "Ġfate", "Ġwas", "Ġeither", "Ġto", "Ġgain", "Ġglory", "Ġand", "Ġdie", "Ġyoung", ",", "Ġor", "Ġto", "Ġlive", "Ġa", "Ġlong", "Ġbut", "Ġun", "event", "ful", "Ġlife", "Ġin", "Ġobscurity", ".", "ĠAchilles", "Ġchose", "Ġthe", "Ġformer", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdecided", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġpart", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠTrojan", "ĠWar", ".", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠHomer", ",", "ĠAchilles", "Ġgrew", "Ġup", "Ġin", "ĠPh", "thia", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġcompanion", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAccording", "Ġto", "ĠPhot", "ius", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġsixth", "Ġbook", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠNew", "ĠHistory", "Ġby", "ĠP", "to", "le", "my", "ĠHep", "ha", "est", "ion", "Ġreported", "Ġthat", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġburned", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġsecret" ]
40
ʰ- "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin acupedius "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of aciēs "sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", acus "needle, pin, bodkin", and acuō "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse" (whence acute). Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the Iliad point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (podárkēs dĩos Achilleús "swift-footed divine Achilles") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (pódas ōkús Achilleús "quick-footed Achilles"). Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of -λλ- and -λ- in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /ly/ in the original language. Birth and early years Achilles was the son of the Thetis, a nereid, and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the Argonautica (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. According to the Achilleid, written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the Iliad, Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death (i.e. the Cypria, the Little Iliad by Lesches of Pyrrha, the Aithiopis and Iliou persis by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso. Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, who lived on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his companion Patroclus. According to Photius, the sixth book of the New History by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret
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41
place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot. Other names Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following: Pyrisous, "saved from the fire", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly Aspetos, "inimitable" or "vast", his name at Epirus Larissaeus, from Larissa (also called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name Ligyron, his original name Nereius, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids Pelides, from his father, Peleus Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia Podarkes, "swift-footed", due to the wings of Arke being attached to his feet. Hidden on Skyros Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa ("swift"). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he raped, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. In the Trojan War According to the Iliad, Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon. Telephus When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. Troilus According to the Cypria (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (like Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios; however, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde and in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida is a medieval invention. In Dares Phrygius' Account of the Destruction of Troy, the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well
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42
as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in Plautus' Bacchides. In the Iliad Homer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, mênis Achilléōs) is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the Iliad read: The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy
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"Ġand", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġreaction", "Ġto", "Ġit", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġepisode", "Ġthen", "Ġformed", "Ġthe", "Ġbasis", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcycl", "ic", "Ġepic", "ĠA", "eth", "iop", "is", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġcomposed", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", ",", "Ġpossibly", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ7", "th", "Ġcentury", "ĠBC", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠA", "eth", "iop", "is", "Ġis", "Ġnow", "Ġlost", ",", "Ġexcept", "Ġfor", "Ġscattered", "Ġfragments", "Ġquoted", "Ġby", "Ġlater", "Ġauthors", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġexact", "Ġnature", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġrelationship", "Ġwith", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġa", "Ġsubject", "Ġof", "Ġdispute", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "Ġthe", "Ġclassical", "Ġperiod", "Ġand", "Ġmodern", "Ġtimes", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", ",", "Ġit", "Ġappears", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġthe", "Ġmodel", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġdeep", "Ġand", "Ġloyal", "Ġfriendship", ".", "ĠHomer", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġsuggest", "Ġthat", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġclose", "Ġfriend", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġhad", "Ġsexual", "Ġrelations", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġthere", "Ġis", "Ġno", "Ġdirect", "Ġevidence", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtext", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", "Ġthat", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġwere", "Ġlovers", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġtheory", "Ġwas", "Ġexpressed", "Ġby", "Ġsome", "Ġlater", "Ġauthors", ".", "ĠComment", "ators", "Ġfrom", "Ġclassical", "Ġantiquity", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpresent", "Ġhave", "Ġoften", "Ġinterpreted", "Ġthe", "Ġrelationship", "Ġthrough", "Ġthe", "Ġlens", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġown", "Ġcultures", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġ5", "th", "-", "century", "ĠBCE", "ĠAthens", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġintense", "Ġbond", "Ġwas", "Ġoften", "Ġviewed", "Ġin", "Ġlight", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠGreek", "Ġcustom", "Ġof", "Ġpa", "ider", "aste", "ia", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠPlato", "'s", "ĠSym", "posium", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġparticipants", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġdialogue", "Ġabout", "Ġlove", "Ġassume", "Ġthat", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġwere", "Ġa", "Ġcouple", ";", "ĠPh", "aed", "rus", "Ġargues", "Ġthat", "ĠAchilles", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġyounger", "Ġand", "Ġmore", "Ġbeautiful", "Ġone", "Ġso", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġbeloved", "Ġand", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġlover", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġancient", "ĠGreek", "Ġhad", "Ġno", "Ġwords", "Ġto", "Ġdistinguish", "Ġheterosexual", "Ġand", "Ġhomosexual", ",", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġassumed", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġman", "Ġcould", "Ġboth", "Ġdesire", "Ġhandsome", "Ġyoung", "Ġmen", "Ġand", "Ġhave", "Ġsex", "Ġwith", "Ġwomen", ".", "ĠMany", "Ġpairs", "Ġof", "Ġmen", "Ġthroughout", "Ġhistory", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġcompared", "Ġto", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "ĠPat", "ro", "clus", "Ġto", "Ġimply", "Ġa", "Ġhomosexual", "Ġrelationship", ".", "Ġ", "ĠDeath", "Ġ" ]
43
itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. Later epic accounts: fighting Penthesilea and Memnon The Aethiopis (7th century BC) and a work named Posthomerica, composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century BC. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. Achilles and Patroclus The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia. In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship. Death
[ "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġdeath", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", ",", "Ġeven", "Ġif", "Ġconsidered", "Ġsolely", "Ġas", "Ġit", "Ġoccurred", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġoldest", "Ġsources", ",", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġcomplex", "Ġone", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġmany", "Ġdifferent", "Ġversions", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthe", "Ġoldest", "Ġversion", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", ",", "Ġand", "Ġas", "Ġpredicted", "Ġby", "ĠHector", "Ġwith", "Ġhis", "Ġdying", "Ġbreath", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġhero", "'s", "Ġdeath", "Ġwas", "Ġbrought", "Ġabout", "Ġby", "ĠParis", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġarrow", "Ġ(", "to", "Ġthe", "Ġheel", "Ġaccording", "Ġto", "ĠStat", "ius", ").", "ĠIn", "Ġsome", "Ġversions", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġgod", "ĠApollo", "Ġguided", "ĠParis", "'", "Ġarrow", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġre", "tell", "ings", "Ġalso", "Ġstate", "Ġthat", "ĠAchilles", "Ġwas", "Ġscaling", "Ġthe", "Ġgates", "Ġof", "ĠTroy", "Ġand", "Ġwas", "Ġhit", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġpoisoned", "Ġarrow", ".", "ĠAll", "Ġof", "Ġthese", "Ġversions", "Ġdeny", "ĠParis", "Ġany", "Ġsort", "Ġof", "Ġval", "our", ",", "Ġowing", 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"Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġhad", "Ġactually", "Ġbeen", "Ġkilling", "Ġsheep", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġso", "Ġashamed", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġcommitted", "Ġsuicide", ".", "ĠOd", "ys", "se", "us", "Ġeventually", "Ġgave", "Ġthe", "Ġarmour", "Ġto", "ĠNe", "op", "to", "lem", "us", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġson", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", ".", "ĠWhen", "ĠOd", "ys", "se", "us", "Ġencounters", "Ġthe", "Ġshade", "Ġof", "ĠAjax", "Ġmuch", "Ġlater", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠHouse", "Ġof", "ĠHades", "Ġ(", "O", "d", "yssey", "Ġ11", ".", "5", "43", "âĢĵ", "5", "66", "),", "ĠAjax", "Ġis", "Ġstill", "Ġso", "Ġangry", "Ġabout", "Ġthe", "Ġoutcome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġcompetition", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġrefuses", "Ġto", "Ġspeak", "Ġto", "ĠOd", "ys", "se", "us", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġrelic", "Ġclaimed", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "ĠAchilles", "'", "Ġbronze", "-", "headed", "Ġspear", "Ġwas", "Ġpreserved", "Ġfor", "Ġcenturies", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtemple", "Ġof", "ĠAthena", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġac", "ropolis", "Ġof", "ĠPh", "asel", "is", ",", "ĠLy", "cia", ",", "Ġa", "Ġport", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "amph", "yl", "ian", "ĠGulf", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġcity", "Ġwas", "Ġvisited", "Ġin", "Ġ333", "ĠBCE", "Ġby", "ĠAlexander", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġenvisioned", "Ġhimself", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġnew", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "Ġcarried", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", "Ġwith", "Ġhim", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġhis", "Ġcourt", "Ġbi", "ographers", "Ġdo", "Ġnot", "Ġmention", "Ġthe", "Ġspear", ";", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġshown", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġof", "ĠP", "aus", "ani", "as", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġ2", "nd", "Ġcentury", "ĠCE", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", ",", "ĠAjax", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġgame", "Ġof", "Ġpet", "te", "ia", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠNumerous", "Ġpaintings", "Ġon", "Ġpot", "tery", "Ġhave", "Ġsuggested", "Ġa", "Ġtale", "Ġnot", "Ġmentioned", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġliterary", "Ġtraditions", ".", "ĠAt", "Ġsome", "Ġpoint", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġwar", ",", "ĠAchilles", "Ġand", "ĠAjax", "Ġwere", "Ġplaying", "Ġa", "Ġboard", "Ġgame", "Ġ(", "p", "ette", "ia", ").", "ĠThey", "Ġwere", "Ġabsorbed", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġgame", "Ġand", "Ġoblivious", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġsurrounding", "Ġbattle", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠTro", "j", "ans", "Ġattacked", "Ġand", "Ġreached", "Ġthe", "Ġheroes", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġwere", "Ġsaved", "Ġonly", "Ġby", "Ġan", "Ġintervention", "Ġof", "ĠAthena", ".", "Ġ", "ĠW", "orship", "Ġand", "Ġheroic", "Ġcult", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġtomb", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", ",", "Ġextant", "Ġthroughout", "Ġantiquity", "Ġin", "ĠT", "road", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġvener", "ated", "Ġby", "ĠThe", "ss", "al", "ians", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġalso", "Ġby", "ĠPersian", "Ġexpedition", "ary", "Ġforces", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġby", "ĠAlexander", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠRoman", "Ġemperor", "ĠCar" ]
44
The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest version, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. After death, Achilles' bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. In the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles. In Book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica (3rd century BC). Fate of Achilles' armour Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE. Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena. Worship and heroic cult The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Car
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"Ġhis", "Ġunt", "ime", "ly", "Ġdeath", ",", "ĠThe", "tis", "Ġhad", "Ġsnatched", "Ġher" ]
45
acalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BCE Polyxena sarcophagus, which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, Zmiinyi, near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his Natural History mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called Dromos Achilleos (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, Achilléōs drómos "the Race-course of Achilles") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today Tendra (or Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.) In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as Achillea and introduces two further names for it: Leuce or Macaron (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest"). The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of Achillea or Leuce with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named Achillea, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly () in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration. The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on Leuce seems to go back to an account from the lost epic Aethiopis according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her
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46
son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical (Leúkē Nêsos "White Island"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, phaenná nâsos) of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, makárôn nêsoi) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death. The Periplus of the Euxine Sea (c. 130 AD) gives the following details: The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who likely lived during the first century CE, wrote that the island was called Leuce "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island. A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town Achílleion (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an Achílleion in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an Achílleios (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older Achileii), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law. The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus. Reception during antiquity In Greek tragedy The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's Symposium, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that
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"ĠIsland", "Ġof", "ĠYouth", "Ġand", "ĠOther", "ĠPo", "ems", ",", "Ġconcerned", "Ġamong", "Ġothers", "Ġwith", "ĠAchilles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġ1983", "Ġnovel", "ĠKass", "andra", "Ġby", "ĠChrist", "a", "ĠWolf", "Ġalso", "Ġtreats", "Ġthe", "Ġdeath", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAk", "hill", "es", "Ġis", "Ġkilled", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġpoisoned", "ĠKent", "aur", "Ġarrow", "Ġshot", "Ġby", "ĠKass", "andra", "Ġin", "ĠMarion", "ĠZimmer", "ĠBradley", "'s", "Ġnovel", "ĠThe", "ĠFire", "brand", "Ġ(", "1987", ").", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġvarious", "Ġ'", "n", "arr", "ators", "'", "Ġin", "ĠCol", "leen", "ĠMcCull", "ough", "'s", "Ġnovel", "ĠThe", "ĠSong", "Ġof", "ĠTroy", "Ġ(", "1998", ").", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠDeath", "Ġof", "ĠAchilles", "Ġ(", "Ð", "¡", "м", "е", "ÑĢ", "ÑĤ", "ÑĮ", "ĠÐ", "IJ", "Ñ", "ħ", "и", "л", "л", "е", "Ñģ", "а", ",", "Ġ1998", ")", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġhistorical", "Ġdetective", "Ġnovel", "Ġby", "ĠRussian", "Ġwriter", "ĠBoris", "ĠAk", "unin", "Ġthat", "Ġall", "udes", "Ġto", "Ġvarious", "Ġfigures", "Ġand", "Ġmotif", "s", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠI", "li", "ad", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcharacter", "ĠAchilles", "Ġin", "ĠEnder", "'s", "ĠShadow", "Ġ(", "1999", "),", "Ġby", "ĠOr", "son", "ĠScott", "ĠCard", ",", "Ġshares", "Ġhis", "Ġnamesake", "'s", "Ġcunning", "Ġmind", "Ġand", "Ġruthless", "Ġattitude", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", "Ġis", "Ġone", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmain", "Ġcharacters", "Ġin", "ĠDan", "ĠSimmons", "'s", "Ġnovels", "ĠIl", "ium", "Ġ(", "2003", ")", "Ġand", "ĠO", "ly", "m", "pos", "Ġ(", "2005", ").", "Ġ", "ĠAchilles", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġmajor", "Ġsupporting", "Ġcharacter", "Ġin", "ĠDavid", "ĠGem", "m", "ell", "'s" ]
47
this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him. The tragedian Sophocles also wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive. Towards the end of the 5th century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis. In Greek philosophy Zeno The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. Plato In Hippias Minor, a dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be "better" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the Odyssey and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it is better to lie on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally. In Roman and medieval literature The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's Roman de Troie and Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars. In modern literature and arts Literature Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust. Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602). The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy La Mort d'Achille (1673). Achilles is the subject of the poem Achilleis (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named Achilles. In 1921, Edward Shanks published The Island of Youth and Other Poems, concerned among others with Achilles. The 1983 novel Kassandra by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles. Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987). Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel The Song of Troy (1998). The Death of Achilles (Смерть Ахиллеса, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the Iliad. The character Achilles in Ender's Shadow (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005). Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's
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"ĠDown", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġsong" ]
48
Troy series of books (2005–2007). Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009). The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Last Olympian (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel The Rage of Achilles. Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad. Achilles appears in the light novel series Fate/Apocrypha (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red. Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker's 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls, much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis. Visual arts Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others. Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx, Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron, Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes, The wrath of Achilles, The death of Hector, Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus, The death of Achilles (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and Briseis restored to Achilles (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635) Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem Dying Achilles is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London). The Rage of Achilles is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza). Eugène Delacroix painted a version of The Education of Achilles for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament. created a statue group Achilles and Penthesilea (1895; Vienna). Achilleus (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt. Music Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres. Operas titled Deidamia were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739). Achille et Polyxène (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse. Achille et Déidamie (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by André Campra. Achilles (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as Achilles in petticoats in 1773. Achille in Sciro is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as Il Trionfo della gloria. Achille (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra. Achille à Scyros (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini. Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch. Achilles auf Skyros (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz. Achilles' Wrath is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin. Achilles Last Stand a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album Presence. Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album The Triumph of Steel. Achilles Come Down is a song
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on the 2017 Gang of Youths album Go Farther in Lightness. Film and television In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series: The 1924 film Helena by Carlo Aldini The 1954 film Ulysses by Piero Lulli The 1956 film Helen of Troy by Stanley Baker The 1961 film The Trojan Horse by Arturo Dominici The 1962 film The Fury of Achilles by Gordon Mitchell The 1997 television miniseries The Odyssey by Richard Trewett The 2003 television miniseries Helen of Troy by Joe Montana The 2004 film Troy by Brad Pitt The 2018 TV series Troy: Fall of a City by David Gyasi Architecture In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the Achilleion, after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles. The Wellington Monument is a statue representing Achilles erected as a memorial to Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellington, and his victories in the Peninsular War and the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars. Namesakes The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 – both as and with the French spelling . A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. was a which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. A species of lizard, Anolis achilles, which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles. Gallery References Further reading Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon." In Il Mito Greco, edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri. Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 26: pp. 215–227. Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic". Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie. 171. Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, London, England, Penguin Books, 1960. Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. 2017. Hélène Monsacré (1984), Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère, Paris: Albin Michel. Gregory Nagy (1984), The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology, Illinois Classical Studies. 19. Gregory Nagy (1999), The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online). Dale S. Sinos (1991), The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic, PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), The Death and Afterlife of Achilles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Abrantes, M.C. (2016), Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition (Coimbra). External links Trojan War Resources Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles Poem by Florence Earle Coates Greek mythological heroes Kings of the Myrmidons Achaean Leaders Thessalians in the Trojan War Metamorphoses characters Mythological rapists Demigods in classical mythology LGBT themes in Greek mythology Deeds of Apollo Medea <|endoftext|>Abraham Lincoln (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer and statesman who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War and succeeded in preserving the Union, abol
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"ĠOctober", "Ġ5", ",", "Ġ18", "18" ]
50
ishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy. Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin in Kentucky and was raised on the frontier primarily in Indiana. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. Congressman from Illinois. In 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to slavery as a result of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new Republican Party, and he reached a national audience in the 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas. Lincoln ran for President in 1860, sweeping the North in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery, and southern states began seceding from the Union. To secure its independence, the new Confederate States fired on Fort Sumter, a U.S. fort in the South, and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union. Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican, egalitarian, libertarian, and democratic sentiments. Lincoln scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland, and he averted British intervention by defusing the Trent Affair. He engineered the end to slavery with his Emancipation Proclamation, including his order that the Army and Navy liberate, protect, and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged border states to outlaw slavery, and promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country. Lincoln managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife Mary when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and hero of the United States and is often ranked as the greatest president in American history. Family and childhood Early life Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake, Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. The family then migrated west, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln's paternal grandparents, his namesake Captain Abraham Lincoln and wife Bathsheba (née Herring) moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky. The captain was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and Tennessee before the family settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s. The heritage of Lincoln's mother Nancy remains unclear, but it is widely assumed that she was the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas, who died as infant. Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky before losing all but of his land in court disputes over property titles. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana where the land surveys and titles were more reliable. Indiana was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest" in Hurricane Township, Perry County, Indiana. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times, he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptists church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained clear title to in Indiana, an area which became the Little Pigeon Creek Community. Mother's death On October 5, 1818
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51
, Nancy Lincoln succumbed to milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a stillborn son, devastating Lincoln. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mother". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. His family even said he was lazy, for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read. Education and move to Illinois Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read but probably not to write, at age seven, and in Indiana, where he went to school sporadically due to farm chores, for a total of less than 12 months in aggregate by the age of 15. He persisted as an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his reading included the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. As a teen, Lincoln took responsibility for chores and customarily gave his father all earnings from work outside the home until he was 21. Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax. He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in the rough catch-as-catch-can style (also known as catch wrestling). He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21. He gained a reputation for strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove Boys". In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in Macon County. Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of education. In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in New Salem, Illinois, for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he was first exposed to slavery. In 1865, Lincoln was asked how he came to acquire his rhetorical skills. He answered that in the practice of law he frequently came across the word "demonstrate" but had insufficient understanding of the term. So, he left Springfield for his father's home to study until he "could give any proposition in the six books of Euclid [here, referencing Euclid's Elements] at sight." Marriage and children Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he moved to New Salem. By 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied. In 1839, Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois, and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington, Kentucky. A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled at Lincoln's request, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose." In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative. Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The oldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, was born in 1843 and was the only child to live to maturity. Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the White House on February 20, 1862. The youngest, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4
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"Ġattractive", "Ġrainbow" ]
52
, 1853, and survived his father but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children" and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done." The deaths of their sons, Eddie and Willie, had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "melancholy", a condition now thought to be clinical depression. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her for a time to an asylum in 1875. Early career and militia service In 1832, Lincoln joined with a partner, Denton Offutt, in the purchase of a general store on credit in New Salem. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the Illinois General Assembly, advocating navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but he lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election. Lincoln briefly interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War. In his first campaign speech after returning, he observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers", and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading, and decided to become a lawyer. Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was the custom, Lincoln borrowed legal texts from attorneys John Todd Stuart and Thomas Drummond, purchased books including Blackstone's Commentaries and Chitty's Pleadings, and read law on his own. He later said of his legal education that "I studied with nobody." Illinois state legislature (1834–1842) Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834, this time as a Whig, was a success over a powerful Whig opponent. Then followed his four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives for Sangamon County. He championed construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and later was a Canal Commissioner. He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery and abolition. In 1837, he declared, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils." He echoed Henry Clay's support for the American Colonization Society which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in Liberia. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, and moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with Stephen T. Logan, and in 1844 began his practice with William Herndon, "a studious young man". U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849) True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay". Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization. In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois' 7th district seat in the U.S. House of Representatives; he was defeated by John J. Hardin though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846 but also won the election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line. He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support. Political views On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War, which he imputed to President James K. Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow
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53
, that rises in showers of blood". He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers. Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office. The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory as consolation. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice. Prairie lawyer In his Springfield practice, Lincoln handled "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer". Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the Midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company, a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname "Honest Abe". Lincoln argued in an 1858 criminal trial, defending William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. Leading up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln elevated his profile in an 1859 murder case, with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison who was a third cousin; Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent, Rev. Peter Cartwright. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible hearsay. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal. Republican politics (1854–1860) Emergence as Republican leader The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North, with the failure of the Compromise of 1850, a legislative package designed to address the issue. In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue. As the slavery debate in the Nebraska and Kansas territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the resulting spread of slavery, but Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "Peoria Speech" in October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery which he repeated en route to the presidency. He said the Kansas Act had a "declared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate
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54
it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ..." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life. Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist...I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery." The new Republican Party was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery, drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party, and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members, Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement. In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath, Lincoln sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson. 1856 campaign Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, John C. Frémont and William Dayton comprised the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State James Buchanan and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois. Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a free territory under the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in the decision wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that Dred Scott would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. He argued the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence; he said that while the founding fathers did not believe all men equal in every respect, they believed all men were equal "in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas for his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and admission of Kansas as a slave state. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech, with the biblical reference Mark 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's
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".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠMay", "Ġ18", ",", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠRepublican", "ĠNational", "ĠConvention", "Ġin", "ĠChicago", ",", "ĠLincoln", "Ġwon", "Ġthe", "Ġnomination", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġthird", "Ġballot", ",", "Ġbeating", "Ġcandidates", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠSew", "ard", "Ġand", "ĠChase", ".", "ĠA", "Ġformer", "ĠDemocrat", ",", "ĠHannibal", "ĠHam", "lin", "Ġof", "ĠMaine", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġnominated", "Ġfor", "Ġvice", "Ġpresident", "Ġto", "Ġbalance", "Ġthe", "Ġticket", ".", "ĠLincoln", "'s", "Ġsuccess", "Ġdepended", "Ġon", "Ġhis", "Ġcampaign", "Ġteam", ",", "Ġhis", "Ġreputation", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġmoderate", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġslavery", "Ġissue", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġstrong", "Ġsupport", "Ġfor", "Ġinternal", "Ġimprovements", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġtariff", ".", "ĠPennsylvania", "Ġput", "Ġhim", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġtop", ",", "Ġled", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġstate", "'s", "Ġiron", "Ġinterests", "Ġwho", "Ġwere", "Ġreassured", "Ġby", "Ġhis", "Ġtariff", "Ġsupport", ".", "ĠLincoln", "'s", "Ġmanagers", "Ġhad", "Ġfocused", 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55
nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won." The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas. These were the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that Douglas’ "Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the Founding Fathers' premise that all men are created equal. Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery. Douglas's argument was more legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats-Anzeiger, a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratically but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the nomination if offered, and in the following months' several local papers endorsed his candidacy. Over the coming months, Lincoln was tireless, making nearly fifty speeches along the campaign trail. By the quality and simplicity of his rhetoric, he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However, despite his overwhelming support in the Midwestern United States, he was less appreciated in the east. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincoln's compromising position on slavery and his reluctance to challenge the court's Dred-Scott ruling, which was promptly used against him by his political rivals. On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union, in which he argued that the Founding Fathers of the United States had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong". Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly. But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership that brought him into contention. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience." Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery". In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, "The taste is in my mouth a little." 1860 presidential election On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate". In 1860, Lincoln described himself: "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes." Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy. On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for vice president to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff. Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. Lincoln's managers had focused on this delegation while honoring Lincoln's dictate to "Make no contracts that will bind me". As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North
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56
was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the Democratic convention; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South. Prior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the Wide Awakes, which it used to generate popular support throughout the country to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln. As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life and sold 100,000–200,000 copies. Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit him and write him. In the runup to the election, he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired John George Nicolay as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states, an omen of the impending Civil War. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 votes to 123 for his opponents. Presidency (1861–1865) Secession and inauguration The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, and adopted a constitution. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional president on February 9, 1861. Attempts at compromise followed but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the territories. Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right." Lincoln tacitly supported the Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the states when Lincoln took office. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution. En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. He gave a particularly emotional farewell address upon leaving Springfield; he would never again return to Springfield alive. The president-elect evaded suspected assassins in Baltimore. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states: Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating "One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies
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57
, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. In his second inaugural address, Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said: "Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came." Civil War Major Robert Anderson, commander of the Union's Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter and began the fight. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and overlooking Southern Unionist opposition to an invasion. William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that." On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of 75,000 volunteer troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed over the following two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation. As States sent Union regiments south, on April 19, Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Union troops who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus where needed for the security of troops trying to reach Washington. John Merryman, one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of habeas corpus. In June Taney, ruling only for the lower circuit court in ex parte Merryman, issued the writ which he felt could only be suspended by Congress. Lincoln persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas. Union military strategy Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the Union military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended habeas corpus, and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict. It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery. The Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery. In August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, without consulting Washington, issued a martial edict freeing slaves of the rebels. Lincoln canceled the illegal proclamation as politically motivated and lacking military necessity. As a result, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000. Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his
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58
combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner. In the 1861 Trent Affair which threatened war with Great Britain, the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the Trent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer James G. Randall dissected Lincoln's successful techniques: Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraph reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors, and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party. In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000. Stanton was a staunch Unionist, pro-business, conservative Democrat who gravitated toward the Radical Republican faction. He worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together", say Thomas and Hyman. Lincoln's war strategy embraced two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory. Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet in the afternoon. Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. For his edification Lincoln relied upon a book by his chief of staff General Henry Halleck entitled Elements of Military Art and Science; Halleck was a disciple of the European strategist Antoine-Henri Jomini. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River. Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory. General McClellan After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia Peninsula Campaign. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capitol. In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck in July and appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thus protecting Washington from counterattack. But Pope was then soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington. Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history; it facilitated Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in January. McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and after the 1862 midterm elections he replaced McClellan with Ambrose Burnside. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part. Burnside, against presidential advice, launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and only increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joseph Hooker. In the 1862 midterm elections the Republicans suffered severe losses due to rising inflation, high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of habeas corpus, military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would come North and undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation gained votes for Republicans in rural New England and the upper Midwest, but cost votes in the Irish and German strongholds and in the lower Midwest, where many Southerners had lived for generations. In the spring of 1863 Lincoln was sufficiently optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to think the end of the war could be near; the plans included attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston. Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, then resigned and was replaced by George Meade. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and beat him in the Gettysburg Campaign, but then failed to follow up despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicks
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59
burg and gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the far western rebel states. Emancipation Proclamation The Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865 delegated the issue to the individual states. Lincoln argued that slavery would be rendered obsolete if its expansion into new territories were prevented. He sought to persuade the states to agree to compensation for emancipating their slaves in return for their acceptance of abolition. Lincoln rejected Fremont's two emancipation attempts in August 1861, as well as one by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and would upset loyal border states. In June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory, which Lincoln signed. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was enacted, providing court procedures to free the slaves of those convicted of aiding the rebellion; Lincoln approved the bill despite his belief that it was unconstitutional. He felt such action could be taken only within the war powers of the commander-in-chief, which he planned to exercise. Lincoln at this time reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. Privately, Lincoln concluded that the Confederacy's slave base had to be eliminated. Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification; Republican editor Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune agreed. In a letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln said that while he personally wished all men could be free, regardless of that, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union: The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and effective January 1, 1863, affirmed the freedom of slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." He spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters by warning of the threat that freed slaves posed to northern whites. With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south liberated three million slaves. Enlisting former slaves became official policy. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley. The Proclamation included Lincoln's earlier plans for colonies for newly freed slaves, though that undertaking ultimately failed. Gettysburg Address (1863) Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end, and the future of democracy would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Defying his prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history. General Grant Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights." With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters, while also including black troops. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant then assumed command of Meade's army. Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions, and once assured that he had none, Lincoln promoted Grant to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General, a rank which had been unoccupied since George Washington. Authorization for such a promotion "with the advice and consent of the Senate" was provided by a new bill which Lincoln signed the same day he submitted Grant's name to the Senate. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2, 1864. Grant in 1864 waged the bloody Overland Campaign, which exacted heavy losses on both sides. When Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, the persistent general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line
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60
if it takes all summer." Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia, to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction (which was considerable) for its own sake. Lincoln's engagement became distinctly personal on one occasion in 1864 when Confederate general Jubal Early raided Washington, D.C. Legend has it that while Lincoln watched from an exposed position, Union Captain (and future Supreme Court Justice) Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!" As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal; his objective to end the fighting was not realized. On April 1, 1865, Grant nearly encircled Petersburg in a siege. The Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, officially ending the war. Re-election Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions, along with War Democrats Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republicans selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party. Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln confidentially pledged in writing that if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House; Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope. The pledge read as follows: The Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure"; but their candidate, McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Meanwhile, Lincoln emboldened Grant with more troops and Republican party support. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatism. The Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. The National Union Party was united by Lincoln's support for emancipation. State Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln carried all but three states, including 78 percent of Union soldiers. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the war casualties to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial. Lincoln said: Reconstruction Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." Lincoln was determined to find meaning in the war in its aftermath, and did not want to continue to outcast the southern states. His main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation as one. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they were willing to sign an oath of allegiance. As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 Wade–Davis Bill, which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Lincoln's appointments were designed to harness both moderates and Radicals. To fill Chief Justice T
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61
aney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the Radicals' choice, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold his emancipation and paper money policies. After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the nation with a constitutional amendment. He declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter" and by December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. This first attempt fell short of the required two-thirds majority in the House of Representatives. Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform, and after his successful reelection, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865. With ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865. Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists. Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly how Reconstruction would have proceeded had Lincoln lived. Biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current, according to David Lincove, argue that: Eric Foner argues that: Native American policy Lincoln's experience with Indians followed the death of his grandfather Abraham by Indian assailants, in the presence of his father and uncles. Lincoln claimed Indians were antagonistic toward his father, Thomas Lincoln, and his young family. Although Lincoln was a veteran of the Black Hawk War, which was fought in Wisconsin and Illinois in 1832, he saw no significant action. During his presidency, Lincoln's policy toward Indians was driven by politics. He used the Indian Bureau as a source of patronage, making appointments to his loyal followers in Minnesota and Wisconsin. He faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraphs, from Indian attacks. On August 17, 1862, the Dakota uprising in Minnesota, supported by the Yankton Indians, killed hundreds of white settlers, forced 30,000 from their homes, and deeply alarmed the Lincoln administration. Some believed it was a conspiracy by the Confederacy to launch a war on the Northwestern front. Lincoln sent General John Pope, the former head of the Army of Virginia, to Minnesota as commander of the new Department of the Northwest. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war sent by railroad to put down the Dakota Uprising. When the Confederates protested forcing Confederate prisoners to fight Indians, Lincoln revoked the policy. Pope fought against the Indians mercilessly, even advocating their extinction. He ordered Indian farms and food supplies be destroyed, and Indian warriors be killed. Aiding Pope, Minnesota Congressman Col. Henry H. Sibley led militiamen and regular troops to defeat the Dakota at Wood Lake. By October 9, Pope considered the uprising to be ended; hostilities ceased on December 26. An unusual military court was set up to prosecute captured natives, with Lincoln effectively acting as the route of appeal. Lincoln personally reviewed each of 303 execution warrants for Santee Dakota convicted of killing innocent farmers; he commuted the sentences of all but 39 (one was later reprieved). Lincoln sought to be lenient, but still send a message. He also faced significant public pressure, including threats of mob justice should any of the Dakota be spared. Former Governor of Minnesota Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln, in 1864, that he would have gotten more presidential election support had he executed all 303 of the Indians. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes." Other enactments In the selection and use of his cabinet, Lincoln employed the strengths of his opponents in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services." Goodwin described the group in her biography as a Team of Rivals. Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of a presidency focused on executing laws while deferring to Congress' responsibility for legislating. Lincoln vetoed only four bills, including the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program. The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s. There were two measures passed to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a
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62
policy with long precedent), and a Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs, following the first enacted by Buchanan. He also signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax—a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms). The Revenue Act of 1862 adopted rates that increased with income. Lincoln presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in other areas. The National Banking Act created the system of national banks. The US issued paper currency for the first time, known as greenbacks—printed in green on the reverse side. In 1862, Congress created the Department of Agriculture. In response to rumors of a renewed draft, the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation that created an opportunity for the editors and others to corner the gold market. Lincoln attacked the media for such behavior, and ordered a military seizure of the two papers which lasted for two days. Lincoln is largely responsible for the Thanksgiving holiday. Thanksgiving had become a regional holiday in New England in the 17th century. It had been sporadically proclaimed by the federal government on irregular dates. The prior proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years earlier. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving. In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park. Judicial appointments Supreme Court appointments Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known." Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party. Other judicial appointments Lincoln appointed 27 judges to the United States district courts but no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office. States admitted to the Union West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. Nevada, which became the third state in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864. Assassination John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending an April 11, 1865 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, Booth hatched a plot to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford's Theatre. Lincoln and his wife attended the play Our American Cousin on the evening of April 14, just five days after the Union victory at the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play. At 10:15 in the evening, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for eight hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 in the morning on April 15. Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in the next morning. Two weeks later, Booth, refusing to surrender, was tracked to a farm in Virginia, and was mortally shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett and died on April 26. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested for court martial. After a brief interview, Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge. Funeral and burial The late President lay in state, first in the East Room of the White House, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his son Willie traveled for three weeks on the Lincoln Special funeral train. The train followed a circuitous route
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63
from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Poet Walt Whitman composed "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" to eulogize him, one of four poems he wrote about Lincoln. African Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their Moses'. In a larger sense, the reaction was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death. Lincoln's body was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield and now lies within the Lincoln Tomb. Religious and philosophical beliefs As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it. He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others. He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. Through his entire public career, Lincoln had a proneness for quoting Scripture. His three most famous speeches—the House Divided Speech, the Gettysburg Address, and his second inaugural—each contain direct allusions to Providence and quotes from Scripture. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power. With the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended First Presbyterian Church with his wife beginning in 1852. In the 1850s, Lincoln asserted his belief in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. The death of son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun, He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds." Lincoln did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and by 1865 was expressing those beliefs in major speeches. By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation's condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it. Whither it is tending seems plain. If God now wills the removal of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North as well as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest and revere the justice and goodness of God.This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, considered by some scholars as the greatest such address in American history, and by Lincoln himself as his own greatest speech, or one of them at the very least. Lincoln explains therein that the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will. Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language toward the end of his life may have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants. On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land. Health Lincoln is believed to have had depression, smallpox, and malaria. He took blue mass pills, which contained mercury, to treat constipation. It is unknown to what extent he may have suffered from mercury poisoning. Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on photographs of Lincoln appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. It is also suspected that he might have had a rare genetic disease such as Marfan syndrome or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B. Legacy Republican values Lincoln's redefinition of republican values has been stressed by historians such as John Patrick Diggins, Harry V. Jaffa, Vernon Burton, Eric Foner, and Herman J. Belz. Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence—which emphasized freedom and equality for all—the "sheet anchor" of republicanism beginning in the 1850s. He did this at a time when the Constitution, which "tolerated slavery", was the focus of most political discourse. Diggins notes, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech. Instead of focusing on the legality of an argument, he focused on the moral basis of republicanism. His position on war was
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64
founded on a legal argument regarding the Constitution as essentially a contract among the states, and all parties must agree to pull out of the contract. Furthermore, it was a national duty to ensure the republic stands in every state. Many soldiers and religious leaders from the north, though, felt the fight for liberty and freedom of slaves was ordained by their moral and religious beliefs. As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to Jacksonian democrats. William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism." James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform." Randall concludes that "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders." Reunification of the states In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people." The successful reunification of the states had consequences for how people viewed the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used sometimes in the plural ("these United States") and other times in the singular. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century. Historical reputation In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since 1948, the top three presidents are Lincoln, Washington, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan have been the top-ranked presidents in eight surveys, according to Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after George Washington. Lincoln's assassination left him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was "a classical liberal" in the 19th-century sense. Allen C. Guelzo states that Lincoln was a "classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to Mill, Cobden, and Bright", whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office. Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Union nationalism, as envisioned by Lincoln, "helped lead America to the nationalism of Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt." In the New Deal era, liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the welfare state. Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life." During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?" However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness." He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept. In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to a symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by Communist regimes. By the late 1960s, some African-American intellectuals, led by Lerone Bennett Jr., rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, ret
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65
orted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day; and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln the emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation. By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives, apart from neo-Confederates such as Mel Bradford who denounced his treatment of the white South, for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. Lincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across the world. Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century. On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason". In the 21st century, President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using the Lincoln Bible for his inaugural ceremonies. Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light. Memory and memorials Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell. He was the first of five presidents to do so. He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska. The United States Navy is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital, and is one of the top five visited National Park Service sites in the country. Ford's Theatre, among the top sites in Washington, D.C., is across the street from Petersen House (where he died). Memorials in Springfield, Illinois include Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Lincoln's home, as well as his tomb. A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on Mount Rushmore, which receives about 3 million visitors a year. See also Outline of Abraham Lincoln Grace Bedell Lincoln Tower List of civil rights leaders List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln Lincoln (film): 2012 film by Steven Spielberg. Linconia, a proposed colony in Central America named for Lincoln Notes References Bibliography Ellenberg's essay is adapted from his 2021 book, Shape: The Hidden Geometry of Information, Biology, Strategy, Democracy, and Everything Else, Penguin Press. ISBN 9781984879059 External links Official Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum The Lincoln Presidential Library's ongoing digitization of all documents written by or to Abraham Lincoln during his lifetime Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln – complete collected works as edited by Basler et al. (1958) – an online edition available through University of Michigan Library Digital Collections White House biography Organizations Abraham Lincoln Association Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation Media coverage Other Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln", from C-SPAN's American presidents: Life Portraits, June 28, 1999 "Writings of Abraham Lincoln" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts – Shapell Manuscript Foundation Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project – Northern Illinois University Libraries Teaching Abraham Lincoln – National Endowment for the Humanities In Popular Song: Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas Abraham Lincoln Recollections and Newspaper Articles Collection , McLean County Museum of History Digitized items in the Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana in the Rare Book and Special Collections Division in the Library of Congress 1809 births 1865 deaths 1865 murders in the United States 19th-century American politicians 19th-century presidents of the United States American abolitionists American colonization movement American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law American military personnel of the Indian Wars American militia officers American nationalists American people of English descent American political party founders Illinois postmasters American surveyors Assassinated presidents of the United States Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery Candidates in the 1860 United States
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"Ġ\"", "The", "ĠPhilos", "opher", "\",", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġpoet", "ĠDante", "Ġcalled", "Ġhim", "ĠâĢ", "ľ", "the", "Ġmaster", "Ġof", "Ġthose", "Ġwho", "Ġknow", "\".", "ĠHis", "Ġworks", "Ġcontain", "Ġthe", "Ġearliest", "Ġknown", "Ġformal", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġlogic", ",", "Ġand", "Ġwere", "Ġstudied", "Ġby", "Ġmedieval", "Ġscholars", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "ĠPeter", "ĠAbel", "ard", "Ġand", "ĠJohn", "ĠBur", "idan", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġinfluence", "Ġon", "Ġlogic", "Ġcontinued", "Ġwell", "Ġinto", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġaddition", ",", "Ġhis", "Ġethics", ",", "Ġthough", "Ġalways", "Ġinfluential", ",", "Ġgained", "Ġrenewed", "Ġinterest", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "Ġadvent", "Ġof", "Ġvirtue", "Ġethics", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġcalled", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġlogic", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġbiology", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġpolitical", "Ġscience", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġzo", "ology", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġembry", "ology", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġnatural", "Ġlaw", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġscientific", "Ġmethod", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġrhetoric", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġpsychology", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġrealism", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġcriticism", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġindividual", "ism", "\",", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġtele", "ology", "\",", "Ġand", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġfather", "Ġof", "Ġmeteor", "ology", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠLife", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġgeneral", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġdetails", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġlife", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġwell", "-", "established", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbi", "ographies", "Ġwritten", "Ġin", "Ġancient", "Ġtimes", "Ġare", "Ġoften", "Ġspeculative", "Ġand", "Ġhistorians", "Ġonly", "Ġagree", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġsalient", "Ġpoints", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", ",", "Ġwhose", "Ġname", "Ġmeans", "Ġ\"", "the", "Ġbest", "Ġpurpose", "\"", "Ġin", "ĠAncient", "ĠGreek", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġborn", "Ġin", "Ġ384", "Âł", "BC", "Ġin", "ĠSt", "ag", "ira", ",", "ĠChal", "c", "id", "ice", ",", "Ġabout", "Ġ55", "Âł", "km", "Ġ(", "34", "Ġmiles", ")", "Ġeast", "Ġof", "Ġmodern", "-", "day", "ĠThe", "ss", "alon", "iki", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġfather", ",", "ĠNic", "om", "achus", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġpersonal", "Ġphysician", "Ġto", "ĠKing", "ĠAmy", "nt", "as", "Ġof", "ĠMaced", "on", ".", "ĠWhile", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġyoung", ",", "ĠAristotle", "Ġlearned", "Ġabout", "Ġbiology", "Ġand", "Ġmedical", "Ġinformation", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġwas", "Ġtaught", "Ġby", "Ġhis", "Ġfather", ".", "ĠBoth", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġparents", "Ġdied", "Ġwhen", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġabout", "Ġthirteen", ",", "Ġand", "ĠPro", "x", "en", "us", "Ġof", "ĠAt", "ar", "ne", "us", "Ġbecame", "Ġhis", "Ġguardian", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġlittle", "Ġinformation", "Ġabout", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġchildhood", "Ġhas", "Ġsurvived", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġprobably", "Ġspent", "Ġsome", "Ġtime", "Ġwithin", "Ġthe", "ĠMaced", "onian", "Ġpalace", ",", "Ġmaking", "Ġhis", "Ġfirst", "Ġconnections", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "ĠMaced", "onian", "Ġmonarchy", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAt", "Ġthe", "Ġage", "Ġof", "Ġseventeen", "Ġor", "Ġeighteen", ",", "ĠAristotle" ]
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presidential election Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees Illinois Central Railroad people Illinois Republicans Illinois Whigs Illinois lawyers Abraham Male murder victims Members of the Illinois House of Representatives Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln People from Coles County, Illinois People from LaRue County, Kentucky People from Macon County, Illinois People from Spencer County, Indiana People murdered in Washington, D.C. People of Illinois in the American Civil War People with mood disorders Politicians from Springfield, Illinois Presidents of the United States Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Republican Party presidents of the United States Union political leaders Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives <|endoftext|>Aristotle (; Aristotélēs, ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of physical science extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him “the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political science", "the father of zoology", "the father of embryology", "the father of natural law", "the father of scientific method", "the father of rhetoric", "the father of psychology", "the father of realism", "the father of criticism", "the father of individualism", "the father of teleology", and "the father of meteorology". Life In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle
[ "Ġmoved", "Ġto", "ĠAthens", "Ġto", "Ġcontinue", "Ġhis", "Ġeducation", "Ġat", "ĠPlato", "'s", "ĠAcademy", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġprobably", "Ġexperienced", "Ġthe", "ĠEle", "us", "inian", "ĠMysteries", "Ġas", "Ġhe", "Ġwrote", "Ġwhen", "Ġdescribing", "Ġthe", "Ġsights", "Ġone", "Ġviewed", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠEle", "us", "inian", "ĠMysteries", ",", "Ġ\"", "to", "Ġexperience", "Ġis", "Ġto", "Ġlearn", "\"", "Ġ[", "ÏĢ", "α", "Î", "¸", "ε", "Î", "¯", "ν", "Ġμ", "α", "Î", "¸", "ε", "Ä", "©", "ν", "].", "ĠAristotle", "Ġremained", "Ġin", "ĠAthens", "Ġfor", "Ġnearly", "Ġtwenty", "Ġyears", "Ġbefore", "Ġleaving", "Ġin", "Ġ348", "/", "47", "Âł", "BC", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġtraditional", "Ġstory", "Ġabout", "Ġhis", "Ġdeparture", "Ġrecords", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġdisappointed", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġacademy", "'s", "Ġdirection", "Ġafter", "Ġcontrol", "Ġpassed", "Ġto", "ĠPlato", "'s", "Ġnephew", "ĠSpe", "us", "ipp", "us", ",", "Ġalthough", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġpossible", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġfeared", "Ġthe", "Ġanti", "-", "M", 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"ĠIn", "Ġ322", "Âł", "BC", ",", "ĠDem", "oph", "ilus", "Ġand", "ĠE", "ury", "med", "on", "Ġthe", "ĠHier", "oph", "ant", "Ġreportedly", "Ġdenounced", "ĠAristotle", "Ġfor", "Ġimp", "iety", ",", "Ġprompting", "Ġhim", "Ġto", "Ġflee", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġmother", "'s", "Ġfamily", "Ġestate", "Ġin", "ĠChal", "c", "is", ",", "Ġon", "ĠE", "ub", "oe", "a", ",", "Ġat", "Ġwhich", "Ġoccasion", "Ġhe", "Ġwas", "Ġsaid", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġstated", ":", "Ġ\"", "I", "Ġwill", "Ġnot", "Ġallow", "Ġthe", "ĠAthen", "ians", "Ġto", "Ġsin", "Ġtwice", "Ġagainst", "Ġphilosophy", "\"", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġa", "Ġreference", "Ġto", "ĠAthens", "'s", "Ġtrial", "Ġand", "Ġexecution", "Ġof", "ĠSocrates", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġdied", "Ġon", "ĠE", "ub", "oe", "a", "Ġof", "Ġnatural", "Ġcauses", "Ġlater", "Ġthat", "Ġsame", "Ġyear", ",", "Ġhaving", "Ġnamed", "Ġhis", "Ġstudent", "ĠAnt", "ip", "ater", "Ġas", "Ġhis", "Ġchief", "Ġexecut", "or", "Ġand", "Ġleaving", "Ġa", "Ġwill", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "Ġhe", "Ġasked", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġburied", "Ġnext", "Ġto", "Ġhis", "Ġwife", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSpe", "cul", "ative", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġ", "ĠLogic", "Ġ", "ĠWith", "Ġthe", "ĠPrior", "ĠAnalytics", ",", "ĠAristotle", "Ġis", "Ġcredited", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġearliest", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġformal", "Ġlogic", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġconception", "Ġof", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġdominant", "Ġform", "Ġof", "ĠWestern", "Ġlogic", "Ġuntil", "Ġ19", "th", "-", "century", "Ġadvances", "Ġin", "Ġmathematical", "Ġlogic", ".", "ĠKant", "Ġstated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCrit", "ique", "Ġof", "ĠPure", "ĠReason", "Ġthat", "Ġwith", "ĠAristotle", "Ġlogic", "Ġreached", "Ġits", "Ġcompletion", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOrgan", "on", "Ġ", "ĠWhat", "Ġis", "Ġtoday", "Ġcalled", "ĠArist", "ot", "el", "ian", "Ġlogic", "Ġwith", "Ġits", "Ġtypes", "Ġof", "Ġsyll", "og", "ism", "Ġ(", "method", "s", "Ġof", "Ġlogical", "Ġargument", "),", "ĠAristotle", "Ġhimself", "Ġwould", "Ġhave", "Ġlabelled", "Ġ\"", "analy", "tics", "\".", "ĠThe", "Ġterm", "Ġ\"", "log", "ic", "\"", "Ġhe", "Ġreserved", "Ġto", "Ġmean", "Ġdialect", "ics", ".", "ĠMost", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġwork", "Ġis", "Ġprobably", "Ġnot", "Ġin", "Ġits", "Ġoriginal", "Ġform", ",", "Ġbecause", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġmost", "Ġlikely", "Ġedited", "Ġby", "Ġstudents", "Ġand", "Ġlater", "Ġlect", "urers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġlogical", "Ġworks", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "Ġwere", "Ġcompiled", "Ġinto", "Ġa", "Ġset", "Ġof", "Ġsix", "Ġbooks", "Ġcalled", "Ġthe", "ĠOrgan", "on", "Ġaround", "Ġ40", "ĠBC", "Ġby", "ĠAnd", "ronic", "us", "Ġof", "ĠRhodes", "Ġor", "Ġothers", "Ġamong", "Ġhis", "Ġfollowers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġbooks", "Ġare", ":", "Ġ", "ĠCategories", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠInterpret", "ation", "Ġ", "ĠPrior", "ĠAnalytics", "Ġ", "ĠPoster", "ior", "ĠAnalytics", "Ġ", "ĠTopics", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠSoph", "istical", "ĠRef", "utations", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġorder", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġbooks", "Ġ(", "or", "Ġthe", "Ġteachings", "Ġfrom", "Ġwhich" ]
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moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander. Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If the Suda an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages is accurate, he may also have had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus. This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre." Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Speculative philosophy Logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion. Organon What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are: Categories On Interpretation Prior Analytics Posterior Analytics Topics On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which
[ "Ġthey", "Ġare", "Ġcomposed", ")", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġcertain", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġthis", "Ġlist", "Ġwas", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġwritings", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġgoes", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġbasics", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġsimple", "Ġterms", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠCategories", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġpropositions", "Ġand", "Ġtheir", "Ġelementary", "Ġrelations", "Ġin", "ĠOn", "ĠInterpret", "ation", ",", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstudy", "Ġof", "Ġmore", "Ġcomplex", "Ġforms", ",", "Ġnamely", ",", "Ġsyll", "og", "isms", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġthe", "ĠAnalytics", ")", "Ġand", "Ġdialect", "ics", "Ġ(", "in", "Ġthe", "ĠTopics", "Ġand", "ĠSoph", "istical", "ĠRef", "utations", ").", "ĠThe", "Ġfirst", "Ġthree", "Ġtreat", "ises", "Ġform", "Ġthe", "Ġcore", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlogical", "Ġtheory", "Ġstrict", "o", "Ġsens", "u", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġgrammar", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġlanguage", "Ġof", "Ġlogic", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcorrect", "Ġrules", "Ġof", "Ġreasoning", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠR", 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"Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġform", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsubstance", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġactual", "Ġhouse", ",", "Ġnamely", "Ġ'", "cover", "ing", "Ġfor", "Ġbodies", "Ġand", "Ġch", "att", "els", "'", "Ġor", "Ġany", "Ġother", "Ġdifferent", "ia", "Ġthat", "Ġlet", "Ġus", "Ġdefine", "Ġsomething", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġhouse", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġformula", "Ġthat", "Ġgives", "Ġthe", "Ġcomponents", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġaccount", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmatter", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġformula", "Ġthat", "Ġgives", "Ġthe", "Ġdifferent", "ia", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġaccount", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġform", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIm", "manent", "Ġrealism", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠLike", "Ġhis", "Ġteacher", "ĠPlato", ",", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġphilosophy", "Ġaims", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġuniversal", ".", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġont", "ology", "Ġplaces", "Ġthe", "Ġuniversal", "Ġ(", "k", "ath", "ol", "ou", ")", "Ġin", "Ġparticulars", "Ġ(", "k", "ath", "'", "Ġhe", "k", "aston", "),", "Ġthings", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġworld", ",", "Ġwhereas", "Ġfor", "ĠPlato", "Ġthe", "Ġuniversal", "Ġis", 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"Ġin", "Ġquantity", ";", "Ġ", "Ġlocom", "otion", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġchange", "Ġin", "Ġspace", ";", "Ġand", "Ġ", "Ġalteration", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġchange", "Ġin", "Ġquality", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġcoming", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġchange", "Ġwhere", "Ġnothing", "Ġpersists", "Ġof", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġresultant", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġproperty", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġthat", "Ġparticular", "Ġchange", "Ġhe", "Ġintroduces", "Ġthe", "Ġconcept", "Ġof", "Ġpotential", "ity", "Ġ(", "d", "ynam", "is", ")", "Ġand", "Ġactual", "ity", "Ġ(", "ent", "ele", "che", "ia", ")", "Ġin", "Ġassociation", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġmatter", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġform", ".", "ĠRefer", "ring", "Ġto", "Ġpotential", "ity", ",", "Ġthis", "Ġis", "Ġwhat", "Ġa", "Ġthing", "Ġis", "Ġcapable", "Ġof", "Ġdoing", "Ġor", "Ġbeing", "Ġacted", "Ġupon", "Ġif", "Ġthe", "Ġconditions", "Ġare", "Ġright", "Ġand", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġprevented", "Ġby", "Ġsomething", "Ġelse", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġseed", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġplant", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġsoil", "Ġis", "Ġpotentially", "Ġ(", "d", "yn", "ame", "i", ")", "Ġa", "Ġplant", ",", "Ġand", "Ġif", "Ġit", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġprevented", "Ġby", "Ġsomething", ",", "Ġit", "Ġwill", "Ġbecome", "Ġa", "Ġplant", ".", "ĠPot", "entially", "Ġbeings", "Ġcan", "Ġeither", "Ġ'", "act", "'", "Ġ(", "po", "ie", "in", ")", "Ġor", "Ġ'", "be", "Ġacted", "Ġupon", "'", "Ġ(", "pas", "che", "in", "),", "Ġwhich", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġeither", "Ġinnate", "Ġor", "Ġlearned", ".", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġeyes", "Ġpossess", "Ġthe", "Ġpotential", "ity", "Ġof", "Ġsight", "Ġ(", "inn", "ate", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġbeing", "Ġacted", "Ġupon", "),", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġcapability", "Ġof", "Ġplaying", "Ġthe", "Ġfl", "ute", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġpossessed", "Ġby", "Ġlearning", "Ġ(", "ex", "ercise", "ĠâĢĵ", "Ġacting", ")." ]
68
they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics. Metaphysics The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): Substance Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. Immanent realism Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Potentiality and actuality With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; locomotion, which is change in space; and alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting).
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"Ġshown", "Ġby", "Ġexperiment", "Ġthat", "ĠAristotle" ]
69
Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same. Epistemology Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles. Natural philosophy Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. Physics Five elements In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets. Motion Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation , incorrect in modern physics. Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places. In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling: Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition. Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle
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70
's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus. Four causes Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here. Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino. The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing. The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions. The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life. Optics Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. Astronomy In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." Geology/Natural Sciences Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."' Aristotle also made many observations about the hyd
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"Ġhistorical", "Ġaccident", ":", "Ġhis", "Ġworks", "Ġon", "Ġbot", "any", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġlost", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġtwo", "Ġbooks", "Ġon", "Ġplants", "Ġby", "Ġhis", "Ġpupil", "ĠThe", "oph", "rast", "us", "Ġhave", "Ġsurvived", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "Ġreports", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġsea", "-", "life", "Ġvisible", "Ġfrom", "Ġobservation", "Ġon", "ĠLes", "bos", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "Ġcatches", "Ġof", "Ġfishermen", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġdescribes", "Ġthe", "Ġcat", "fish", ",", "Ġelectric", "Ġray", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfrog", "fish", "Ġin", "Ġdetail", ",", "Ġas", "Ġwell", "Ġas", "Ġc", "ep", "hal", "op", "ods", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġoct", "opus", "Ġand", "Ġpaper", "Ġn", "aut", "ilus", ".", "ĠHis", "Ġdescription", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġhect", "oc", "ot", "yl", "Ġarm", "Ġof", "Ġc", "ep", "hal", "op", "ods", ",", "Ġused", "Ġin", "Ġsexual", "Ġreproduction", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġwidely", "Ġdisbel", "ieved", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġ19", "th", "Ġcentury", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġgives", "Ġaccurate", "Ġdescriptions", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfour", "-", "ch", "amb", "ered", "Ġfore", "-", "st", "omach", "s", "Ġof", "Ġr", "umin", "ants", ",", "Ġand", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġov", "ov", "iv", "ip", "ar", "ous", "Ġembry", "ological", "Ġdevelopment", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġh", "ound", "Ġshark", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHe", "Ġnotes", "Ġthat", "Ġan", "Ġanimal", "'s", "Ġstructure", "Ġis", "Ġwell", "Ġmatched", "Ġto", "Ġfunction", ",", "Ġso", ",", "Ġamong", "Ġbirds", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġher", "on", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġlives", "Ġin", "Ġmars", "hes", "Ġwith", "Ġsoft", "Ġmud", "Ġand", "Ġlives", "Ġby", "Ġcatching", "Ġfish", ",", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġlong", "Ġneck", "Ġand", "Ġlong", "Ġlegs", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġsharp", "Ġspear", "-", "like", "Ġbe", "ak", ",", "Ġwhereas", "Ġducks", "Ġthat", "Ġswim", "Ġhave", "Ġshort", "Ġlegs", "Ġand", "Ġweb", "bed", "Ġfeet", ".", "ĠDarwin", ",", "Ġtoo", ",", "Ġnoted", "Ġthese", "Ġsorts", "Ġof", "Ġdifferences", "Ġbetween", "Ġsimilar", "Ġkinds", "Ġof", "Ġanimal", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġunlike", "ĠAristotle", "Ġused", "Ġthe", "Ġdata", "Ġto", "Ġcome", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġevolution", ".", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġwritings", "Ġcan", "Ġseem", "Ġto", "Ġmodern", "Ġreaders", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġimplying", "Ġevolution", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwhile", "ĠAristotle", "Ġwas", "Ġaware", "Ġthat", "Ġnew", "Ġmutations", "Ġor", "Ġhybrid", "izations", "Ġcould", "Ġoccur", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġsaw", "Ġthese", "Ġas", "Ġrare", "Ġaccidents", ".", "ĠFor", "ĠAristotle", ",", "Ġaccidents", ",", "Ġlike", "Ġheat", "Ġwaves", "Ġin", "Ġwinter", ",", "Ġmust", "Ġbe", "Ġconsidered", "Ġdistinct", "Ġfrom", "Ġnatural", "Ġcauses", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġwas", "Ġthus", "Ġcritical", "Ġof", "ĠEm", "ped", "oc", "les", "'s", "Ġmaterial", "ist", "Ġtheory", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġ\"", "surv", "ival", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġfitt", "est", "\"", "Ġorigin", "Ġof", "Ġliving", "Ġthings", "Ġand", "Ġtheir", "Ġorgans", ",", "Ġand", "Ġridiculed", "Ġthe", "Ġidea", "Ġthat", "Ġaccidents", "Ġcould", "Ġlead", "Ġto", "Ġorderly", "Ġresults", ".", "ĠTo", "Ġput", "Ġhis", "Ġviews", "Ġinto", "Ġmodern", "Ġterms", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġnowhere", "Ġsays", "Ġthat", "Ġdifferent", "Ġspecies", "Ġcan", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġcommon", "Ġancestor", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthat", "Ġone", "Ġkind", "Ġcan", "Ġchange", "Ġinto", "Ġanother", ",", "Ġor", "Ġthat", "Ġkinds", "Ġcan", "Ġbecome", "Ġextinct", ".", "Ġ", "ĠScientific", "Ġstyle", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "Ġdid", "Ġnot", "Ġdo", "Ġexperiments", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġmodern", "Ġsense", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġused", "Ġthe", "Ġancient", "ĠGreek", "Ġterm", "Ġpe", "pe", "ir", "amen", "oi", "Ġto", "Ġmean", "Ġobservations", ",", "Ġor", "Ġat", "Ġmost", "Ġinvestigative", "Ġprocedures", "Ġlike", "Ġdis", "section", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠGeneration", "Ġof", "ĠAnimals", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġfinds", "Ġa", "Ġfertil", "ized", "Ġhen", "'s", "Ġegg", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġsuitable", "Ġstage", "Ġand", "Ġopens", "Ġit", "Ġto", "Ġsee", "Ġthe", "Ġembryo", "'s", "Ġheart", "Ġbeating", "Ġinside", ".", "Ġ", "ĠInstead", ",", "Ġhe", "Ġpracticed", "Ġa", "Ġdifferent", "Ġstyle", "Ġof", "Ġscience", ":", "Ġsystematically", "Ġgathering", "Ġdata", ",", "Ġdiscovering", 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"Ġtet", "rap", "ods", "Ġ(", "ter", "restrial", "Ġplac", "ental", "Ġmammals", ")", "Ġthat", "Ġhe", "Ġstudied", ".", "ĠAmong", "Ġthese", "Ġcorrect", "Ġpredictions", "Ġare", "Ġthe", "Ġfollowing", ".", "ĠBro", "od", "Ġsize", "Ġdecreases", "Ġwith", "Ġ(", "adult", ")", "Ġbody", "Ġmass", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthat", "Ġan", "Ġelephant", "Ġhas", "Ġfewer", "Ġyoung", "Ġ(", "usually", "Ġjust", "Ġone", ")", "Ġper", "Ġbrood", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġmouse", ".", "ĠLif", "es", "pan", "Ġincreases", "Ġwith", "Ġgestation", "Ġperiod", ",", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġwith", "Ġbody", "Ġmass", ",", "Ġso", "Ġthat", "Ġelephants", "Ġlive", "Ġlonger", "Ġthan", "Ġmice", ",", "Ġhave", "Ġa", "Ġlonger", "Ġperiod", "Ġof", "Ġgestation", ",", "Ġand", "Ġare", "Ġheavier", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġfinal", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġfec", "und", "ity", "Ġdecreases", "Ġwith", "Ġlifespan", ",", "Ġso", "Ġlong", "-", "lived", "Ġkinds", "Ġlike", "Ġelephants", "Ġhave", "Ġfewer", "Ġyoung", "Ġin", "Ġtotal", "Ġthan", "Ġshort", "-", "lived", "Ġkinds", "Ġlike", 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"ologist", "Ġwould", "Ġcall", "Ġverte", "brates", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġhotter", "Ġ\"", "anim", "als", "Ġwith", "Ġblood", "\",", "Ġand" ]
71
rologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.") Biology Empirical research Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark. He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct. Scientific style Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. Classification of living things Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and
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72
below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, but zoologists who studied this question recently think otherwise. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design. Psychology Soul Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason). For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. Memory According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking. Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience. Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. Dreams Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense
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during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary. Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia. One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. Practical philosophy Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric. Ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher. Politics In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others.
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"Ġfundamentally", "Ġacts", "Ġof", "Ġm", "imes", "is", "Ġ(\"", "im", "itation", "\"),", "Ġeach", "Ġvarying", "Ġin", "Ġimitation", "Ġby", "Ġmedium", ",", "Ġobject", ",", "Ġand", "Ġmanner", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġapplies", "Ġthe", "Ġterm", "Ġm", "imes", "is", "Ġboth", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġproperty", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġwork", "Ġof", "Ġart", "Ġand", "Ġalso", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġproduct", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġartist", "'s", "Ġintention", "Ġand", "Ġcontends", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġaudience", "'s", "Ġreal", "isation", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġm", "imes", "is", "Ġis", "Ġvital", "Ġto", "Ġunderstanding", "Ġthe", "Ġwork", "Ġitself", ".", "ĠAristotle", "Ġstates", "Ġthat", "Ġm", "imes", "is", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġnatural", "Ġinstinct", "Ġof", "Ġhumanity", "Ġthat", "Ġseparates", "Ġhumans", "Ġfrom", "Ġanimals", "Ġand", "Ġthat", "Ġall", "Ġhuman", "Ġart", "istry", "Ġ\"", "follow", "s", "Ġthe", "Ġpattern", "Ġof", "Ġnature", "\".", "ĠBecause", "Ġof", "Ġthis", ",", "ĠAristotle", "Ġbelieved", "Ġthat", "Ġeach", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġmim", "etic", "Ġarts", "Ġpossesses", "Ġwhat", "ĠStephen", "ĠHall", "i", "well", "Ġcalls", "Ġ\"", "highly", "Ġstructured", "Ġprocedures", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġachievement", "Ġof", "Ġtheir", "Ġpurposes", ".\"", "ĠFor", "Ġexample", ",", "Ġmusic", "Ġim", "itates", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġmedia" ]
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Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences." In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states: As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see. Economics Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver. Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". Rhetoric and poetics Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example). Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media
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"Ġsuggests", "Ġthat", "Ġbecause", "Ġtragedy", "Ġpossesses", "Ġall", "Ġthe", "Ġattributes", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġepic", ",", "Ġpossibly", "Ġpossesses", "Ġadditional", "Ġattributes", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġspectacle", "Ġand", "Ġmusic", ",", "Ġis", "Ġmore", "Ġunified", ",", "Ġand", "Ġachieves", "Ġthe", "Ġaim", "Ġof", "Ġits", "Ġm", "imes", "is", "Ġin", "Ġshorter", "Ġscope", ",", "Ġit", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġconsidered", "Ġsuperior", "Ġto", "Ġepic", ".", "ĠAristotle", "Ġwas", "Ġa", "Ġkeen", "Ġsystematic", "Ġcollector", "Ġof", "Ġr", "iddles", ",", "Ġfolklore", ",", "Ġand", "Ġpro", "verbs", ";", "Ġhe", "Ġand", "Ġhis", "Ġschool", "Ġhad", "Ġa", "Ġspecial", "Ġinterest", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġr", "iddles", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠDel", "ph", "ic", "ĠOracle", "Ġand", "Ġstudied", "Ġthe", "Ġf", "ables", "Ġof", "ĠA", "es", "op", ".", "Ġ", "ĠViews", "Ġon", "Ġwomen", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġpro", "creation", "Ġdescribes", "Ġan", "Ġactive", ",", "Ġens", "ou", "ling", "Ġmasculine", "Ġelement", "Ġbringing", 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"Ġpolitical", "Ġtheory", ",", "Ġtheology", ",", "Ġrhetoric", "Ġand", "Ġliterary", "Ġanalysis", "Ġis", "Ġequally", "Ġlong", ".", "ĠAs", "Ġa", "Ġresult", ",", "ĠK", "uk", "k", "onen", "Ġargues", ",", "Ġany", "Ġanalysis", "Ġof", "Ġreality", "Ġtoday", "Ġ\"", "will", "Ġalmost", "Ġcertainly", "Ġcarry", "ĠArist", "ot", "el", "ian", "Ġover", "tones", "Ġ...", "Ġevidence", "Ġof", "Ġan", "Ġexceptionally", "Ġforceful", "Ġmind", ".\"", "ĠJonathan", "ĠBarnes", "Ġwrote", "Ġthat", "Ġ\"", "an", "Ġaccount", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġintellectual", "Ġafterlife", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġlittle", "Ġless", "Ġthan", "Ġa", "Ġhistory", "Ġof", "ĠEuropean", "Ġthought", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "Ġhis", "Ġsuccessor", ",", "ĠThe", "oph", "rast", "us", "Ġ", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġpupil", "Ġand", "Ġsuccessor", ",", "ĠThe", "oph", "rast", "us", ",", "Ġwrote", "Ġthe", "ĠHistory", "Ġof", "ĠPlants", ",", "Ġa", "Ġpioneering", "Ġwork", "Ġin", "Ġbot", "any", ".", "ĠSome", "Ġof", "Ġhis", "Ġtechnical", "Ġterms", "Ġremain", "Ġin", 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"ĠNic", "om", "achus", ",", "Ġand", "ĠThe", "oph", "rast", "us", ".", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġinfluence", "Ġover", "ĠAlexander", "Ġthe", "ĠGreat", "Ġis", "Ġseen", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlatter", "'s", "Ġbringing", "Ġwith", "Ġhim", "Ġon", "Ġhis", "Ġexpedition", "Ġa", "Ġhost", "Ġof", "Ġzo", "ologists", ",", "Ġbot", "an", "ists", ",", "Ġand", "Ġresearchers", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġhad", "Ġalso", "Ġlearned", "Ġa", "Ġgreat", "Ġdeal", "Ġabout", "ĠPersian", "Ġcustoms", "Ġand", "Ġtraditions", "Ġfrom", "Ġhis", "Ġteacher", ".", "ĠAlthough", "Ġhis", "Ġrespect", "Ġfor", "ĠAristotle", "Ġwas", "Ġdiminished", "Ġas", "Ġhis", "Ġtravels", "Ġmade", "Ġit", "Ġclear", "Ġthat", "Ġmuch", "Ġof", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġgeography", "Ġwas", "Ġclearly", "Ġwrong", ",", "Ġwhen", "Ġthe", "Ġold", "Ġphilosopher", "Ġreleased", "Ġhis", "Ġworks", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġpublic", ",", "ĠAlexander", "Ġcomplained", "Ġ\"", "Th", "ou", "Ġhast", "Ġnot", "Ġdone", "Ġwell", "Ġto", "Ġpublish", "Ġthy", "Ġac", "ro", "am", "atic", "Ġdoctrines", ";", "Ġfor", "Ġin", "Ġwhat", "Ġshall", "ĠI", "Ġsurpass", "Ġother", "Ġmen", "Ġif", "Ġthose", "Ġdoctrines", "Ġwherein", "ĠI", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġtrained", "Ġare", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġall", "Ġmen", "'s", "Ġcommon", "Ġproperty", "?\"", "Ġ", "ĠOn", "ĠHell", "en", "istic", "Ġscience", "Ġ", "ĠAfter", "ĠThe", "oph", "rast", "us", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠLy", "ce", "um", "Ġfailed", "Ġto", "Ġproduce", "Ġany", "Ġoriginal", "Ġwork", ".", "ĠThough", "Ġinterest", "Ġin", "ĠAristotle", "'s", "Ġideas", "Ġsurvived", ",", "Ġthey", "Ġwere", "Ġgenerally", "Ġtaken", "Ġunquestion", "ingly", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġuntil", "Ġthe", "Ġage", "Ġof", "ĠAlexandria", "Ġunder", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "to", "lem", "ies", "Ġthat", "Ġadvances", "Ġin", "Ġbiology", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġagain", "Ġfound", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġfirst", "Ġmedical", "Ġteacher", "Ġat", "ĠAlexandria", ",", "ĠHer", "oph", "ilus", "Ġof", "ĠChal", "ced", "on", ",", "Ġcorrected", "ĠAristotle", ",", "Ġplacing", "Ġintelligence", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġbrain", ",", "Ġand", "Ġconnected", "Ġthe", "Ġnervous", "Ġsystem", "Ġto", "Ġmotion", "Ġand", "Ġsensation", ".", "ĠHer", "oph", "ilus", "Ġalso" ]
75
of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop. Views on women Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men. Influence More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought". On his successor, Theophrastus Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned. On later Greek philosophers The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" On Hellenistic science After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also
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76
distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." On Byzantine scholars Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations. After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. On the medieval Islamic world Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. On medieval Europe With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme. The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy: Besides Dante's fellow poets, the classical figure that most influenced the Comedy is Aristotle. Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics. On medieval Judaism Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism) adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers". Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him
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upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher". On Early Modern scientists In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. On 18th/19th-century thinkers The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle". Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. James Joyce's favoured philosopher was Aristotle, whom he considered to be "the greatest thinker of all times". Samuel Taylor Coleridge said: Everybody is born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian. Ayn Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. She also regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers. Karl Marx considered Aristotle to be the "greatest thinker of antiquity", and called him a "giant thinker", a "genius", and "the great scholar". Modern rejection and rehabilitation During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". Hobbes rejected one of the most famous theses of Aristotle's politics, namely that human beings are naturally suited to life in a polis and do not fully realize their natures until they exercise the role of citizen. By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood. Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ont
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78
ogeny. Surviving works Corpus Aristotelicum The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. Loss and preservation Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today. Legacy Depictions Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." Sculptures Eponyms The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. See also Aristotelian Society Aristotle's Biology Conimbricenses Perfectionism References Notes Citations Sources Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press. These translations are available in several places online; see External links. Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, . Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, . Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima , Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press. Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), . Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity
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Press. Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press. Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. . [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett. Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press. Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally. External links At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: At the Internet Classics Archive From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Collections of works At Massachusetts Institute of Technology Perseus Project at Tufts University At the University of Adelaide P. Remacle The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDFDJVU) 384 BC births 322 BC deaths 4th-century BC mathematicians 4th-century BC philosophers 4th-century BC writers Academic philosophers Acting theorists Ancient Greek biologists Ancient Greek economists Ancient Greek epistemologists Ancient Greek ethicists Ancient Greek logicians Ancient Greek mathematicians Ancient Greek metaphilosophers Ancient Greek metaphysicians Ancient Greek philosophers Ancient Greek philosophers of language Ancient Greek philosophers of mind Ancient Greek physicists Ancient Greek political philosophers Ancient Greek philosophers of art Ancient literary critics Ancient Stagirites Aphorists Aristotelian philosophers Attic Greek writers Ancient Greek cosmologists Critical thinking Cultural critics Founders of philosophical traditions Greek male writers Greek geologists Greek meteorologists Greek social commentators Humor researchers Irony theorists Metic philosophers in Classical Athens Moral philosophers Natural philosophers Ontologists Peripatetic philosophers Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice Philosophers of culture Philosophers of education Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of history Philosophers of law Philosophers of literature Philosophers of logic Philosophers of love Philosophers of psychology Philosophers of science Philosophers of time Philosophers of sexuality Philosophers of technology Philosophical logic Philosophical theists Philosophy academics Philosophy writers Rhetoric theorists Social critics Social philosophers Students of Plato Trope theorists Virtue ethicists Virtue ethics Western culture Western philosophy Zoologists <|endoftext|>An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital during the Années folles. Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F following the earlier success of Rhapsody in Blue (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor. Background Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Mus
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",", "Ġit", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "ĠG", "ers", "h", "win", "'s", "Ġintention", "Ġto", "Ġuse", "Ġthe", "Ġnotes", "ĠA", "4", ",", "ĠB", "4", ",", "ĠD", "5", ",", "Ġand", "ĠA", "4", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġlikely", "Ġthat", "Ġin", "Ġlabeling", "Ġthe", "Ġtaxi" ]
80
ica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Nadia Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his Rhapsody in Blue. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway, and artist Pablo Picasso. Composition Gershwin based An American in Paris on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works. Gershwin explained in Musical America, "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso". Response Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of An American in Paris. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that An American in Paris was better crafted than Gershwin's Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics: Instrumentation An American in Paris was originally scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, ratchet, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C, and D with circles around them, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone (all saxophones doubling soprano saxophones), and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C, and D, it had been Gershwin's intention to use the notes A4, B4, D5, and A4. It is likely that in labeling the taxi
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81
horns as A, B, C, and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns, and not the notes that they played. A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments: alto, tenor and baritone. The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments, and the contrabassoon was also deleted. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson's revision. Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000, by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian. William Daly arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929. Preservation status On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process. The score to An American in Paris was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected to take 30 to 40 years to complete, but An American in Paris was planned to be an early volume in the series. Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance. On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration, an alteration usually attributed to F. Campbell-Watson. Recordings An American in Paris has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D, and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937, Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which An American in Paris, also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album One Night Stand, recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522). Use in film In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film, An American in Paris, featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar, and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the An American in Paris symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000. References Further
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reading Rimler, Walter. George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. chapter 6: Paris, pp. 28–33. External links Scores, marked by Leonard Bernstein, Andre Kostelanetz, Erich Leinsdorf; New York Philharmonic archives 1944 recording by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński , New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959. 1928 compositions Compositions by George Gershwin Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Music about Paris Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic Symphonic poems <|endoftext|>The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order. Superlatives Winners and nominees 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s See also BAFTA Award for Best Production Design Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Production Design Notes References Best Production Design Awards for best art direction <|endoftext|>The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in the film industry. They are regarded by many as the most prestigious and significant awards in the entertainment industry worldwide. Given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements, as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy, officially called the "Academy Award of Merit", although more commonly referred to by its nickname, the "Oscar". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in the Art Deco style. The award was originally sculpted by George Stanley from a design sketch by Cedric Gibbons. AMPAS first presented it in 1929 at a private dinner hosted by Douglas Fairbanks in The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in what would become known as the 1st Academy Awards. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide. It is also the oldest of the four major annual American entertainment awards; its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards. A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929. They are widely cited as the most prestigious and renowned competitive awards in the field of entertainment. The 93rd Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021, was held on April 25, 2021, after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema. As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. It took place at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California for the 19th consecutive year, along with satellite location taking place at the Union Station also in Los Angeles. History The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ at 2020 prices). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes. Winners were announced to the media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until 1940 when the Los Angeles Times announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the names of the winners. Milestones The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and The Way of
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"ors", ",", "ĠWriters", ",", "ĠDirectors", ",", "ĠPro", "ducers", ",", "Ġand", "ĠTechn", "icians", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSc", "ulpt", "or", "ĠGeorge", "ĠStanley", "Ġ(", "who", "Ġalso", "Ġdid", "Ġthe", "ĠMuse", "ĠFountain", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "ĠHollywood", "ĠBowl", ")", "Ġsculpt", "ed", "ĠCed", "ric", "ĠGib", "bons", "'", "Ġdesign", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġstat", "u", "ettes", "Ġpresented", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġinitial", "Ġceremonies", "Ġwere", "Ġgold", "-", "pl", "ated", "Ġsolid", "Ġbronze", ".", "ĠWithin", "Ġa", "Ġfew", "Ġyears", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġbronze", "Ġwas", "Ġabandoned", "Ġin", "Ġfavor", "Ġof", "ĠBritann", "ia", "Ġmetal", ",", "Ġa", "Ġp", "ew", "ter", "-", "like", "Ġalloy", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġthen", "Ġpl", "ated", "Ġin", "Ġcopper", ",", "Ġnickel", "Ġsilver", ",", "Ġand", "Ġfinally", ",", "Ġ24", "-", "kar", "at", "Ġgold", ".", "ĠDue", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġmetal", "Ġshortage", "Ġduring", "ĠWorld", "ĠWar", "ĠII", ",", "ĠOscars", "Ġwere", "Ġmade", "Ġof", "Ġpainted", "Ġplaster", "Ġfor", "Ġthree", "Ġyears", ".", 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83
All Flesh. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held in 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category, now known as Best International Feature Film, was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. Perhaps the most widely seen streaker in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel, who streaked across the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles flashing a peace sign on national US television at the 46th Academy Awards in 1974. Bemused host David Niven quipped, "Isn't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping off and showing his shortcomings?" Later, evidence arose suggesting that Opel's appearance was facilitated as a publicity stunt by the show's producer Jack Haley Jr. Robert Metzler, the show's business manager, believed that the incident had been planned in some way; during the dress rehearsal Niven had asked Metzler's wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was thus not the ad-lib it appeared to be. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. From 1973 to 2020, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture. For 2021, this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the Academy Award for Best Actor. Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. Parasite became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the February 9, 2020, award ceremony. Tom Hanks announced at the 2020 Oscar Ceremony, the opening of the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures on December 14, 2020.<ref>Barnes, Brooks (February 19, 2020). "Motion Picture Academy Museum Will Open in December." The New York Times. Retrieved March 15, 2020.</ref> The museum development started in 2017 under Kerry Brougher, but is now led by Bill Kramer. The industry curated exhibits will be geared toward the history of motion picture, the art & science of film making, exhibiting trailblazing directors, actors, film-makers, sound editors and more, and will house famous artifacts from acclaimed movies like Dorothy's Ruby Red Slippers. Because of COVID-19, Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the 2021 Oscar Ceremony, streaming movies not shown in theaters would be eligible, though at some point the requirement that movies be shown in theaters would return. Oscar statuette Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette) The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians. Sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating
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84
were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating. Naming The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar" for the trophies in 1939. However, the origin of the nickname is disputed. One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently mentioned originator is Margaret Herrick, the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of "Uncle Oscar", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce. Columnist Sidney Skolsky, who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'" The Academy credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to Oscar in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's 6th Academy Awards. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of Oscar: a Time magazine story. In the ceremonies that year, Walt Disney was the first to thank the Academy for his "Oscar" during his acceptance speech. Engraving To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled. Ownership of Oscar statuettes Prior to 1950, Oscar statuettes were (and remain) the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In 1989, Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Best Picture Oscar for his 1956 production of Around the World in 80 Days to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale. In 1992, Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for The Best Years of Our Lives to auction to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy, the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6, 1992 for $60,500 ($ today). Russell defended his action, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't." In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for Citizen Kane (Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542 ($ today). Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury. Other awards presented by the Academy In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually): Governors Awards: The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust
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"Ġbeing", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġin", "Ġfive", "Ġparts", "Ġon", "ĠABC", "Ġand", "ĠESPN", ",", "Ġin", "Ġthat", "Ġcategory", "Ġin", "Ġ2017", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠAcademy", "'s", "Ġannouncement", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnew", "Ġrule", "Ġmade", "Ġno", "Ġdirect", "Ġmention", "Ġof", "Ġthat", "Ġfilm", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠBest", "ĠInternational", "ĠFeature", "ĠFilm", "Ġaward", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġrequire", "Ġa", "ĠU", ".", "S", ".", "Ġrelease", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġrequires", "Ġthe", "Ġfilm", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġsubmitted", "Ġas", "Ġits", "Ġcountry", "'s", "Ġofficial", "Ġselection", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠBest", "ĠDocument", "ary", "ĠFeature", "Ġaward", "Ġrequires", "Ġeither", "Ġweek", "-", "long", "Ġreleases", "Ġin", "Ġboth", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "ĠCounty", "Ġand", "ĠNew", "ĠYork", "ĠCity", "Ġ", "Ġduring", "Ġthe", "Ġprevious", "Ġcalendar", "Ġyear", ",", "Ġor", "Ġa", "Ġqualifying", "Ġaward", "Ġat", "Ġa", "Ġcompetitive", "Ġfilm", "Ġfestival", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠDocument", "ary", "ĠFeature", "ĠQual", "ifying", "ĠFestival", "Ġlist", "Ġ(", "reg", "ardless", "Ġof", "Ġany" ]
85
of Thalberg); The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards: Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet); Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate); The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal); The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual). The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting. Nomination Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. In 2021, the nominees are announced in March. Voters The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 7,000 . Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) since the 7th Academy Awards in 1935. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours. All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then. In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the Los Angeles Times were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%). In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013. Rules According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best International Feature Film, Best Documentary Feature, and awards in short film categories). Additionally, the film must be shown at least three times on each day of its qualifying run, with at least one of the daily showings starting between 6 pm and 10 pm local time. For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, The Hurt Locker, was originally first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards, as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Since the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of O.J.: Made in America, an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film. The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection. The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any
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"Ġfilm", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġprepared", "Ġfor", "Ġstreaming", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġplatform", "Ġcan", "Ġbe", "Ġaccessed", "Ġthrough", "Ġan", "Ġapp", "Ġon", "ĠApple", "ĠTV", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġwater", "mark", "ing", "Ġprocess", "Ġinvolved", "Ġseveral", "Ġvideo", "Ġsecurity", "Ġfirms", ",", "Ġcreating", "Ġa", "Ġforensic", "Ġwater", "mark", "Ġand", "Ġrestricting", "Ġthe", "Ġability", "Ġto", "Ġtake", "Ġscreenshots", "Ġor", "Ġscreen", "Ġrecordings", ".", "Ġ", "ĠIn", "Ġ2021", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ2022", "ĠOscars", ",", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", "Ġbanned", "Ġall", "Ġphysical", "Ġscreen", "ers", "Ġand", "Ġin", "-", "person", "Ġscreenings", ",", "Ġrestricting", "Ġofficial", "Ġmembership", "Ġviewing", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", "ĠScreen", "ing", "ĠRoom", ".", "ĠFilms", "Ġeligible", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠDocument", "ary", "Ġand", "ĠInternational", "Ġcategories", "Ġwere", "Ġmade", "Ġavailable", "Ġin", "Ġdifferent", "Ġsections", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġplatform", ".", "ĠDistribut", "ors", "Ġcan", 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public exhibition or distribution), or submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. Additionally, a film must have been reviewed by a critic from The New York Times, Time Out New York, the Los Angeles Times, or LA Weekly. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases. Awards in short film categories (Best Documentary Short Subject, Best Animated Short Film, and Best Live Action Short Film) have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead of covering one year starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in either Los Angeles County or New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of several competitive film festivals designated by the Academy, also without regard to prior public distribution. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible (Documentary category for that award, and Animation, Narrative, Alternative, or International for the other awards). The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards. Only one screening per day is required. For the Documentary award, the screening must start between noon and 10 pm local time; for other awards, no specific start time is required, but the film must appear in regular theater listings with dates and screening times. In late December, ballots, and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including International Feature Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects. Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee The Hurt Locker was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (The Hurt Locker eventually won). Academy Screening Room The Academy Screening Room or Academy Digital Screening Room is a secure streaming platform which allows voting members of the Academy to view all eligible films (except, initially, those in the International category) in one place. It was introduced in 2019, for the 2020 Oscars, though DVD screeners and Academy in-person screenings were still provided. For films to be included on the platform, the North American distributor must pay $12,500, including a watermarking fee, and a digital copy of the film to be prepared for streaming by the Academy. The platform can be accessed through an app on Apple TV. The watermarking process involved several video security firms, creating a forensic watermark and restricting the ability to take screenshots or screen recordings. In 2021, for the 2022 Oscars, the Academy banned all physical screeners and in-person screenings, restricting official membership viewing to the Academy Screening Room. Films eligible in the Documentary and International categories were made available in different sections of the platform. Distributors can also pay an extra fee to add video featurettes to promote their films on the platform. The in-person screenings were said to be cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Eligible films do not have to be added to the platform, but the Academy advertises them to voting
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members when they are. Awards ceremonies Telecast The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.) The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised live from the U.S. to all-time zones in North America and worldwide, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries. The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In 1976 and 1977, ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949. After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020. Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C. In 1993, an In Memoriam segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "
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"Ġbrand", "-", "new", "Ġjet", "Ġski", "Ġto", "Ġwhoever", "Ġgave", "Ġthe", "Ġshortest", "Ġspeech", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġnight", "Ġ(", "a", "Ġreward", "Ġwon", "Ġby", "ĠMark", "ĠBridges", "Ġwhen", "Ġaccepting", "Ġhis", "ĠBest", "ĠCostume", "ĠDesign", "Ġaward", "Ġfor", "ĠPhantom", "ĠThread", ").", "ĠThe", "ĠWall", "ĠStreet", "ĠJournal", "Ġanalyzed", "Ġthe", "Ġaverage", "Ġminutes", "Ġspent", "Ġacross", "Ġthe", "Ġ2014", "âĢĵ", "2018", "Ġtele", "casts", "Ġas", "Ġfollows", ":", "Ġ14", "Ġon", "Ġsong", "Ġperformances", ";", "Ġ25", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġhosts", "'", "Ġspeeches", ";", "Ġ38", "Ġon", "Ġpre", "recorded", "Ġclips", ";", "Ġand", "Ġ78", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġawards", "Ġthemselves", ",", "Ġbroken", "Ġinto", "Ġ24", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġintroduction", "Ġand", "Ġannouncement", ",", "Ġ24", "Ġon", "Ġwinners", "Ġwalking", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġstage", ",", "Ġand", "Ġ30", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġacceptance", "Ġspeeches", ".", "Ġ", "ĠAlthough", "Ġstill", "Ġdominant", "Ġin", "Ġratings", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġviewership", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġhas", "Ġsteadily", "Ġdropped", ";", "Ġthe", "Ġ88", "th", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġwere", "Ġthe", "Ġlowest", "-", "rated", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġpast", "Ġeight", "Ġyears", "Ġ(", "although", "Ġwith", "Ġincreases", "Ġin", "Ġmale", "Ġand", "Ġ18", "âĢĵ", "49", "Ġviewership", "),", "Ġwhile", "Ġthe", "Ġshow", "Ġitself", "Ġalso", "Ġfaced", "Ġmixed", "Ġreception", ".", "ĠFollowing", "Ġthe", "Ġshow", ",", "ĠVariety", "Ġreported", "Ġthat", "ĠABC", "Ġwas", ",", "Ġin", "Ġnegotiating", "Ġan", "Ġextension", "Ġto", "Ġits", "Ġcontract", "Ġto", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġthe", "ĠOscars", ",", "Ġseeking", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġmore", "Ġcreative", "Ġcontrol", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġitself", ".", "ĠCurrently", "Ġand", "Ġnom", "inally", ",", "ĠAM", "P", "AS", "Ġis", "Ġresponsible", "Ġfor", "Ġmost", "Ġaspects", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġtele", "cast", ",", "Ġincluding", "Ġthe", "Ġchoice", "Ġof", "Ġproduction", "Ġstaff", "Ġand", "Ġhosting", ",", "Ġalthough", "ĠABC", "Ġis", "Ġallowed", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġsome", "Ġinput", "Ġon", "Ġtheir", "Ġdecisions", ".", "ĠIn", "ĠAugust", "Ġ2016", ",", "ĠAM", "P", "AS", "Ġextended", "Ġits", "Ġcontract", "Ġwith", "ĠABC", "Ġthrough", "Ġ20", "28", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġcontract", "Ġneither", "Ġcontains", "Ġany", "Ġnotable", "Ġchanges", "Ġnor", "Ġgives", "ĠABC", "Ġany", "Ġfurther", "Ġcreative", "Ġcontrol", "Ġover", "Ġthe", "Ġtele", "cast", ".", "Ġ", "ĠTV", "Ġratings", "ĠHistorically", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġtele", "cast", "'s", "Ġviewership", "Ġis", "Ġhigher", "Ġwhen", "Ġbox", "-", "office", "Ġhits", "Ġare", "Ġfavored", "Ġto", "Ġwin", "Ġthe", "ĠBest", "ĠPicture", "Ġaward", ".", "ĠMore", "Ġthan", "Ġ57", ".", "25", "Âł", "million", "Ġviewers", "Ġtuned", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġtele", "cast", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ70", "th", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġin", "Ġ1998", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġyear", "Ġof", "ĠTitanic", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġgenerated", "Ġa", "Ġbox", "Ġoffice", "Ġhaul", "Ġduring", "Ġits", "Ġinitial", "Ġ1997", "âĢĵ", "98", "Ġrun", "Ġof", "ĠUS", "$", "600", ".", "8", "Âł", "million", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUS", ",", "Ġa", "Ġbox", "Ġoffice", "Ġrecord", "Ġthat", "Ġwould", "Ġremain", "Ġunsur", "pass", "ed", "Ġfor", "Ġyears", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ76", "th", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġceremony", ",", "Ġin", "Ġwhich", "ĠThe", "ĠLord", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠRings", ":", "ĠThe", "ĠReturn", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠKing", "Ġ(", "pre", "-", "tele", "cast", "Ġbox", "Ġoffice", "Ġearnings", "Ġof", "ĠUS", "$", "368", "Âł", "million", ")", "Ġreceived", "Ġ11", "ĠAwards", "Ġincluding", "ĠBest", "ĠPicture", ",", "Ġdrew", "Ġ43", ".", "56", "Âł", "million", "Ġviewers", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġmost", "Ġwatched", "Ġceremony", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "ĠNielsen", "Ġratings", "Ġto", "Ġdate", ",", "Ġhowever", ",", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġ42", "nd", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġ(", "Best", "ĠPicture", "ĠMidnight", "ĠCowboy", ")", "Ġwhich", "Ġdrew", "Ġa", "Ġ43", ".", "4", "%", "Ġhousehold", "Ġrating", "Ġon", "ĠApril", "Ġ7", ",", "Ġ1970", ".", "Ġ", "ĠBy", "Ġcontrast", ",", "Ġceremonies", "Ġhonoring", "Ġfilms", "Ġthat", "Ġhave", "Ġnot", "Ġperformed", "Ġwell", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġbox", "Ġoffice", "Ġtend", "Ġto", "Ġshow", "Ġweaker", "Ġratings", ",", "Ġdespite", "Ġhow", "Ġmuch", "Ġcritical", "Ġacclaim", "Ġthose", "Ġfilms", "Ġhave", "Ġreceived", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ78", "th", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġwhich", "Ġawarded", "Ġlow", "-", "budget", "Ġindependent", "Ġfilm", "ĠCrash", "Ġ(", "with", "Ġa", "Ġpre", "-", "O", "scar", "Ġgross", "Ġof", "ĠUS", "$", "53", ".", "4", "Âł", "million", ")", "Ġgenerated", "Ġan", "Ġaudience", "Ġof", "Ġ38", ".", "64", "Âł", "million", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġhousehold", "Ġrating", "Ġof", "Ġ22", ".", "91", "%.", "ĠIn", "Ġ2008", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġ80", "th", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġtele", "cast", "Ġwas", "Ġwatched", "Ġby", "Ġ31", ".", "76", "Âł", "million", "Ġviewers", "Ġon", "Ġaverage", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġ18", ".", "66", "%", "Ġhousehold", "Ġrating", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġlowest", "-", "rated", "Ġand", "Ġleast", "-", "w", "atched", "Ġceremony", "Ġat", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", ",", "Ġin", "Ġspite", "Ġof", "Ġcelebrating", "Ġ80", "Ġyears", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", ".", "ĠThe", "ĠBest", "ĠPicture", "Ġwinner", "Ġof", "Ġthat", "Ġparticular", "Ġceremony", "Ġwas", "Ġanother", "Ġindependent", "Ġfilm", "Ġ(", "No", "ĠCountry", "Ġfor", "ĠOld", "ĠMen", ").", "Ġ", "ĠWhereas", "Ġthe", "Ġ92", "nd", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġdrew", "Ġan", "Ġaverage", "Ġof", "Ġ23", ".", "6", "Âł", "million", "Ġviewers", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġ93", "rd", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġdrew", "Ġan", "Ġeven", "Ġlower", "Ġviewership", "Ġof", "Ġ10", ".", "4", "Âł", "million", ".", "ĠThat", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġlowest", "Ġviewership", "Ġrecorded", "Ġby", "ĠNielsen", "Ġsince", "Ġit", "Ġstarted", "Ġrecording", "Ġaudience", "Ġtotals", "Ġin", "Ġ1974", ".", "Ġ", "ĠArchive", "ĠThe", "ĠAcademy", "ĠFilm", "ĠArchive", "Ġholds", "Ġcopies", "Ġof", "Ġevery", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġceremony", "Ġsince", "Ġthe", "Ġ1949", "ĠOscars", "Ġand", "Ġmaterial", "Ġon", "Ġmany", "Ġprior", "Ġceremonies", ",", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "c", "illary", "Ġmaterial", "Ġrelated", "Ġto", "Ġmore", "Ġrecent", "Ġshows", ".", "ĠCop", "ies", "Ġare", "Ġheld", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġvariety", "Ġof", "Ġfilm", ",", "Ġvideo", ",", "Ġand", "Ġdigital", "Ġformats", ".", "Ġ", "ĠVen", "ues", "ĠIn", "Ġ1929", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġwere", "Ġpresented", "Ġat", "Ġa", "Ġbanquet", "Ġdinner", "Ġat", "ĠThe", "ĠHollywood", "ĠRoosevelt", "ĠHotel", ".", "ĠFrom", "Ġ1930", "Ġto", "Ġ1943", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġceremony", "Ġaltern", "ated", "Ġbetween", "Ġtwo", "Ġvenues", ":", "Ġthe", "ĠAmbassador", "ĠHotel", "Ġon", "ĠWil", "shire", "ĠBoulevard", "Ġand", "Ġthe", "ĠB", "ilt", "more", "ĠHotel", "Ġin", "Ġdowntown", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", ".", "Ġ", "ĠGra", "uman", "'s", "ĠChinese", "ĠTheatre", "Ġin", "ĠHollywood", "Ġthen", "Ġhosted", "Ġthe", "Ġawards", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1944", "Ġto", "Ġ1946", ",", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠShrine", "ĠAuditor", "ium", "Ġin", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "Ġfrom", "Ġ1947", "Ġto", "Ġ1948", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġ21", "st", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "Ġin", "Ġ1949", 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88
popularity contest" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by Mark Bridges when accepting his Best Costume Design award for Phantom Thread). The Wall Street Journal analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches. Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, Variety reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast. TV ratings Historically, the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of Titanic, which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US, a box office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The 76th Academy Awards ceremony, in which The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture Midnight Cowboy) which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970. By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings, despite how much critical acclaim those films have received. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budget independent film Crash (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film (No Country for Old Men). Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million. That is the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974. Archive The Academy Film Archive holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies, along with ancillary material related to more recent shows. Copies are held in a variety of film, video, and digital formats. Venues In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what had been the Academy's headquarters
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89
on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood. From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California, in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine. In 2002, Hollywood's Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue. Awards of Merit categories Current categories In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony. Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed several proposals (among them, the introduction of a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement. Discontinued categories Proposed categories The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed: Best Casting: rejected in 1999 Best Popular Film: proposed in 2018 for presentation at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest (yet to be implemented) Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012 Best Title Design: rejected in 1999 Special categories The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on an annual basis. Current special categories Academy Honorary Award: since 1929 Academy Scientific and Technical Award (three different awards): since 1931 Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981 Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1957 Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938 Academy Special Achievement Award: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017 Discontinued special categories Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960 Criticism Accusations of commercialism Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "Oscar season". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself". Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards: A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against Zero Dark Thirty suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that Lincoln distorts history. Accusations of bias Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. in the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. The term "Oscar bait" was coined to describe such movies. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring "Oscar bait" over audience favorites or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues. Allegations of a lack of diversity The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more
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"Ġbefore", "Ġthe", "Ġofficial", "Ġaward", "Ġceremony", ":", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠCircus", "Ġ(", "19", "28", ")", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠThe", "Ġfilm", "Ġwas", "Ġvoluntarily", "Ġremoved", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠAcademy", "Ġfrom", "Ġcompetitive", "Ġcategories", ",", "Ġto", "Ġaward", "ĠCharlie", "ĠCha", "plin", "Ġa", "Ġspecial", "Ġaward", ".", "Ġ", "ĠH", "ondo", "Ġ(", "19", "53", ")", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠRemoved", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠBest", "ĠStory", "Ġballot", "Ġafter", "Ġletters", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġproducer", "Ġand", "Ġnominee", "Ġquestioned", "Ġits", "Ġinclusion", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġcategory", ".", "Ġ", "ĠHigh", "ĠSociety", "Ġ(", "19", "55", ")", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠWith", "drawn", "Ġfrom", "Ġscreen", "writing", "Ġballot", "Ġafter", "Ġbeing", "Ġmistaken", "Ġfor", "Ġthe", "Ġ1956", "Ġmovie", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġtitle", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠGod", "father", "Ġ(", "1972", ")", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠInitially", "Ġnominated", "Ġfor", "Ġeleven", "Ġawards", ",", "Ġits", "Ġnomination", "Ġfor", "ĠBest", "ĠOriginal", "ĠScore", "Ġwas", "Ġrevoked", 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"rough", "ton", "Ġwas", "Ġfound", "Ġto", "Ġhave", "Ġimproperly", "Ġcontacted", "Ġother", "Ġmembers", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġacademy", "'s", "Ġmusical", "Ġbranch", ";", "Ġthis", "Ġwas", "Ġthe", "Ġfirst", "Ġtime", "Ġthat", "Ġa", "Ġfilm", "Ġwas", "Ġremoved", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġballot", "Ġfor", "Ġethical", "Ġreasons", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOne", "Ġfilm", "Ġwas", "Ġdisqualified", "Ġafter", "Ġwinning", "Ġthe", "Ġaward", ",", "Ġand", "Ġhad", "Ġthe", "Ġwinner", "Ġreturn", "Ġthe", "ĠOscar", ":", "Ġ", "ĠYoung", "ĠAmericans", "Ġ(", "1969", ")", "ĠâĢĵ", "ĠInitially", "Ġwon", "Ġthe", "Ġaward", "Ġfor", "ĠBest", "ĠDocument", "ary", "ĠFeature", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġwas", "Ġlater", "Ġrevoked", "Ġafter", "Ġit", "Ġwas", "Ġrevealed", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġhad", "Ġopened", "Ġtheat", "r", "ically", "Ġprior", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġeligibility", "Ġperiod", ".", "Ġ", "ĠOne", "Ġfilm", "Ġhad", "Ġits", "Ġnomination", "Ġrevoked", "Ġafter", "Ġthe", "Ġaward", "Ġceremony", "Ġwhen", "Ġit", "Ġhad", "Ġnot", "Ġwon", "Ġthe", "ĠOscar", ":", "T", "uba", 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polarizing. Due to a variety of reasons, including marketability and historical bans on interracial couples, a number of high-profile Oscars have been given to yellowface portrayals, as well as performances of Asian characters rewritten for white characters. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the hashtag #OscarsSoWhite, based on activists' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020. Symbolism or sentimentalization Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity, to make up for a "snub" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one awarded, or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work. Recognition of streaming media film Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film Roma had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice, having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs. Refusals of the award Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for The Informer). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career. George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for Patton) at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it." The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's The Godfather), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando asked actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech in his place, detailing his criticisms, for which there was booing and cheering by the audience. Disqualifications Six films have had nominations revoked before the official award ceremony: The Circus (1928) – The film was voluntarily removed by the Academy from competitive categories, to award Charlie Chaplin a special award. Hondo (1953) – Removed from the Best Story ballot after letters from the producer and nominee questioned its inclusion in the category. High Society (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the 1956 movie of the same title. The Godfather (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that the score's composer had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture. A Place in the World (1992) – Removed from the Best Foreign Language Film ballot after it was discovered that the country which submitted the film exercised insufficient artistic control. Alone Yet Not Alone (2014) – The film's title song, "Alone Yet Not Alone", was removed from the Best Original Song ballot after Bruce Broughton was found to have improperly contacted other members of the academy's musical branch; this was the first time that a film was removed from a ballot for ethical reasons. One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar: Young Americans (1969) – Initially won the award for Best Documentary Feature, but was later revoked after it was revealed that it had opened theatrically prior to the eligibility period. One film had its nomination revoked after the award ceremony when it had not won the Oscar:Tuba Atlantic (2011) – Its nomination for Best Live Action Short Film was revoked when it was discovered that the film had aired on television in 2010, before its theatrical release. Gender segregation Some advocates of gender equality and non-binary
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"ĠOfficial", "ĠAcademy", "ĠAwards", "ĠDatabase", "Ġ(", "search", "able", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ1929", "Ġestablishments", "Ġin", "ĠCalifornia", "ĠPer", "forming", "Ġarts", "Ġtrophies", "ĠAmerican", "Ġannual", "Ġtelevision", "Ġspecials", "ĠAmerican", "Ġfilm", "Ġawards", "ĠAnnual", "Ġevents", "Ġin", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "ĠCounty", ",", "ĠCalifornia", "ĠAwards", "Ġestablished", "Ġin", "Ġ1929", "ĠCinema", "Ġof", "ĠSouthern", "ĠCalifornia", "ĠEvents", "Ġin", "ĠLos", "ĠAngeles", "ĠHollywood", "Ġhistory", "Ġand", "Ġculture", "ĠAmerican", "Ġlive", "Ġtelevision", "Ġshows", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Act", "resses", "Ġ(", "Catal", "an", ":", "ĠAct", "rius", ")", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġ1997", "ĠCatalan", "Ġlanguage", "ĠSpanish", "Ġdrama", "Ġfilm", "Ġproduced", "Ġand", "Ġdirected", "Ġby", "ĠVentura", "ĠP", "ons", "Ġand", "Ġbased", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġaward", "-", "winning", "Ġstage", "Ġplay", "ĠE", ".", "R", ".", "Ġby", "ĠJose", "p", "ĠMaria", "ĠBen", "et", "Ġi", "ĠJ", "orn", "et", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfilm", "Ġhas", "Ġno", "Ġmale", "Ġactors", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġall", "Ġroles", "Ġplayed", "Ġby", "Ġfemales", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfilm", "Ġwas", "Ġproduced", "Ġin", "Ġ1996", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSyn", "opsis", "ĠIn", "Ġorder", "Ġto", "Ġprepare", "Ġherself", "Ġto", "Ġplay", "Ġa", "Ġrole", "Ġcommemor", "ating", "Ġthe", "Ġlife", "Ġof", "Ġlegendary", "Ġactress", "ĠEm", "par", "ĠR", "iber", "a", ",", "Ġyoung", "Ġactress", "Ġ(", "Merc", "è", "ĠP", "ons", ")", "Ġinterviews", "Ġthree", "Ġestablished", "Ġactresses", "Ġwho", "Ġhad", "Ġbeen", "Ġthe", "ĠR", "iber", "a", "'s", "Ġpupils", ":", "Ġthe", "Ġinternational", "Ġdiv", "a", "ĠGl", "Ã", "²", "ria", "ĠMarc", "Ġ(", "N", "ú", "ria", "ĠEs", "pert", "),", "Ġthe", "Ġtelevision", "Ġstar", "ĠAss", "um", "pta", "ĠR", "oca", "Ġ(", "R", "osa", "ĠMaria", "ĠSard", "Ãł", "),", "Ġand", "Ġdub", "bing", "Ġdirector", "ĠMaria", "ĠCam", "inal", "Ġ(", "Anna", "ĠLiz", "aran", ").", "Ġ", "ĠCast", "Ġ", "ĠN" ]
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people have criticized the separation of male and female acting categories in the Academy Awards, Emmy Awards and Tony Awards. Though some commentators worry that gender discrimination would cause men to dominate unsegregated categories, other categories are unsegregated. The Grammy Awards went gender-neutral in 2012, while the Daytime Emmy Awards introduced a single Outstanding Younger Performer in a Drama Series category in 2019 to replace their two gender-specific younger actor and actress categories. Associated events The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: BAFTA Awards César Awards David di Donatello Awards Nominees luncheon Governors Awards The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (2010), usually held in Santa Monica, California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as the party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the Sunset Tower since 2009 Ariel Award in Mexico Goya Award in Spain Presenter and performer gifts It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status. Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25,000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir, and John Salley. Television ratings and advertisement prices From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing. Trademark The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.Court: Oscar may be generic term in Italian | Reuters See also List of film awards List of Academy Award records List of actors with Academy Award nominations List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees Footnotes References Further reading Brokaw, Lauren (2010). "Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars". Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle. Wright, Jon (2007). The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc. External links of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Official Academy Awards Database (searchable) 1929 establishments in California Performing arts trophies American annual television specials American film awards Annual events in Los Angeles County, California Awards established in 1929 Cinema of Southern California Events in Los Angeles Hollywood history and culture American live television shows <|endoftext|>Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play E.R. by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. Synopsis In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran). Cast N
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"best", "Ġmoments", "Ġexhibit", "Ġthe", "Ġbitch", "y", "Ġtant", "rums", "Ġse", "et", "hing", "Ġbeneath", "Ġthe", "Ġth", "re", "esome", "'s", "Ġcomposed", "Ġv", "ene", "ers", "\".", "ĠMR", "Q", "E", "Ġwrote", "Ġ\"", "This", "Ġcinematic", "Ġadaptation", "Ġof", "Ġa", "Ġtheatrical", "Ġwork", "Ġis", "Ġtrue", "Ġto", "Ġthe", "Ġoriginal", ",", "Ġbut", "Ġdoes", "Ġnot", "Ġstray", "Ġfar", "Ġfrom", "Ġa", "Ġtheatrical", "Ġrendering", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġstory", ".\"", "Ġ", "ĠAwards", "Ġand", "Ġnominations", "Ġ", "Ġ1997", ",", "Ġwon", "Ġ'", "Best", "ĠCatalan", "ĠFilm", "'", "Ġat", "ĠBut", "aca", "ĠAwards", "Ġfor", "ĠVentura", "ĠP", "ons", "Ġ", "Ġ1997", ",", "Ġwon", "Ġ'", "Best", "ĠCatalan", "ĠFilm", "ĠActress", "'", "Ġat", "ĠBut", "aca", "ĠAwards", ",", "Ġshared", "Ġby", "ĠN", "ú", "ria", "ĠEs", "pert", ",", "ĠRosa", "ĠMaria", "ĠSard", "Ãł", ",", "ĠAnna", "ĠLiz", "aran", ",", "Ġand", "ĠMerc", "è", "ĠP", "ons", "Ġ", "Ġ1998", ",", "Ġnominated", "Ġfor", "Ġ'", "Best", "ĠScreen", "play", "'", "Ġat", "ĠG", "oya", "ĠAwards", ",", "Ġshared", "Ġby", "ĠJose", "p", "ĠMaria", "ĠBen", "et", "Ġi", "ĠJ", "orn", "et", "Ġand", "ĠVentura", "ĠP", "ons", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġas", "Ġarchived", "Ġ17", "ĠFebruary", "Ġ2009", "Ġ(", "Spanish", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ1997", "Ġfilms", "Ġ1997", "Ġdrama", "Ġfilms", "ĠSpanish", "Ġfilms", "ĠCatalan", "-", "language", "Ġfilms", "ĠFilms", "Ġset", "Ġin", "ĠBarcelona", "ĠFilms", "Ġdirected", "Ġby", "ĠVentura", "ĠP", "ons", "ĠSpanish", "Ġdrama", "Ġfilms", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Animal", "ia", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġillustrated", "Ġchildren", "'s", "Ġbook", "Ġby", "ĠGra", "eme", "ĠBase", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġwas", "Ġoriginally", "Ġpublished", "Ġin", "Ġ1986", ",", "Ġfollowed", "Ġby", "Ġa", "Ġtenth", "Ġanniversary", "Ġedition", "Ġin", "Ġ1996", ",", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġ25", "th", "Ġanniversary", "Ġedition", "Ġin", "Ġ2012", ".", "ĠOver", "Ġfour", "Ġmillion", "Ġcopies", "Ġhave", "Ġbeen", "Ġsold", "Ġworldwide", ".", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġspecial", "Ġnumbered", "Ġand", "Ġsigned", "Ġanniversary", "Ġedition", "Ġwas", "Ġalso", "Ġpublished", "Ġin", "Ġ1996", ",", "Ġwith", "Ġan", "Ġemb", "oss", "ed", "Ġgold", "Ġjacket", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSyn", "opsis", "ĠAnimal", "ia", "Ġis", "Ġan", "Ġall", "iter", "ative", "Ġalphabet", "Ġbook", "Ġand", "Ġcontains", "Ġtwenty", "-", "six", "Ġillustrations", ",", "Ġone", "Ġfor", "Ġeach", "Ġletter", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", ".", "ĠEach", "Ġillustration", "Ġfeatures", "Ġan", "Ġanimal", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "Ġanimal", "Ġkingdom", "Ġ(", "A", "Ġis", "Ġfor", "Ġall", "igator", "Ġand", "Ġarm", "ad", "illo", ",", "ĠB", "Ġis", "Ġfor", "Ġbutterfly", ",", "Ġetc", ".)", "Ġalong", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġshort", "Ġpoem", "Ġutilizing", "Ġthe", "Ġletter", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġpage", "Ġfor", "Ġmany", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġwords", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġillustrations", "Ġcontain", "Ġmany", "Ġother", "Ġobjects", "Ġbeginning", "Ġwith", "Ġthat", "Ġletter", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġreader", "Ġcan", "Ġtry", "Ġto", "Ġidentify", "Ġ(", "how", "ever", ",", "Ġthere", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġnecessarily", "Ġ\"", "a", "Ġthousand", "Ġthings", ",", "Ġor", "Ġmaybe", "Ġmore", "\",", "Ġas", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "Ġstates", ").", "ĠAs", "Ġan", "Ġadditional", "Ġchallenge", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "Ġhas", "Ġhidden", "Ġa", "Ġpicture", "Ġof", "Ġhimself", "Ġas", "Ġa", "Ġchild", "Ġin", "Ġevery", "Ġpicture", ".", "ĠHere", "Ġare", "Ġsome", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġthings", "Ġin", "Ġeach", "Ġpicture", "Ġthat", "Ġare", "Ġtruly", "Ġdifferent", "Ġ(", "the", "Ġall", "igator", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠA", "Ġsection", "Ġis", "Ġwearing", "Ġan", "Ġa", "pron", "Ġfeaturing", "Ġthe", "Ġalphabet", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġthe", "Ġbook", "Ġis", "Ġabout", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġsection", "Ġalso", "Ġfeatures", "Ġthe", "Ġauthor", "'s", "Ġhome", "Ġcountry", ",", "ĠAustralia", "):", "Ġ", "ĠNote", ":", "ĠThis", "Ġlist", "Ġis", "Ġincomplete", ".", "Ġ", "ĠA", "Ġ", "Ġ1", ".", "ĠAstron", "aut", "Ġ", "Ġ2", ".", "ĠAlbum", "Ġ", "Ġ3", ".", "ĠAdmiral", "Ġ", "Ġ4", ".", "ĠArch", "di", "ocese", "Ġ", "Ġ5", ".", "ĠActor", "Ġ", "Ġ6", ".", "ĠActress", "Ġ", "Ġ7", ".", "ĠAb", "orig", "ine", "Ġ", "Ġ8", ".", "ĠAth", "lete", "Ġ", "Ġ9", ".", "ĠAc", "robat", "Ġ", "Ġ10", ".", "ĠApple", "Ġ", "Ġ11", ".", "ĠAc", "orn", "Ġ", "Ġ12", ".", "ĠApr", "ic", "ot", "Ġ", "Ġ13", ".", "ĠAv", "ocado", "Ġ", "Ġ14", ".", "ĠAd", "der", "Ġ", "Ġ15", ".", "ĠAl", "bat", "ross", "Ġ", "Ġ16", ".", "ĠAnt", "elope", "Ġ(", "this", "Ġis", "Ġactually", "Ġa", "Ġpron", "gh", "orn", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġnot", "Ġa", "Ġtrue", "Ġant", "elope", ",", "Ġso", "Ġit", "Ġbelongs", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠP", "Ġsection", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ17", ".", "ĠAnt", "e", "ater", "Ġ", "Ġ18", ".", "ĠA", "ard", "v", "ark", "Ġ", "Ġ19", ".", "ĠAn", "vil", "Ġ", "Ġ20", ".", "ĠAfghan", "Ġh", "ound", "Ġ", "Ġ21", ".", "ĠAff", "en", "pins", "cher", "Ġ", "Ġ22", ".", "ĠA", "ired", "ale", "Ġter", "rier", "Ġ", "Ġ23", ".", "ĠAqu", "ed", "uct", "Ġ", "Ġ24", ".", "ĠAnt", "Ġ", "Ġ25", ".", "ĠAb", "acus", "Ġ", "Ġ26", ".", "ĠAs", "par", "agus", "Ġ", "Ġ27", ".", "ĠArt", "ich", "oke", "Ġ", "Ġ28", ".", "ĠAccord", "ion", "Ġ", "Ġ29", ".", "ĠAnch", "or", "Ġ", "Ġ30", ".", "ĠAn", "em", "one", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ31", ".", "ĠAxe", "Ġ", "Ġ32", ".", "ĠAngel", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ33", ".", "ĠAl", "gebra", "Ġ", "Ġ34", ".", "ĠAtlas", "Ġ", "Ġ35", ".", "ĠApr", "on", "Ġ", "Ġ36", ".", "ĠAlien", "Ġ", "Ġ37", ".", "ĠAmb", "ul", "ance", "Ġ", "Ġ38", ".", "ĠAnt", "enna", "Ġ", "ĠB", "Ġ", "Ġ36", ".", "ĠB", "umble", "bee", "Ġ", "Ġ37", ".", "ĠBob", "ol", "ink", "Ġ", "Ġ38", ".", "ĠBear", "Ġ", "Ġ39", ".", "ĠBon", "net", "Ġ", "Ġ40", ".", "ĠBar", "bed", "Ġwire", "Ġ", "Ġ41", ".", "ĠBram", "bles", "Ġ", "Ġ42", ".", "ĠBul", "rus", "hes", "Ġ", "Ġ43", ".", "ĠBab", "oon", "Ġ", "Ġ44", ".", "ĠBass", "oon", "Ġ", "Ġ45", ".", "ĠBr", "ont", "osaurus", "Ġ", "Ġ46", ".", "ĠBud", "ger", "ig", "ar", "Ġ", "Ġ47", ".", "ĠBomb", "Ġ", "Ġ48", ".", "ĠBrain", "Ġ", "Ġ49", ".", "ĠBrick", "Ġ", "Ġ50", ".", "ĠB", "asket", "Ġ", "Ġ51", ".", "ĠBasketball", "Ġ", "Ġ52", ".", "ĠBasketball", "Ġhoop", "Ġ", "Ġ53", ".", "ĠBaseball", "Ġ", "Ġ54", ".", "ĠBaseball", "Ġbat", "Ġ", "Ġ55", ".", "ĠBack", "gam", "mon", "Ġ", "Ġ56", ".", "ĠBall", "point", "Ġpen", "Ġ", "Ġ57", ".", "ĠBag", "p", "ipes", "Ġ", "Ġ58", ".", "ĠBicycle", "Ġ", "Ġ59", ".", "ĠBarrel", "Ġ" ]
92
úria Espert as Glòria Marc Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal Mercè Pons as Estudiant Recognition Screenings Actrius screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival. Reception In Movie - Film - Review, Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to All About Eve", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with Rashomon". He also wrote that The Guardian called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that The Evening Standard stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story." Awards and nominations 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons References External links as archived 17 February 2009 (Spanish) 1997 films 1997 drama films Spanish films Catalan-language films Films set in Barcelona Films directed by Ventura Pons Spanish drama films <|endoftext|>Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket. Synopsis Animalia is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator and armadillo, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify (however, there are not necessarily "a thousand things, or maybe more", as the author states). As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. Here are some of the things in each picture that are truly different (the alligator in the A section is wearing an apron featuring the alphabet, which the book is about, and this section also features the author's home country, Australia): Note: This list is incomplete. A 1. Astronaut 2. Album 3. Admiral 4. Archdiocese 5. Actor 6. Actress 7. Aborigine 8. Athlete 9. Acrobat 10. Apple 11. Acorn 12. Apricot 13. Avocado 14. Adder 15. Albatross 16. Antelope (this is actually a pronghorn, which is not a true antelope, so it belongs in the P section) 17. Anteater 18. Aardvark 19. Anvil 20. Afghan hound 21. Affenpinscher 22. Airedale terrier 23. Aqueduct 24. Ant 25. Abacus 26. Asparagus 27. Artichoke 28. Accordion 29. Anchor 30. Anemone 31. Axe 32. Angel 33. Algebra 34. Atlas 35. Apron 36. Alien 37. Ambulance 38. Antenna B 36. Bumblebee 37. Bobolink 38. Bear 39. Bonnet 40. Barbed wire 41. Brambles 42. Bulrushes 43. Baboon 44. Bassoon 45. Brontosaurus 46. Budgerigar 47. Bomb 48. Brain 49. Brick 50. Basket 51. Basketball 52. Basketball hoop 53. Baseball 54. Baseball bat 55. Backgammon 56. Ballpoint pen 57. Bagpipes 58. Bicycle 59. Barrel
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93
60. Bell 61. Boot 62. Button 63. Blueberries 64. Belt 65. Bugle 66. Bull 67. Bucket 68. Bellows 69. Boomerang 70. Bathtub 71. Bone 72. Brush 73. Bottle 74. Banana 75. Brush 76. Binoculars 77. Barracuda 78. Buddha 79. Battery 80. Broom 81. Bat (animal) 82. Boy 83. Bungalow C 82. Crab 83. Chair 84. Crane 85. Caterpillar 86. Canoe 87. Computer 88. Collar 89. Camera 90. Concertina 91. Cap 92. Cheetah 93. Chain 94. Cassette 95. Crocodile 96. Cone 97. Cube 98. Cylinder 99. Cymbal 100. Cucumber 101. Celery 102. Cabbage 103. Cheese 104. Corn 105. Carrot 106. Cards 107. Calculator 108. Candle 109. Cherry 110. Cake 111. Coconut 112. Cup 113. Cocoa 114. Can 115. Calendar 116. Chef 117. Castle 118. Church 119. Cemetery 120. Cross of Christ 121. Caravan 122. Circus 123. Clown 124. Cricket (game) 125. Convict 126. Cannon 127. Cow 128. Chimpanzee 129. Cobra 130. Cage 131. Canary 132. Check 133. Crossword puzzle 134. Crutch 135. Cord 136. Crown 137. Crate 138. Cork 139. Cog 140. Comb 141. Clarinet 142. Clam 143. Chieftain 144. Cactus 145. Cliff 146. Chateau 147. Concorde 148. Chandelier 149. Cottage 150. Cigar 151. Candy cane 152. Cauldron 153. Centipede D 154. Dustpan 155. Duster 156. Dynamite 157. Drill 158. Drawers 159. Draughts 160. Doughnut 161. Diamond 162. Dice 163. Dutch doll 164. Dentures 165. Date (fruit) 166. Date (time) 167. Doily 168. Dish 169. Dollar 170. Dolphin 171. Decagon 172. Devil 173. Dormouse 174. Diagonal 175. Decade 176. Doctrine 177. Dumbbell 178. Dragonfly 179. Dwarf 180. Dachshund 181. Doberman pinscher 182. Dalmatian 183. Dodo 184. Diplodocus 185. Dimetrodon 186. Dove 187. Desperado 188. Donkey 189. Dam 190. Drain 191. Dinghy 192. Drowning 193. Drawbridge 194. Deer 195. Destroyer 196. Dromedary 197. Double-decker bus 198. Daffodil 199. Daisy 200. Dirigible 201. Dominos 202. Dagger 203. Dart 204. Duck 205. Dingo 206. Dolly 207. Deputy 208. Dog E 208. Eclipse 209. Éclair 210. Elderberries 211. Envelope 212. Emu 213. Eleven 214. Edison 215. Einstein 216. Embryo 217. Earwig 218. Echidna 219. Elf 220. Eskimo 221. Eagle 222. Edelweiss 223. Earring 224. Emerald 225. Exclamation point 226. Eyeglasses F 226. Flounder 227. Film 228. Fly 229. Foxglove 230. Fern 231. Fairy 232. Fire 233. Firewood 234. Frankenstein 235. Fork 236. Forest 237. Falcon 238. Fungus 239. Flier 240. Flute 241. Fan 242. Foghorn G 243. Graph 244. Glockenspiel 245. Gerbil 246. Geranium 247. Gladiolus 248. Gladiator 249. Gremlin 250. Golf club 251. Golf ball 252. Gibbon 253. Guitar 254. Galoshes 255. Grail 256. Greyhound 257. Gong 258. Gazelle 259. Griffin 260. Gargoyle 261. Graffiti 262. Grasshopper 263. Globe 264. Galleon 265. G
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".", "ĠPhilos", "opher", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "31", ".", "ĠP", "archment", "Ġ", "Ġ432", ".", "ĠPol", "ka", "Ġdot", "Ġ", "Ġ433", ".", "ĠPig", "tail", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "34", ".", "ĠPit", "Ġdrum", "Ġ", "Ġ435", ".", "ĠPharaoh", "Ġ", "Ġ436", ".", "ĠP", "ied", "ĠPiper", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "37", ".", "ĠPy", "j", "amas", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "38", ".", "ĠPl", "ume", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "39", ".", "ĠPolice", "Ġ", "Ġ440", ".", "ĠPrison", "er", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "41", ".", "ĠPy", "g", "my", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "42", ".", "ĠPunch", "Ġ&", "ĠJudy", "Ġ", "Ġ443", ".", "ĠPope", "Ġ", "Ġ444", ".", "ĠPeace", "Ġ", "Ġ445", ".", "ĠPirate", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "46", ".", "ĠPatch", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "47", ".", "ĠPeg", "Ġleg", "Ġ", "Ġ448", ".", "ĠPrince", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "49", ".", "ĠPrincess", "Ġ", "Ġ450", ".", "ĠP", "endant", "Ġ", "Ġ451", ".", "ĠPalace", "Ġ", "Ġ45", "2", ".", "ĠPag", "oda", "Ġ", "Ġ45", "3", ".", "ĠPar", "ach", "ute", "Ġ", "Ġ4", "54", ".", "ĠPegasus", "Ġ", "Ġ455", "." ]
94
orgon 266. Gnome 267. Gramophone 268. Goat 269. Goggles 270. Goose 271. Giraffe 272. Gazebo 273. Guard 274. Gift 275. Garage 276. Garbage 277. Garbage can 278. Gallows 279. Guillotine 280. Ghost 281. Giant 282. Goal 283. Glider 284. Gage 285. Garter H 285. Hexagon 286. Hose 287. Hare 288. Hyena 289. Hawk 290. Hammock 291. Hook 292. Hippo 293. Hunter 294. Hill 295. Hang glider 296. Herald 297. Helicopter 298. Hamburger 299. Hydrant 300. Hourglass 301. Hamster 302. Hedgehog 303. Horn 304. Heart 305. Hen 306. Hand grenade 307. Humpty-Dumpty 308. Holly 309. Holy Bible 310. Hatch 311. Haddock 312. Hammer 313. Hieroglyphics 314. Handkerchief 315. Handcuffs 316. Hatchet 317. Hornet 318. Halberd I 318. Island 319. Icicle 320. Ice cream 321. Iron 322. Iceberg 323. Icarus 324. Imprisoned 325. Ingot 326. Ink J 324. Judge 325. Javelin 326. Jester 327. Jack-in-the-box 328. Jack-in-the-pulpit 329. Japan 330. Jet 331. Jasmine 332. Jaguar 333. Jeans K 333. Kite 334. Knapsack 335. Knitting 336. Kiwi 337. Kilt 338. Kitten 339. Knight 340. Kipper 341. Knife 342. Keys 343. Keychain 344. Kitchen 345. Kettle 346. Kayak 347. Knocker 348. Ketch 349. Keel 350. Keypad 351. Kerb L 350. Ladder 351. Lyre 352. Lantern 353. Lobster 354. Llama 355. Lettuce 356. Leprechaun 357. Lockbox 358. Ladle 359. Lemon 360. Lute 361. Lollipop 362. Lamp 363. Lily 364. Lasso M 365. Map 366. Mammoth 367. Mermaid 368. Moose 369. Magpie 370. Mosque 371. Mandolin 372. Monkey marionette 373. Marble 374. Metronome 375. Moth 376. Million 377. Millimeter 378. Millipede 379. Mushroom 380. Match 381. Matchbox 382. Molecule 383. Mug 384. Milk 385. Medal 386. Monocle 387. Magnet 388. Maggot 389. Mask 390. Microphone 391. Microscope 392. Moon 393. Mole 394. Monster 395. Monitor 396. Moustache N 394. Noah 395. Narwhal 396. Neptune 397. Newspaper 398. Nightingale 399. Nest 400. Net 401. Nun 402. Nut 403. Nutcracker 404. North 405. Ninety-nine 406. Napkin 407. Nautilus 408. Nurse 409. Nonagon O 410. Orange 411. Otter 412. Orangutan 413. Observatory 414. Octagon 415. Owl 416. Obelisk 417. Oak 418. Oil drill 419. Organ 420. Oven 421. Orchestra P 421. Purse 422. Physician 423. Poodle 424. Parasol 425. Pig 426. Perambulator 427. Periwinkle 428. Politician 429. Pin 430. Philosopher 431. Parchment 432. Polka dot 433. Pigtail 434. Pit drum 435. Pharaoh 436. Pied Piper 437. Pyjamas 438. Plume 439. Police 440. Prisoner 441. Pygmy 442. Punch & Judy 443. Pope 444. Peace 445. Pirate 446. Patch 447. Peg leg 448. Prince 449. Princess 450. Pendant 451. Palace 452. Pagoda 453. Parachute 454. Pegasus 455.
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"Ġ", "Ġ6", "16", ".", "ĠSp", "ool", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "17", ".", "ĠSt", "ool", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "18", ".", "ĠSpace", "Ġshuttle", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "19", ".", "ĠSatellite", "Ġ", "Ġ620", ".", "ĠS", "omb", "rero", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "21", ".", "ĠSer", "ape", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "22", ".", "ĠSax", "ophone", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "23", ".", "ĠSynt", "hes", "izer", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "24", ".", "ĠSuperman", "Ġ", "Ġ625", ".", "ĠSh", "ower", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "26", ".", "ĠSuit", "case", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "27", ".", "ĠShuttle", "cock", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "28", ".", "ĠSk", "ittle", "Ġ(", "Bow", "ling", "Ġpin", ")", "Ġ", "Ġ6", "29", ".", "ĠSt", "ilts", "Ġ", "Ġ630", ".", "ĠSt", "al", "act", "ite", "Ġ", "Ġ6" ]
95
Pisa (Leaning Tower) 456. Parthenon 457. Palm tree 458. Pyramid 459. Paris 460. Peninsula 461. Penguin 462. Pool 463. Pathway 464. Procession 465. Platypus 466. Pan 467. Pumpkin 468. Pheasant 469. Partridge 470. Puffin 471. Pelican 472. Porcupine 473. Panda 474. Parcel 475. Pliers 476. Plow 477. Pitchfork 478. Pick 479. Pine tree 480. Pansy 481. Poison ivy 482. Periscope 483. Porpoise 484. Piano 485. Popeye 486. Phoenix 487. Potato 488. Plum 489. Painter 490. Palette 491. Paint 492. Paintbrush 493. Peach 494. Pear 495. Pomegranate 496. Pineapple 497. Pussy-willows 498. Pavilion 499. Pulley 500. Pump 501. Plaque 502. Prism 503. Peas 504. Pearl Q 505. Quartz 506. Quicksand 507. Quarter 508. Quoits 509. Queen 510. Quilt 511. Queensland 512. Queue R 511. Rust 512. Radar 513. Raspberry 514. Raccoon 515. Rhododendron 516. Roman numerals 517. Ruby 518. Ring 519. Razor 520. Roller skate 521. Reindeer 522. Roulette 523. Rake 524. Rifle 525. Revolver 526. Refrigerator 527. Rabbit 528. Rolling pin 529. Register 530. Rose 531. Raven 532. Ram 533. Rat 534. Rowboat 535. Rooster 536. Rattlesnake 537. Robin 538. Rocking horse 539. Rocking chair 540. Radius 541. Rip 542. Racket 543. Recorder 544. Rocket S 545. Sapphire 546. Soup 547. Stump 548. Scorpion 549. Sieve 550. Sandcastle 551. Sloop 552. Schooner 553. Shark 554. Scarf 555. Spider 556. Spur 557. Sheriff 558. Sling 559. Scab 560. Sickle 561. Scythe 562. Slippers 563. Sandwich 564. Sunflower 565. Snowshoes 566. Skis 567. Stretcher 568. Spy 569. Stitch 570. Screwdriver 571. Screw 572. Shifter (Wrench) 573. Shrug 574. Spade 575. Shovel 576. Sledgehammer 577. Scissors 578. Shears 579. Saw 580. Scalpel 581. Shack 582. Scooter 583. Satchel 584. Sundae 585. Straw 586. Spaghetti 587. Strawberry 588. Spoon 589. Saturn 590. Seesaw 591. Spring 592. Sneeze 593. Shepherd 594. Staff 595. Scarecrow 596. Sloth 597. Stork 598. Spoonbill 599. Safe 600. Shrew 601. Skipping rope 602. Scroll 603. Stamp 604. Soccer 605. Swimmer 606. Snorkel 607. Syringe 608. Siphon 609. Stethoscope 610. Starfish 611. Snail 612. Slug 613. Sphinx 614. Sprocket 615. Spinning wheel 616. Spool 617. Stool 618. Space shuttle 619. Satellite 620. Sombrero 621. Serape 622. Saxophone 623. Synthesizer 624. Superman 625. Shower 626. Suitcase 627. Shuttlecock 628. Skittle (Bowling pin) 629. Stilts 630. Stalactite 6
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96
31. Stalagmite 632. Steamroller 633. Swings 634. Slide 635. Sword 636. Sheathe 637. Stiletto 638. Scimitar 639. Saber 640. Spear 641. Sleigh 642. Snow 643. Santa Claus 644. Sack 645. Sausage 646. Stick figure 647. Surfboard 648. Surfer 649. Seal 650. Skull 651. Spine 652. Shamrock 653. Spectacles 654. Scapula 655. Slingshot 656. Snipe 657. Swallow 658. Sardines 659. Swan 660. Skunk 661. Stepladder 662. Sofa 663. Scarab beetle 664. Stereo 665. Star of David 666. Sparrow 667. Squirrel 668. Sextant 669. Squid 670. Seahorse 671. Salute 672. Sardines 673. Semaphore T 672. Top hat 673. Tulip 674. Tricycle 675. Toad 676. Thermos 677. Turtle 678. Tear 679. Trombone 680. Trumpet 681. Tuba 682. Tractor 683. Trailer 684. Tunnel 685. Tepee 686. Totem pole 687. Target 688. Tuxedo 689. Tunic 690. Telescope 691. Teapot 692. Television 693. Trophy 694. Tap 695. Teddy bear 696. Tambourine 697. Torch 698. Toy tank 699. Tomato 700. Thermometer 701. Tweezers 702. Threader 703. Typewriter 704. Turntable 705. Telephone 706. Tapir U 707. UFO 708. Ursa Major 709. Ursa Minor 710. United Kingdom 711. Uncle Sam 712. Ukulele 713. Underwear 714. Umiak V 715. Volkswagen 716. Vase 717. Van 718. VCR 719. Violin 720. Vacuum cleaner 721. Voodoo doll 722. Vane 723. Valve 724. Volcano 725. Viaduct 726. Vicar 727. Viking 728. Vampire 729. Valley 730. Vegetables W 730. Weevil 731. Wristwatch 732. Witch 733. Wave 734. Wizard 735. Wand 736. Wheat 737. Wall 738. Wreck 739. Wharf 740. Whale 741. Walrus 742. Whirlpool 743. Werewolf 744. Wolf 745. Wishbone 746. Well 747. Washerwoman 748. Washhouse 749. Washing machine 750. Wagon 751. Whip 752. Windmill 753. Wombat 754. Wallaby 755. Weeping willow 756. Waterfall 757. Weapons 758. Water X 757. Xylophone 758. Xerophytes 759. Xmas tree 760. X-ray 761. X (sign language) Y 762. Yoke 763. Yolk 764. Yeti 765. Yeoman 766. Yo-yo 767. Yard 768. Year Z 769. Zulu 770. Zodiac 771. Zipper 772. Zinnia 773. Zither 774. Zebu 775. Zorro 776. Zero 777. Zebra Related products Julia MacRae Books published an Animalia colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year. H. N. Abrams published The Animalia Wall Frieze, a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter. The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover. Adaptations A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada
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"ĠBoulder", ",", "ĠColorado" ]
97
, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use. In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch. Awards Animalia won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book. The Children's Book Council of Australia designated Animalia a 1987 Picture Book of the Year: Honour Book. Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named Animalia the 1988 Picture Book Winner. References External links Graeme Base's official website A Learning Time activity guide for Animalia created by The Little Big Book Club Alphabet books 1986 children's books Picture books by Graeme Base Puzzle books Australian children's books Puffin Books books <|endoftext|>International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is a continuous scale of time, without leap seconds. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (with a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. UTC deviates from TAI by a number of whole seconds. , when another leap second was put into effect, UTC is currently exactly 37 seconds behind TAI. The 37 seconds result from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian days and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth. Operation TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock. The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form UTC(NPL) in the UTC form, where NPL identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted TAI(NPL). The latter is not to be confused with TA(NPL), which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in "Circular T", and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(k) (equivalent to TAI − TAI(k)) for each participating institution k. The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(k), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight, it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT). History Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado
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"Ġto", "Ġenable", "Ġa", "Ġpublicly", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġtime", "Ġscale", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġless", "Ġfrequent", "Ġwhole", "-", "second", "Ġadjustments", "Ġmeant", "Ġthat", "Ġthe", "Ġtime", "Ġscale", "Ġwould", "Ġbe", "Ġmore", "Ġstable", "Ġand", "Ġeasier", "Ġto", "Ġsynchron", "ize", "Ġinternationally", ".", "ĠThe", "Ġfact", "Ġthat", "Ġit", "Ġcontinues", "Ġto", "Ġapproximate", "ĠUT", "1", "Ġmeans", "Ġthat", "Ġtasks", "Ġsuch", "Ġas", "Ġnavigation", "Ġwhich", "Ġrequire", "Ġa", "Ġsource", "Ġof", "ĠUniversal", "ĠTime", "Ġcontinue", "Ġto", "Ġbe", "Ġwell", "Ġserved", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "Ġpublic", "Ġbroadcast", "Ġof", "ĠUTC", ".", "Ġ", "ĠSee", "Ġalso", "Ġ", "ĠClock", "Ġsynchronization", "Ġ", "ĠNetwork", "ĠTime", "ĠProtocol", "Ġ", "ĠPrecision", "ĠTime", "ĠProtocol", "Ġ", "ĠTime", "Ġand", "Ġfrequency", "Ġtransfer", "Ġ", "ĠNotes", "Ġ", "ĠReferences", "Ġ", "ĠFoot", "notes", "Ġ", "ĠB", "ibliography", "Ġ", "ĠExternal", "Ġlinks", "Ġ", "ĠBureau", "ĠInternational", "Ġdes", "ĠP", "oids", "Ġet", "ĠMes", "ures", ":", "ĠT", "AI", "Ġ", "ĠTime", "Ġand", "ĠFrequency", "ĠSection", "Ġ-", "ĠNational", "ĠPhysical", "ĠLaboratory", ",", "ĠUK", "Ġ", "ĠI", "ERS", "Ġwebsite", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠN", "IST", "ĠWeb", "ĠClock", "ĠFAQ", "s", "Ġ", "ĠHistory", "Ġof", "Ġtime", "Ġscales", "Ġ", "ĠN", "IST", "-", "F", "1", "ĠCes", "ium", "ĠFountain", "ĠAtomic", "ĠClock", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠJapan", "ĠStandard", "ĠTime", "ĠProject", ",", "ĠN", "ICT", ",", "ĠJapan", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠStandard", "Ġof", "Ġtime", "Ġdefinition", ":", "ĠUTC", ",", "ĠGPS", ",", "ĠL", "OR", "AN", "Ġand", "ĠT", "AI", "Ġ", "ĠTime", "Ġscales", "Ġ", "<|endoftext|>", "Alt", "ru", "ism", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġprinciple", "Ġand", "Ġmoral", "Ġpractice", "Ġof", "Ġconcern", "Ġfor", "Ġhappiness", "Ġof", "Ġother", "Ġhuman", "Ġbeings", "Ġor", "Ġother", "Ġanimals", ",", "Ġresulting", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġquality", "Ġof", "Ġlife", "Ġboth", "Ġmaterial", "Ġand", "Ġspiritual", ".", "ĠIt", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġtraditional", "Ġvirtue", "Ġin", "Ġmany", "Ġcultures", "Ġand", "Ġa", "Ġcore", "Ġaspect", "Ġof", "Ġvarious", "Ġreligious", "Ġand", "Ġsecular", "Ġworldview", "s", ".", "ĠHowever", ",", "Ġthe", "Ġobject", "(", "s", ")", "Ġof", "Ġconcern", "Ġvary", "Ġamong", "Ġcultures", "Ġand", "Ġreligions", ".", "ĠIn", "Ġan", "Ġextreme", "Ġcase", ",", "Ġaltru", "ism", "Ġmay", "Ġbecome", "Ġa", "Ġsyn", "onym", "Ġof", "Ġself", "lessness", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġis", "Ġthe", "Ġopposite", "Ġof", "Ġselfish", "ness", ".", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġword", "Ġ\"", "alt", "ru", "ism", "\"", "Ġwas", "Ġpopular", "ized", "Ġ(", "and", "Ġpossibly", "Ġcoined", ")", "Ġby", "Ġthe", "ĠFrench", "Ġphilosopher", "ĠAugust", "e", "ĠCom", "te", "Ġin", "ĠFrench", ",", "Ġas", "Ġaltru", "ism", "e", ",", "Ġfor", "Ġan", "Ġan", "ton", "ym", "Ġof", "Ġego", "ism", ".", "ĠHe", "Ġderived", "Ġit", "Ġfrom", "Ġthe", "ĠItalian", "Ġaltru", "i", ",", "Ġwhich", "Ġin", "Ġturn", "Ġwas", "Ġderived", "Ġfrom", "ĠLatin", "Ġalter", "i", ",", "Ġmeaning", "Ġ\"", "other", "Ġpeople", "\"", "Ġor", "Ġ\"", "some", "body", "Ġelse", "\".", "Ġ", "ĠAlt", 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on 9 October 1957. The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, Tm or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1964 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for Weights and Measures made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI). In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale, therefore, corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from the Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at the geoid (mean sea level). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published under the name EAL (Échelle Atomique Libre, meaning Free Atomic Scale). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s. The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC." Relation to UTC UTC is a discontinuous time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments, it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971, the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterward, these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale. The less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC. See also Clock synchronization Network Time Protocol Precision Time Protocol Time and frequency transfer Notes References Footnotes Bibliography External links Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK IERS website NIST Web Clock FAQs History of time scales NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI Time scales <|endoftext|>Altruism is the principle and moral practice of concern for happiness of other human beings or other animals, resulting in a quality of life both material and spiritual. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious and secular worldviews. However, the object(s) of concern vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness, which is the opposite of selfishness. The word "altruism" was popularized (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, meaning "other people" or "somebody else". Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is
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".", "ĠAnother", "Ġcue", "Ġis", "Ġhaving", "Ġthe", "Ġsame", "Ġfamily", "Ġname", ",", "Ġespecially", "Ġif", "Ġrare", ",", "Ġand", "Ġthis", "Ġhas", "Ġbeen", "Ġfound", "Ġto", "Ġincrease", "Ġhelpful", "Ġbehavior", ".", "ĠAnother", "Ġstudy", "Ġfound", "Ġmore", "Ġcooperative", "Ġbehavior", "Ġthe", "Ġgreater", "Ġthe", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġperceived", "Ġkin", "Ġin", "Ġa", "Ġgroup", ".", "ĠUsing", "Ġkins", "hip", "Ġterms", "Ġin", "Ġpolitical", "Ġspeeches", "Ġincreased", "Ġaudience", "Ġagreement", "Ġwith", "Ġthe", "Ġspeaker", "Ġin", "Ġone", "Ġstudy", ".", "ĠThis", "Ġeffect", "Ġwas", "Ġespecially", "Ġstrong", "Ġfor", "Ġfirst", "born", "s", ",", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġtypically", "Ġclose", "Ġto", "Ġtheir", "Ġfamilies", ".", "Ġ", "ĠV", "ested", "Ġinterests", ".", "ĠPeople", "Ġare", "Ġlikely", "Ġto", "Ġsuffer", "Ġif", "Ġtheir", "Ġfriends", ",", "Ġallies", ",", "Ġand", "Ġsimilar", "Ġsocial", "Ġing", "roups", "Ġsuffer", "Ġor", "Ġeven", "Ġdisappear", ".", "ĠHelp", "ing", "Ġsuch", "Ġgroup", "Ġmembers", 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"intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards". In one sense, the opposite of altruism is spite; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit. Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty or concern for the common good. The latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as "benefits". The term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. Effective altruism is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. The notion of altruism The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. Scientific viewpoints Anthropology Marcel Mauss's essay The Gift contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children. Evolutionary explanations In the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism. Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families. Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social ingroups suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile outgroup threatens to kill the entire ingroup. Reciprocal altruism. See also Reciprocity (evolution). Direct reciprocity. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective tit for tat strategy is one game theoretic example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return. One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less