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All of the following terms appear in this unit. The terms are arranged here in alphabetical order. Anthropocene epoch — A new epoch, not formally accepted by geologists, during which our species has become the dominant force for change in the biosphere. The Anthropocene marks the end of the Holocene epoch, about the time of the Industrial Revolution, 200 years ago. artisan — A person who is skilled at a craft such as pottery or weaving. biosphere — The entire network of life on Earth; the region of Earth in which living organisms can be found. capitalism — A competitive economic system in which products and production means are owned by individuals or private groups. climate change — Measurable changes in the climate over long periods of time. collective learning — The ability to share, preserve, and build upon ideas over time. commerce — The large-scale buying and selling of goods and services. communications — The technologies, including speech, writing, printing, and the Internet, by which people exchange information and ideas. communism — A system of government or social organization in which all property is held collectively and authorities control the distribution of property and resources. For a time in the twentieth century, communist societies in the Soviet Union, China, Eastern Europe, and East and Southeast Asia included almost half of the world’s population. competitive market — A system of exchange of goods and services based on supply and demand. energy — The capacity to do work, associated with matter and radiation. Includes kinetic energy, potential energy, and chemical energy, among others. exchange networks — Networks that link people, societies, and regions through the transfer of information, goods, people, and sometimes disease. All forms of collective learning work through exchange networks. fossil fuel — A carbon- based material such as coal, oil, or natural gas that can be used as an energy source. Fossil fuels were originally formed when the remains of living organisms were buried and broken down by intense heat and pressure over millions of years. globalization — The expansion of exchange networks until they begin to reach across the entire world. industrialization — The transition to mechanized or more technologically advanced production methods, such as factories. Industrial Revolution — A period of technological innovation starting in England late in the eighteenth century that resulted in a major change in the way goods were produced, and caused a major shift in global economics. These innovations came as a result of the systematic use of fossil fuels in place of human and animal power to manufacturing, communications, and transportation. innovation — Generation of a new idea, method, or product. Marxism — Ideologies inspired by the writings of Karl Marx (1818–1883). Marx argued that capitalism was the key feature of the modern world, but that capitalism created such profound inequality that it would eventually have to be abolished in a future socialist society. Modern Revolution — A deliberately vague label for the revolutionary transformations that have created the modern world. The Modern Revolution began around 1500 and ushered in the Modern era of human history. monopoly — A situation in which there is only one supplier of a commodity. According to economic theory, monopolies stifle innovation because monopolists have a captive market so they do not need to worry about improving the quality or reducing the price of their products. steam engines — Machines that burn coal to produce steam, used to perform mechanical work. James Watt configured the first profitable one at the time of the American Revolution. Their use launched human society over a threshold no longer limited by the annual flow of solar energy. transportation — The technologies and methods by which people and goods are moved from place to place. Methods of transportation include porters, horse-drawn wagons, cars, trains, boats, planes, and shipping containers, among many others.

Innovations in transportation, communication, and weapons transformed the world in the 20th century. Humanity learned to fly, waged world wars, and sent astronauts to the moon. The modern era is the most complex yet, and the most fragile. Learning to Fly © Bettmann/CORBIS On December 17, 1903 the Wright Brothers, Orville and Wilbur, made the first manned flight in a mechanically powered airplane. The first flight lasted 12 seconds and covered 120 feet near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Flight technology quickly improved and, within a few years, many pilots were building and flying their own airplanes. In this photograph, French entrepreneur Louis LeJeune stands with his own airplane at one of the aviation races that were held in Europe in the early part of the century. In the Trenches © CORBIS When World War I erupted in Europe in 1914, new technology had transformed warfare. Armies built trenches along the "front lines" and used new weaponry like machine guns and explosive artillery shells in some of the bloodiest battles the world had seen. Airplane technology would become more important later in the war with the introduction of the German Fokker triplane and its most famous pilot, Manfred von Richthofen (the Red Baron). Atomic Bombs As World War II was being fought, scientists around the world rushed to advance weapons technology to a new level by developing the nuclear bomb. Some of the greatest physicists and chemists contributed to the development of the nuclear weapons that would prove so destructive but, also, so important in helping to end the War. Hiroshima and Nagasaki On August 6, 1945, the United States military used a nuclear weapon to destroy the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, another atomic bomb was used on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. More than 200,000 people were killed in these attacks and many more would experience sickness or death in the days and weeks to come. The human capacity for destruction of the biosphere had reached a new high. In this photograph, US soldiers inspect the aftermath in Hiroshima. The United Nations © Reuters/CORBIS When World War II came to an end, the United Nations was formed for the purpose of preventing future wars between nations and to provide a neutral platform for different governments to communicate. Today, the United Nations includes 193 sovereign states and is heavily involved in efforts to conquer hunger, disease, and illiteracy and to encourage universal rights and freedoms. Man on the Moon NASA One of the greatest human accomplishments, something that had been dreamed of for centuries, was travel to the Moon. In 1969, American astronauts Buzz Aldrin, Neil Armstrong, and Michael Collins traveled to the Moon as part of the Apollo 11 mission, with Aldrin and Armstrong landing on the Moon’s surface on July 20. Shown here is Aldrin deploying equipment for scientific experiments while the Eagle lunar module rests in the background. The Worldwide Web Chris Harrison/Carnegie Mellon and The Big History Project In the last 50 years, the global exchange network reached a degree of connection that few would have imagined just 100-200 years ago. The Internet connects most of the world, providing high-speed transfers of information around the planet and taking collective learning to a new level. The Giant Panda © Keren Su/Corbis Development, technological innovation, and increasing complexity have not come without a price. As humans take control of the biosphere and consume natural resources, other species are put at risk, or even forced into extinction. The giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, once roamed throughout central China but agriculture, deforestation, and development have forced the bears into very specific mountain forests. The giant panda is listed as endangered in the World Conservation Union's Red List of Threatened Species. Global Warming © Patrick Fraser/Corbis Climate change may be one of the greatest challenges facing us in the future. As temperatures rise and the polar ice caps diminish, other species are also forced to change their lifeways. Though these arctic bears are not officially considered "endangered," polar bear habitat is shrinking as glaciers melt and humans continue encroaching northward.

Fossil Fuels, Steam Power, and the Rise of Manufacturing Smokestacks in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1890s © Bettmann/CORBIS By Cynthia Stokes Brown Abundant fossil fuels, and the innovative machines they powered, launched an era of accelerated change that continues to transform human society. The Transformation of the World Try to imagine what your life would be like without any machines working for you. Make a list of the machines in your household and on your person; you may arrive at a surprising number. Now imagine earlier generations during their childhood years. How did they move from place to place? How did they communicate? What foods did they eat? At one time, humans, fueled by the animals and plants they ate and the wood they burned, or aided by their domesticated animals, provided most of the energy in use. Windmills and waterwheels captured some extra energy, but there was little in reserve. All life operated within the fairly immediate flow of energy from the Sun to Earth. Everything changed during the Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750. People found an extra source of energy with an incredible capacity for work. That source was fossil fuels — coal, oil, and natural gas, though coal led the way — formed underground from the remains of plants and animals from much earlier geologic times. When these fuels were burned, they released energy, originally from the Sun, that had been stored for hundreds of millions of years. Coal was formed when huge trees from the Carboniferous period (345– 280 million years ago) fell and were covered with water, so that oxygen and bacteria could not decay them. Instead, the pressure of the weight of materials above them compressed them into dark, carbonic, ignitable rock. Most of the Earth’s oil and gas formed over a hundred million years ago from tiny animal skeletons and plant matter that fell to the bottom of seas or were buried in sediment. This organic matter was compacted by the weight of water and soil. Coal, oil, and gas, despite their relative abundance, are not evenly distributed on Earth; some places have much more than others, due to geographic factors and the diverse ecosystems that existed long ago. Early Steam Engines The story of the Industrial Revolution begins on the small island of Great Britain. By the early 18th century, people there had used up most of their trees for building houses and ships and for cooking and heating. In their search for something else to burn, they turned to the hunks of black stone (coal) that they found near the surface of the earth. Soon they were digging deeper to mine it. Their coal mines filled with water that needed to be removed; horses pulling up bucketfuls proved slow going. James Watt’s “Sun and Planet” steam engine © Bettmann/CORBIS To the rescue came James Watt (1736–1819), a Scottish instrument-maker who in 1776 designed an engine in which burning coal produced steam, which drove a piston assisted by a partial vacuum. (There had been earlier steam engines in Britain, and also in China and in Turkey, where one was used to turn the spit that roasts a lamb over a fire.) Its first application was to more quickly and efficiently pump water out of coal mines, to better allow for extraction of the natural resource, but Watt’s engine worked well enough to be put to other uses; he became a wealthy man. After his patent ran out in 1800, others improved upon his engine. By 1900 engines burned 10 times more efficiently than they had a hundred years before. At the outset of the 19th century, British colonies in North America were producing lots of cotton, using machines to spin the cotton thread on spindles and to weave it into cloth on looms. When they attached a steam engine to these machines, they could easily outproduce India, up until then the world’s leading producer of cotton cloth. One steam engine could power many spindles and looms. This meant that people had to leave their homes and work together in factories. Early in the 19th century the British also invented steam locomotives and steamships, which revolutionized travel. In 1851 they held the first world’s fair, at which they exhibited telegraphs, sewing machines, revolvers, reaping machines, and steam hammers to demonstrate they that were the world’s leading manufacturer of machinery. By this time the characteristics of industrial society — smoke rising from factories, bigger cities and denser populations, railroads — could be seen in many places in Britain. Why Britain? Britain wasn’t the only place that had deposits of coal. So why didn’t the Industrial Revolution begin in China, or somewhere else that boasted this natural resource? Did it start in isolation in Britain, or were there global forces at work that shaped it? Was it geography or cultural institutions that mattered most? Historians have vigorously debated these questions, amassing as much evidence as possible for their answers. Possible reasons why industrialization began in Britain include: Shortage of wood and the abundance of convenient coal depositsCommercial-minded aristocracy; limited monarchySystem of free enterprise; limited government involvementGovernment support for commercial projects, for a strong navy to protect shipsCheap cotton produced by slaves in North AmericaHigh literacy ratesRule of law; protection of assetsValuable immigrants (Dutch, Jews, Huguenots [French Protestants]) Shortage of wood and the abundance of convenient coal deposits Commercial-minded aristocracy; limited monarchy System of free enterprise; limited government involvement Government support for commercial projects, for a strong navy to protect ships Cheap cotton produced by slaves in North America High literacy rates Rule of law; protection of assets Valuable immigrants (Dutch, Jews, Huguenots [French Protestants]) Possible reasons why industrialization did not begin in China include: Location of China’s coal, which was in the north, while economic activity was centered in the southRapid growth of population in China, giving less incentive for machines and more for labor-intensive methodsConfucian ideals that valued stability and frowned upon experimentation and changeLack of Chinese government support for maritime explorations, thinking its empire seemed large enough to provide everything neededChina’s focus on defending self from nomadic attacks from the north and west Location of China’s coal, which was in the north, while economic activity was centered in the south Rapid growth of population in China, giving less incentive for machines and more for labor-intensive methods Confucian ideals that valued stability and frowned upon experimentation and change Lack of Chinese government support for maritime explorations, thinking its empire seemed large enough to provide everything needed China’s focus on defending self from nomadic attacks from the north and west Global forces influencing the development of industrialization in Britain include: Britain’s location on the Atlantic OceanBritish colonies in North America, which provided land, labor, and marketsSilver from the Americas, used in trade with ChinaSocial and ideological conditions in Britain, and new thoughts about the economy, that encouraged an entrepreneurial spirit Britain’s location on the Atlantic Ocean British colonies in North America, which provided land, labor, and markets Silver from the Americas, used in trade with China Social and ideological conditions in Britain, and new thoughts about the economy, that encouraged an entrepreneurial spirit By the way, if you’re wondering what oil and natural gas were doing while coal was powering the Industrial Revolution, they had been discovered long before and were in use, but mostly as fuels for lamps and other light sources. It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that oil caught up — and surpassed — coal in use. Calcutta Harbor, c. 1860 © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS The Spread of the Industrial Revolution Britain tried to keep secret how its machines were made, but people went there to learn about them and took the techniques back home. Sometimes they smuggled the machines out in rowboats to neighboring countries. The first countries after Britain to develop factories and railroads were Belgium, Switzerland, France, and the states that became Germany. Building a national railroad system proved an essential part of industrialization. Belgium began its railroads in 1834, France in 1842, Switzerland in 1847, and Germany in the 1850s. Industrialization began in the United States when Samuel Slater emigrated from Britain to Rhode Island in 1789 and set up the first textile factory on U.S soil. He did this from memory, having left Britain without notes or plans that could have been confiscated by British authorities. Francis Cabot Lowell, of Massachusetts, visited Britain from 1810 to 1812 and returned to set up the first power loom and the first factory combining mechanical spinning and weaving in the States. Railroad construction in America boomed from the 1830s to 1870s. The American Civil War (1861–65) was the first truly industrial war — the increasingly urbanized and factory-based North fighting against the agriculture-focused South — and industrialization grew explosively afterward. By 1900 the United States had overtaken Britain in manufacturing, producing 24 percent of the world’s output. After 1870 both Russia and Japan were forced by losing wars to abolish their feudal systems and to compete in the industrializing world. In Japan, the monarchy proved flexible enough to survive through early industrialization. In Russia, a profoundly rural country, the czar and the nobility undertook industrialization while trying to retain their dominance. Factory workers often worked 13-hour days without any legal rights. Discontent erupted repeatedly, and eventually a revolution brought the Communist party to power in 1917. Industrialized nations used their strong armies and navies to colonize many parts of the world that were not industrialized, gaining access to the raw materials needed for their factories, a practice known as imperialism. In 1800 Europeans occupied or controlled about 34 percent of the land surface of the world; by 1914 this had risen to 84 percent. Britain led the 19th-century takeovers and ended the century with the largest noncontiguous empire the world has ever known. (“The sun never sets on the British Empire,” as the British liked to say.) Britain exerted great influence in China and the Ottoman Empire without taking over direct rule, while in India, Southeast Asia, and 60 percent of Africa, it assumed all governmental functions. In the last decade of the 19th century most European nations grabbed for a piece of Africa, and by 1900 the only independent country left on the continent was Ethiopia. After World War II (1939–1945) Europe’s colonies demanded their independence, which didn’t always happen immediately or without conflict but eventually took root. Now, in the early 21st century, Brazil, China, and India are becoming economic powerhouses, while many European countries are enduring troubled economic times. Workers hauling coal near Fengjie, China, 2005 © Bob Sacha/CORBIS Consequences of the Industrial Revolution The statistics that reflect the effects of industrialization are staggering. In 1700, before the widespread use of fossil fuels, the world had a population of 670 million people. By 2011 the world’s population had reached 6.7 billion, a 10-fold increase in a mere 300 years. In the 20th century alone, the world’s economy grew 14-fold, the per capita income grew almost fourfold, and the use of energy expanded at least 13-fold. This kind of growth has never before occurred in human history. Many people around the world today enjoy the benefits of industrialization. With so much more energy flowing through human systems than ever before, many of us must do much less hard physical labor than earlier generations did. People today are able to feed more babies and bring them to adulthood. Many people vote and participate in modern states, which provide education, social security, and health benefits. Large numbers of people enjoy levels of wealth, health, education, travel, and life expectancy unimagined before industrialization. The benefits of industrialization, however, have come at great cost. For one thing, the rate of change (acceleration) is now so rapid that individuals and social systems struggle to keep up. And strong arguments can be made about depersonalization in the age of mass production. The increased complexity of the industrial system has also brought increased fragility. Industrialization depends on the interaction of many diverse components, any one of which could fail. We know that many of the essential components of the industrial system, and the natural resources it depends on, are being compromised — the soil, the oceans, the atmosphere, the underground water levels, plants, and animals are all at risk. Will growth continue unchecked, or are we approaching the end of an unsustainable industrial era? Whatever the future holds, we’ll be debating — and dealing with — the consequences of modernization for years to come. For Further Discussion The innovations of the Industrial Revolution transformed textile production. Can you think of innovations today in some other industry that are transforming that industry and changing the way humans live? Share your answer in the Questions Area below. Then, respond to someone else’s answer, commenting on the characteristics of that transformation that either make it similar to or different from what happened in the Industrial Revolution. [Sources and attributions]

Smith, Marx, and Keynes The New York Stock Exchange, 2009 ©Justin Guariglia/CORBIS By Daniel Adler Spanning three centuries of history, from the dawn of the industrial age to modern times, three diverse thinkers developed their own landmark theories on commerce, labor, and the global economy. Economic Thought vs. Economic Behavior “Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life,” wrote 19th-century economist Alfred Marshall. What choices do you face in the ordinary business of your life? Buying clothing, deciding what to eat, or seeking a job — all involve considerations of cost, scarcity, and tradeoffs with other options. Whether or not you think of them as such, these are economic decisions. Now extend that idea to scales beyond your individual transactions. Modern society is woven together by a complex network of individual choices with local, national, and even global implications. Economics is the field of knowledge that seeks to systematically analyze, interpret, and understand these decisions. In practice, economics is a dynamic tool used by governments, businesses, and even individuals to observe, manage, and influence how people produce and consume goods and services. The three economists profiled in this article — Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and John Maynard Keynes — contributed substantially to the development of economics as a science. Nevertheless, considerations of production, distribution, choice, scarcity, and alternate uses far predate these men, to the earliest days of humankind. Ages before there was economic thought, there was economic behavior. The Economics of the Hunt In the words of economic historian Roger Backhouse, “Economics does not have a beginning or a ‘founder’; people have always thought about questions that we now consider part of economics.” The earliest humans, for example, spent lots of energy to track and kill large game, which they would then need to distribute, and which each individual would decide to conserve or use. Even without developed cultural, commercial, or legal systems, effective economic decision-making was often imperative for survival. As hunter-gatherer groups coalesced into more organized societies, decisions about distributing resources and designating jobs became more complex. For many thousands of years, it was not the communal egalitarianism of hunter-gatherer times or by the individualism of today that drove such decisions. Rather, as 20th-century economic historian Robert Heilbroner says, people worked according to “custom” (doing work that was passed down from previous generations) or “command” (working to avoid violence or other retribution). Not the blacksmith in medieval Europe, the farmer in India, nor the pyramid-building slave in Egypt worked to advance his or her own goals, dreams, or prosperity. Early economies were also marked by an ambivalent attitude toward money and the pursuit of wealth for its own sake. Writes Heilbroner, “The idea of gain...was quite foreign to the great lower and middle strata of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and medieval cultures, only scattered throughout Renaissance and Reformation times, and largely absent in the majority of Eastern civilizations” (Heilbroner, pp. 24–25). Those who worked with money (merchants, lenders, and even craftsmen with specialized skills) were often viewed suspiciously and sometimes even punished for innovating within their trades. Consequently, skills and technology advanced gradually and similar jobs and standards extended across many generations. Around 1500 CE, several drastic changes were set in motion. Overseas trade established new networks and boosted collective learning and commercialization. Globally traded currency created an easily recognizable and transferrable store of wealth and medium for exchange. Individual markets, once physical places for the simple exchange of goods, began merging to create the market system, which, according to Heilbroner, “is not just a means of exchanging goods; it is a mechanism for sustaining and maintaining an entire society” (Heilbroner, pp. 26–27). By the 1600s and 1700s, custom and command ceased to exert as much influence as the pursuit of wealth. Rather than survival, obedience, or tradition, it was “the lure of gain...[that] steered the great majority to his or her task” (Heilbroner, p. 21). It was in this era, on the verge of the Industrial Revolution, that Adam Smith lived and worked. Adam Smith When the Scotsman Adam Smith (1723–1790) was born, industrialization and a profit-driven market system were replacing custom and command-driven economic systems across Europe. These changes reflected the intellectual shift toward rationality, progress, liberty, and secularism, generally referred to as the Enlightenment. An undated etching of Adam Smith, public domain Smith studied in Glasgow, Scotland, and Oxford, England. As a professor and lecturer, private tutor to the children of European royalty, government economic adviser, and a customs commissioner for Scotland, Smith had a comprehensive understanding of economics, which was captured most powerfully in An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, better known (and referred to hereafter) as The Wealth of Nations. Composed at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, The Wealth of Nations describes a world increasingly dominated by commerce and capitalism. Here, Smith gives his observations of a visit to a pin-making factory: One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations.... [An average factory of ten workers] could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore...might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day.(The Wealth of Nations, p. 10) One man draws out the wire, another straights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations.... [An average factory of ten workers] could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore...might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day. (The Wealth of Nations, p. 10) In other words, the division of labor enabled one man to be as much as 4,800 times more productive than if he worked alone! In addition, Smith argued that people have a natural drive to improve their own lives. This self-interest, he suggested, propels markets to satisfy individual demands by producing the goods and services people want. He called this the “invisible hand,” and wrote, “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest” (The Wealth of Nations, p. 20). He suggested that competition between businesses prevents exploitation of consumers by ensuring fair prices and quality products, encouraging constant economic innovation, and satisfying consumer demand. In short, competition keeps everyone honest, because customers treated unfairly by one business can always patronize another instead. Smith’s view that the complex functions of society and economy emerged, unintentionally yet effectively, from the self-interested actions of each individual must have been both reassuring and liberating to a world grasping for new means of economic, social, and political organization. It was certainly popular: the first edition of The Wealth of Nations sold out within six months. Smith’s remarkable insights not only captured his own time accurately; they also foresaw much of the economic future, which is evident in the endurance of free-market capitalism as the world’s foremost economic model for the last 200-plus years. Today, we call this arrangement “economic liberalism” (different from the “liberal” political alignment in America) and the liberalization of economies continues around the world (Balaam and Veseth, p. 48-49). Though Smith predicted many of the successes of industrial capitalism, he lived too early in the Industrial Revolution to see its worst excesses. It would take several more decades to produce a critic whose cynicism toward capitalism matched Smith’s optimism. That critic was Karl Marx. Karl Marx Karl Marx (1818–1883) was born in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, into a middle-class family in Prussia (a former German kingdom straddling parts of present-day Germany and Poland). He led a tumultuous life: he was jailed for public drunkenness as a college student; his home and personal appearance were unkempt; and he spent income frivolously, causing his family to frequently live on the brink of poverty. For most of his professional life, Marx was a writer for a variety of liberal, radical, and foreign newspapers, moving between Prussia, France, Belgium, and England because he was continually blacklisted or deported for his radical views. Karl Marx, January 1870 © adoc-photos/CORBIS Marx’s attitude toward capitalism was scathing. In an age when “the Industrial Revolution had changed the process of production into a factory system and created a new ruling class of factory owners” (Bussing-Burks, p. 85), Marx perceived injustice, inequality, and the inevitability of change. Marx and his frequent coauthor, Friedrich Engels were outraged at the hardships faced by the working classes of industrial European cities, and they channeled this anger into two monumental written works that formed the basis of modern communism: The Communist Manifesto, published in 1848, and a four-volume, 2,500-page opus, Das Kapital, published in 1867. Marx’s analysis sees the “history of all...societies [as] the history of class struggle.” Marx interpreted human history as a series of eras, each defined by systems for producing goods, which created classes of rulers and the ruled. This process had already progressed from slavery to feudalism to capitalism and, in Marx’s view, would eventually lead to a classless society called communism. Why did Marx object to capitalism? He believed that “capitalists” (the owners of the machines, property, and infrastructure used to produce things) were a separate class from the workers, or “proletariat,” who own nothing but the right to sell their labor in exchange for wages. Marx theorized that capitalists, in competition with each other for profits, would squeeze as much work as possible out of the proletariat at the lowest possible price. Furthermore, competition would cause some capitalists’ firms to fail, increasing unemployment (and thus misery and poverty) among the proletariat. Innovations in technology were not necessarily positive; new machines would add to unemployment (by rendering human labor increasingly inefficient and obsolete) while also making work dull, repetitive, and alienating. Yet Marx was not altogether dismissive of capitalism, which he saw as a necessary stage for building a society’s standard of living. But in his view, the proletariat’s discontent would inevitably lead it to overthrow the ruling classes and create a more equitable society, at first socialist (wherein the state would control the economy and distribute resources more evenly) and then purely communist (a stateless, classless, egalitarian society without private property or nationality). Marx’s beliefs, theories, and predictions represent a school of thought called Marxism. International political economy professors David Balaam and Michael Veseth caution, however, that there is no definitive reading of Marx, and that “Marxism is at once a theory of economics, politics, sociology, and ethics. For some, it is also a call to action” (Balaam & Veseth, p. 73). As a call to action, Marxism was most influential in the 20th century, when it inspired various brands of revolutionary activity, including the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the rise of communist governments in China, Vietnam, and Cuba, as well as in many Eastern European and African nations. It has since fizzled out, with the U.S.S.R. collapsing in the early 1990s, China shifting toward a market-friendly economy, and smaller communist countries that depended on them adopting more market-oriented systems. As a theory, Marxism is arguably more durable. While some believe that communism’s decline disproves Marx, others draw upon his approach to critique economic phenomena on social grounds. Even as capitalism defines most of the world’s economies, Marxism remains alive in “the idea that capitalism can undergo serious scrutiny and adaptation” (Bussing-Burks, p. 95). In other words, Marx’s skepticism about capitalism initiated an ongoing conversation about its shortcomings and how it can be improved. While he was no Marxist, our third economist, John Maynard Keynes, was highly influential in confronting the dilemmas of capitalism in the early 20th century. John Maynard Keynes John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946, last name rhymes with “rains”) was born into an educated family, and during his life he worked in academia, economic publishing, private financial advising and management, currency speculation, and as an official in the British Treasury. A studio portrait of John Maynard Keynes by Gorden Anthony, late 1930s © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS While his contributions to economics were extensive, Keynes is most famous for his ideas about the Great Depression, the major economic crisis of the 20th century. The Depression’s effects were felt worldwide from roughly the early 1930s to the mid-1940s. The United States saw unemployment increase from 3 to 25 percent, a halving of the national income, and a near cessation of residential construction (Buchholz, p. 210). Keynes’s analysis of the Great Depression focused on the role of savings. In his 1936 book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, Keynes argued that excessive savings could lead to economic ruin. A weak economy made businesses hesitant or unable to make investments that created jobs. Without jobs, people had no income that, if spent, would have stimulated demand for more production. Savings increased in anticipation of economic hardship. But then savings dried up as joblessness persisted. Individual rationality (saving in hard times) led to collective irrationality (an unbreakable cycle of economic decline). Keynes believed the government should support the economy. While Keynes generally endorsed free-market capitalism, the Depression’s unique challenges required unique solutions. Keynes argued that only the government had the resources to spend the money that individual consumers and businesses could not, and so break the cycle. This approach proved relevant in the 1930s and ’40s. The New Deal government relief programs of President Franklin D. Roosevelt were designed to stimulate the economy in the early 1930s, while cuts to the federal budget in the late ’30s caused an immediate economic downturn. Extensive government spending funding World War II coincided with the end of the Depression. While some Keynesian policies had mixed results, the overall picture seemed to confirm Keynes’s arguments, and until the 1970s, Keynesianism predominated American economics. The “Great Society” domestic social programs — including Medicare and education funding — reflected Keynesian thinking. So too did the establishment of many of the institutions that form the basis of international trade and finance, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. While the 1980s and ’90s saw a resurgence in “classical” economic theories closer to Smith than to Keynes, the recent “recession” presents a new opportunity to debate whether Keynesian economics are still viable. The Power of Economics Let’s return to our initial question: What choices do you face in the ordinary business of your life? Smith, Marx, and Keynes all explained how individual choices, conscious or otherwise, fit into a higher order, affecting not only those who make them but also their families, communities, countries, and even the world. Over time, many other thinkers have developed their own distinct models and agendas for explaining and managing economic activity. The power of economics lies in its ability to reveal the complex workings of society. The idea that we are all touched by economics is perhaps best summarized in a quote from Keynes himself: The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back.(The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, p. 383) The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back. (The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, p. 383) As society moves about the ordinary business of life, economics always hums along in the background; it is observed by some, influenced by others, yet it affects everybody. For Further Discussion Does this brief introduction to capitalism and communism give you any ideas about why capitalist economies were better at generating innovation than communist economies in the twentieth century? Share your thinking in the Questions Area below. [Sources and attributions]

A Historian Reflects on a Lifetime of Change Highway with car lights© Pete Leonard/CORBIS By Cynthia Stokes Brown Acceleration, an increase in the rate of change, is occurring both in the Universe and in human culture on planet Earth. Definitions In 2011, three astronomers were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering in 1998 that the expansion of our Universe is accelerating, rather than decelerating as they had expected. They found that the galaxies farthest away from our Milky Way galaxy are flying away from us faster than the galaxies nearer to us. The astronomers discovered this by charting changes in the distances of far galaxies, which they measured by observing supernovae that exploded in them. This means simply that the expansion of our Universe is happening at a faster and faster rate. That is, it is accelerating. NGC 281 or the “Pacman Nebula,”X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/S.Wolk; IR: NASA/JPL/CfA/S.Wolk Apparently this accelerating expansion of our Universe has not always been the case. It seems to have started about 5 billion years ago, about the same time that our Solar System began. No one knows what anti-gravity force can be pushing the farthest galaxies away faster and faster. Astronomers are calling this unknown force “dark energy” and are estimating that it fills about 70 percent of space. Stay tuned as astronomers learn more about this. Here on Earth a different kind of acceleration is happening. For humans, acceleration means that the rate and scale of cultural change is increasing. David Christian wrote in his book Maps of Time that it might not be an exaggeration to claim that “more change has occurred in the 20th century than in all earlier periods of human history.” Evidence for Acceleration What do we mean when we say that the rate and scale of cultural change are increasing? What evidence do we have? How can we measure change? On the cosmological or geological scale, change is measured in millions or billions of years. On the biological scale, with natural selection setting the pace, change occurs in thousands to millions of years. On the scale of human culture, large-scale change used to occur over millennia or centuries, but now it is taking place in decades or even years. Let’s look at the length of time that each of the major periods of human history has lasted. The Paleolithic era, or the era of hunting and gathering, lasted from the beginning of our species about 250,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago. That’s about 240,000 years, or 240 millennia. The period of agriculture lasted about 10,000 years, or 10 millennia, while the modern industrial era has lasted 200 years, or a fifth of a millennium. Do you see a pattern of accelerating change? Each era lasted for a much shorter period of time than the earlier one. Now we seem already to be near the beginning of a new era, since we cannot continue long in our present mode: oil is running out, and the burning of fossil fuels is changing our climate. Zooming in on the 20th century, we might begin by looking at the increase of human population. In 1900 the Earth had 1.6 billion people, in 1950 it had 2.5 billion, and in 2000 it had 6.1 billion. In other words, it just about doubled twice in one century. In the lifetime of anyone who lived through the last half of the 20th century, the human population doubled in 40 years. This has never happened before in anyone’s lifetime. Since 2000 the rate of population growth has slowed somewhat, but the human population has still increased to 7 billion. This total represents an enormous, rapid, and unprecedented change for humans and for the planet. The number of people who have ever lived is estimated to be about 80 billion. Of those, 20 percent have lived in the modern era. About 8 percent (7 billion divided by 80 billion) of all humans to walk the Earth are alive today. What has made it possible for so many people to survive and live a long life? (Average worldwide life expectancy has risen from about 35 years in 1900 to about 66 years in 2000.) The answer seems to lie in the increased interplay of energy flowing through human systems and increasing innovations in human technology. The force that propels the acceleration of change in human societies today is the burning of fossil fuels — coal, oil, and natural gas — and the technological innovations of the modern era. Oil came into use in the early 20th century, revolutionizing transportation by fueling cars, trucks, tractors, airplanes, and tanks. During the 20th century energy use in the world expanded 13-fold, which included oil production soaring sixfold just from 1950 to 1973. The three fossil fuels provide energy that originated from the Sun and was sent to Earth millions of years ago, supporting early life forms, preserved somewhat in their remains and then retained underground or under the sea until humans retrieve it. This extra energy propels our food production and our technologies (transportation, communications, financial systems, space exploration, and military actions). Our global civilization is based on fossil fuels at the present time. As of 2010 only about 16 percent of global energy comes from renewable sources. More people and more energy from fossil fuels has added up to a great increase in the size of the global economy — a 10-fold increase since the end of World War II in 1945. The period since then is sometimes called the “Great Acceleration,” because global increases in population, production, and energy use have increased at a previously unknown rate. Technology Over Three Generations Elevated roadways in Shanghai, China© Joachim Ladefoged/VII/CORBIS The changes in technology that occurred in the 20th century may be more vivid if I compare some aspects of the life of my grandmother, Bertha Mantz Bast, who lived from 1888 to 1987, with aspects of mine. My grandmother married my grandfather, Paul Jacob Bast, in 1909. They lived with his parents on a dairy farm in southern Wisconsin, 20 miles from Milwaukee. At that time Grandpa already had his first Ford tractor, but they had no electricity, car, radio, or telephone. They traveled only as far as they could walk, or as far as horses could pull a sleigh in winter or a buggy in summer. On special occasions they might take a train. They milked the cows by hand and pumped water into the kitchen by hand. Grandma hung the laundry on lines to dry and grew their vegetables in her gardens. The farm had kerosene lamps, wood stoves for cooking and heating, and a privy (toilet) outside. Everyone bathed in the kitchen in a large wooden tub. Grandma said they were clean and happy. During Grandma’s life on the farm — until they moved to a city in 1954 — innovations appeared that changed her life immensely. Sometime before 1920 Grandpa bought his first car, a Model-T Ford that had to be hand-cranked to start the engine. (Grandma never learned to drive.) Electricity arrived in 1921, ending the kerosene lamps. Soon there was indoor plumbing, hoses to water the garden, and eventually milking and washing machines, plus radios, telephones, and phonographs. In her 80s Grandma flew on an airplane twice to visit her daughter, who lived in San Salvador, El Salvador. In my lifetime technological innovations have appeared even faster. Before I married in 1961 antibiotics had come into use to help fight illnesses, color television (1940) had been invented, as well as atomic energy (1945) and credit cards (1950). After my marriage the first man landed on the Moon in 1969, the first IBM PCs appeared in 1981, and the first Apple Macintoshes in 1984. After that the list accelerates even more: 1990 World Wide Web1991 First hydrogen fuel cell for automobiles1992 Digital cell phones1995 DVDs1997 Toyota hybrid car released in Japan1998 High-definition television2000 Nano-Tex fabrics2001 New artificial heart and liver technology; iPods2004 Facebook2005 YouTube2007 New record of efficiency in solar cells2010 First iPad 1990 World Wide Web 1991 First hydrogen fuel cell for automobiles 1992 Digital cell phones 1995 DVDs 1997 Toyota hybrid car released in Japan 1998 High-definition television 2000 Nano-Tex fabrics 2001 New artificial heart and liver technology; iPods 2004 Facebook 2005 YouTube 2007 New record of efficiency in solar cells 2010 First iPad Now in my later years I am much more hopelessly out of date than my grandmother ever was. I have a much harder time keeping up with the innovations that keep appearing because the pace of change has accelerated. Yet the payoff for me has been staggeringly wonderful. Now I can connect almost instantaneously with anyone in the world and with all the knowledge in the world. I can jump in a plane and be anywhere within hours. I can finish the maintenance work of my daily life in very little time. Grandma would hardly be able to believe it, and she’s been gone only 25 years. In these paragraphs I have described only innovations as they have affected daily life. But technology has transformed all areas of human life. Today human activity is connected in a simultaneous global network never before attained on Earth — an exchange network that includes medicines, foods, and weapons. What will the pace of change be like during your lifetime? For Further Discussion What examples of acceleration have you noticed in your life? Are you able to do things today because of technological innovation that you were not able to do a few years ago? Share your answers in the Questions Area below. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What are some challenges that George Washington Carver faced as a young man?In what ways did cotton have a negative impact on Southern famers?How did Carver work to improve both the quality of the soil and the quality of life for Black farmers?In the graphic biography, Carver and the plants he is working with are represented with bright colors and light, while the images get darker as you move away from the central image. Why do you think the artist chose to depict the scene in that way? What are some challenges that George Washington Carver faced as a young man? In what ways did cotton have a negative impact on Southern famers? How did Carver work to improve both the quality of the soil and the quality of life for Black farmers? In the graphic biography, Carver and the plants he is working with are represented with bright colors and light, while the images get darker as you move away from the central image. Why do you think the artist chose to depict the scene in that way? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: What does George Washington Carver's story tell you about the economic, social, and environmental impacts of industrialization? Who faced the biggest changes from industrialization? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. George Washington Carver - Graphic Biography Writer: Molly Sinnott Artist: Kay Sohini In the post-Civil War American South, scientist George Washington Carver worked to restore both the land and those who farmed it. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

A New Geological Epoch? The Queensboro Bridge and Roosevelt Island, New York City© Rudy Sulgan/CORBIS By Cynthia Stokes Brown For the first time in the 3.5-billion-year history of life on Earth, a single species, humans, has gained the capacity to effect major change in the entire biosphere. The Case for the Anthropocene Geologists have worked out a system of naming large segments of Earth’s time. They call short periods of thousands of years “epochs,” longer ones that last tens of millions of years “periods,” and really long ones lasting hundreds of millions of years “eras.” The longest measurements of time are called “eons.” Geologists refer to our current epoch as the Holocene, which started about 10,000 years ago, when the temperature stabilized at a new level of warmth after the last ice age. The word Holocene comes from Greek roots: holo meaning “whole” and cene meaning “new.” Hence, Holocene means “wholly new.” In 2000 a Nobel Prize–winning Dutch chemist, Paul Crutzen (1933– ), suggested that we are in a new geologic epoch, which he proposed calling the Anthropocene. He believed that the state of human domination over the planet, which has drastically altered the Earth from its pre-industrial condition, warranted the name change. Anthropo is the Greek root for “human.” Geologists have an authority, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), that is the official keeper of the geologic time scale, the scale for expressing the history of Earth. Stratigraphy is the study of the order of strata, which are the layers of sedimentary rock and soil — each with characteristics that distinguish them from other layers. In 2008 some geologists proposed to the ICS that it designate the Anthropocene as a formal geologic unit of time. An informal poll taken in 2010 showed that about half the members of the ICS thought the case was strong enough to adopt this new epoch. No official vote has been taken, but an Anthropocene Working Group continues to study the issue, and many geologists have begun to use the term; indeed, in 2011 the Geological Society of America called its annual meeting “Archean to Anthropocene: The Past Is Key to the Future.” Evidence of Change What kind of evidence could demonstrate that humans have begun to dominate and alter the life systems of Earth? The most prominent answer is by now a familiar one: climate change. Plants and animals are moving northward; glaciers are melting; storms and droughts are increasing in severity; and weather patterns are changing. Behind these weather patterns are changes in the Earth’s atmosphere that scientists can track over geologic time. A tiny part of Earth’s atmosphere is so-called greenhouse gases, which hold in heat reflected from Earth and do not let it escape into space. One of these greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2). During the glacial/interglacial cycles of the past million years the CO2 varied approximately 100 parts per million (ppm) — from 180 ppm to 280 ppm — due to processes not affected by humans. Since the Holocene and the beginning of human agriculture, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has risen from 280 ppm to about 390 ppm, much faster than ever before. This has happened mostly due to humans burning fossil fuels in the last 250 years. Leading scientists are now saying that we must reduce this concentration of CO2 to 350 ppm and that global emissions must be cut by 4.8 percent every year until 2050 in order to keep our climate from a devastating warming. Instead, in 2011 emissions of CO2 increased almost 6 percent; the two biggest producers are China, with 24.6 percent of the total, and the United States, with 16.4 percent. One might think that natural changes in climate would proceed slowly and gradually, but it doesn’t always happen that way. Sometimes, like at the end of the last ice age, change speeds up because positive feedback cycles accelerate the process. For example, when glaciers at the poles melt, there is less area of whiteness to reflect some of the Sun’s heat back into space. Instead, the heat is absorbed into the land and water, warming it and causing more melting of the glaciers, which then reflect even less heat; the feedback cycle continues. Not only has the atmosphere been changed by CO2 emissions, so too has the chemistry of the oceans. The oceans are absorbing extra CO2 from the atmosphere. The extra CO2 makes the water more acidic, endangering the life of creatures that form calcium shells, which disintegrate under too much acid. Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides contributes as well, causing strange blooms of harmful algae, while widespread overfishing threatens marine species worldwide. More than just sea life is under threat; the biodiversity of all sectors of the planet is declining faster than the usual background rate (the normal rate of change). Reports peg the present rate of decline as somewhere between a hundred to a thousand times the background rate. Up to half of all species face extinction in the 21st century, and many biologists believe the current extinction will rank as one of Earth’s six major ones before it is over. Oil in the Gulf of Mexico from BP’s Deepwater Horizon spill © Jim Edds/Photo Researchers, Inc. Another way that humans are changing Earth’s systems lies in our ability to synthesize artificial chemicals, like drugs, pesticides, plastics, and synthetic fabrics. Earth is absorbing these chemicals, with unknown side effects. For example, humans now “fix” more nitrogen artificially than all the world’s plants do. (Fixing nitrogen means converting nitrogen from the atmosphere (N2) into ammonia (NH3), so that it is usable in biologic processes.) Most plants cannot convert nitrogen from the air and need to have it added to the soil. But a few kinds of plants, such as legumes, can fix nitrogen with the help of common bacteria that use plants to help it extract nitrogen from the air, which is then stored in the plants’ roots. People fix nitrogen by burning oil or gas to synthesize ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen. For example, synthetic ammonia fertilizers made by burning fossil fuels contribute to increased food production. Human synthesis of nitrogen is altering Earth’s whole nitrogen cycle. Another power that humans have gained control over is that of nuclear energy. The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) in 1945 to end World War II. Since then, a handful of nations have tested bombs and several major peacetime accidents at nuclear plants have occurred. But, so far, nuclear power has not been used destructively on a massive scale. Large numbers of bombs exist, and some are on alert to be launched within 15 minutes. Multiple deployments could annihilate millions of people and send large-scale debris up into the atmosphere, blocking the Sun’s rays long enough to produce a “nuclear winter” that would be as destructive to life as the asteroid of 65 million years ago that wiped out the dinosaurs. The foregoing evidence may convince biologists and climate scientists, but geologists have a very specific method of periodization. They look for evidence in the rocks, or at least in layers of mud that will become rock. They are finding that proof. Worldwide sediments contain the radioactive signature of atomic bomb testing in the 1960s. Similar evidence of chlorine from bomb testing and of mercury associated with the burning of coal also exists in ice-core samples. Environmental historians support the claims of geologists. For example, scholar John McNeill, in his environmental history of the 20th-century world, Something New Under the Sun, asserts that “the human race, without intending anything of the sort, has undertaken a gigantic uncontrolled experiment on the Earth.” A wind farm in a canola field in Niebull, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany© Radius Images/CORBIS Going Forward There are differing opinions as to what these changes might bring and how humans might be able to overcome them. James Lovelock (1919– ), an English independent scientist, believes that humans have passed the point at which they can control change. Non-human processes are now in control and will bring the planet back into some kind of equilibrium, which may not support much human life. The best we can do, he feels, is to try to adapt to the changes. Others believe that humans have been in tight fixes before and have always been able to figure a way out, using their unique abilities of collective learning to generate new ideas, new technologies, and new solutions. If only a few thousands or millions of humans could do this at previous crises, why can’t seven billion do it now? Geologists continue to debate other questions: Do we date the Anthropocene from 8,000 years ago, or from 2,000 or 200 or 100? How do we know when we have reached the critical point of human influence on the Earth? Whatever geologists decide about the name of this epoch, the mere consideration has been a productive way for scientists to try to get a handle on the scale of contemporary change. Meanwhile, people have to align themselves with this decisive period in planetary history. Human decisions made in the near past and those made in the near future will determine the direction of life on our planet. Many leading scientists and journalists believe that we have at most 10 years in which both to rally ourselves to change our destructive behavior and to implement new technologies. Otherwise, humans could face a looming breakdown in our planet’s current life-support systems. Many people trust that human ingenuity will be able to get us through this decisive period, but it will take the commitment, innovation, and cooperation of a large portion of all humans on the planet to accomplish this. For Further Discussion What evidence would convince you that the biosphere has entered a new epoch, the Anthropocene? What claim testers helped you determine your answers? Share your answer in the Questions Area below. [Sources and attributions]

All of the following terms appear in this unit. The terms are arranged here in alphabetical order. atom — A small unit of matter composed of protons, electrons, and usually neutrons. Atoms are basic building blocks of the matter we see in the Universe and on Earth. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines which chemical element it is. Big Bang — A theory, first articulated in the 1920s, proposing that the Universe started out extremely hot and dense and gradually cooled off as it expanded. black hole — A region in space of such high density that its gravitational pull does not even allow light to escape. Black holes can be formed by the collapse of large objects such as very large stars. chemistry — The scientific study of elementary forms of matter and the interactions between them. climate change — Measurable changes in the climate over long periods of time. collective learning — The ability to share, preserve, and build upon ideas over time. complexity — A quality of an object or system that has diverse components precisely arranged in connection with one another (so that new properties emerge which did not exist in the components alone). democracy — A system of government based upon majority decisions made by voting citizens. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) — The double-stranded molecule, present in all living cells, that contains the genetic information used to form and maintain the cell and passes that information to offspring cells. Earth — The third planet from the Sun in our Solar System, home to many complex life forms and modern human society. energy — The capacity to do work, associated with matter and radiation. Includes kinetic energy, potential energy, and chemical energy, among others. entropy (the law of) — The natural tendency of all things to move from order to disorder. (Note: Although often called the law of entropy, it is more accurate to refer to it as the second law of thermodynamics.) fossil fuel — A carbon-based material such as coal, oil, or natural gas that can be used as an energy source. Fossil fuels were originally formed when the remains of living organisms were buried and broken down by intense heat and pressure over millions of years. global warming — The increase in average global temperature caused by high quantities of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. globalization — The expansion of exchange networks until they begin to reach across the entire world. Goldilocks Conditions — Specific set of conditions necessary to enable greater complexity. The reference is to the fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears, in which Goldilocks looks for the porridge, chair, and bed that are “just right.” gravity — The fundamental force of attraction between any two objects that have mass. greenhouse effect — A process by which certain trace gases in the Earth’s atmosphere trap heat near the Earth’s surface and so keep the Earth’s climate warmer than it would be otherwise. The Earth emits some of the radiation it receives from the Sun back into space, but greenhouse gases trap some of this radiation before it can escape, thus warming up the climate on Earth, as in a greenhouse. Homo sapiens — The scientific name for our species, which is thought to have evolved in Africa between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago. individualism — The emphasis of the importance of the individual’s freedoms and needs over those of the collective group. life — Four commonly accepted attributes of life are that it uses energy from the environment by eating or breathing or photosynthesizing (metabolism); it makes copies of itself (reproduction); over many generations it can change characteristics to adapt to its changing environment (adaptation); and it can regulate internal conditions in order to maintain a stable state (homeostasis). Milankovitch cycles — Climate changes that may occur regularly over long time periods of time due to the tilt and wobble of the Earth’s rotational axis and variations in the Earth’s elliptical orbit around the Sun. Solar System — The Sun and the objects that orbit it; the area in space in which the Sun’s gravitational pull is the dominant force. star — A huge cloud of simple matter held together by gravity. The star, the first complex entity in the Universe, has structure, stability, and sustained energy flow due to nuclear fusion at its center. supernova — The explosion of a massive star at the end of its life; most chemical elements are created by supernova explosions. thresholds of increasing complexity — Moments in the history of the Universe when specific ingredients under the right “Goldilocks Conditions” come together to create something new and more complex. Universe — All the matter and energy in existence, as well as the space that contains it.

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why does the graphic bio assume you have not heard of Bose?What were Bose's two main discoveries, and why were they significant?What was Bose's primary way of communicating with other physicists?What are some of the ways Bose's contributions to science are used today?How does the illustration of this graphic biography show the relationship between Bose and Einstein? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How might the work of Satyendra Nath Bose influence what the next threshold might be? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Satyendra Nath Bose (Graphic Biography) Writer: Eman M. Elshaikh Artist: Kay Sohini You probably know Albert Einstein, but have you heard of his Indian colleague, Satyendra Nath Bose? Their collaborations changed our fundamental understanding of matter and quantum mechanics. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

Satellite photography of Earth shows some astonishing things about our planet and our relationship with it. Crop Circles NASA/ISS Crew Earth Observations and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory Human populations have contributed to desertification in many parts of the world through deforestation and poor farming techniques that degrade the soil. In this photograph of the Wadi As-Sirhan Basin of Saudi Arabia, humans are transforming longtime desert land into farm land with complex irrigation systems. To get an idea of size scale, each circle – some of them with active crops (green) and some fallow (brown) – is about one kilometer in diameter. A variety of crops are grown in this region including fruits, vegetables, and wheat. The Great Pyramids and Modern Cairo ISS Crew Earth Observations experiment and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory Two time periods meet in this photograph of the Great Pyramids of Giza, built more than 4,000 years ago, and the modern metropolitan area of Cairo. Monumental architecture was one of the defining characteristics of the first agrarian civilizations and today's societies continue in that tradition. Tokyo at Night NASA Crew Earth Observations In this image of Tokyo, the city sends tendrils of light for miles out from its center. Tokyo is one of the largest cities in the world, with more than 13 million people. As a point of comparison, in 1800 Tokyo had a population of less than 1 million. World population has grown at about the same pace. Today there are more than 7 billion people in the world and that number is expected to exceed 8 billion within this century. Deforestation in the Amazon Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC The Amazon jungle is one of the most biologically diverse areas of the planet. Vast, and rich in vegetation, the Amazon's capacity for absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is immense. However, deforestation and severe droughts have compromised the health of the rainforest. In the decade from 1991 to 2000, a tract of land the size of Spain was cleared for agriculture and development. Deforestation has slowed down in recent years but thousands of square kilometers are still cleared every year. The Deepwater Horizon NASA image courtesy the MODIS Rapid Response Team Oil spills like the Deepwater Horizon incident in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 highlight the importance of fossil fuels to modern civilization and point out some of the dangers we face. As growing population and consumption drives increasing energy needs, our impact on the biosphere increases too. The Greenland Ice Sheet NASA image courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE MODIS Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC Reductions in both the thickness and overall area of ice sheets and glaciers such as those in Greenland are one indicator of global climate change. As more of the Arctic and Antarctic ice melts, sea levels will rise and weather patterns will change. The Northwest Passage NASA Earth Observatory images by Jesse Allen, using data from the Land Atmosphere Near real-time Capability for EOS (LANCE) The Northwest Passage is a sea route running between the waters along the top of the North American continent and the polar ice cap. Explorers have attempted to find a northern shortcut between Asia and Europe since the end of the 15th century but no one was able to "make the Northwest Passage" until early in the 20th century. Recent climate change has opened up the gap in the ice for longer periods of time and now there are cruise ships that ply these waters in the summer months. Hurricane Sandy NASA Earth Observatory image by Robert Simmon with data courtesy of the NASA/NOAA GOES Project Science team Hurricane Sandy formed on October 22, 2012 and lasted until the end of the month. It is one of the largest Atlantic hurricanes on record, with winds spanning 1,100 miles, and was the second-costliest hurricane in US history. Many scientists believe that weather patterns will become more severe, and more unpredictable, as global climates change.

A Historian Contemplates Complexity, Fragility, and Sustainability The Rho Ophiuchi star-forming region,NASA/JPL-Caltech/Harvard-Smithsonian CfA (top), Hong Kong, China, at night © Axiom Photographic/Design Pics/CORBIS (bottom) By David Christian, adapted by Newsela After carefully considering the past, the study of big history inevitably leads to the future — a future that may see increasing complexity on Earth and an ultimate trend toward simplicity in the Universe. What’s next? Well, we’ve covered almost 14 billion years but we’re still not quite done. So what’s next? Oh, yes, the future! Of course, the future’s probably going to be a lot longer than the past. In fact, the latest estimates suggest that the Universe will continue to exist in some form more or less forever, so the period you’ve covered in this course will look like just the appetizer. Historians don’t normally talk about the future for the very good reason that, unlike the past, it is unpredictable. However, in a Big History course you can’t really avoid it. After all, we’ve been looking at huge trends: the expansion of the Universe, increasing complexity, the movements of tectonic plates, expanded human energy consumption, and global warming among them. Trends as large as these don’t stop on a dime. They’re more like an oil tanker cruising at top speed with a full tank; try to stop it by slamming the engines into reverse and it will sail on for several kilometers before it comes to a halt. So it’s useful, for predictive purposes, that they will continue into the future; they can help us learn a few things about what’s coming next. Besides, the near future — specifically the next 100 years or so — really matters! This will be the time that you, your children, and your grandchildren will be living in. And what the future is like will depend in part on what we do now. So in a sense, this is the point when you and your generation will start taking over the story of big history. The deep future The easiest trends to predict are the simplest and the most prominent. At the greatest scale, we know the Universe is expanding and we believe it is trending toward simplicity. In the late 1990s, astronomers found that the rate of expansion of the Universe seems to be increasing as the Universe gets larger. So it looks as if the Universe will get larger and larger. This means that eventually the Universe could also start getting simpler and simpler as it gets harder and harder to build complex things. Tens or hundreds of billions of years in the future, the gaps between clusters of galaxies will increase until each cluster will seem to be alone. By then, stars will slowly be shutting down as they run out of hydrogen, and the lights will start turning off. Some stars will glow like embers for hundreds of billions of years, but slowly and inexorably, each cluster of galaxies will turn into a vast, mostly empty cosmic graveyard, whose surviving bits and pieces will be pulled together into vast black holes until eventually even these will decay as the Universe gets emptier and emptier. But that’s incredibly far in the future. Meanwhile, it seems that we live in a young Universe that still has plenty of energy to build increasingly complex things. How about the Solar System? In 3–4 billion years our galaxy will begin a slow collision with its closest large neighbor, Andromeda. At about the same time, our Sun will run out of hydrogen, swell up into a red giant like Betelgeuse, gobble up the inner, rocky planets (including Earth), and then collapse and die. It is not large enough to explode in a supernova, but in its final years it will create some carbon and maybe also some oxygen and nitrogen. Will Andromeda and the Milky Way collide like the two spiral galaxies shown here? Colliding galaxies, called VV 340, in the Boötes constellation, X-ray NASA/CXC/IfA/D. Sanders et al; Optical NASA/STScI/NRAO/A. Evans et al As for our Earth, in just a few tens or hundreds of millions of years, plate tectonics will rearrange the continents: the Pacific will narrow, bringing Australia closer to the Americas, and the Atlantic will expand to form the largest of the oceans. Will humans still be around? That depends what you mean by “humans.” In just a century or two we may already be able to genetically engineer ourselves in ways that might look really strange and alien to our generation. Perhaps, by then, some of our descendants will also be living, with their robots, on the Moon or on Mars or on some of the moons of Jupiter or Saturn. It will probably take many centuries before they can settle planets around other star systems, though in just the last few years we have learned that they will have a large choice of possible planets to settle. The near future But the future that matters most to us is the near future, the next hundred years or so. And here, unfortunately, prediction is much more difficult. The pace of change has accelerated so fast that things can sometimes seem out of control. There are quite a few worrisome trends that could threaten the future of our children and grandchildren: the increasing consumption of ever-scarcer resources (such as water, farmland, and fossil fuels); growing rates of extinction of other species; the progressively destructive power of weapons; the acidification of the oceans; and the rapid escalation of greenhouse gas emissions. If we cannot bring these changes under control, future generations will face serious challenges that may drastically reduce their standards of living and could even threaten their existence. So you could argue that we live in bleak and dangerous times. On the other hand, it is not hard to list many positive trends: levels of interpersonal violence are lower than ever in human history; the chances of a child living a long and healthy life are greater than ever before, as are the chances of getting a good education; more and more governments are elected and include their people in the decision-making process. So, if you wanted to, you could argue that we live in the best possible period of human history. Will our descendants enjoy lives that are richer, more fulfilled, healthier, and in general better than those of today? Or will human societies collapse under the strain of depleted resources, brutal conflicts, and environmental damage? The “Blue Marble,” NASA Goddard Space Flight Center The answer will depend, in part, on choices made by your generation. And there is one very good reason to be optimistic about our chances: our increasing ability to learn collectively. We’ve seen that the power of collective learning seems to have accelerated throughout human history. And we’ve seen how its capacity to generate new technologies, new ideas, and new solutions depends on the size of human societies, on their diversity, and on their connectedness. Today’s global society is larger than any earlier society; it contains a colossal variety of skills and knowledge; and it’s connected globally through the Internet, an intricate transportation network, worldwide media, and international corporations and institutions. Even a century ago, the global connectedness of our world would have seemed unimaginable; the idea of the Internet would have been pure science fiction! So it’s certainly true that we face big problems. But we also have good reasons to think that our astonishing capacity for collective learning will help us to overcome most of our problems and ensure that our descendants will live at least as well as us and perhaps even better. Surely the combined efforts of more than seven billion humans can overcome the challenges we face as a species. Threshold 8 gave us the explosion of new technologies that made us the most powerful species on Earth and allowed us to consume more and more of the Earth’s resources. Threshold 8 gave us the “Anthropocene.” What will the next major threshold of increasing complexity be? Will it involve us humans using collective learning to build a world in which we live more sustainably with the biosphere? One very good trend we can see right now is a slowing of the rate of human population growth. For several centuries, human numbers have increased faster than ever before, but in the late 20th century it became clear that those rates are slowing, and they are slowing quite fast. Many demographers expect that human numbers will settle at about nine to 10 billion in the next 100 years and then, perhaps, begin to fall. Is that a first hint of a more sustainable future? And now, over to you! When your great-grandchildren study big history in a hundred years, what would you like them to be saying about the achievements of your generation? What do you think the future holds? For Further Discussion David Christian cites changes in population growth in support of his positive feelings about the future. Can you think of other changes in the behavior of humans that suggest we can solve some of our most pressing problems? Share your thinking in the Questions Area below. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What does it mean to periodize history?What are origin stories? What makes Big History a unique kind of origin story, according to the author?What is a “threshold of increasing complexity?”How is David Christian’s narrative of Big History different from Walter Alvarez’s?How are David Christian and Walter Alvarez’s narratives of Big History similar? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How might studying Big History support our learning in a world history course?Based on what you learned from the text, what do you think could be the next threshold of increasing complexity? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. An Introduction to Big History: Thresholds of Increasing Complexity or Four Movements? Photo of the planet Earth taken from outer space By Bob Bain The Big History story of the universe – and human’s place in it – is told from two perspectives that are outlined in this article. The first, from historian David Christian, is based on thresholds of increasing complexity. The second, from geologist Walter Alvarez, concentrates on four movements: the Cosmos, the Earth, Life, and Humanity. Introduction In the Era 1 Overview, you read about how everything in the Universe has a history. Everyone and everything—from your great-great grandparents to a World War II battle—has a history story. There's a history of the planet and even a history of the entire cosmos. You also learned that you can understand how the history of Earth or the universe fits into your own life story. But it requires some scale switching. You must look at time and space from different perspectives. And in order to make sure a history is coherent, or that it fits together as a story, you need to periodize it. That's a fancy way of saying how historians divide or categorize history into distinct chunks of time or eras. The Big History story of the universe—and human's place in it—has been told from many different perspectives. Two of those perspectives are outlined in this article. The first is based on thresholds of increasing complexity. This is how historian David Christian organized 13.8 billion years of history to fit into one course. The second concentrates on four movements. It's based on how geologist Walter Alvarez chose to arrange his Big History. Thresholds of increasing complexity: David Christian's Big History David Christian is a historian who teaches at Macquarie University in Australia. He has written books on such topics as vodka in Russia, inner Eurasia, and Big History. Dr. Christian has recognized the importance of the stories people tell and the ways these stories help connect us in meaningful ways. He focuses on how we are connected to each other and also to the world and Universe in which we live. Some of these stories are origin stories. They explain the beginnings of where we came from, where we are in the universe, and where we are going. Every culture, Dr. Christian explained, had such origin stories. They played crucial roles in providing meaning to people. Sharing stories with others helped illuminate where people and their communities fit in our powerful, vast, and beautiful universe. There is no common, modern origin story that suits our global community of over seven billion people. But Christian claims one has been emerging over the last 50 years. It's an origin story he calls "Big History". This modern story is different from other origin stories in two crucial ways. First, it is not tied to one region or culture, but is a story for all of us. Second, it draws on the best collective, evidence-based understanding of the universe, the Earth, life, and of humanity that we have. The "plot" of Christian's story centers around the idea that sometimes completely new and more complex phenomena comes into existence. These phenomena are more complex because they have more parts. These parts are arranged in an entirely new way than previous "things". In his book Maps of Time, Christian coined the term thresholds of increasing complexity. The term identifies times when significant new forms of complex phenomena emerged. It gives a chapter-like structure to his story. He and other Big Historians, such as Cynthia Stokes Brown and Craig Benjamin, identified eight such thresholds of increasing complexity. This narrative is what the Big History Project used to structure its course in Big History. So, what's the story? And why does it matter to world history? Image of the cover of a book which features a birds-eye view of Earth from spaceCover of Maps of Time, by David Christian. Fair use. Image of the cover of a book which features a birds-eye view of Earth from space Cover of Maps of Time, by David Christian. Fair use. This story begins with the emergence of the universe with the Big Bang. Our understanding of this first threshold developed recently. The physicists and cosmologists among us figured out how to measure the distance other stars are from the Earth. To our surprise, we learned that stars are moving away from us. This indicates that the universe is expanding. Using logic, scientists reasoned that that our expanding universe once upon a time must have been smaller, and smaller, and smaller still. Finally, they theorized that there must have been a point when the expanding universe emerged. They called this emergence the Big Bang. The early universe contained only hydrogen and helium and the four basic forces: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force. Image of a timeline featuring the thresholds of increasing complexity discussed in Big HistoryQuite a Big History, wouldn’t you agree? Image of a timeline featuring the thresholds of increasing complexity discussed in Big History Quite a Big History, wouldn’t you agree? While relatively simple, these early elements and forces were enough for more complex phenomena to emerge such as stars and galaxies (Threshold 2). Then, more complex and heavier elements emerged (Threshold 3). Eventually our Solar System and Earth (Threshold 4) emerged. Gravity is a central actor in making the universe more complex after the Big Bang since it draws objects together. Gravity compressed clouds of hydrogen gas that formed a few billion years after the Big Bang, a compression that created increasing heat and mass, until finally the first stars "lit" up. The heat within stars and the heat produced when stars explode create more complex and heavier elements by fusing atoms together. About 4.5 billion years ago our Sun, an average-sized star, formed as gravity compressed gases just as it does when creating other stars. And gravity acted on the left-over "stuff" from the formation of the Sun to create the other planets and moons in our solar system. One of those planets is our Earth, a rocky planet with a single moon, a moon that revolves around the Earth while the Earth revolves around the Sun. Living organisms, life, is Threshold 5 in Christian's Big History story. How living organisms emerged from inanimate—non-living—objects, is still a mystery. But it is a great example of complex things emerging from less complex things. The first organisms were single-celled bacteria. Some of these bacteria emitted oxygen into the air helping to form the ozone layer that protects us from the harmful rays of the Sun. From these single- celled organisms more complex life evolved to give us the great diversity of organisms on Earth. Today we have organisms ranging from micro-organisms to plants to animals, and, of course, to us humans. This story, thus far, is not only a story of how the universe became more complex. It is also the story of how we humans developed our understanding of events over 13.82 billion years ago at the beginning of time. It is the story of how our Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, or the origin of elements, or evolution of life. It is quite an amazing story about our curiosity, our innovations, and our collective learning. It is not just a big story of the universe. It is a story of the change in human's understanding of the universe. If we can understand the science of physical and natural forces around us, we can develop clearer pictures of the past, the present, and the future. For example, we have learned a lot about the way the Earth formed with its unique elements, minerals, climate, landforms, and even its Moon. This knowledge has limited or encouraged human actions and experiences. Historians have been able to use new scientific explanations and understandings of our physical and biological world to provide stronger understandings of the past and the present. This in turn has enabled us to think with more knowledge about our future. Christian's last three thresholds of increasing complexity are the Emergence of Humans and Collective Learning (Threshold 6), the Emergence of Agriculture (Threshold 7), and the Emergence of Modernity and Use of Fossil Fuels (Threshold 8). These thresholds represent three major transformations in our collective human experiences. These are the transformations that we will discuss in much greater detail in the rest of the course. Indeed, the World History Project is an extended investigation into the complexity that emerged with human actions. Complexity increased as humans evolved a language that allowed them to share culture and learning. It increased as humans domesticated plants and animals. And humans have transformed the Earth over the past 200 years with our use of fossil fuels. Students in the Big History Project can tell a story of big changes. Their story covers over 13.82 billion years of time and an infinite amount of space. Those students can place all these "threshold" changes on one timeline and then explain how our universe and our lives have grown more complex. And they can trace that growing complexity from the Big Bang to Stars to Elements to Earth to Life to Human's Collective Learning to Agriculture to our Modern Age. Another Big History story: Walter Alvarez's improbable journey in four movements Not all Big Historians use Christian's threshold of increasing complexity to structure their history. Indeed, not all Big Historians are even historians. For example, Walter Alvarez is a geologist who taught a course in Big History at the University of California at Berkeley. He has also written a Big History, A Most Improbable Journey: A Big History of our Planets and Ourselves. Unlike David Christian, he does not use thresholds. Instead, he structures his course and his Big History around four regimes: the Cosmos, Earth, Life, and Humanity. For Alvarez, a regime is an orderly system that has some regularity or has developed some continuities. In telling his Big History narrative, Alvarez moves through the regimes of the Cosmos, the Earth, Life, and Humanity. He describes the patterns and regularities of each, and the specifics within each regime that are important for our lives. For example, in thinking about the Earth, Alvarez discusses the "gifts" of the Earth for humans. These gifts include silicon, which he argues is the Earth's favorite element and ours. It has played a vital role in the types of tools we have created, beginning with our first stone tools. In the regime of the Cosmos, the continuous "gifts" of elements emerge from stars. Image of a cover of a book shows the title in bold and a small picture of planet EarthCover of A Most Improbable Journey, by Walter Alvarez.https://eps.berkeley.edu/news/professor-alvarez%E2%80%99s-fascinating-book-big-history-earns-instant-praise. Fair use. Image of a cover of a book shows the title in bold and a small picture of planet Earth Cover of A Most Improbable Journey, by Walter Alvarez.https://eps.berkeley.edu/news/professor-alvarez%E2%80%99s-fascinating-book-big-history-earns-instant-praise. Fair use. Alvarez's Big History does not simply focus on the continuities consisting of regularities, trends, or cycles. He also sees rare events, contingencies, that lead to significant changes in history. Specifically, he sees changes that people could not have predicted long before they happened. Dr. Alvarez and his father discovered the contingency when a comet or asteroid wiped out the dinosaurs. This was an important contribution to our understanding of our own history. "We humans exist," Alvarez wrote, "only because of the extinction of the dinosaurs" (Alvarez, 183). Dinosaurs dominated the Earth, limiting both the size and diversity of our mammalian ancestors. But that changed when, as much evidence suggests, a huge comet or asteroid hit the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. This impact happened about 66 million years ago and wiped the dinosaurs out. This rare event enabled mammals to thrive in ways they could not while the dinosaurs dominated. Obviously, comets wiping out species are not regular or continuous events, but rather a rare event that altered history. Human life, then, was contingent or depended upon this very rare, and irregular occurrence. Such contingencies populate the regularities in Alvarez's story. While Dr. Alvarez tells historical stories in presenting his Big History, he does not put the changes onto one timeline. Instead he treats each of the regimes as a separate but connected story, filled with details about the Cosmos, the Earth, Life, and Humanity. But it's also a story about the people who discovered the patterns and continuities that shaped and continue to shape our lives. It's a story about the people that discovered the laws of gravity and light and the elements that make up the Earth. His regimes seem to be nested and interconnected and might be seen like this: Nested diagram shows “Humanity” nested within “Life”, which is nested within “Earth”, nested within “Cosmos”Table 1: Dr. Alvarez’s regimes of history. Nested diagram shows “Humanity” nested within “Life”, which is nested within “Earth”, nested within “Cosmos” Table 1: Dr. Alvarez’s regimes of history. Like Christian's Big History, Walter Alvarez's version stresses similar important events such as the Big Bang or the formation of the Earth and life itself. And like Christian, his story is filled with wonder of what an amazing and improbable a journey it has been. He marvels at the path that has led to our place in this time, on this Earth, and in this universe. And like Christian, this Big History sets the stage for understanding the place on which the rest of human history takes place. Overview over: We have argued that history comes in different shapes and sizes. We've also explained that historians use different scales of time and space. These different scales shape or frame their investigations and their courses, including the very biggest scales of time and space. Then, we began this investigation into world history, at the very biggest scales possible. We began billions and billions of years before there were humans or even the Earth. We used the two versions of history at the very largest scales—the biggest of history—to give you a picture of the context within which human history plays out. What do you think? Is there value in knowing how the universe and the Earth formed? Or what stars contribute to our past, our present, and likely our future? Does it make a difference if you tell this story using thresholds of increasing complexity or regimes of continuities and contingencies in the Cosmos, the Earth, Life, and Humanity? Would you expect differences in the ways a historian or a geologist or a chemist might create a history, even if the events in the history were just about the same? Keep these questions in mind as you dig a bit deeper into the Big History of our world. Author bio Bob Bain is associate professor in the School of Education and in the Departments of History and Museum Studies at the University of Michigan. He also is the director of U-M’s World History and Literature Initiative and the faculty lead on the Big History Project. Before coming to the U-M in 1998, he taught high school history and social studies for 26 years. Bain’s research centers on teaching and learning history and the social sciences in the classroom, on-line, in museums, and at home. [Sources and attributions]

Chinese [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown First written down about 1,760 years ago, this story of how the Universe began was told orally long before that. [[image 1]] This origin story comes from Chinese culture. It was first written down about 1,760 years ago, roughly 220 — 265 CE, yet it must have been told orally long before that. In the beginning was a huge egg containing chaos, a mixture of yin and yang — female-male, aggressive-passive, cold-hot, dark-light, and wet-dry. Within this yin and yang was Pan Gu, who broke forth from the egg as the giant who separated chaos into the many opposites, including Earth and sky. Pan Gu stood in the middle, his head touching the sky, his feet planted on Earth. The heavens and the Earth began to grow at a rate of 10 feet a day, and Pan Gu grew along with them. After another 18,000 years the sky was higher and Earth was thicker. Pan Gu stood between them like a pillar 30,000 miles in height, so they would never again join. When Pan Gu died, his skull became the top of the sky, his breath became the wind and clouds, his voice the rolling thunder. One eye became the Sun and the other the Moon. His body and limbs turned into five big mountains, and his blood formed the roaring water. His veins became roads and his muscles turned to fertile land. The innumerable stars in the sky came from his hair and beard, and flowers and trees from his skin. His marrow turned to jade and pearls. His sweat flowed like the good rain and the sweet dew that nurtures all things on Earth. Some people say that the fleas and the lice on his body became the ancestors of humanity. [Sources and attributions]

Mayan [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown This is the beginning of a long, complex story called the Popol Vuh which means “council book.” It was told by the Mayans who long ago lived in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. This origin story was told by the Mayans, who lived in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico from around 250 to 900 CE. It’s the beginning of a long, complex story called the Popol Vuh which means “council book.” It was first translated into alphabetic text from Mayan hieroglyphics in the 16th century Now it still ripples, now it still murmurs, still sighs, and is empty under the sky. There is not yet one person, not one animal, bird, fish, or tree. There is only the sky alone; the face of Earth is not clear, only the sea alone is pooled under all the sky. Whatever might be is simply not there. There were makers in the sea, together called the Plumed Serpent. There were makers in the sky, together called the Heart of Sky. Together these makers planned the dawn of life. The Earth arose because of them. It was simply their word that brought it forth. It arose suddenly, like a cloud unfolding. Then the mountains were separated from the water. All at once great mountains came forth. The sky was set apart, and the Earth was set apart in the midst of the waters. Then the makers in the sky planned the animals of the mountains — the deer, pumas, jaguars, rattlesnakes, and guardians of the bushes. Then they established the nests of the birds, great and small. “You precious birds; your nests are in the trees and bushes.” Then the deer and birds were told to talk to praise their makers, to pray to them. But the birds and animals did not talk; they just squawked and howled. So they had to accept that their flesh would be eaten by others. The makers tried again to form a giver of respect, a creature who would nurture and provide. They made a body from mud, but it didn’t look good. It talked at first but then crumbled and disintegrated into the water. Then the Heart of Sky called on the wise ones, the diviners, the Grandfather Xpiyacoc and the Grandmother Xmucane, to help decide how to form a person. The Grandparents said it is well to make wooden carvings, human in looks and speech. So wooden humans came into being; they talked and multiplied, but there was nothing in their minds and hearts, no memory of their builder, no memory of Heart of Sky. Then there came a great destruction. The wooden carvings were killed when the Heart of Sky devised a flood for them. It rained all day and all night. The animals came into the homes of the wooden carvings and ate them. The people were overthrown. The monkeys in the forest are a sign of this. They look like the previous people — mere wooden carvings. The story continues with the final people being made from corn, an important crop that enabled the Mayan people to move from being a hunting-and-gathering society to a more complex civilization [Sources and attributions]

Cosmology & Faith [[header image]] By John F. Haught Since the beginning of human existence on our planet, people have asked questions of a religious nature. For example, what happens to the dead? [[image 1]] Human beings have always wondered how things “hang together.” Our minds spontaneously look for connections, and we remain restless until we find them. Nothing is really intelligible unless we can relate it to other things. This is why science is such a satisfying adventure. Its mathematical principles tightly unify everything that goes on in the cosmos. Every occurrence, science tells us, is subject to the same fundamental physical laws everywhere. You can be sure, for example, that if you travel to another galaxy in our Big Bang Universe you will find the same laws of physics and chemistry operative there as on Earth. Although the Universe unfolds in rich diversity, it rests upon an underlying physical and mathematical simplicity. Before modern science came along, our ancestors were not aware of the physical universality that ties all of nature together. Nevertheless, our ancestors were just as interested in finding connections as we are. The main way in which they brought coherence to their experience of things and events was to tell stories about them. These stories often took the form of myths about cosmic, biological, and human origins. Understanding the origin of things apparently reduces human anxiety in the face of the unknown. We still need stories. Big History is a good example of the human longing for narrative coherence. We want to understand, for example, how life is tied into physical processes and how the history of human beings on Earth is bonded to the natural world that gave birth to us. Science now allows us to tell a whole new story about our connection to nature. Remarkably, over the last two centuries, the natural sciences have increasingly demonstrated that the Universe itself has a history and that human life is a relatively new chapter in the cosmic story. We did not float in from some other world. We blossomed gradually from roots that extend all the way back to the Big Bang. It is enormously satisfying now to be able to tell the story of the emergence of atoms, stars, planets, cells, organisms, and minds. What about religion? Science and history both try to understand how things hang together, but religions do too. Since the beginning of human existence on our planet, most people have asked questions of a religious nature. For example, what happens to the dead? Are they somehow still connected to the world of the living? In his insightful book The Broken Connection, psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton observes that in the scientific age the bonds our ancestors felt between the living and dead have been weakened or completely broken. Scientifically educated people now often question the connection that religions professed to find between our present life and a wider world of sacred mystery. Nevertheless, many of us still ask religious questions. Why, for example, does anything exist at all? Why do living beings suffer? What happens when we die? Why do human beings have a sense of right and wrong? How can we find a meaning for our lives? Can we ever find final release from concerns over sickness, oppression, isolation, and guilt? Where can we find perfection? What is really going on in the Universe? Responses to these religious questions have usually taken the form of myths and other kinds of narratives. To most religions, the “really real” world is infinitely larger than the visible one available to scientific study. Religions try to connect people to this wider world. Ever since the earliest stories and oral traditions, most people have had an intuition that the world is large enough to include spirits, gods, and long-departed ancestors. Religions strive to break through the physical limits that cut human existence off from the mysterious worlds to which their symbols and stories point. Religions seek to mend the sense of broken connection that stems from the experience of meaninglessness, guilt, pain, and death. Major religious traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam still hold out the hope of salvation from everything that hems us in or holds us down, including the fact that everything eventually perishes. It is, therefore, not hard to understand why religions have been so important to most people throughout history and around the globe. Each of Earth’s main religious traditions has countless tributaries and offshoots. Religion on Earth is so complex and diverse that it almost resembles a rain forest. Since religions are so central to the history of human existence on our planet, they rightly attract the interest of natural scientists and not just of historians and theologians. Any objective survey of big history, therefore, cannot ignore the dominant role that religions have played in shaping the consciousness of most people who have ever lived. The question of science and faith In the age of science, however, what are we to make of religions and their sense of a connection between our present existence and a larger, scientifically unavailable life or world? Hasn’t science made religious symbols, narratives, and teachings unbelievable? For the sake of simplicity, as we address these questions let us refer to the whole body of religious hopes, stories, doctrines, speculation, prayers, and rituals as “faith.” More fascinating questions arise for your consideration: Can human minds shaped by faith traditions that stem from a prescientific era honestly take modern science seriously? Or, if you develop a sense of big history, can you still honestly accept the teachings of your faith tradition if you have one? Does belief in God, for example, contradict science, as many educated people now maintain? Isn’t it hard to be both a serious scientist and a person of faith? Or is there a way of making a plausible connection between science and faith? Even though it is not my task to answer such questions, it is appropriate at least to take note of their existence, especially since humans and their religious instincts are as much a part of nature as rocks and rivers. What does it say about the Universe that it has recently given birth to conscious beings who want to connect their lives to worlds that science cannot see? Many scientists, philosophers, and other skeptics wish that religious faith would just go away so that only science would remain to fill our minds and aspirations. Others, however, think that scientific discoveries, including our new sense of cosmic history, still raise questions that science alone is powerless to address. For example, why does the Universe exist in the first place? Is anything of lasting significance working itself out in the 13.8-billion-year-old cosmic story? Is there any point to it all? What are we supposed to be doing with our lives if we are a part of a Universe that is still coming into being? Is there any solid reason for hope in the future? There are at least three main ways of responding to questions that science raises for people of faith. ConflictContrastConvergenceThe natural sciences and religious faith are incompatible.Science and faith are each concerned with different kinds of questions.Science and faith inevitably interact. Shape your own answers, make your own connections, and find your own way of understanding the beginning and how things “hang together.” For most people, these are questions that will not just slip quietly away. Author bio John F. Haught is a Roman Catholic theologian and senior research fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center at Georgetown University, in Washington, D.C. He established the Georgetown Center for the Study of Science and Religion and is the author of numerous books, including Science and Faith: A New Introduction (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2012). [Sources and attributions]

Efik [[header image]] By David Baker, adapted by Newsela In this origin story of the Nigerian Efik people, the first humans defy the gods to achieve greater power and wisdom. The Efik people live in southern Nigeria, for many centuries dwelling near the regions around the Cross River. They traditionally worshipped the god Abassi as a supreme creator. Their belief system was very relaxed. They had no formal priesthood or organized religious institutions. Worship and ritual were carried out on an individual or family level. Their creation story is a tale of humans defying the gods in order to achieve greater power and wisdom. Before Abassi there was nothing. Abassi was god of the Universe, and giver of life, death, and justice. He was so powerful that he could create life, heal the sick, and even raise the dead. Some say that Abassi was the Sun, and they worshipped it as it rose and set every day. Abassi lived in the sky with his wife, Atai. She was a wise goddess, who often gave Abassi good advice. Abassi created the stars, the Earth, and all the wildlife upon it. He also created two humans, a man and a woman. These humans lived with Abassi and Atai in the sky. They were very innocent and had little knowledge. Abassi and Atai looked after them, protected them, and even fed them, because they did not know how to feed themselves. One day, the humans were looking down from the sky at the Earth. They decided they wanted to live there. But when they asked Abassi if they could leave the sky and live on the Earth, he forbade it. The Earth was a place with many secrets where many things could be learned. Abassi feared that the humans would one day match his wisdom, or even surpass it. Atai proposed a compromise. The humans could go live on Earth, but they had to return to the sky every day to have their meals. The humans were forbidden to learn to hunt or farm. They were also forbidden to marry and have children, because a large nation of people might one day challenge the power of Abassi. For a while, this plan worked. The humans returned to the sky every day to take their meals. However, one day, the woman decided she was sick of being fed like a helpless child. She went out into the fields and began to farm. When the time came for dinner, she defiantly refused to return to the sky with the man. The next day, the man visited the woman in the fields and saw she was growing her own food. He decided to help her. Before long, the man and woman fell in love. They did not return to the sky again. Many years went by and they had many children. When those children were old enough, they joined their parents working in the field. They all continued to learn the secrets of the Earth and teach them to each other. The humans tried to hide their children from the sight of Abassi, but the god saw them. He grew very angry. He blamed his wife, Atai, because she had convinced him to let the humans live on Earth. Abassi feared that one day, the humans would have learned so much that they would surpass his wisdom. He also feared they would grow so numerous that they would surpass his power. But Atai had a plan. In order to prevent the humans from growing too powerful, she sent evil into the world in the form of death and discord. The evil was so strong that the man and woman immediately died. Their children have suffered the ills of the world and argued among themselves ever since. But because their mother defied the gods, the humans have continued to learn the secrets of the Earth. [Sources and attributions]

Zulu [[header image]] By David Baker, adapted by Newsela Different versions of the Zulu origin story all share this theme: Life has a single common ancestor. The Zulu are a proud African people, famous throughout history for their fierceness and bravery in fending off invaders. Archaeologists tell us they traveled to the lush green lands of south-eastern Africa many centuries ago from the huge lake regions to the north. Their creation story has many versions, passed down by word of mouth from generation to generation. It tells of how the ancestors of all plants, animals, and humanity began from a single source. At first, there was nothing but darkness. Earth was a lifeless rock. But in that darkness dwelt a god, Umvelinqangi, whose voice was like thunder and who, when angered, would shake the world with earthquakes. Umvelinqangi created a single tiny seed. He sent it to the Earth. This seed was the very first life, from which all other life descended. It landed in the soil and sprouted into a long reed. The reed dropped more seeds, which fell off and grew into even more reeds. This continued until they covered a massive swamp to the north, the land called Uthlanga. At the end of one reed, there grew a man. His name was Unkulunkulu, known as “the first ancestor” and “the Great One.” Very small at first, he grew so large and heavy that he snapped off the end of the reed. Walking across the land of Uthlanga, he noticed men and women were sprouting at the ends of the other reeds. He picked them from the reeds. These people were the first humans, the ancestors of all nations, and they spread across the Earth. It was from Uthlanga that the ancestors of the Zulu journeyed south to the fertile lands they inhabit today. The Great One continued to walk among the reeds. He saw many forms of life growing at the end of them. He gathered the fish and flung them into the rivers. Fields and forests began to grow, so he harvested birds and antelope, and they darted off into the wild. He picked cattle so they could be used by humans. He plucked off a ball of fire and a round glowing stone, and flung them into the sky. These were the Sun and Moon. Light came into the world. The Great One also plucked from the reeds fierce lions and other beasts that would travel the lands hunting prey. He harvested magical creatures, some good and some bad. One was the snake-like goddess of the rivers, Mamlambo, rumored by some Zulu to drown people, eat their faces, and suck out their brains. Another goddess was Mbaba Mwana Waresa, a beautiful woman who created rain and rainbows, and who invented farming and gave the Zulu the gift of beer. One of the final acts of the Great One was the most tragic. He plucked the first chameleon off a reed and sent it to give humans the following message: “Men must not die.” By the words of the Great One, humans would become immortal. Unfortunately, the chameleon was slow and lazy in his journey. The Great One grew impatient and picked a different lizard from a reed. This lizard was fast and quickly arrived to give word to the humans. But the lizard did not bear the same instructions. Instead the lizard uttered the words, “Men must die.” And so from that day, humans became mortal. It is said that chameleons change color because they are so ashamed their ancestor was not fast enough to spare human-kind the invention of death. The Great One was so powerful in all he created, many Zulu suspect he was the god who sent the seed to Earth in the first place and that he used it to transform himself into flesh and blood. But Zulu histories have differing versions of the story. The one thing of which the Zulu are certain is that all life — including humanity — has a single common ancestor. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why are there so many different types of history?What are some common characteristics of all histories?How do some historians include multiple perspectives?Why does this course begin 13.8 billion years ago? That is, billions of years before humans even evolved?What will this course use as its frame to tell the history of humanity? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. Since this is the first reading assignment of the course, you may not connect it to much other than the knowledge you already have. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Most history courses begin with humans. This course begins with a prehuman era. To what degree does it help you make sense of human history and your world to think about time at such a large scale?The end of this article mentions how some of the information you’ll learn in the course may lead you to question the narratives that are presented. Why do you think this might be the case? Why would the author want you to test the claims that are being made? Explain your answer. Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Era 1 Overview - History of Many Shapes and Sizes An otherworldly image: the “Pillars of Creation” look like elephant trunks of gas and dust against a glowing blue and purple sky By Bob Bain History can be the last 14 billion years of the universe, or the last 60 seconds of your life. In either case, details will be left out, and you’ll need a historian’s skills to discover a meaningful narrative. Introduction: Everything has a history, and history comes in many shapes and sizes Everything, and we mean everything, has a history. No matter how big or how small, everything has a past and a history that can be written. Of course, you know that people have written histories of individual people, cultures, communities, and nations. And we suspect you might know about histories of art, architecture, music, or animals, or even a history of a particular piece of art, or a building, or a musical composition, or even a special animal, like a racehorse. We have histories of big objects, like the Earth or the moon, and small objects, like paper, glass, or coffee beans1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. People, not just historians, have always created histories of "things" that are important to them. From their family or a family member, to an important object, or a process, these histories are important to people. Everything has a history, and history comes in many shapes and many sizes. In this world history course, you will study all different types of histories. You will learn some personal stories of individual people, maybe even focusing only on a very short time in their lives. You will also investigate the histories of families and communities; of entire regions and societies; of the connections among people over great and small distances; of belief systems and ideas, such as science; of the environment and the planet; and even the history of the cosmos. Each type of history is valuable. No matter how big or small the topic it discusses, every history is important to someone. Each begins with people asking questions about the present and the past. Each uses evidence to answer those questions. And each presents a perspective or way of seeing the past, the present, and even the future. It is important to realize that no history can include everything, even a history as short as your last minute. A minute- long history of you would have to leave out "stuff" like the number of times your heartbeat, the movements of your eyes as you focused on the words on this page, or the thoughts (or daydreams?) that flowed through your mind in the past minute. No matter how big or small the topic or the amount of time or space a history covers, all histories give a picture of the past that could help us think more clearly about the present or the future. Indeed, historians have named the types of histories people have written by the size and scope of their focus. Table 1 shows one way to see this. Table 1: Different ways to frame the past Conventional NameDescription of its unit of analysis, focus, or scale (the time or space it covers)Micro-history/BiographyHistory of a person or an event in the life a person (a few hours to a lifetime)National HistoryHistory of a nation-state (often a few decades to a few centuries)Regional or Civilizational HistoryGeographic area and the communities within that area or a society (a few centuries to a few millennia)Global or World HistoryHistory of humanity (often beginning after humans have fully evolved physically)Deep HistoryBegins with the evolution of our species with careful attention to our pre-agrarian past (beginning anywhere from a few million years ago to 200,000 years ago)Planetary HistoryThe history of the Earth and the biosphere (beginning about 4.5 billion years ago to today)Big or Cosmic HistoryFocuses on the history of the Universe, the Solar System, Life, and Human Life on Earth (covering about 14 billion years of time) Some historians work across many levels of time and space rather than just one. They ask questions about and try to explain possible connections between the everyday lives of people found in micro-history. Or they investigate a biography and larger patterns found in national, global, or even cosmic history. In studying connections among the events or processes at different scales, or levels of time and place, some historians think of these as nested, much like Russian dolls. Table 2: Nested or connected levels of history In WHP, we will move among all these different levels of our lives. We'll investigate the strength and weakness of connections among these scales of time and space. We call this scale switching, explicitly moving between events, people, details, questions, and narratives located within these envelopes of time and space to develop useful pictures of our global past. Where to begin? The case for beginning with big historical stories: In launching an investigation into the past or in telling a historical story – or any type of story – everyone must decide where to begin. WHP is no different. And the choice we are making might surprise you. We are going to start world history over 9.5 billion years before the Earth even formed, and about 13.5 billion years before the "stars" of our story – us humans – even make an appearance. We are starting with the Big Bang, the very beginning of time and space, or at least the very beginning according to most of the world's scientists and historians. Why start here? There are four reasons why we think Big History, the big story about our long pre-human history, is important. In fact, we think Big History is worth a more in-depth study than we will be able to provide here.2^22squared First, Big History offers our most concise, scientific explanation of how the Universe, the Earth, and life on Earth has come to be the way it is now. In an orderly fashion, it connects human history to the development of other living organisms in our environment and to the environment itself. Second, to create and present a "history of everything," Big Historians must draw on the best and most current thinking of all the disciplines of human knowledge. Remember, it cannot be a complete history of everything! But by beginning with this history, we are demonstrating how much humans have discovered and learned about the world in which we live and how the sciences, the humanities, and other ways of thinking have made contributions to our understanding. Ironically, we are using our most recent history of human thinking to construct and tell a history of our most distant past. Big History enables us to become familiar with some major findings of human thinking. This way, we can use things like Big Bang cosmology, plate tectonics, and the theory of evolution to make sense of the past. Third, Big History also helps us see some of the differences between the various disciplines or ways of knowing. These disciplines include the physical sciences, the Earth sciences, cosmology, math, history, archaeology, anthropology, and even theology. It shows what each can and has provided us, and also how each has limitations. It shows us many ways we humans have studied ourselves and our world. Big History encourages us to pay attention to how we make and test claims, using intuition, logic, authority, and empirical evidence. We think that starting a course in history using the ideas of so many different disciplines, such as Earth science, physics, biology, and geology, also demonstrates the value of learning history and of learning to "do" history. Finally, Big History places human history in its physical, biological, and environmental context. It offers answers to some deep human questions: How did our universe emerge or materialize? How did all the "stuff" we use come into being? How did the Earth and the environment form and why does it "behave" as it does with its patterns of seasons, wind or ocean currents, earthquakes and volcanoes, and its various climatic patterns? And what about the other living organisms with whom we share the Earth and the environment? How did various life forms come into existence, change, survive, or disappear? In short, Big History offers us a way to understand the stage on which the human story takes place. We will use some of the answers, such as the way the environment works, how the geography of the Earth and other organisms have helped or hindered humans, and how our place in the cosmos affected our history. And, we will also investigate how humans have affected the environment, the climate, and other organisms on the Earth. So, let's begin with a Big History of the last nearly 14 billion years of time and space. The next article you read will outline the themes of two big histories, one constructed by a historian, David Christian, and an educator, Cynthia Stokes Brown. The other is constructed by a geologist, Walter Alvarez. [Notes] Author bio Bob Bain is Associate Professor in the School of Education, and the Departments of History and of Museum Studies at the University of Michigan. He also is the director of U-M’s World History and Literature Initiative and the faculty lead on the Big History Project. Before coming to the U-M in 1998, he taught high school history and social studies for 26 years. Bain’s research centers on teaching and learning history and the social sciences in classrooms, on-line, in museums and homes. [Sources and attributions]

Judeo-Christian [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown This story comes from the first book of the Old Testament, the sacred source book of both Judaism and Christianity. This biblical story comes from Genesis, the first book of the Old Testament, which is the sacred source book of both Judaism and Christianity. In Genesis, this story is followed immediately by a second creation story in Chapter 2, in which humans are created first, followed by plants and animals. These stories were written down in the first millennium BCE and evolved into the form in which we know them around 450 BCE, about 2,460 years ago. Genesis: Chapter 1 In the beginning, when God created the heavens and the Earth, the Earth was a formless void, and darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning — the first day. And God said, “Let there be a dome between the waters to separate water from water.” So God made the dome and separated the water under the dome from the water above it. And it was so. God called the dome “sky.” And there was evening, and there was morning — the second day. And God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear.” And it was so. God called the dry ground “land,” and the gathered waters he called “seas.” And God saw that it was good. Then God said, “Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, of every kind.” And it was so. The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed of every kind and trees bearing fruit with seed in it of every kind. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning — the third day. [[image 1]] And God said, “Let there be lights in the dome of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark sacred times, and days and years, and let them be lights in the dome of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so. God made two great lights — the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the dome of the sky to give light on the Earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning — the fourth day. And God said, “Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the Earth across the dome of the sky.” So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living thing of every kind that moves in the teeming water, and every winged bird of every kind. And God saw that it was good. God blessed them and said, “Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the Earth.” And there was evening, and there was morning — the fifth day. And God said, “Let the land produce living creatures of every kind: the livestock, the creatures that move along the ground, and the wild animals, each of every kind.” And it was so. God made the wild animals of every kind, the livestock of every kind, and all the creatures that move along the ground of every kind. And God saw that it was good. Then God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground. ”So God created humankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.” Then God said, “I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food. And to all the beasts of the earth and all the birds in the sky and all the creatures that move along the ground — everything that has the breath of life in it — I give every green plant for food.” And it was so. God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning — the sixth day. Thus the heaven and the Earth were finished, with all their multitudes. And on the seventh day God rested from all the work that he had done in creation. God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it because on it God rested from all the work that he had done in creation. [Sources and attributions]

Iroquois [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown The Iroquois people of North America spoke this story. Settlers from Europe wrote it down. This story comes from the Iroquois people in North America. In the 1400s they formed a federation of five separate tribes in what is now New York state. The Iroquois did not use writing, so they told this story orally until settlers from Europe wrote it down. The first people lived beyond the sky because there was no Earth beneath. The chief’s daughter became ill, and no cure could be found. A wise old man told them to dig up a tree and lay the girl beside the hole. People began to dig, but as they did the tree fell right through the hole, dragging the girl with it. Below lay an endless sheet of water where two swans floated. As the swans looked up, they saw the sky break and a strange tree fall down into the water. Then they saw the girl fall after it. They swam to her and supported her, because she was too beautiful to allow her to drown. Then they swam to the Great Turtle, master of all the animals, who at once called a council. When all the animals had arrived, the Great Turtle told them that the appearance of a woman from the sky was a sign of good fortune. Since the tree had Earth on its roots, he asked them to find where it had sunk and bring up some of the earth to put on his back, to make an island for the woman to live on. The swans led the animals to the place where the tree had fallen. First otter, then muskrat, and then beaver dived. As each one came up from the great depths, he rolled over exhausted and died. Many other animals tried, but they experienced the same fate. At last the old lady toad volunteered. She was under so long that the others thought she had been lost. But at last she came to the surface and before dying managed to spit out a mouthful of dirt on the back of the Great Turtle. It was magical earth and had the power of growth. As soon as it was as big as an island, the woman was set down on it. The two white swans circled it, while it continued to grow until, at last, it became the world island as it is today, supported in the great waters on the back of the Great Turtle. [[image 1]] [Sources and attributions]

What's for Dinner Tonight? [[header image]] By Anita Ravi So far, we’ve learned that agriculture, as the seventh threshold, came about as a result of the sharing of ideas between humans living in increasingly dense populations. In the Unit 7 video Why Was Agriculture So Important, David Christian argues that climate change made agriculture possible and overpopulation made it necessary. What he means is that when the last ice age ended about 12,000 years ago, the climate became warmer, wetter, and more stable. This meant that humans could actually plant something, stick around for the harvest, and replant for the following year. More stable food sources meant people could stay put and have more babies, mainly because they didn’t have to lug them around from place to place anymore. Larger families meant there were more mouths to feed, or “overpopulation” as Christian put it. So humans experimented with various forms of agriculture to grow their food and feed their families. But how do we know about what humans were doing 12,000 years ago, or even 8,000 years ago? What are the sources of evidence people have used over the years to figure all of this out? And how has our understanding of our earliest farming ancestors changed over time? The only written records from this early period are a few cave paintings in a handful of places around the world (South Africa, Central America, India). Evidence of what people ate is mostly perishable, meaning it dissolves over time and leaves almost nothing behind. Yet, archaeologists have been persistent in locating and excavating (digging up) sites around the world to literally unearth evidence of how these early farmers lived. How did they know where to dig? And how confident should I be about their claims? Well, according to Susan Douglass, historian and senior researcher at the Ali Vural Ak Center for Global Islamic Studies at George Mason University, there are four factors archaeologists use to determine where to dig: People have dug there before. Archaeologists and historians look for evidence that unearths itself. For example, contractors might accidentally find an old burial ground or a set of ancient pottery while building a new housing complex. Therefore, it’s likely that continued digging at that site and sites nearby will uncover more evidence of early human lifeThe climate and social conditions make discovery of a site very likely. Very wet places promote decay, while very dry places are more likely to preserve artifacts. It helps if that very dry place is also not in a war zone. It’s hard to create an archaeological dig in the middle of a country at war.Available financial and human resources. You can’t conduct a dig without the funds and the people to do it. Raising that money means archaeologists have to go around convincing funders that a particular project will actually lead to discoveries.Cultural preferences for studying sites in one part of the world over another. Throughout modern history, cultures and nations have competed with each other over who is more “civilized.” Unfortunately, finding evidence of early human life in one region or another feeds this type of cultural superiority Why do I mention these four factors? This is because I have to keep these factors in mind when looking at the current archaeological evidence of early human farming. What we know now will most likely change over time as one or more of the factors above change over time. Also, what we know now is based on our current level of technology and the amount of time and money available to investigate sites. Let’s look at archaeological evidence from three different sites around the world and see what the evidence tells us about early farming in those places. Rice farming in Ban-po-ts'-un East Asia I learned that one of the earliest farming sites in East Asia is Ban-po-ts’un, also called Banpo (pronounced baan-paw). It is located in northern China near the medieval city of Xi’an in Shaanxi province. The site is from the Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, and was first settled about 6,000 years ago. [[image 1]] Archaeologists have found several types of evidence that show us the features of this early farming site. In the 1950s, Chinese archaeologists discovered large quantities of pottery — over 500,000 pieces. Among these samples were basic pieces of pottery made from red clay that were probably used for daily cooking. These archaeologists also found decorated pottery, an example of which can be seen in the image on the previous page. This piece of pottery features designs that show evidence of a fishing culture. The large symbol in the middle may represent the people in the community who created this pot. The fish on either side of the symbol and the two larger fish below the symbol tell me that fish supported the community and were valued as a food source. Archaeologists also found evidence of a large settlement of houses enclosed by a moat at this site. It is possible that these fish lived in the moat. If so, the Banpo had to create the right conditions for fish to live and flourish in this water, which means they engineered a habitat to breed fish. Archaeologists also found six kilns in the settlement, which were used to make this pottery. They also found farming tools such as stone hoes, spades, knives, and mortars and pestles. These tools all provide evidence that the Banpo were early farmers who harvested and then ground their food sources. About 20 years ago, a new technology was developed by archaeobotanists (archaeologists who specialize in ancient plants) that helped them locate evidence of rice and millet cultivation in this area of China. This new technology, called the flotation method, used water to separate grains of rice and millet out of soil samples taken in and around Banpo. The grains that had been burned by fire floated to the top. In 2002, archaeobotanists near Banpo used this technique to excavate 106 different types of rice and millet. The fact that there were so many different varieties of these grains tells me that the Banpo farmers spent time experimenting with different kinds of grains, probably trying to figure out which type produced the best crops. It also tells me that rice and millet were important staples of the Banpo diet. This new evidence proves that full dry-land agriculture was well established in northern China by 6000 BCE. This is also an example of how new technologies allow us to revisit ancient sites and learn more about the people who lived there. Squash and corn cultivation in Oaxaca, Mexico The peoples of Mesoamerica took a much longer time to adapt to farming than the peoples of East Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. How do we know this? Excavations at the Guilá Naquitz Cave Group in what is now Oaxaca, Mexico, tell us that these people began cultivating plants while still living a semi-nomadic lifestyle. Naquitz is a cave almost 200 meters (about 656 feet) above sea level overlooking the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico in North America. Two rivers, the upper Rio Atoyac and the Rio Salado, flow through the valley. While evidence suggests that people did indeed live inside the cave, the lands surrounding the cave are where these early farmers experimented with agriculture. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that the people of Guilá Naquitz grew squash about 9,000 years ago. Scholars used their current knowledge of plants native to Mexico, combined with data gathered from radiocarbon dating, to determine that these gourds, Curcurbita pepo, were grown for their protein-rich seeds. Here’s a picture of one of the squash seeds they discovered in the cave: This squash is the same species as the modern pumpkin and the summer squash. How do we know this? Scientists can compare the cell structure of the ancient seeds to squash grown today and see how the structures are similar or different. Within the last 15 years, archaeologists also found evidence that the people of Guilá Naquitz may have been the first to domesticate teosinte, which is the ancestor of maize. Prior to this discovery, most scholars believed that maize cultivation first began in Tehuacán, an area about 30 miles north of Mexico City, about 7,000 years ago. The Naquitz cave site provided evidence of people living there over a span of about 2,000 years, starting about 9,000 years ago. There is also evidence inside the cave of areas where butchering, food processing, cooking, and toolmaking took place. The skins of the squash were found intact, suggesting that the Naquitz people used them as containers. Like the Banpo, the people of Guilá Naquitz experimented with different types of farming. How do we know? Different types of seeds were found in the cave, and some of these seeds (in their modern form) grow in wet conditions while some grow better in drier soil. By understanding and planning for variations in rainfall, these early farmers were able to decide which seeds to cultivate so that they would have a stable crop each season. So I am starting to see a pattern here: Although the pace of agricultural development was different in Mexico than it was in China, farmers in both locations experimented with different types of seeds and grains to figure out how to grow the best crops for their local climates. Eel farming by the Gunditjmara of Australia What I’m learning so far is that early farmers were incredibly resourceful: they built kilns to make fancy pots, they lived in caves but still planted cornfields, and they harvested eels. Until I came across this evidence, I don’t think I would have put the words “eel” and “farming” together in the same sentence. Farming in Aboriginal Australia started very early and looked a lot different than it did in China or Mexico. Through the investigations of archaeologist Dr. Heather Builth, we learned that about 8,000 years ago, Aboriginal Australians (the Gunditjmara people) from the Lake Condah region in southeastern Australia farmed an area almost 100 square kilometers (more than 24,000 acres), not with plants, but eels. They created artificial ponds from the natural wetlands, and then created canals to connect these ponds to the natural water source. They then built stone fish traps to take advantage of the migration cycles of the eels. The traps looked like this: The number of eel traps found by Builth and her crew tells us that the the Gunditjmara would have been able to feed more than 10,000 people with the eels they farmed. They also discovered burnt, hollowed-out trees, located right next to the eel traps. These burnt-out tree stumps, they think, served as smokehouses to preserve the freshly caught eel. This method of preserving such a huge number of eels led Builth to believe that the people of Gunditjmara must have been trading them for another resource. With the discovery of ancient farming techniques also comes the discovery of settlements. The Gunditjmara built stone huts, evidence that they were a sedentary people. Previous experts had dismissed the rock formations as being random; but Dr. Builth used careful measurement and statistical analysis to show that the rock formations were not natural and that they were, in fact, the foundations for stone huts. Conclusion or "so what?" What can I conclude from these three cases? After reviewing this evidence and the claims made by archaeologists around the world, I can conclude with some confidence the following things: Archaeologists and other scientists have used artifacts they’ve found as evidence to give logical accounts of how people lived and farmed 9,000 to 6,000 years ago.These scientists have created new technologies to gather this evidence and support their claims.As a result, we now know with some confidence that people all around the globe were developing new ways to put food on the table for their growing, sedentary populations. As for me, I can now claim, because I have seen some evidence, that our early ancestors in many parts of the world: were quite intelligent;were willing and able to experiment with different plants;invented new technologies and tools to increase their ability to produce food and goods;and could pass on what they learned to others, and hence increase collective learning This short journal entry is an example of how historians go about exploring important questions and looking at new information. They use a mixture of historical documents and the writings of other historians to inform their thinking. All sources are listed in the working bibliography. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How did Khunanup make his living and provide for his family?What happened during Khunanup’s trip that eventually led him to appeal to the Pharaoh?How was Khunanup described by the Pharaoh and by himself? Do you think this had any effect on the outcome of Khunanup’s case?According to the biography, in what ways could Khunanup be considered a poor man? In what ways could he be considered a rich man?How does the artwork support the idea that Khunanup was a poor man? Conversely, how might the artwork support the idea that Khunanup could also be considered a wealthy man? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Khunanup’s story is one of the earliest written sources we have of the life of farmers in the ancient world. What evidence does this story present as to what the consequences were of the shift to farming? How does this evidence support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about the consequences of that shift?Do you think Khunanup chose to travel to the city to sell his goods because he wanted to, or do you think he was forced to leave his farm and try to sell his possessions because of drought? What does your answer tell you about the quality of life for early farmers? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Eloquent Peasant (Graphic Biography) A peasant named Khunanup set out to trade his goods, but his passage was blocked by an official who stole his belongings, leading Khunanup to appeal to the Pharaoh. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What is foraging?Examine the chart showing population growth rate data. How does the data presented support the author’s claim that foraging communities kept their populations intentionally small?What were some benefits enjoyed by early foraging groups?What were some challenges foragers faced?Why did humans begin to transition from foraging to a more settled way of life? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to this question: Did this article support, extend, or challenge your understanding of the communities and networks frames? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Foraging Communities and Networks Cave painting depicts a hunting scene. Three people are poised with bows and arrows, facing a large bull-like animal. By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Most history courses tend to only focus on the last 12,000 years. That’s because this period of human history came after the creation of farming, complex societies and writing. But what about the previous 238,000 years of human existence? How did we produce and distribute the stuff we needed—especially food—before farming and writing? Introduction Modern humans have been on Earth for about 250,000 years. But most history courses, especially high school social studies classes, tend to only focus on the last 12,000 years. That's because this period of human history came after the creation farming, complex societies, and writing. It makes sense, we have the most information about this period. But what about the previous 238,000 years of human existence? How did we produce and distribute the stuff we needed—especially food—before farming and writing? We foraged for it. Humans have been nomadic foragers for a much longer period of time than they've been sedentary (settled) farmers. For the vast majority of their existence, humans were foragers. Once people began farming, many communities still continued to forage. In fact, some foraging communities still exist in the world today. So we could infer that foraging must have been a pretty good way to obtain resources and nourish the body if humans lived as foragers for such a long period of time. But what does it mean to be a forager? The foraging way of life Foraging is the gathering and hunting of food. Foragers move around their environment and use what nature provides. Humans aren't the only ones who forage. Many animal species gather resources from the environment. Some scavenge for food by eating other animals that have died. Other animals are predators who hunt their prey. The basic definition of foraging is taking what you need from your environment in order to survive. Cave painting depicts paleolithic drawings of animals.Painting of a bison in the cave of Altamira, Spain. © Getty Images. Cave painting depicts paleolithic drawings of animals. Painting of a bison in the cave of Altamira, Spain. © Getty Images. In foraging communities, humans generally lived in family units, usually with no more than 20-50 people in their groups. Foragers had to move around in order to obtain more resources once one area had been picked over. Because of this nomadic lifestyle, human communities tended to keep their group numbers low. It's much easier to organize a small group of people than it is to make sure that 100 or more people are all moving in the same direction at the same time. One way to ensure that foraging communities didn't become too large and unmanageable was to try to space out the birth of children in a family. Since foraging families had to move around often, they may have tried to naturally limit the number of small children that would have to be carried on their journeys. This may have been done naturally. Breastfeeding can sometimes reduce the chances of pregnancy. Obviously, we don't know if foraging communities intentionally limited their family size. But perhaps foraging women breastfed their children for long periods of time. That would likely have had the effect of limiting the number of children they had. The population growth rate remained extremely low for the period from 1,000,000 to 5000 BCE. Population data adapted from the World Bank and Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108, no. 3 (2017): 683. The population growth rate remained extremely low for the period from 1,000,000 to 5000 BCE. Population data adapted from the World Bank and Kremer, Michael. “Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108, no. 3 (2017): 683. Labor in foraging communities may have been divided based on gender. Men would hunt and women would gather. But the work of both was necessary for survival and was probably viewed as equal in the eyes of the group. Anthropologists are experts who study human societies and cultures. They've studied modern foraging societies and concluded that tasks such as gathering and hunting were essential for survival. In addition, archaeologists have studied Paleolithic sites. These sites suggest that most foragers relied mainly on plant-based diets1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. Meat was valuable, but rare. In fact, gathering probably supplied the community with most of its food since hunting and fishing could be unreliable sources of regular meals. In some places women did more of the foraging, suggesting that their work was valued as much as that of men. This equal value given to the work of females and males was different than later farming societies. This is not to say that these foraging communities were free from all forms of hierarchies. Social divisions may have existed. But instead of being based on wealth or gender, as they usually were in farming communities, they were probably based on age. Older members of the community may have been given more respect or positions of power than younger ones. Studies of foraging groups have also shown that they had more free time because hunting and gathering did not take up the whole day. Most of the community's resources could be gathered in about 4-6 hours of the day. In turn, foragers had more time to sit by the fire and share stories of the day than those who would later become farmers. Twenty-first-century humans work on average between 8-9 hours per day. Of course, I'm sure most of us would love to be able to work for 4-6 hours and enjoy the company of our families and friends for the rest of the day. A forager's diet was also probably healthier than that of a farmer. Anthropological studies show that modern-day foragers eat a more varied diet and do more exercise compared to modern-day non-foragers. A healthy diet and more free time are certainly positive aspects of a foraging lifestyle. However, this is not meant to suggest that life as a forager did not have its difficulties. For example, foragers had much shorter life expectancies. The average forager lived between 21 and 37 years. In comparison, the average person today lives 66 years. But these numbers fluctuate. For example, life expectancy in Japan is 82 years while in Zambia it's 39 years (Gurven and Kaplan 2017). One of the main reasons for this extended life expectancy is due to the advancement of medicine that occurred as human history progressed. There's also evidence of violence in foraging communities. In addition, some members of foraging groups were left behind if they were too old or too ill to keep up with the nomadic lifestyle. Less work hours meant that foragers also had more time to meet up with other communities in their area. They could create small networks. They shared food, tools, weapons, and ideas. These interactions led foraging groups to establish early trade networks between small communities of people. Foraging communities also may have met up for spiritual or religious purposes. As foragers shared ideas through language networks, they may have also shared beliefs about spiritual matters, including shared rituals and practices. Archaeologists think that this may have been one of the purposes of later Neolithic sites like Gobekli Tepe in Turkey and Stonehenge in England. Image of remnants of ancient structures: there is a rock wall as well as large, carved slabs of rock.Gobekli Tepe, a Neolithic site in Turkey, which was created about 11,000 years ago. By Zhengan, CC BY-SA 4.0. Image of remnants of ancient structures: there is a rock wall as well as large, carved slabs of rock. Gobekli Tepe, a Neolithic site in Turkey, which was created about 11,000 years ago. By Zhengan, CC BY-SA 4.0. Photo of Stonehenge, which is a collection of stacked and balanced rocks. Some of these rock structures create archways.Stonehenge – a late Neolithic site in Wiltshire, England. By Frédéric Vincent - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.0. Photo of Stonehenge, which is a collection of stacked and balanced rocks. Some of these rock structures create archways. Stonehenge – a late Neolithic site in Wiltshire, England. By Frédéric Vincent - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.0. A transition to a more settled way of life Human communities lived exclusively as foragers for over 200,000 years. But as humans started to spread around the Earth, some began to transition from foraging to a more settled way of life. Some of the earliest communities to make this transition were those that happened to live in areas of abundance. These were regions like river valleys where fertile soil and fresh water provided lots of resources. As the climate warmed toward the end of the last ice age—about 12,000 years ago—these areas became lush. As a result, some human groups no longer had to move around as much to follow their food sources. These groups were some of the first to make a slow, gradual transition from foraging to a sedentary way of life that would lead to the domestication of animals and plants. While many communities continued to forage long after climates warmed, some did embark on a new path of farming. This new way of getting food presented challenges. But this change to farming does mark a significant transition in human history. [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the author, what are the limitations to understanding how and when humans first developed the ability to create art?What is the “Paleolithic Cognitive Revolution?”Why do you think archaeologists divide the Paleolithic into periods like the Upper and Middle Paleolithic?Why does the author state we should consider pushing back the timeline of the cognitive revolution to include the Middle Paleolithic era?Why is it so difficult for historians to put an exact date on when the cognitive revolution began, and decide whether it should apply to other human species? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to this question: In what ways did the creation and spread of artwork in the Paleolithic period impact human communities? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Art of the Paleolithic Painting of an early human creating art on the walls of a cave or dwelling. There are image of handprints and images of animals on the wall. By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor History isn’t all wars and trade routes. Humans have made art from the beginning of our existence, and history depends on the creativity of our Paleolithic ancestors. Introduction There is no doubt that humans are an artistic species. We make music, television shows, and movies, plus we paint, draw, and sculpt. All of these things are art. Humans are able to think in the abstract. We imagine and create things that do not exist, such as unicorns, monsters, and superheroes. We also build upon the achievements of earlier periods to make art that is grounded in history but is also new. Art brings us together into shared communities and networks that have developed as a result of our creativity. As humans have produced different works of art, we've exchanged them for other goods. That's how artwork travels from one community to another. As a result, people learn about new techniques, improve upon them, and make new works of art. All of these artistic abilities and creations help to make human culture. But when did humans first develop the cognitive (intellectual) abilities to create art? Were Homo sapiens the only species to develop these abilities? Or did earlier species, or even other animal species, have them as well? Are language skills and collective learning needed to create art? These questions are not that easy to answer. This is mainly because we have no written records from these periods, and few artifacts have survived. Despite these limitations, archaeologists and anthropologists have offered several theories to answer these questions. The Paleolithic cognitive revolution From about the 1950s to today, archaeologists and anthropologists believed that these cognitive abilities developed with the evolution of Homo sapiens. Ours was the only human species to survive. Others whose brains did not develop the same way, such as Neanderthals, became extinct. Many believe our survival was made possible by those same cognitive abilities that could create words and art. That's why some of the products of this cognitive revolution include the development of language, collective learning, and the creation of symbolic art. All of these elements were present in Homo sapiens. This is what allowed them to draw cave paintings and make sculptures that clearly expressed some symbolic thinking. Bone flute with notches and three holes for creating different pitchesFlute made of vulture bone from Germany, c. 35,000 years ago. By José-Manuel Benito Álvarez, CC BY-SA 2.5. Bone flute with notches and three holes for creating different pitches Flute made of vulture bone from Germany, c. 35,000 years ago. By José-Manuel Benito Álvarez, CC BY-SA 2.5. The Upper Paleolithic Cognitive Revolution: Cave paintings and Venus figurines Cave paintings are the most recognized Paleolithic art found in Europe, mainly in Spain and France. They date to the Upper Paleolithic period from about 45,000 years ago. (The Upper Paleolithic period includes the period of time from about 50,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago.) This is what sticks in our minds as fitting the definition of art: paintings of humans and animals that might represent some religious or spiritual meaning, like the ones shown in the images below. Another form of art that fits into this definition are the three-dimensional figurines known as Venus figures. One example is the very well-known Venus of Willendorf. These figurines might have had some spiritual meaning, such as fertility or goddess symbols. Some scholars think they were representations of spirit animals. Image of an early cave painting featuring animals: the animals resemble bulls, deer with large antlers, and horsesCave paintings at Lascaux, France. By Prof saxx, public domain. Image of an early cave painting featuring animals: the animals resemble bulls, deer with large antlers, and horses Cave paintings at Lascaux, France. By Prof saxx, public domain. These works of art may represent a cognitive revolution on the part of Homo sapiens who lived in the European regions now called Spain and France. It was once thought that these cultural abilities were the result of a sudden cognitive shift that distinguished our species from all others. New research suggests, however, that these cognitive abilities were a gradual development. Somewhat-abstract sculpture of a woman’s bodyVenus of Hohle Fels, c. 35,000 years ago, terracotta. By Ramessos, CC BY-SA 3.0. Somewhat-abstract sculpture of a woman’s body Venus of Hohle Fels, c. 35,000 years ago, terracotta. By Ramessos, CC BY-SA 3.0. Faceless sculpture of a woman’s body, made of stoneVenus of Willendorf, c. 30,000 BCE, lime- stone. By Oke, CC BY-SA 3.0. Faceless sculpture of a woman’s body, made of stone Venus of Willendorf, c. 30,000 BCE, lime- stone. By Oke, CC BY-SA 3.0. Compared to others, this sculpture is a more lifelike portrayal of a woman’s body. The woman is facelessVenus of Dolní Věstonice, c. 29,000-25,000 BCE, ceramic. By Petr Novák, CC BY-SA 2.5. Compared to others, this sculpture is a more lifelike portrayal of a woman’s body. The woman is faceless Venus of Dolní Věstonice, c. 29,000-25,000 BCE, ceramic. By Petr Novák, CC BY-SA 2.5. This is similar to the debate surrounding the emergence of language networks and collective learning. Some scholars argue that this was a rapid revolution that occurred about 50,000 years ago—about 150,000 to 200,000 years after the evolution of Homo sapiens. Others believe that the transition to language and collective learning appeared more gradually. More than one human species may have had artistic talents, these researchers say. If that theory were correct, it would mean we acquired cognitive abilities way back when human tools improved. That's at least 80,000 years ago and possibly even earlier. Simply drawn cave painting of a group of lionsReplica of the lion painting in the Chauvet Cave, France. By HTO, public domain. Simply drawn cave painting of a group of lions Replica of the lion painting in the Chauvet Cave, France. By HTO, public domain. Middle Paleolithic Art: Tools, weapons, and beads Speaking of earlier, let's go back to the Middle Paleolithic period, between 300,000 and 50,000 years ago. Creative humans back then used the red clay called ochre for decorative body painting. They made tools and weapons such as bows and arrows. Tools are not usually considered to be forms of art. Yet they do require cognitive abilities to craft and brainpower to improve upon designs. Other early Paleolithic art was composed of geometric patterns, represented in the image below from Blombos Cave in South Africa. This period also saw the creation of beads made from shells, painted and strung into necklaces and other decorations. These types of art were created at least 75,000 years ago, about 30,000 years before the cave paintings. Therefore, it would seem that we must push back the time period for this cognitive revolution to include artistic humans living in the Middle Paleolithic. It was not just for the cave painters that existed during the Upper Paleolithic period. Image of a rock with markings carved into itRock art from Blombos Cave, South Africa, c. 73,000 years ago. By originalrockart, CC BY-SA 4.0. Image of a rock with markings carved into it Rock art from Blombos Cave, South Africa, c. 73,000 years ago. By originalrockart, CC BY-SA 4.0. What about human species that developed tools long before this period, even before the evolution of Homo sapiens about 250,000 to 300,000 years ago? Would their accomplishments require us to extend the cognitive revolution back even further? Or what about early humans who made musical instruments or performed dances as part of rituals? These are certainly forms of artistic expression that would require symbolic thought and perhaps early language abilities. Photo of shells punctuated with holes.Perforated (pierced) shell beads from Blombos Cave, South Africa. By Chenshilwood, CC BY 2.5. Photo of shells punctuated with holes. Perforated (pierced) shell beads from Blombos Cave, South Africa. By Chenshilwood, CC BY 2.5. Or how about other human species such as Neanderthals who had a complex social structure and buried their dead? In fact, recent finds in Spain show that Neanderthals created cave paintings and made beads out of shells from about 120,000 to 64,000 years ago. This was long before the arrival of Homo sapiens in this region. Therefore, could the cognitive revolution actually include other human species? Photo of rocks sharpened to pointsFlaked points from Blombos Cave, South Africa, c. 71,000 BCE. By Vincent Mourre, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photo of rocks sharpened to points Flaked points from Blombos Cave, South Africa, c. 71,000 BCE. By Vincent Mourre, CC BY-SA 3.0. There are also forms of human culture and evidence that these humans had some cognitive abilities. Some of these art forms might not be as advanced as those of the Upper Paleolithic. Still, they represent symbolic thinking. Conclusion So, should our definition of what we consider to be art change to include these earliest forms of human creation? There is certainly much evidence to suggest that technological innovations like tool-making should be considered a form of art. It takes much skill and creativity to shape tools and weapons. Those that were then hafted (attached) to longer sticks to use as spears, or were attached to arrows and shot from bows, were especially complex at the time. As humans shared these skills through the process of collective learning, tools gradually improved and new innovations were discovered. This, in turn, might indicate that cognitive abilities began long before the creation of cave paintings. That means the roots of humans' cognitive thinking could extend much further back than 40,000 or 50,000 years ago. Cave painting looks to depict a person sitting on top of a structure. On lower levels of the structure are animals. Next to the photo of the cave wall is a drawn image intended to make the drawing more clearly visible, as the cave image is difficult to make out.Neanderthal cave paintings dated to c. 64,000 years ago found recently in La Pasiega, Spain. Image courtesy of C.D. Standish, A.W.G. Pike, and D.L. Hoffman/Breuil, et al. Cave painting looks to depict a person sitting on top of a structure. On lower levels of the structure are animals. Next to the photo of the cave wall is a drawn image intended to make the drawing more clearly visible, as the cave image is difficult to make out. Neanderthal cave paintings dated to c. 64,000 years ago found recently in La Pasiega, Spain. Image courtesy of C.D. Standish, A.W.G. Pike, and D.L. Hoffman/Breuil, et al. Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the article, what were the similarities and differences between different human species on Earth approximately 300,000 to 200,000 years ago?Why did human communities begin to migrate outside of Africa? Were the causes short-term or long-term?How did humans change as they moved, and what caused these changes?Why might human communities during the Paleolithic Era have kept their populations intentionally small?What is collective learning, and what role did it play in human evolution? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: In what ways does the migration of Homo sapiens out of Africa support, extend or challenge our networks frame? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Human Communities Populate the Earth Cave painting depicts a large elephant-like animal with spears in its back surrounded by people By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Humans are the only animal that uses language to share and store knowledge. This skill has driven human change and growth for over 100,000 years, allowing us to migrate across the Earth. Introduction: Human evolution and interactions Try to imagine yourself living 15,000 years in the past. You are a forager (hunter-gatherer) trekking across great distances in search of food. Now imagine how groups of foragers might have lived as they moved into these new territories. There aren't any cars or phones or even wheels at this stage of history. So how did people come to inhabit almost all areas of the world by about 15,000 years ago? And how do we know about their movements and their way of life? Our current knowledge of human origins and migration patterns has been aided by the research of scholars in a number of different fields: archaeologists, anthropologists, climatologists, geneticists, historians, linguists, and paleobotanists. The vast majority of scholars in these fields would agree that modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa approximately 300,000 to 200,000 years ago. But we weren't the only humans around during that time. Other human communities composed of different species such as Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals), Homo erectus, and Homo floresiensis existed in various regions of Afro-Eurasia. But Homo sapiens, humans like you and everyone else in the world, are the only human species that are still alive today. Homo sapiens have a slighter build than earlier human species and have a distinctly shaped skull, as can be seen in the image below comparing a Homo sapiens skull and a Neanderthal skull. Evidence of our earliest existence comes from fossils found in Ethiopia about 200,000 years ago. But some researchers think that our species was around for longer than this. Compared to the Homo sapiens skull, the Homo neanderthalensis skull is much larger with a more oval shaped headComparison of a Homo sapiens skull on the left and a Homo neanderthalensis skull on the right. By Dr. Mike Baxter, CC BY-SA 2.0. Compared to the Homo sapiens skull, the Homo neanderthalensis skull is much larger with a more oval shaped head Comparison of a Homo sapiens skull on the left and a Homo neanderthalensis skull on the right. By Dr. Mike Baxter, CC BY-SA 2.0. Debate continues around whether Homo sapiens encountered all of these species as they migrated out of Africa approximately 80,000 to 60,000 years ago. These migrations probably occurred at a range of times and to a variety of places rather than just one large migration out of Africa starting at one specific time period. In fact, new evidence suggests that the earliest date for these migrations may be 120,000 years ago. There is evidence that Homo sapiens interacted and reproduced with Neanderthals, which are another species of humans. Neanderthals mainly lived in colder climates, had a heavier build, and their foreheads were more sloped with a more pronounced ridge at the front. The result of these interactions is why some modern humans have small percentages of Neanderthal DNA. In addition, new studies show that some Homo sapiens mixed with both Neanderthal and another human species known as Denisovans in Central Asia and Australia (Bae, et al). Denisovans are a more recently discovered human species that mainly lived in the area of modern-day Siberia. They interacted and reproduced with Neanderthals, who also lived in these colder regions. Map shows the dispersal routes of early humans. Humans occupied every continent Dispersal routes of early humans. Map shows the dispersal routes of early humans. Humans occupied every continent Dispersal routes of early humans. Human communities on the move While a definitive date hasn't been decided, we do know that communities of Homo sapiens began journeying outside of Africa thousands of years ago. Eventually, other human species died out. This could have been a result of mixing with Homo sapiens communities, through violent clashes with modern humans, or due to other effects such as climate and environmental changes. All of these early human communities were nomadic foragers, or people who moved around to follow their food. Foragers lived off the land by gathering, hunting, and fishing. Archaeologists and anthropologists have suggested that the number of people in each community was likely kept rather small, no more than 20-50 people. These humans primarily used stone tools along with others made of bone. For this reason, archaeologists and historians have categorized the period as the Paleolithic era (Old Stone Age). Population numbers probably remained relatively small throughout the Paleolithic era. These human communities may have intentionally kept their population growth rates low in order to be able to move more easily. It would be very difficult to carry multiple children at one time to gather, hunt, and move to follow your food. These small groups collected food and resources from one area and then moved to another as food became scarce. They interacted with other communities and established networks of exchange to trade items they gathered or made. In addition, language networks connected people who lived in the same general areas so that information was shared amongst groups. Some members of one community left to join others in order to have children and establish new family groups. Larger networks of people also came together for spiritual or religious purposes. Over time, some groups migrated outside of Africa. These movements were possibly as a result of climate changes and scarcity of resources, or human curiosity, or conflicts with other groups, or some combination of these causes. Humans began moving perhaps as early as 120,000 years ago and probably in waves that occurred to different regions at different time periods. The earliest migrations might have occurred along the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula into India and then on to Southeast Asia. These groups stayed near the coastline because there was an abundance of resources such as marine life to sustain them. Early humans constructed rafts or small dugout boats to maneuver across larger expanses of water. By about 50,000 to 45,000 years ago, these communities reached Papua New Guinea, Australia, and East Asia. Recent evidence suggests that humans' arrival in Australia may be much earlier than this, with some studies pushing the date back to 65,000 years ago (Clarkson et al., 2017). Image of the Columbian Mammoth, an animal that looks similar to an elephant with much longer, curved tusksColumbian Mammoth, an animal that was hunted to extinction by early humans as they moved into the Americas. By National Park Service, public domain. Image of the Columbian Mammoth, an animal that looks similar to an elephant with much longer, curved tusks Columbian Mammoth, an animal that was hunted to extinction by early humans as they moved into the Americas. By National Park Service, public domain. Evidence also shows that other groups left Africa and took a more northerly route through the Arabian Peninsula and entered Europe and Central Asia by about 45,000 years ago. Some communities that had migrated and adapted to much colder climates in northern Asia journeyed across the Bering Strait by as early as 20,000 years ago. Small groups may have then traveled along the coasts and made their way into the Americas from about 15,000 years ago. Still others may have waited until the climate became warmer to journey by land into the Americas about 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. Regardless of the route taken, early humans made their way down to the southern tip of South America by about 15,000 to 10,000 years ago. The fast pace of migration through the Americas was the result of an abundance of resources both from marine life and large game animals. Many of these large game animals that were living in the Americas were eventually wiped out as humans moved across the continents. Human communities and the environment As human communities migrated, the environment affected not only how these humans lived but also how they looked. Humans adapted to new environmental conditions as they moved around and populated the Earth. One reason they achieved success living in varied climates was the result of collective learning, or the sharing and preserving of information across generations. As humans learned new ways of dealing with their environment, they shared this information with others in their communities. These tools and techniques for survival were then passed down from generation to generation, allowing humans to become the first species to populate the entire Earth. Collective learning is, therefore, what allowed our human ancestors to populate the Earth. By sharing and preserving knowledge across generations, humans made significant improvements to how they lived and survived. But as humans moved, they changed. These changes weren't drastic but there were slight, random mutations to DNA that occurred as humans lived in certain areas for longer periods of time. These random mutations account for the differences that you see in humans today. We are all of the same species but have slightly different appearances such as skin and hair color, or the shape of our eyes and noses. For example, humans who migrated to colder climates needed more vitamin D from the Sun rather than more protection from the Sun that humans living near the equator needed. Over thousands of years, these humans experienced random genetic mutations that led to some advantages when adapting to their new environments such as the lightening of skin color (through a decrease in melanin) to allow more of the Sun's rays to penetrate skin and provide more of this necessary vitamin. In fact, this process was happening before modern humans ever left Africa (Crawford, et al. 2017). Humans also impacted their environments as they migrated. They hunted animals, some to the point of extinction. They set fire to wooded areas in order to drive out wildlife and more easily hunt. Their movements impacted the environment and continue to do so in different ways today. Conclusion The story of the origins of humans and their migration patterns out of Africa are in an almost constant state of flux. This is a result of collective learning at work as scholars continually make new discoveries that lead to revisions in the history of humanity. We know broadly the time, place, and manner of movements but the specifics are still being identified. As more fossils, tools, and genetic evidence are discovered, the story of early human communities may change multiple times. But through academic discussions and validation of evidence using multiple disciplines and sources, the story of our ancient past may become clearer in the very near future. Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What have historians typically believed about the development of pottery in relation to the development of farming?What is different about the development of pottery in the Xianrendong cave, according to the biography?According to the biography, what were these pots most likely used for? Are there any other factors that may have contributed to the development of these pots?How might the development of these pots have shaped aspects of Chinese culture today?How does the artwork show a connection between China 20,000 years ago and China today? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does the evidence presented in this biography support, challenge, or contest what you have learned about the consequences of the shift from foraging to farming? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Xianrendong Pottery (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor Getz Artist: Peter Quach Pieces of pottery that pre-date farming have been discovered in a cave called Xianrendong, challenging a theory that many historians have believed to be universally true. A graphic biography in the form a comic with text, including images of pottery being made and used. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The data exploration article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview – what do we have? This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what this chart is about and the information it contains. Pay attention to: Labels and titles. What is the title? How are the axes labeled? Is anything else on the chart labeled?Data representation. How many variables are there and what are they? What are the scales? What time period does the chart cover? Is the chart interactive?Data source. Where did the data for this chart come from? Do you trust it? Who created the chart? Second read: key ideas – what do we know? In this read, you will pay attention to the information that most helps you understand the chart and the information it is trying to convey. Pay attention to: Claim(s). What can you say about the data? What story does it tell? Can you make any claims about this data? Does it change when you zoom in compared to when you look at the data as a whole?Evidence. What data from the chart supports this story? Does this change if you change the scale or variables?Presentation. How does the way this chart is presented influence how you read it? Has the author selected certain variables or scales that change the conclusions that can be drawn? Is there anything missing from this chart? By the end of the second read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How has the global human population changed in the last 12,000 years?In what 50-year period did the human population increase most dramatically?Has the global human population ever shrunk? When? What events might have caused this?What argument is this chart is making? How did the creator of this chart want you to feel after seeing it?What dates do we seem to have the best data for? Do you think you can trust the population data used in this chart? Why or why not? Third read: making connections – what does this tell us? The third reading is really about why the chart is important and what it can tell us about the past and help us think about the future. Pay attention to: Significance. Why does this matter? Does this impact me, and if so, how? How does it connect what is going on in the world right now? How does it relate to what was happening at the time it was created?Back to the future. How does this data compare to today? Based on what you now know, what are your thoughts on this phenomenon 25 years, 50 years, and 100 years from now? At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Why does this chart matter? What do global changes in population tell us about changes in human societies? How has population growth affected the way we organize ourselves, communicate with each other, and make and use goods?Using this chart, make one prediction about how the global human population will change in your lifetime. What evidence from the chart supports your prediction? Is there any evidence that challenges it? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Population Data Introduction By Max Roser, adapted by Mike Papritz and Trevor R. Getz There are a lot of humans living on the planet today. But for most of our history, our population was much smaller. Demography provides one window into our shared history. Demography data World history courses require you to test claims made through historical narratives that have a global geographic scope and cover long periods of time. In most cases, the evidence you will use to test these claims covers shorter periods of time and smaller regions of the world. Most of that evidence comes in the form of written text or videos. Some of it is quantitative, which means that it comes in the form of numbers that count people and things. That data is then represented in maps, charts, and tables. Those representations make it easier to understand the data, but you will also get to work with the numbers themselves, if you choose to. One of the most important types of data for this course is demographic. That is the data we begin the course with, and it is also the data with which we will end the course. Demography is an interesting word. It’s made up of two parts that give it meaning. It ends with the suffix -graphy, which appears in many other words, such as geography, cartography, photography, and biography. So, what does the suffix -graphy mean? In short, -graphy means the “study of” something. So, what is demography the “study of”? The word begins with the prefix demo-. This prefix comes from the Greek language and refers to people or population. If we combine the two parts of the word, we see that demography is the “study of populations.” Through your work in this course, you will come across historical demography information or population scenarios that you’ll investigate in order help you understand modern population statistics of today. Human demography in the long term Demography is an important element in understanding the past and the present. It is also crucial in trying to anticipate the future. Demographers study changes in birth and death rates, incidence of disease, life expectancy, and where people live. Over time, of course, the human population has grown dramatically. That’s the biggest demographic trend of them all. From about 250,000 years ago to about 5,000 years ago, there were important shifts in demographics. At the beginning of this time period, there were few people on the Earth and their main activities for survival were hunting and gathering. They were nomads. By 5,000 years ago, migration to new regions and the Agricultural Revolution had sparked the rise in human population we see continuing today. From its modest beginning, human population has today grown to about 7 billion people living just about everywhere on the Earth. In many ways, world history is the story of this growth. Now, you might think that population grows steadily, century after century, and across all the regions of the globe. However, historical demographers have shown in their studies that this has not been the case. The chart below shows the increasing number of people living on our planet over the last 12,000 years. A mindboggling change: The world population today is 1,860 times the size of what it was 12 millennia ago when the world population was around 4 million—half of the current population of London. The size of the world population over the last 12,000 years. Explore an interactive version of this chart here: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/world-population-since-10000-bce-ourworldindata-series By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. What is most striking about this chart is that almost all of this growth happened just very recently. For a long period—from the appearance of modern Homo sapiens up to the starting point of this chart in 10,000 BCE—it is estimated that the total world population was often well under 1 million. Historical demographers estimate that around the year 1800, the world population was only around 1 billion people. This implies that on average the population grew very slowly from 10,000 BCE to 1700 (by 0.04 percent annually). After 1800, however, this slow growth fundamentally changed. From around 1 billion people in the year 1800, the global population has increased 7 times since then. We are now over 7 billion humans. Around 108 billion people have ever lived on our planet. Some demographers estimate that today’s population size makes up 6.5 percent of the total number of people ever born. What are the big patterns driving the history of human global population? What happens when we look at this interpretation of the data—and the data itself—more closely? Author bio Max is the founder and director of Our World in Data. He began the project in 2011 and for several years was the sole author, until receiving funding for the formation of a team. Max’s research focuses on poverty, global health, and the distribution of incomes. He is also Programme Director of the Oxford Martin Programme on Global Development at the University of Oxford, and Co-executive Director of Global Change Data Lab, the non-profit organization that publishes and maintains the website and the data tools that make OWID’s work possible. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why is chronology essential to the study of history?How is chronology different from history?How did humans record history before they invented writing? How does writing give us a more complete picture of history and why doesn’t it give us a fully complete history?What early twentieth-century discovery helped historians to get a better idea of history and chronology?What are some other scientific discoveries that give us data about time? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How do all the inventions you learned about in this article help historians write more accurate histories? What might be some of the limitations that remain in our quest for fully accurate histories?How does this article help you understand the limitations of historical sources? How do you think historians have attempted to overcome these limitations? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Chronometric Revolution Incredibly detailed, circular carved rock. There is what appears to be a face symbol in the center surrounded by detailed symbols and markings Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Measurements like minutes, days, and millennia are human inventions, yet time happens whether we count it or not. Ancient writing, and science, have allowed us to count back farther and farther. Introduction Can you imagine what life would be like if we couldn't tell time? How would we mark the days or years? How would we know when to be at work or what day to celebrate our birthdays? Time exists whether we notice or not, but chronology—the measuring of time—is an essential construct in our lives that allows us to record the past. History is usually told as a chronological story of past events. Accurate chronology is required for historical thinking. In addition to being able to tell a full and complete history of past events, the knowledge of time also allows historians to make sense of these events. As historians interpret events, they can develop meaningful narratives and arguments about the past. While chronology helps historians put events in sequence, simply getting the dates and times right is not history. As historian Bob Bain explains, "History depends upon interpretation and meaning-making, but correct chronology is essential to enable historians to draw strong conclusions, make reasonable historical interpretations, and develop compelling arguments. Chronology is not history, but history depends upon good and accurate chronology." The first chronometric revolution – Writing You might think humans had to learn to write before they could start keeping track of time. Actually, they had already been using time-tracking methods long before the written word. Paleolithic and Neolithic peoples passed down information orally through storytelling. This type of oral storytelling became tradition and was used by many different cultures to tell the history of their people. Unfortunately, stories come with creative license and tend to change a bit every time we tell them. That's great for keeping it interesting but may not be so great for passing down accurate, reliable information. As a story is retold over generations, certain details like that week of rain might turn into a yearlong hurricane. Once people began to record events using a written language, this information became etched in the historical record. A rock carved into small rectangular sections. Each section is carved with a different collection of symbolsSumerian contract: selling of a field and a house. Shuruppak, pre-cuneiform script, c. 2600 BCE. By Marie-Lan Nguyen, public domain. A rock carved into small rectangular sections. Each section is carved with a different collection of symbols Sumerian contract: selling of a field and a house. Shuruppak, pre-cuneiform script, c. 2600 BCE. By Marie-Lan Nguyen, public domain. Although writing gave us a more detailed picture of the past, it is far from a complete picture. Many historians of the past liked to say that "history" is anything that got written down, and "pre-history" is everything that happened before the invention of writing. Experts in this field tended to focus on eras and locations that had a developed system of writing in place. That works well if you only want to learn about communities that had developed writing. However, it limits your area of study to certain periods of time and geographic locations. Communities that existed before the written record, or those that did not develop writing at all, were often ignored. Also, by only using the writing of a particular community to find out what it was like, you limit your study to the perspective of literate people. Those who could write in ancient agrarian states were usually those with the most education and privilege. This population of literate people, especially in ancient times, was extremely small and in many societies, it was a privileged position. Therefore, historians were only seeing how a very limited group of people viewed or recorded events. It would be as if, one million years from now, historians look back on the twenty-first century by only looking at the perspective of school teachers. Yes, teaching is a big profession and that includes about two percent of the total population (at least in the U.S.). But this kind of study would leave out the other 98 percent of people. Another problem is that writing is only a human activity. When you rely purely on written records you leave out aspects of the natural world. Plants and animals are then excluded from the historical record. How can we truly understand the past when our source material only covers a fraction of what was taking place over centuries of time? The second chronometric revolution – Radioactivity In the early twentieth century, New Zealand-born British scientist Ernest Rutherford discovered radioactive decay, which would help to bring about a revolution in terms of dating artifacts. Later, an American chemist named Willard Libby was able to build upon the research of Rutherford and many other scientists including Marie Curie. He determined the rate of decay of certain isotopes like carbon-14. Suddenly there was a way to measure and date the remains of things that lived thousands of years ago. Libby published his findings in 1946, which marks the beginning of the second chronometric revolution. Libby won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960 "for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science" (The Nobel Foundation, 2018). Organic material contains carbon and when an organism dies, the isotope carbon-14 begins to decay. Scientists can measure the rate of decay of carbon-14 to determine the age of the organic material. Of course, there are limits to carbon dating, since carbon-14 is only accurate on organisms that are less than 60,000 years old. The good news is that there are other isotopes with longer half-lives that can go much further back. For example potassium-40 can go to 1.3 billion years, uranium-238 to 4.5 billion years, and rubidium-87 to 49 billion years. Scientists have also found a variety of other ways to measure time. For example, with tree-ring dating (dendrochronology) a living tree can be used to tell us a story of every season it has lived through. In the case of the 1,230-year-old pine tree in Italy, the oldest on record, that's a lot of information. Then there is genetic dating, a method that can determine the chronology of evolutionary biology. Genetic dating allows scientists to trace animal and human origins through their genetic codes. Finally, there is the powerful invention of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) from the late 1970s. This major advance in radioactive isotope dating uses particle accelerators to more quickly and accurately measure decay and date organic materials. Photograph of the machinery that makes up the accelerator mass spectrometerAccelerator mass spectrometer at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Public domain. Photograph of the machinery that makes up the accelerator mass spectrometer Accelerator mass spectrometer at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Public domain. Experts in many disciplines can now date events that happened long before writing began. Before the 1960s, we could only go back about 5,000 years ago, when writing first began. Today we know that the Earth is 4.5 billion years old and the universe is over 13.8 billion years old. Without these advances of the second chronometric revolution, we would not have the Big History narrative you learned about in Era 1. We now know more about the history of humans, the Earth, and the universe than we ever did before, due to these revolutions in the measurement of time. Who knows what new discoveries and inventions will allow us to learn even more about our history. Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the author, why do humans group together to form communities and how is this similar to how other species interact?Why did early foraging communities come together and why might these communities come together to form networks?What’s the difference between the stereotypical ideas about Paleolithic foraging practices and family relationships compared to what new evidence suggests about these tasks and relationships?Why was language an important tool for foraging communities and how might different communities form language networks?How did the formation of communities and language networks lead to the creation of distinct but similar human cultures? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: The author makes many claims about the creation of culture in her article but what evidence does she use to back up these claims, and how can we trust that she is a reliable source?In the article “Art of the Paleolithic” you read about the Venus of Willendorf and similar figurines found from this time period. This image shows up again in this article. How might these figures represent the shared culture of early humans while also showing how human cultures varied? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Paleolithic Culture and Common Human Experiences A photo of rock art made up of handprints By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor In their quest to survive, Paleolithic humans joined together, leading to the beginnings of what we today call “culture.” Introduction Most animals are social creatures. They come together in family groups or herds for protection, to raise their young, and find food, which are all factors to their survival. Humans are in many ways similar to other animals in that they form groups such as families or clans (a group of people linked together through family ties and imagined or adopted kinship) to help the species survive. We still do this today except many of our goals are not necessarily survival but rather more social in nature. For example, in your school community you might be a member of the art club or play a sport. You and your family might be members of a church, temple, mosque, or synagogue in your local community. Your parents might support causes by becoming members of an organization like Greenpeace. Maybe one of your parents owns a business and they've joined the local chamber of commerce or Rotary club to meet with other business owners in their community. Humans are most certainly social animals and we tend to bond in groups over shared interests or experiences. Early foraging communities were very similar but their main goal of joining together in groups was survival. Yet, in creating these groups, they also began developing human cultures. The human cultural experience Culture is a difficult word to define. Some people define it as the way of life of people. But if we use that broad definition, then everything that people do can be counted as culture. Others use the term culture to describe someone who is well read or knows a great deal about art. For our purposes, we're going to use historian Bob Bain's definition for this term as "ideas, beliefs, and practices that are acquired, created, or learned as a member of a group to manage human challenges." For early humans living in the Paleolithic Era, these challenges might include: How to maintain order and manage conflicts between group members and with strangersHow to produce and distribute food, shelter, and other important aspects of survivalHow to develop ways to communicateHow to deal with natureHow to organize labor to ensure survivalHow to build relationships between old and young, men and women, and parents and children in one’s groupHow to design and use tools Paleolithic humans often organized themselves into family groups with about 25 people or fewer in them. Making decisions about how to cope with challenges among a group of 25 family members might have been relatively easy. However, Paleolithic humans often joined multiple family groups to form a larger group with many as 100 people. As the group grows, making decisions and coordinating members becomes more difficult. The members of the group must collectively decide on the best ways to organize the group in order to ensure food, safety, and ultimately, survival. Shared human experiences Different Paleolithic human communities devised similar ways of dealing with their challenges because the types of issues they faced were similar wherever they lived. For example, all Paleolithic peoples foraged (hunted and gathered) because that was the only way to get food before the creation of farming. Therefore, early human groups had to decide which members would gather and which ones would hunt or fish. But who did what kind of foraging is difficult to tell from the remaining skeletal or archeological evidence, and modern hunting and gathering cultures show a range of patterns. Stereotypical representations of Paleolithic people often portray men going off to hunt while women and children crouch around a fire, waiting for the men to bring back great slabs of meat. But much hunting was done by driving herds of animals toward a cliff or throwing nets over them, types of hunting in which we know women participated in more recent eras. We know that Paleolithic infants were nursed by their mothers or other women who had recently given birth, as there was nothing else that they could eat. But among modern hunting and gathering cultures, childcare beyond infancy is a highly valued and culturally important task shared by everyone, and it may also have been for Paleolithic groups. A piece of wood sharpened to a point and smoothed by fireSpear head in wood hardened on fire, from Clacton (Essex, UK). It is one of the oldest wooden tools in the world (about 400,000 years ago). By José-Manuel Benito Alvarez, CC BY-SA A piece of wood sharpened to a point and smoothed by fire Spear head in wood hardened on fire, from Clacton (Essex, UK). It is one of the oldest wooden tools in the world (about 400,000 years ago). By José-Manuel Benito Alvarez, CC BY-SA Hunting and gathering also required communication between humans. These human groups developed names for certain animals or plants in order to tell others where to find them, how to prepare them, or the best way to capture them. Communication was also necessary for safety: to keep the fire burning at night to ward off animals or learn how to interact with other groups in the local area. Decisions had to be made about the best way to raise children and how to teach them the necessary skills to survive. Information was passed down orally from one generation to the next about what plants were poisonous or which ones might help to cure an illness, all of which was a trial-and-error process. Stories were also shared about common beliefs or how certain groups explained natural phenomena like a flood or an eclipse. Additionally, language networks played a crucial role in allowing humans to share information and beliefs. Communities that lived close to one another usually spoke similar languages or they were able to speak the languages of their community and of the other communities in their region. Sometimes, a particular set of skills or even a specific culture was invented by members of a language network in one region and then shared or adopted by others in that area. The Venus of Willendorf figure shown below is an example of these shared ideas. Figures of this shape, size, and structure were found in multiple areas across Afro-Eurasia during the Paleolithic era, which indicates that beliefs and ideas were communicated and shared by many communities. All of these practices combined to form a particular group or community's culture, or how they acquired, created, or learned the best ways to survive in their particular set of circumstances. Faceless, rounded sculpture of a woman’s bodyVenus of Willendorf (small religious figure, possible fertility symbol, Paleolithic, c. 30,000 BCE). By Matthias Kabel, CC BY 2.5. Faceless, rounded sculpture of a woman’s body Venus of Willendorf (small religious figure, possible fertility symbol, Paleolithic, c. 30,000 BCE). By Matthias Kabel, CC BY 2.5. While Paleolithic communities shared the same challenges and created cultures to deal with these issues, each culture was somewhat different. These differences were based on a number of factors such as the geography or environment where the group lived, the resources available, the language and tools they developed, and the stories they created. The farther apart the human groups were, the greater the differences between these communities. For example, a foraging group that lived in the rainforests of central Africa might develop tools and techniques based upon their local resources. Information would be passed down about certain varieties of food and the best ways to construct tools and weapons to hunt local game. Their language, means of survival, and their stories about nature and creation would be very different than a group that lived on the coasts in Southeast Asia or those that resided in the mountains of Mesoamerica. Therefore, humans as a species developed shared responses to challenges and these responses make up human culture. However, human culture can vary greatly, which is why there is such a variety of beliefs, practices, and experiences among humans. Sometimes these differences lead to arguments, violence, and distrust, but overall, these differences make humans unique, and our ability to share and mix these cultures adds diversity to the world. Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Souces and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview – what do we have? This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what this chart is about and the information it contains. Pay attention to: Labels and titles. What is the title? How are the axes labeled? Is anything else on the chart labeled?Data representation. How many variables are there and what are they? What are the scales? What time period does the chart cover? Is the chart interactive?Data source. Where did the data for this chart come from? Do you trust it? Who created the chart? Second read: key ideas – what do we know? In this read, you will pay attention to the information that most helps you understand the chart and the information it is trying to convey. Pay attention to: Claim(s). What can you say about the data? What story does it tell? Can you make any claims about this data? Does it change when you zoom in compared to when you look at the data as a whole?Evidence. What data from the chart supports this story? Does this change if you change the scale or variables?Presentation. How does the way this chart is presented influence how you read it? Has the author selected certain variables or scales that change the conclusions that can be drawn? Is there anything missing from this chart? By the end of the second read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why is the chart linking violent crime and ice cream sales misleading?Where are the x-axis and y-axis located on the chart about student knowledge in WHP?What are variables?What is scale in charts?How is the “Average Annual Global Temperature in Fahrenheit” chart misleading?Are Nicolas Cage films drowning people in pools? Third read: making connections – what does this tell us? The third reading is really about why the chart is important and what it can tell us about the past and help us think about the future. Pay attention to: Significance. Why does this matter? Does this impact me, and if so, how? How does it connect what is going on in the world right now? How does it relate to what was happening at the time it was created?Back to the future. How does this data compare to today? Based on what you now know, what are your thoughts on this phenomenon 25 years, 50 years, and 100 years from now? At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Can you think of any examples you’ve seen of someone using data or charts to present misleading information? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. A Guide to Reading Charts By Marissa Major Learning to read and evaluate charts is an important skill. This guide will be a useful reference as you encounter different charts in this course. Lies and ice cream There’s an old saying in the English language: “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” People have a lot of trust in numbers, but numbers lie. Or, rather, people use numbers to lie. They use charts to tell stories that support their point of view. For example, look at the chart below. Correlation does not equal causation: violent crime index vs ice cream sales. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. This chart makes it seem like eating ice cream causes violent crime. But whoever made this chart left out something important: weather. When it’s sunny and hot, people eat more ice cream. When the nights get warmer, people stay out later and commit more crimes. You’ll see a lot of charts in your life, and a lot of them are going to be misleading, like this one. It’s important to learn the difference between the good use of information, and the use of information to support a faulty assertion. You don’t want to give up ice cream, do you? This article will guide you through the tools you’ll need to start reading and evaluating charts. The basics You’re going to encounter a lot of different charts and data in this course, and some of it will be really complex. Let’s start simple: What’s a chart? A chart is a way to show data visually. Data refers to pieces of information collected together, often statistics or facts. Charts use data to illustrate two things: change over time and how two or more “things” are related to each other. We call these “things” variables. That might be a little confusing. Let’s look at an example: Student knowledge in WHP. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. This is a line graph. It shows how student knowledge changes as WHP students progress through the seven eras or units of the course. How do you start reading a chart, like this one? First, look for a title and any captions that might provide clues. Second, identify what the chart is measuring by looking at the x-axis and y-axis (labeled in this chart). In this chart, the blue line represents the relationship between time (x-axis) and student knowledge (y-axis). The relationship between these two things is measured by a blue line. So what argument is this chart making? It’s arguing that as students move through the course, they gain more knowledge. Do you agree? Do you trust this chart? Where do you think the data came from? (Hint: we totally made it up.) Variables and scale The most important part of reading a chart is identifying the variables. Variables are the information in the chart that can change, depending on where you’re looking. Take a look at the line graph on the next page. Life expectancy, 1543 to 2015. Explore an interactive version of this chart here: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?country=~GBR In this chart, titled “Life Expectancy, 1543 to 2015,” there are three variables: life expectancy (y-axis), years (x-axis), and country (the line labeled “United Kingdom”). If you move from left to right in the chart, the year increases, and if you move from bottom to top, the life expectancy increases. The jagged line shows the relationship between life expectancy and dates. More specifically, this line represents changes in life expectancy in the United Kingdom over 500 years. If you view this chart online, you’ll see that it’s an interactive chart. So, if you click on the link above, you can add more countries and regions as variables on this chart. We talk about scale a lot in WHP. Scale is also an important part of charts. In charts, scale just means the range of numbers on either axis. For example, the dates in this chart are provided in years ranging from 1543 to 2015. Changing the scale of a chart can transform its meaning. If you click the link above, you can change the scale of this chart by sliding the range of the blue line left or right. How does this chart look different if you switch scales to a 25-year period from 1703 to 1728? You’re going to read a lot of different charts in this course, but you should always begin by identifying titles, variables, and scale. Once you have those identified, you can start to dig into the details. Points on the graph The line in the graph on the previous page shows how life expectancy changed in the United Kingdom, but how do I find what life expectancy was in a specific year? Easy! Just look at the illustration below. Detail from the Life expectancy, 1543 to 2015 chart. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. If I’m interested in the year 1700, I just find that value on the x-axis and follow it straight up (green dotted line) until I hit the line representing the United Kingdom. Looking at that point, I see how high up on the y-axis it lands. In this case it lands at 39 years. So, in the year 1700, the life expectancy in the United Kingdom was 39 years. (Yikes!) Evaluating charts and data Often, what’s missing from the data is just as important as what’s included. The graph above consists of points connected by a line. The points represent the years when data was collected, and there are fewer points in the first couple of centuries. What was happening in those years where no data was collected? Was that steep drop around 1550 because of a war or famine? Or was the data collected only from certain regions, where people tended to die younger? Without answers to these questions, we’re missing parts of the story. Very few societies kept detailed records before the nineteenth century, so when you see charts that go back hundreds or thousands of years, you should always ask yourself where that data came from. Even when looking at very recent data, it’s important to ask this question. Bubble charts Let’s examine two other types of charts that you’ll encounter in the course: bubble charts and maps. The bubble chart below also displays data on life expectancy, but it uses bubbles instead of lines. This enables the chart to include more variables. Bubble chart. Explore an interactive version of this chart here: https://www.gapminder.org/tools/#\$chart-type=bubbles. By Gapminder, CC BY 4.0 Each bubble represents a country. The bigger the bubble, the larger the country’s population. In this image, the chart is paused in the year 2019, but there’s a “play” button at the bottom that allows you to move through the years from 1800 to 2019. So, if you’re looking at the chart online, when you press play, the chart changes each year as the bubbles bounce up and down and slowly move toward the upper right corner as life expectancy and national incomes increase. Click the link above and experiment with this interactive chart. In addition to changing the year, you can add or remove countries and regions. You can even change the variable that’s represented by the size of the bubbles. Have some regions improved life expectancy more than others? Which countries have seen the biggest improvements in the last two centuries? In total, this chart has six variables: life expectancy (y-axis), income (x-axis), country (bubbles), population (bubble size), year, and geographic region (bubble color). Map charts Now, let’s take a look at a kind of chart that doesn’t really look like a chart at all: maps. Map charts are weird charts. They don’t have axes. But the principles of reading them are the same: Begin by identifying titles, variables, and scale. In the chart below, we have three variables: CO2 emissions per capita (represented by color), country, and year. There’s a play button and slider on the bottom that lets you adjust the year from 1800 to 2017. Per capita CO2 emissions, 2018 Explore an interactive version of this chart here: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/co-emissions-per-capita. By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Click on the link above to explore this chart. What are some conclusions you can draw by watching the chart change from 1800 to 2017? What parts of the world turn red and when do they do so? You can click on individual countries to display the data as a line graph for that country. The main takeaway from this map is that global CO2 emissions have risen since 1800, but those changes differ depending on region. What part of the world produces the most emissions? Lies and the lying charts that tell them Let’s conclude with some examples of how charts can be misleading. Remember, we started with a chart that seemed to argue that eating ice cream causes crime. But really, warmer weather is to blame for both. In that example, it was a missing variable (weather) that caused the confusion. In the charts below, you’re going to see an example of how scale can change our understanding of charts. Average annual global temperature in Fahrenheit, 1880-2015. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. This chart is a line graph. It shows how the global average temperature has changed over time. There are two variables here: year and global temperature. Reading this chart might lead you to think that the average global temperature has stayed about the same for the last 150 years. It makes it look like climate change isn’t happening. But look at that scale on the y-axis! Those are some big numbers. Yet, climate scientists claim that an increase of only 1 degree on the global average can have catastrophic impacts on weather, sea levels, and ecosystems. The temperature scale on the chart above is so large that we can’t really see a change of 1 degree. Check out this chart on the next page, which displays almost the same information at a different scale. Average temperature anomaly, Global. Explore an interactive version of this chart here: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/temperature-anomaly. By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. The only real difference between these two charts is the scale used on the y-axis. However, the second chart uses a scale that is more appropriate to the situation and provides a more accurate picture of the danger posed by climate change. This is just one example of how charts can be used to mislead the viewer. Let’s look at another. Spurious correlations, by Tyler Vigen, CC BY 4.0 http://tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations In the chart above, the black line represents the number of films Nicholas Cage appears in each year while the red line represents the number of drownings in swimming pools each year. Notice that as one line goes up or down, so does the other (roughly). Two bogus conclusions can be drawn here: Either Nicholas Cage films cause people to drown in pools, or people drowning in pools cause Nicholas Cage to make more films. Either way, it seems that Nicholas Cage should stop acting! But, as much as you may agree with that statement, there is no actual proof here that one thing causes the other. It is probably a complete coincidence that they have fluctuated together over this 10-year span. Beware scales without zero Let’s look at a final example, which comes from callingbullshit.org. The first graph on the next page seems to suggest that people in the Canadian province of Quebec are much more suspicious than people from the rest of Canada. Do you trust... graphic adapted from an article in Maclean’s. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. But compare the chart above with the one below. They represent the same data. Yet in the first one, the disparity in trust between Quebec and the rest of Canada is much more pronounced. The only difference between these two charts is their scale on the y-axis. The y-axis in the top chart starts between 35 and 50, while in the bottom chart it starts at 0. The top chart is misleading because it exaggerates the differences by not starting at 0. With charts misusing scale in this way, it’s no surprise that Quebec is less trusting! These are just a few examples of why learning to read and evaluate charts is important. They can be used or misused to support arguments on topics as serious as climate change or as trivial as ice cream consumption. As you move through the many different charts you’ll encounter in this course, you should refer back to this article as a guide. The future of the planet and mint chocolate chip might depend on it! Author bio Marissa Major holds a master’s degree in pure mathematics from Portland State University and has taught all levels of undergraduate mathematics for the past five years. Her current goal, using writing, research, and curriculum development, is to promote mathematical thinking as a tool to gain more knowledge about the world and improve the lives of those in it. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What does the author of this article argue about “most” of human history? How would you respond to this argument?What types of evidence do scientists use to understand how and when humans migrated to new regions of the world?What was the cultivation revolution, and why was it important?The author does not give an opinion on whether or not the shift to farming in some places was a good idea. What is some evidence used to show both the positives and the negatives of the shift to farming? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: At the end of this introduction, what do you think will be the most exciting or important thing you learn about in this Era? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Era 2 Overview - The Earliest Humans Image of an early cave painting featuring animals: the animals resemble bulls, deer with large antlers, and horses By Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Humans anatomically identical to us walked the Earth 250,000 years ago. They were foragers. For 245,000 of the years that followed they remained foragers. So what dramatic transformation happened in these years that set the scene for rapid change in the last 3,000 or so years of human history? Most of human history is the story of tiny bands of people, each largely made up of members of one family. These groups moved around in search of wild foods they could forage or hunt. The better-known history of farmers, cities, empires, and nation-states spread around the world—although it spans five of the seven eras of this course—is just the final 2% of this long human story. It is a 2% that takes us from foragers to the Internet, and it was all made possible by the humans who lived in Era 2, the first 98% of human history, between 250,000 years ago and 3000 BCE (Before the Common Era). Their experiences, and the ways in which they changed and innovated, may seem slow to us, but they included some of the most monumental transformations in human history. In this era, we try to capture those big changes by asking the question: "Why aren't most of us still foragers today"? That's because the final transformation of the era was when people in many places began to become farmers. But the move to farming was just one of several major innovations in a period that saw humans learn to communicate effectively, spread around the world, and—in many places—settle down to produce their own food for their first time. The cognitive revolution The first transformation we look at in this era was related to how we think and communicate. Most researchers believe that the first Homo sapiens evolved in Africa between 300,000 and 250,000 years ago. Our foraging ancestors were physically much like us. Their brains were likely as sophisticated as ours (or nearly so). Their hands could use tools, like ours. But they did not yet have the same abilities to think abstractly, to plan or to share symbolic language. These abilities came about later, because of a cognitive revolution that happened over a long time. This cognitive revolution, above all, allowed us to communicate better using art, music, and language. Language may in fact be what sets us apart from all other species. Many animals have the ability to communicate, usually through grunts and gestures. But humans are the only species that have created a symbolic language—a language that uses symbols to represent words and phrases. Humans can also construct new languages. We can speak or write about the past, present, and future. We create mythical creatures and discuss abstract concepts through symbols. Symbolic language is also the key to a process called collective learning—the ability to share and preserve knowledge that builds over generations. Many animals learn survival skills from their parents and pass these skills on to their young. But only humans have a vast library of knowledge that has been preserved in writing and has been passed down through multiple generations. Billions of humans have contributed to this collection of knowledge. It is this ability that has made it possible for us to fly around the Earth on planes, communicate with people we've never met on the Internet, take medicine to cure a disease, and read the teachings of Buddha and the plays of Shakespeare hundreds of years after these people have died. The peopling of the world The development of language also allows us to adapt to new environments. For that reason, they were vital to a second great transformation—the spread of humans around the world. The great migration of humans from Africa to Eurasia, the Pacific, and the Americas was a dramatic story covering tens of thousands of years. It is maybe the most incredible human endeavor of all time. Yet it was accomplished by small bands of foragers, rather than massive industrial or digital societies. Scientists still disagree about the dating and pathways of some of the great routes of migration. But we are increasingly able to use three types of evidence to understand their routes. The first is linguistic evidence. We can compare words and grammar in languages from different regions to see how they are related. The second is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic code that all humans carry and that is unique to each one of us. Our genetic material is like a language inside of our cells. By comparing DNA of people living today in different regions, scientists can determine how long ago human groups might have separated from each other as a result of migration. They can also use this data to figure out when a species shared a common ancestor. Based upon genetic studies, for example, many scientists believe that early humans first migrated from Asia to the Americas no earlier than 23,000 years ago. They believe humans would have crossed a strip of land that connected Siberia and Alaska during the last Ice Age, although others still dispute this date. Map shows human migratory paths, many routes show humans moving from central areas of continents to more coastal areasMap of proposed migration routes and dates based on Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows human migratory paths, many routes show humans moving from central areas of continents to more coastal areas Map of proposed migration routes and dates based on Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. CC BY-SA 3.0. The final type of evidence we can use to understand patterns of human migration are fossils and artifacts that early humans left behind. These objects include things like human and animal bones and stone tools and weapons. Archaeologists also use advanced dating techniques that provide accurate information about when these humans lived, what they ate, and how they lived. Dating these materials also allows these experts to study how tools changed over time. Most of the remains archaeologists use to understand this period are made of stone. Our foraging ancestors had limited technology. But stone tools can survive where wood or other organic materials did not. Because of this, we call this period the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age). The cultivation revolution Then, beginning maybe about 12,000 years ago, and in several parts of the world, some humans began to herd animals and farm crops. They cultivated crops—which means that they promoted the growth of some edible foods by actively preparing the conditions for their growth. Then they domesticated both plant and animal species. This means they selected the best ones and actively helped them to grow and reproduce to provide food. Because they had new daily tasks, their tools changed. New kinds of farming equipment, in particular, were developed. We see this in the archaeological record in the form of different types of stone implements like hoes and adzes. These tools give us the name for these communities—Neolithic (New Stone Age). There are many debates about how this change happened. It certainly was very difficult and took a long time— thousands of years in some regions. But was switching from foraging to farming a good idea? Scholars can't agree. Some point out that most early farmers had access to more calories from food than foragers. But they also suffered from more diseases and harder labor conditions. There are also disagreements about how many people really became farmers during this period. Just about everyone today eats food grown on farms and ranches. But throughout this era, most people probably remained foragers. Some only herded animals and didn't cultivate plants. Even members of farming societies still probably hunted and gathered to some degree. Grindstone shows a rock formed into a flat bowl-shape, with a round rock sitting on top used for grindingNeolithic grindstone used to grind or process grains. By José-Manuel Benito Álvarez, CC BY-SA 2.5. Grindstone shows a rock formed into a flat bowl-shape, with a round rock sitting on top used for grinding Neolithic grindstone used to grind or process grains. By José-Manuel Benito Álvarez, CC BY-SA 2.5. Arguably, the shift to farming was the trigger for the changes that were to follow. Some foragers, in areas with plenty of food, had already begun to spend most of their time living in one location. Farming allowed them to build truly permanent settlements. The populations of these communities grew, often dramatically, until their settlements became villages and cities. They needed more labor and more ways to control labor, which meant they needed government. They produced enough food that some people could specialize in other kinds of production or jobs. Their ideas about the world and forms of worship changed. These changes created problems and opportunities that were shared by farming communities around the world. Many developed similar strategies for dealing with them. But there were also great differences in communities in different regions. Archaeologists, who study these communities, are able to interpret both the shared experiences and the differences between lifestyles in different regions of the world. Why do we need to understand how the people in all of these Neolithic sites are related and connected? Because early human history was not just a step along a stairway to something more complex and modern. It was a series of lived experiences. Author bios Trevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries. Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What evidence does the author use to suggest that farming was an unintentional process to begin with?How did the rise of fixed farming communities change what people’s daily work looked like?According to the author, how did the rise of villages both expand and shrink networks?What were the benefits and drawbacks of foraging as a system of production and distribution?What were the benefits and drawbacks of farming as a system of production and distribution? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Did this article support, extend or challenge your understanding of the communities, networks and production and distribution frames?Given the evidence in this article, would you have preferred to have been a farmer or a forager? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Transition to Farming: Differing Perspectives Paneled, detailed early painting shows different scenes related to farming, including spreading grain and cutting down crops. By Eman M. Elshaikh Farming was adopted in many places, but there’s a fierce debate on how and why it happened and whether it was a good thing. Introduction Diet fads come and go. One diet that is still around—and you may have heard about—is the "Paleo" diet. Paleo dieters only eat foods that Paleolithic hunters and foragers ate. They don't eat grains, dairy products, or even beans because they don't believe these foods existed when our ancestors were only hunter-gatherers. The Paleo diet is based on the belief that our ancestors were healthier before the spread of agriculture. While health experts debate the merits of the Paleo diet, historians are asking an even bigger question. Why did humans begin farming? If the foods produced and consumed during the Stone Age were so great, then why did humans everywhere adopt farming and begin eating new foods? Well, they didn't, and farming actually spread slowly and unevenly. Researchers are still trying to understand the when, where, how, and why of the so-called agricultural revolution—and they're debating its costs and benefits. When, where, and how did farming happen? So, farming happened, that's a fact. But, it didn't really have to happen—it was one of many different possibilities. Yet, at some point, in many different areas, humans started collecting plants and domesticating animals. We aren't sure how intentional these processes were at first, but it is likely that it was a slow, gradual, and unintentional process. Many scholars think that plant cultivation in southwest Asia was an accident, as people dropped pieces of wild grains near their homes while preparing food. When these grains produced more grains, people got the idea to keep it going. Map shows the location of the fertile crescent and farming villages. The fertile crescent is coastal and indeed crescent shaped.Area of the fertile crescent, circa 7500 BC, with many farming villages from Neolithic period. By GFDL, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows the location of the fertile crescent and farming villages. The fertile crescent is coastal and indeed crescent shaped. Area of the fertile crescent, circa 7500 BC, with many farming villages from Neolithic period. By GFDL, CC BY-SA 3.0. It's generally thought that southwest Asia was the first place where farming developed. But many scholars think it developed independently in a few different places at different times. The earliest centers of farming included Southwest Asia, Central America, northern China, and New Guinea all from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago. From these centers, agriculture seems to have spread to other regions, with the exception of most of the Americas. Agriculture spread when farmers migrated and colonized territories and traded across networks. Tools, plant and animal species, and agricultural knowledge were exchanged along these networks. So what did farming change? The adoption of farming revolutionized how humans organized their communities, networks, health, and population. And though we won't get into it here, it also completely changed the environment. Farming meant people could settle into fixed communities. They could live in one place with members of their families, as opposed to moving frequently with a much larger band or group. Family homes became the basic unit of production, distribution, and consumption. Photo of ancient ruins: shows foundational elements of a family home such as walls and a small stairwell.Foundation of a family dwelling in Jericho. By A. Sobkowski, public domain. Photo of ancient ruins: shows foundational elements of a family home such as walls and a small stairwell. Foundation of a family dwelling in Jericho. By A. Sobkowski, public domain. These farming communities became more firmly organized with some people getting more or better access to wealth, food, and status. Some people invested in land and homes for long periods of time and began to have a sense of ownership over these places. Eventually, farmers could produce enough food to feed their families and to feed others in their community. When people could buy or trade for their food, they no longer had to work to produce their own. Instead, they could become soldiers, merchants, craftspeople, priests, or kings. Dividing up work this way helped to create a social hierarchy based on what a person did for a living. It sparked conflict and inequality. Women increasingly worked raising children and in the home. The shift to settled farming communities had major health impacts too. The new way of organizing the community meant a person spent more time on one specific daily task or job. Repetitive work led to stress on bones and muscles. But perhaps most importantly, with agriculture came the rise of infectious diseases. Because domesticated animals lived closer to humans, pathogens (disease-causing organisms) moved from animal to human hosts easily. Many people living close to each other transmitted these pathogens quickly. People moved into villages, some of which joined networks or grew into large cities. This made networks both shrink and expand. For instance, the network of a farmer in a small village might grow in number of people that he met, like neighbors and people at the markets, but it would shrink as he stayed only within a small area. Traders, by contrast, would have more connections from different places like the next farming community, village, or empire. So a trader's network would grow. Why farm? Farming seems to have been both good and bad, so, we ask again—why farm? Why work more, possibly harder, and have worse health? Why live in a crowded community where people are unequal and have to compete for resources? Well, it's not as though early farmers sat down and made a pro and con list. It's easy for us to look back at history and give reasons why the switch to farming was good or bad. But in almost all cases, farming wasn't a deliberate choice. But historians think there are multiple possible reasons why farming was adopted. The main one is that people started farming in response to things that happened in their environment. For example, naturally-occurring climate change dried up many previously fertile areas. So people stopped going to those areas and instead settled in less dry river valleys where farming was possible. Another potential reason is population growth. But we're not sure if people started farming because they needed more food for a growing population or if people started farming and that helped the population to grow. It could have gone either way. It's also difficult to know whether or not farming is more efficient than foraging. Some recent research suggests farming increased the amount of food per area, but the amount of food per person stayed about the same. However, the food supply seems to have been more reliable with farming. No matter why people shifted to farming, we do know that it grew and shrunk in different places. Over time, there was a shift from scattered farming to intensive farming. Was it better? So, we now have a better sense of the when, where, how, why, and so what of farming. Now, let's get back to our initial question of was farming better than foraging? What were some good outcomes and bad outcomes from the transition? Before the mid-twentieth century, historians thought of the shift to agriculture as purely positive. Farming, for them, was the way out of the miserable life of hunting and gathering. They were no longer at the mercy of unpredictable nature—they could control it and maintain a stable food supply. But recent research from a wide variety of disciplines including anthropology, genetics, and environmental science have contributed new evidence to challenge that story. Some research suggests that foragers actually had an easy life. They worked less and ate a varied diet. Despite lacking all the things we associate with complex societies, they were relatively healthy and enjoyed social equality. They had lower rates of disease and more leisure. Meanwhile, settled farmers worked more, had less healthy diets, and lived in dirty, polluted cities where they competed for resources, status, and space. These are conflicting points of view. It's just not a simple question. Some scholars point out that even with things like inequality and disease, farming was a good thing overall as it allowed for cultural exchange and collective learning. Without it, we wouldn't have things like writing, for example. We also wouldn't have stable, predictable lives, and we wouldn't enjoy the achievements of complex societies: architecture, literature, laws, or religions. Incredibly detailed dwelling carved into the rock features pillars, detailed carvings, and a carved stairway.Ad Deir Monastery at Petra is a monumental building carved out of rock in the ancient Jordanian city of Petra. © Getty Images. Incredibly detailed dwelling carved into the rock features pillars, detailed carvings, and a carved stairway. Ad Deir Monastery at Petra is a monumental building carved out of rock in the ancient Jordanian city of Petra. © Getty Images. Others point out that life really wasn't that happy or healthy for foragers. They may have had lower rates of disease, they argue, but they had higher rates of mortality (early death). They weren't peaceful like some might imagine, but competed for scarce resources. Food was not always available. And even though they may have worked less, this work may have been more difficult or dangerous. It's also possible that they worked less because more work wasn't productive. If you've already picked all the berries in an area, continuing to search doesn't do much good. While we don't have a clear answer, we have a more complete picture. It's not that foragers were entirely miserable, but they weren't totally happy, healthy and carefree, either. And while farmers may have had monuments and cities, they also had diseases, hierarchy, and vermin. The transition to farming completely transformed communities, networks, and systems of production and distribution. It also was a trade-off because the quality of life didn't just get better or worse. What people thought of as work and what people considered needs and wants totally changed. It was a very complex—and momentous—transition. Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the reading, what kind of production and distribution characterized most sub-Saharan Africa societies until about 1000 CE?According to the author, what were the problems and benefits of becoming farmers instead of foragers?What is the “Gardens of Eden” or “trap of sedentism” hypothesis?Why didn’t humans in sub-Saharan Africa fall into the trap of sedentism?What evidence does the author use to prove that farming in sub-Saharan Africa developed independently of other civilizations? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: From what you read in the article, what examples or evidence did the author use to prove his assertion that human societies adapted in many different ways to their environment? Were those adaptations similar or different from each other?How does the information in this article help you to answer the Era 2 Problem: Why did some humans become farmers, when our species had survived without farming for so very long, and what were the consequences of this change? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The First Farmers in Africa, the Cradle of Humanity Close up image of grain growing in a field By David Baker Why didn’t the first farms, the first cities, and the first empires begin in sub-Saharan Africa, where our ancestors had roamed for hundreds of thousands of years? Agriculture: Why wasn’t Africa first? As long as humans have existed, some have always lived in Africa. We evolved in Africa over the past 3.5 million years. Homo erectus, Homo habilis, and Australopithecus are just a few of our ancestors. These ancestors existed much earlier than we Homo sapiens (just 250,000 to 300,000 years). Africa is the cradle of our species and our first home. In fact, human beings are a very closely related family, much more than usual in nature. DNA testing tells us that a disaster 74,000 years ago—possibly the super-eruption of Mount Toba in Indonesia—reduced the human population to a few thousand. That was 10,000 years before the biggest human migration out of Africa. As a result, there is more genetic diversity between two different groups of chimpanzees separated by a few hundred miles than there is in the entire human species now spread across Earth. The Fertile Crescent developed agriculture first, in about 9000 BCE. On the other side of the world, China and New Guinea followed in 7000 BCE. For thousands of years, the only part of Africa to farm was Egypt, which interacted closely with Southwest Asia. All of Africa below the Sahara Desert continued hunting and gathering until approximately 3000 BCE. Why did sub-Saharan Africans continue to forage when societies in other regions were turning to farming? Why didn't the first farms, the first cities, and the first empires emerge in sub-Saharan Africa, where our ancestors had roamed for hundreds of thousands of years? African "fine tuning" Scientists generally believe that Africans turned to agriculture later precisely because their home was the cradle of our species. For millions of years, pre-human species such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and the Neanderthals evolved alongside native African animals. Animals need generations to adapt their instincts to humans, to avoid being captured or hunted. African animals had a lot of time for that adaptation, so they were much more difficult to domesticate. Domesticating animals is one of the first crucial steps for farming. That's also why there is so much megafauna (large mammals) still in Africa, while much of it was wiped out in Australia and the Americas when humans suddenly arrived. Humans also needed time to adapt to their environment. They evolved in Africa as foragers. In fact, earlier human species foraged for millions of years. Over many generations, humans adapted to their environment, becoming an intricate part of the ecosystem and expert foragers there. Thus, over long stretches of evolutionary time, human communities had learned to live as foragers with Africa, and Africa had learned to live with humans. But in other areas of the world, humans turned up suddenly. This abrupt appearance meant that they were not as good at foraging in those regions, and they caused rapid change, including the extinction of species. Therefore, the people in those regions had to turn to farming and pastoralism to survive. "Gardens of Eden" and the "trap of sedentism" Life as an early farmer was hard. Humans only stopped foraging when they became stuck in one place—the "trap of sedentism". Farming required a lot more work. One estimate is that a farmer needed to work 9.5 hours a day where a forager only needed to work 6. Early farming brought more disease, worse nutrition, worse health, and greater vulnerability to weather and natural disasters. For instance, we know that for a long time, foraging communities in the Kalahari Desert in Southwest Africa knew about farming but didn't adopt it. Why would anyone adopt a way of life that was far less healthy, took more work, and generally was much more miserable than foraging? Another factor contributing to the long absence of agriculture in Africa is the absence of so-called "Gardens of Eden"—areas so lush and filled with life that foragers would settle there and could survive for a generation or so. Once settled, their populations would grow. They would exhaust the fruits, vegetables, and plants on the land and would have to learn to farm. Being forced to give up nomadic ways in order to farm, after there was no more food to forage, is falling into the "trap of sedentism." In Africa, there weren't many, if any, "Gardens of Eden." So humans roamed from region to region as foragers for hundreds of thousands of years. They entered one area, feasted on the resources, then moved on to another region while the old one naturally replenished itself over time. Finally, Africa is a beautiful and diverse continent, but it also contains many challenging environments. The north has the harsh and deadly Sahara, which makes farming unlikely. The desert also cut off networks of communication with earlier farming societies. In fact, sub-Saharan Africans had to come up with farming independently. Farming in this region probably began in West Africa, south of the desert about 3000 BCE (some estimates are even a little earlier). The first farming started in the fairly lush and habitable savannah on the border between present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. Is it possible there actually was a "Garden of Eden" there to "trap" people into early farming? It's not certain. Many scholars have argued that even here, farming began as a way to support pastoralists and animal breeding rather than to meet a demand for food. The continent also holds many dense forests that would be very difficult for foragers to clear, settle, and farm. Finally, diseases also had evolved alongside humans in Africa. There were many tropical diseases that made it a good idea for humans to keep moving rather than settle down. Birds-eye view of rectangular fields grouped togetherRectangular fields clustered around a water well, on a bank of the Niger River, near Gao, Mali ©Yann Arthus-Bertrand/CORBIS. Birds-eye view of rectangular fields grouped together Rectangular fields clustered around a water well, on a bank of the Niger River, near Gao, Mali ©Yann Arthus-Bertrand/CORBIS. The independent origin of African agriculture Even as the people of West Africa began adopting some farming practices such as domesticating cattle, the efforts to domesticate plants in this area were slow. Eventually, however, West Africans began to settle and grow their food full-time. From 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE, the practice of farming spread across West Africa. These early farmers grew millet and sorghum (plants used for grain and fodder). Later, they began growing a special strain of rice native to Africa. They also grew tubers (root vegetables), yams, cowpeas, and oil palms, and began growing all sorts of fruits and melons. Early West African farming methods made use of many crops only native to Africa. Thus, scholars have determined that farming in West Africa was not derived from Egypt or the Fertile Crescent. It seems West Africa was one of only a few regions that started farming independently. In fact, West Africa started this whole process around the same time it began in the Americas, and before it began in many other regions of the world. Photo of bunches of dried sorghum and millet hanging upside downSorghum and millet bunches, annual grasses grown as grain and animal fodder, Sahel Desert, Mali, West Africa ©Ingo Arndt/Minden Pictures/CORBIS. Photo of bunches of dried sorghum and millet hanging upside down Sorghum and millet bunches, annual grasses grown as grain and animal fodder, Sahel Desert, Mali, West Africa ©Ingo Arndt/Minden Pictures/CORBIS. "Late" African regions, about 1000 BCE to 500 CE Sub-Saharan Africans enjoyed the advantages of foraging for a very long time. Even after West Africans began to farm, agriculture only spread slowly to other parts of the continent. It wasn't until 1000 BCE to 500 CE that people in most regions of sub-Saharan Africa started farming. This is considerably later than some of the other regions of the world. Nor is it clear that Africa's journey into the agrarian era was an entirely positive journey. On one hand, agriculture seems to be necessary for the building of large, technologically advanced societies. Because they developed agriculture later, some regions of Africa were at a disadvantage when they met up with European and Islamic cultures in the Common Era (CE). On the other hand, the late start of farming in sub-Saharan Africa meant many people lived well as foragers for thousands of years. They enjoyed healthier, better lives for much longer than the people of the Fertile Crescent or East Asia. Even after farming was introduced, large areas of Africa escaped the rigid hierarchies, the rule of cruel kings, and the widening gap between the rich and poor that come with agrarian societies. Author bio David Baker studied his PhD in Big History under Professor David Christian at Macquarie University. He now teaches Big History alongside Fred Spier and Esther Quaedackers at the University of Amsterdam. He is writer of the YouTube series Crash Course Big History, hosted by John and Hank Green in partnership with the Big History Project. [Sources and attributions]

Greco-Roman [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown Instead of rule by a single person, Athens and Rome developed governments with widespread participation by male elites, which lasted about 170 years in Athens and 480 years in Rome. Deep time Present-day Greece, with Athens as its capital, and Italy, with Rome as its capital, are neighbors along the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Eighty-five million years ago they were already neighbors, but across the sea on a thumb of land, a promontory of the continent of Africa. By 55 million years ago continental drift had carried the European and African continents together, and by 5 million years ago the promontory consisting of the future Italy and Greece had collided with the European crust, overriding it and piling the deformed crust higher and higher, creating the Alps and the mountains of Greece. After 5 million years of rocks and water pouring out of the Alps over Italy, countless earthquakes, the apparent drying out and refilling of the Mediterranean Sea, and microplates (Corsica and Sardinia) swinging down the Italian peninsula, the northern coast of the Mediterranean became the setting for the development of two distinctive societies, with the Romans eventually swallowing the Greeks as part of the Roman Empire. Location and food On the Greek peninsula, the Greeks occupied the southern shoreline, called Attica. Another group, the Macedonians, inhabited the northern territories. Attica was composed of rocky soil on steep mountains. The poor soil could sustain barley, grapes, and olive trees, and could accommodate sheep and goats, but not much else — just some figs and lentils. Hence, Greeks stayed near the coast and took to the sea for extra food and for trading with other people. Fortunately for the Athenians, who had built their city near the southern coast of Attica, a large silver deposit near Athens brought them wealth and paid for additional timber from Italy, which they used to build warships that gave them a powerful navy. The Athenians reduced their own forest cover from about 50 percent in 600 BCE to about 10 percent in 200 BCE.) [[image 1]] [[image 2]] The Romans had a more productive site on the western side of the Italian peninsula. They built their city on seven hills by the Tiber River, not at the seashore, but inland 18 miles (30 kilometers). This gave them protection from naval attacks, while they could still access the Mediterranean by river to the port city of Ostia. To the north lived the Etruscans, and to the south the Greeks formed colonies along the coast and on the island of Sicily. In their fertile river valley, early Romans grew wheat, barley, oats, rye, grapes, and olives. They used goat’s and sheep’s milk for cheese. Their local fruit trees included apples, pears, plums, and quince. They harvested many vegetables, but not corn, potatoes, or tomatoes — those came later from the Americas. For meat, they had fish, oysters, chickens, ducks, geese, and pigs; they seldom consumed cows. Salt, found in selected places, was controlled by the government. Soldiers were sometimes paid in salt, a practice from which our word salary derives, as does the phrase “worth your salt.” Athens and Greece From 1600 to 1100 BCE, Indo-European immigrants, called the Mycenaeans, occupied the mainland of the Greek peninsula. They attacked Troy, a city in Anatolia (now Turkey), on the other side of the Aegean Sea from Greece. This war is described in The Iliad, one of the earliest written pieces of Western literature, attributed to Homer and written down around the eighth century BCE. By 800 BCE small, competing city-states, called “poleis” (or singular, polis), were forming in the mountains of southern Greece. These city-states each contained some 500 to 5,000 male citizens and had varying degrees of popular participation in political life. The total Greek population may have been 2 to 3 million. The city-states shared a common language and religion, and after 776 BCE they came together every four years for competitive games held near Mount Olympus. The Greeks used their expanding population to set up more than 400 colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean and the Black seas between the mid-eighth and late sixth centuries. Their colonies in the Black Sea gave them access to fish, furs, timber, honey, gold, amber, and slaves from southern Russia. Greece introduced metallic coins in the seventh century BCE to facilitate trade; by 520 BCE they carried Athens’ emblem of an owl, the sacred bird of the goddess Athena. Instead of expansion by conquest, the early Greeks expanded by colonization. Sparta and Athens, the chief city-states, differed profoundly in their culture and politics. The Spartans conquered their neighbors and forced them to live as slaves, providing agricultural labor. To keep them in control, Sparta developed an austere culture based on maintaining an elite military force, with a ruling council of 28 elders. Athens, on the other hand, gave wealthy men full political rights. A growing number were added as they could afford armor and weapons to serve in the army, which was a duty of all participants in government. By 450 BCE, holders of public office were chosen by lot, and even the 10 military generals were elected. Since women, children, slaves, and foreigners had no vote, perhaps 10 to 12 percent of the estimated 300,000 Athenians were participating in government. Five hundred years before the Common Era, the largest and wealthiest agrarian civilization in the world was the Persian Empire. It conquered some of the Greek colonies on the shores of Anatolia. But when the Athenians fought the Persians, they won — on land at Marathon in 490 BCE and in great sea battles. A runner, Phidippides, carried the news of victory the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens and died after shouting, “Rejoice, we conquer.” (Before that, he had run 140 miles to Sparta and back, asking for help, which for religious reasons the Spartans wouldn’t give until the Moon was full.) Phidippides’s effort 2,500 years ago also spawned the 26.2-mile marathon running races that are so popular today. After their victory over the Persians, the Athenians enjoyed a golden age of cultural creativity of some 150 years. The high tide of democratic participation took place under the elected general Pericles, who served 32 years in the mid-fifth century. Athenian merchants had earlier brought knowledge and ideas from Mesopotamia and Egypt; Athenian scientists, philosophers, and playwrights developed and combined cultural traditions that would later spread throughout Europe and serve as a foundation for Western culture. (Just for reference: the philosophers Socrates died in 399 BCE, Plato about 348 BCE, and Aristotle in 322 BCE.) Of course, most Greeks did not have an advanced education; the literacy rate for that time is estimated at about 5 percent. The more educated Greeks believed in a pantheon of gods, headed by the sky god, Zeus, who emerged triumphant from the battle of the gods. (See the Greek origin story in Unit 1.) Many Greeks believed in mystery religions, which involved secrets known only to initiates and often entailed a savior whose death and resurrection would lead to salvation for followers. The Greek city-states never figured out how to live together peaceably; instead, Athens and Sparta fought the Peloponnesian War (431 – 404 BCE), in which Athens was defeated and all city-states were weakened. In the mid-300s BCE, Macedonia, their neighbor to the north, conquered the Greek cities. When the Macedonian leader, Philip II, was assassinated in 336 BCE, his 20-year-old son, Alexander, took the stage. In 13 amazing years, Alexander conquered enough land to form the largest empire the world had yet seen, from Macedonia and Greece to Bactria (Afghanistan) and parts of India, and including Anatolia, Egypt, the Middle East, Babylonia, and Persia. Alexander died suddenly and mysteriously in 323 BCE after a big drinking party; his empire was divided among three of his generals — Egypt under Ptolemy (not to be confused with the scientist Claudius Ptolemy), Greece and Macedonia under Antigonus, and central Asia under Seleucus. For a little more than a hundred years, these Greek rulers brought Greek culture to their areas. For example, the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile became the most important port in the Mediterranean. The Ptolemaic rulers there funded a museum that served as an institute of higher learning and research; it included a library that by the first century BCE had some 700,000 scrolls. Scholars came from around the Mediterranean to work in Alexandria. There Eratosthenes measured the diameter of the Earth, Euclid wrote the rules of geometry, and the scientist Ptolemy wrote the Algamest, unfortunately ignoring the ideas of Aristarchus, who also studied at Alexandria and theorized almost 2,000 years before Copernicus that the Earth circled the Sun. Meanwhile, over on the Italian peninsula the Romans had developed a powerful agrarian civilization, one that was not fragmented into city-states. Between 215 and 146 BCE they gradually conquered the Greek cities in Italy, only to absorb much of Greek culture into their own. Rome and empire Rome began as a merging of small towns on seven hilltops by the Tiber River, halfway down the west coast of the Italian peninsula. A hundred years after the union, in 509 BCE, Roman aristocrats overthrew their king and set up a republic ruled by the patrician class. (A republic is a form of government in which delegates represent the interests of varied constituencies.) The poorer classes, called plebeians, insisted on some protections and participation. The idea of the republic came to include the rule of law, the rights of citizens, and upright moral behavior. As its population grew, Roman rule expanded. For various reasons — food supplies, defense, land, glory — Roman armies fought the powerful city of Carthage, across the Mediterranean near modern-day Tunis, Tunisia. After 120 years Rome finally won and went on to conquer Greece, Egypt, and the Middle East by 133 BCE. The republican form of government, however, produced seething rivalries among its military leaders, who competed for power with their personal armies. Out of this competition emerged the winner, Julius Caesar (100 — 44 BCE), who conquered Gaul (modern France) and England, but not Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where the Celts held the line. By 46 BCE Julius Caesar declared himself dictator for life, ending the republic. Two years later other members of the Senate stabbed him to death in hopes of restoring the republic. Instead, after 13 more years of civil war, Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian, known as Augustus, took power and ruled for 45 years virtually unopposed. The empire reached its height in the first two centuries of the Common Era. From 27 BCE to 180 CE, a time known as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, Roman leaders controlled about 130 million people across an area of about 1.5 million square miles, from a city of 1 million people. Roman roads linked all parts of the empire. Roman law, which featured key concepts such as the principle that the accused are innocent until proven guilty, was administered everywhere. Under Roman law men had most of the rights, as was also the case in Greece. The father of the Roman family could arrange the marriages of his children, sell them into slavery, or even kill them without punishment. Roman law limited women’s rights to inherit property and assets, but some clever individuals managed to skirt this law. Like all agrarian civilizations of its time, Romans made use of slave labor — but on a larger scale than most. No reliable data exist, but at the height of the empire maybe one-third of the population were slaves; an emperor alone might have about 20,000 slaves. In 73 BCE an escaped slave, Spartacus, assembled 70,000 rebellious slaves; after several years Roman troops crushed them and crucified 6,000 survivors along the Appian Way. Romans put more of their creativity into roads, aqueducts (for carrying water), and law than into philosophy and science, unlike the Greeks. In a way, though, the Roman Empire was a vehicle for the spread of Greek culture. The Romans honored many gods, renaming the Greek ones and taking them as their own. Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 — 43 BCE) adopted a version of Stoicism, a Greek philosophy seeking to identify universal moral standards based on nature and reason; Epicetus and Marcus Aurelius further popularized it. The older mystery religions — the Anatolian rites of Mithras and Cybele and the Egyptian rites of Isis — proved immensely popular in the Roman Empire. Out of a remote corner of the Roman Empire emerged a small sect that has become the most widespread religion of today’s world — Christianity. The Romans conquered Judea (modern Israel) in 6 CE. Jesus, whom Christians consider the Son of God, grew up at a time of great tension between the Roman overlords and their Jewish subjects. The Romans allowed Jesus to be crucified in the early 30s CE to forestall rebellion, which they believed he was advocating with his message that “the kingdom of God is at hand.” In 66–70 CE, the Jews actually did revolt against Roman rule; the Romans crushed this by destroying the Jewish temple, taking thousands of Jews to Rome as slaves, and sending most of the rest into exile. After this revolt, Christianity spread to non-Jewish communities, led by Paul of Tarsus, Anatolia, who preached in the Greek-speaking eastern regions of the Roman Empire. At first Rome persecuted Christians, but by the third century CE Rome had become the principal seat of Church authority, with the religion appealing to the lower classes, women, and urban populations. In 313 Emperor Constantine (who ruled 306-337) legalized Christian worship after his own conversion, and by the end of the fourth century it had become the official state religion. History books used to refer to the “fall” of Rome in 476 when a Germanic general, Odovacar (435 — 493), became the ruler of the western part of the empire. But the fall was a gradual dissolution, not a sudden collapse. After 200, Rome faced many problems. Strong leadership was lacking; during a 50-year span in the 200s there were 26 emperors, only one of whom died a natural death. Epidemics of disease spread along the Silk Roads; afflictions that began in animals — smallpox, measles, mumps, whooping cough — could spread rapidly in urban populations. The Roman world lost about one-quarter of its population before 450. Monetary inflation occurred; people lost confidence in coins and returned to bartering. The dissolving empire meant the decline of urban life, reduced international trade, loss of population, and widespread insecurity for ordinary people. In 324 Emperor Constantine moved the capital to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople and now called Istanbul) in Turkey, and from there the Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire, which lasted another thousand years until the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453. The Western Roman Empire ended in 476. Centralized authority did not hold; government reverted to city-states and small territories ruled by princes, bishops, or the pope, with the Roman Catholic Church often at odds with state authorities. The common tongue, Latin, evolved into many splinter languages — French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Connections and legacies Even so, Greco-Roman collective learning managed to live on. Much credit must go to the Ptolemaic rulers in Egypt, who supported scholarship and research at the Museum and Library of Alexandria. Nobody knows for sure what happened to Alexandria’s library, but eventually it disappeared. The part of the city where it stood now lies underwater; in 2004 excavators discovered 13 lecture halls. Three main claims have been made about the library’s destruction: that Julius Caesar accidentally, or on purpose, set part of the city on fire in 48 BCE when fighting his rival general, Pompey; that Christians destroyed it in the early fifth century CE; and that Muslims, who took Alexandria in 640, ransacked the library and burned the documents as tinder for their bathhouses. (This was written 300 years after the purported event by a Christian bishop known for describing Muslim atrocities without much documentation.) Possibly all of these events, or versions of them, contributed to the library’s eventual demise. Whatever documents were at hand, Muslim scholars became interested in Greek ideas. These scholars spread their learning across North Africa and into modern Spain. In the eleventh century, Latin Christians took Toledo and Sicily back from the Muslims, and southern Italy from the Byzantines, acquiring many manuscripts written by Greek and Muslim scholars and monks. In the twelfth century, the Muslim scholar Ibn Rushd (1126–1198), known as Averroes in Latin, wrote commentaries on the Greek philosopher Aristotle and included some Arabic translations of the original Greek. By 1300, universities had been organized in many European cities, through which Greco- Roman ideas entered European intellectual life. Scholars in the Byzantine Empire also played a large role in preserving Greek knowledge. During the centuries when scholarship disappeared in the western part of the former Roman Empire, Byzantine monks and academics copied and recopied the Greek manuscripts. The Roman legacy seems a bit more concrete. Hundreds of miles of Roman road still exist, after 20 centuries of use. Emperor Justinian (reigned 527 — 565) reorganized Roman law with the Code of Justinian, which is still the basis of legal systems in most of Europe. (U.S. law is based on English case law.) Humanists in Europe used the ideas of Roman non-Christians, especially Cicero, to discuss how to live well rather than arguing about theology. The names of our months also derive from Roman times, carrying the names of their gods and of a couple of their most famous leaders. Perhaps the most important legacy of Greco-Roman civilization is its experiments with male citizen participation in political life. Though these exercises seem rather short-lived in both societies, the ideas later reemerged in Europe and the fledging United States to play a significant role in the shaping of modern governments. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What, according to the article, is the core concept of Daoism?Daoism and Confucianism seem to have emerged about the same time. How did they differ?Confucianism became very important in governance and highly adopted among the powerful in this era. What about Daoism?Confucianism tended to have a gender hierarchy in which men were more respected and powerful. How did Daoism treat gender, according to this article? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How do you think a community (such as China) could hold both the Daoist and the Confucian belief systems at the same time? What might that tell you about that society in this era?What do you think a state would look like if it adopted Daoism as its governing belief system? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Daoism Painting shows a man, standing, turning back to look at a gust of smoke Eman M. Elshaikh The Dao, meaning “the way,” is an ancient Chinese belief system which emphasizes harmony with the natural, balanced order of the universe. The Daoist way Belief systems tend to come with rules and prescribed (approved) practices. These include rituals, dietary restrictions, and laws. Daoism, sometimes called Taoism, is somewhat different because it seems to avoid strict systems of rules and laws. One of China's indigenous belief systems, Daoism is centered on the practice of wu wei, which means inaction. That might sound like Daoists believe in doing nothing, but that's not quite right. Instead, it means that a person should do nothing that conflicts with the Dao. So what is the Dao? The Dao, which means "the way," is the natural order of the universe. Daoists strive to be in harmony with this natural order. Rather than following particular rules, Daoists cultivate a sense of naturalness, called ziran. By being in tune with this, they believe they can avoid violence, suffering, and struggle. Picture shows a manuscript covered in language symbols, written in black ink, on a piece of brown silkA part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2th century BCE, Han Dynasty. Public domain. Picture shows a manuscript covered in language symbols, written in black ink, on a piece of brown silk A part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2th century BCE, Han Dynasty. Public domain. The sixth-century Daoist text, the Dao De Jing, sometimes translated as "the Way and Its Power," describes the central philosophy of Daoism as: "Being and non-being create each other. Difficult and easy support each other. Long and short define each other. High and low depend on each other. Before and after follow each other. Therefore, the Master acts without doing anything and teaches without saying anything. Things arise and she lets them come; things disappear and she lets them go. She has but doesn't possess, acts but doesn't expect. When her work is done, she forgets it. That is why it lasts forever." This text, which emphasizes the balance between opposites and the importance of yielding to the natural order, is usually attributed to the Chinese sage (scholar) Laozi. But historians aren't really sure when—or if—he existed. Laozi literally means "the elder," and not much is known about this legendary figure. Some think he lived at the same time as Confucius, while others date him to the later Warring States Period. Paintings from different points in Chinese history depict the two thinkers meeting. A detailed scene shows two elderly men, seated, meeting outside. One man is much older than the other, his hair white. Others stand on either side of the two seated men.A painting depicting Laozi meeting Confucius from the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE). By Shih K’ang, public domain. A detailed scene shows two elderly men, seated, meeting outside. One man is much older than the other, his hair white. Others stand on either side of the two seated men. A painting depicting Laozi meeting Confucius from the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE). By Shih K’ang, public domain. Whether or not Laozi and Confucius ever actually did meet, these belief systems have important points of contact. In fact, the term "dao" is also used in Confucian thought, where it refers to an ethical way of living. But the Daoist and Confucian communities disagree about how that works. Daoists consider a Confucian emphasis on strict rules to be somewhat misguided. The Daoist community believes that nature, not people, ultimately controls how things change. Therefore, humans and their rules are less important. They also see the Confucianist emphasis on culture and civilized society as unnecessary and rather unnatural. One powerful Daoist symbol is the image of a piece of uncarved wood. Where other symbols might show human ingenuity—like a cross or a star—the uncarved wood represents purity, simplicity, and nature—free of dishonesty and human intervention. A somewhat-faded painting depicts the meeting of two men, with two others behind them.A Western Han (202 BCE—9 CE) fresco depicting Confucius and Laozi, from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China. By Xinhua News, public domain. A somewhat-faded painting depicts the meeting of two men, with two others behind them. A Western Han (202 BCE—9 CE) fresco depicting Confucius and Laozi, from a tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China. By Xinhua News, public domain. Daoism and society Although Daoism is not focused on action or rituals, Daoists do employ a number of practices, some of which are communal, and influence the ways communities as well as individuals act. These include both passive and active meditation practices, as well as certain forms of martial arts. Daoists have historically had a variety of relationships to political power, but, in general, Daoists stayed away from matters of government, preferring to live naturally and simply. Similarly, wealth, status, and fame were all no-nos. Instead, Daoists promoted a lifestyle of small, self-sufficient communities in harmony with nature. This meant retreating from many aspects of Chinese culture and society, including language and education. Another excerpt from the Dao De Jing says that: "Though they had boats and carriages, they should have no occasion to ride in them; though they had buff coats and sharp weapons, they should have no occasion to use them. I would make the people return to the use of knotted cords (instead of written characters). They should think their (coarse) food sweet; their (plain) clothes beautiful; their (poor) dwellings places of rest; and their common (simple) ways sources of enjoyment." This emphasis on simplicity also had important social effects. Both Confucianists and Daoists believed that the family unit was incredibly important. But unlike Confucianists, Daoists did not create a sharp divide between genders. Daoist women were permitted to be spiritual figures and teachers. In fact, the Dao De Jing places a positive emphasis on things that are often associated—fairly or unfairly—with femininity and women, like fertility, softness, and submission. The ancient principle of yin and yang, or the idea that all things exist as entwined, complementary (harmonious) opposites, also symbolizes the masculine and the feminine. The feminine yin, is valued in Daoist belief systems as a necessary and natural aspect of the universe. Indeed, because Daoists emphasize naturalness and inaction, a more yielding, non-dominating yin is seen as beneficial. An octagonal ceiling features several symbols in bright colors, surrounding a yin and yang, which is in the center. Leading up to the ceiling are brick walls.A decorative ceiling depicting Daoist symbols, including yin and yang. By Kunwi, CC BY-SA 3.0. An octagonal ceiling features several symbols in bright colors, surrounding a yin and yang, which is in the center. Leading up to the ceiling are brick walls. A decorative ceiling depicting Daoist symbols, including yin and yang. By Kunwi, CC BY-SA 3.0. Despite the tensions between the Confucianism and Daoism, both influenced Chinese society in significant ways. In fact, some regarded these two belief systems as in a kind of yin and yang balance together, where Confucianism guided public life and Daoism influenced the personal realm. The combination of belief systems like Confucianism and Daoism, along with Buddhism, have influenced Chinese cultures for centuries and continue to play a role in Chinese communities today. Author bio Eman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why did Ashoka build and inscribe his pillars?How did ancient emperors use family as a method of control?What challenges does the author say women faced when they ruled empires?How did emperors use religion to increase their authority? Give one example.According to the author, how are rebellions like burps? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: The author gives only three methods for how empires increased control and authority. Can you think of some other methods they might have used?This article argues that one result of empire formation was that women (empresses) became subordinate to men (emperors). How does this support or challenge patterns of gender equality or inequality in earlier periods or other types of states? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Authority and Control in Ancient Empires Painting shows a royal entourage coming down a green hillside, most people carrying flags. Many people are following a few people on horseback. By Dennis RM Campbell Gods, family, and taxes: an emperor’s guide to controlling subjects and legitimizing authority. In the mid-third century BCE, after conquering most of what today is India and Pakistan, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka erected a series of public inscriptions on large pillars. With these monuments, Ashoka proclaimed his empire was one of peace and stability under Buddhism. The violence used to create the empire was in the past. That sounds peaceful, but these texts were clearly statements of Ashoka's absolute imperial control. He certainly never disbanded his army nor melted down their weapons. Since most of his people couldn't read, all they saw were monuments to Ashoka's greatness. Like all empires, Ashoka and his descendants used religion, dynastic family ties, and control of peripheries to maintain their authority and keep their people in line. And while we can't cover all empires here, we will visit a variety of centuries and continents to see how this trend has so often occurred. Photo of a tall, smooth pillar protected by a tall gate.The Ashoka pillar at Lauriya-Araraj. The capital, a carved piece set atop the pillar, is missing. The pillar, which stands thirty six and a half feet high, contains six of Ashoka’s edicts (orders). By Sachin Kumar Tiwary, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photo of a tall, smooth pillar protected by a tall gate. The Ashoka pillar at Lauriya-Araraj. The capital, a carved piece set atop the pillar, is missing. The pillar, which stands thirty six and a half feet high, contains six of Ashoka’s edicts (orders). By Sachin Kumar Tiwary, CC BY-SA 3.0. Dynastic legitimacy For an empire to work, its people must accept a family as having the legitimate right to rule1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. As power becomes associated with them, that family, or dynasty, becomes synonymous with the empire. As time passes, there is often a decline in emperors' ability (or interest) in ruling. The dynasties are eventually seen as corrupt and unworthy of rule. As you will see below, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was developed by the Zhou Dynasty of China (1046-226 BCE) as a way to take power and also immunize itself against accusations of corruption. In many areas, dynasties were based on blood relations. All emperors of the Chinese Han Empire (c. 202 BCE—220 CE) were directly related to the first Han ruler, Gaozu. The Japanese emperors trace their dynasty back to Emperor Jimmu (660s BCE), although this likely represents imperial mythology. For much of the Roman Empire (60 BCE—476 CE), emperors were chosen for their leadership qualities. Yet even there, the idea of a dynasty was important. New emperors were often adopted into their predecessor's family, creating the illusion of family ties. Painted depiction of an emperor and several of his men. The emperor is watching a bird, standing, and the other men are seated on the ground around him. One of the seated men is pointing at the bird.The emperor Jimmu, while on an expedition, watches a sacred bird fly away. Whether legendary or a true historical figure, Japanese emperors have acknowledged him as the first of their line. Woodblock print from Ginko Adachi’s Emperor Jinmu – Stories from “Nihonki” from 1891. Public domain. Painted depiction of an emperor and several of his men. The emperor is watching a bird, standing, and the other men are seated on the ground around him. One of the seated men is pointing at the bird. The emperor Jimmu, while on an expedition, watches a sacred bird fly away. Whether legendary or a true historical figure, Japanese emperors have acknowledged him as the first of their line. Woodblock print from Ginko Adachi’s Emperor Jinmu – Stories from “Nihonki” from 1891. Public domain. Emperors and empresses Most empires were controlled by male emperors, and rule was passed down through the male line. In fact, the title and symbols of imperial power were perceived as masculine. The title imperator in Rome, from which we get our word "emperor," was originally a military term held by successful generals. Symbols of power often included weapons of war. The role of the empress was more complicated. In many instances the empress was completely subordinate to the emperor. Her primary role was to bear a son who would eventually become emperor. Because imperial rule was perceived as a man's job, women who exerted power were often depicted negatively by historians, often quite unfairly. The Eastern Roman Empress Theodora (ca. 497-548 CE) played an important role as her husband's adviser. Mosaic of a woman, the Empress Theodora, wearing an elaborate headdress covered in colorful gems. Mosaic of the Empress Theodora of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Basilica San Vitale in Raven- na. Powerful women often received terrible treatment at the hands of male commentators. Public domain. Mosaic of a woman, the Empress Theodora, wearing an elaborate headdress covered in colorful gems. Mosaic of the Empress Theodora of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Basilica San Vitale in Raven- na. Powerful women often received terrible treatment at the hands of male commentators. Public domain. In times of weak emperors, strong empresses influenced their husbands, often dictating policy through him. The empress Lü was married to Gaozu (256-195 BCE), first emperor of the Han. When Gaozu died and their son was too young to take over, Lü became the empress dowager, ruling for a child emperor, even though she never took the title of emperor. Something similar happened in Egypt, when Hatshepsut (1507-1458 BCE) began as a regent for the child emperor Thutmose III. By 1478 she had taken the title of king and ruled over Egypt's new empire until her death in 1458. To rule in Egypt, Hatshepsut had to present herself as a man. In art she is shown as a male figure. Ancient graffiti near her tomb makes it clear that not everyone was happy with having a woman as emperor. Religion and control A common means of creating effective imperial authority is to claim support by the gods. In China, the Zhou Dynasty created the concept of a Mandate of Heaven. They used this mandate to justify seizing power from the Shang Dynasty. The mandate states that if a dynasty becomes corrupt or fails at protecting the empire then the people are allowed to overthrow it. But as long as a dynasty ruled, it was assumed that it was still legitimate, or had the "Mandate of Heaven". To better control their peripheries, empires brought their religion to conquered territories. The Neo-Assyrian Empire made sure the cult of their god Assur became included among the gods that the people in the peripheries worshipped. Just as Assur ruled over their gods, so too would the Assyrian emperor rule over the people. Ashoka used his Buddhism to unite the people of his empire. Some emperors directly involved the gods of their peripheral territories. Cyrus the Great of Persia (died 530 BCE) claimed that he was the rightful ruler of Babylon because that city's god, Marduk, personally selected him. About a thousand years before that, the Hittites of ancient Anatolia had a more literal way of claiming godly connections by stealing conquered people's idols2^22squared —"goddnapping", basically—and bringing them back to their capital city. Statue of a pharaoh standing with her arms at her side, wearing a headdress and skirt. The statue has some cracks in it and her nose is broken off.Statuette of Hatshepsut as pharaoh. Note that she is depicted here as completely masculine. This includes a male skirt and the fake beard of the pharaohs. From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. Statue of a pharaoh standing with her arms at her side, wearing a headdress and skirt. The statue has some cracks in it and her nose is broken off. Statuette of Hatshepsut as pharaoh. Note that she is depicted here as completely masculine. This includes a male skirt and the fake beard of the pharaohs. From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. The process of creating religious unity was often violent. For the Romans, public worship of the gods was needed to ensure peace and stability within the empire. In times of trouble, Roman emperors would require public declarations of sacrifice to the gods. Failure would commonly result in severe punishments and persecution of minority groups, including Christians. A cylinder-shaped stone carved with script.The Cyrus Cylinder, which was discovered at Babylon, was a piece of royal propaganda from the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great. In it he proclaims that Marduk, god of Babylon, had personally chosen Cyrus to rescue Babylon from its corrupt king. By Mike Peel, CC BY-SA 4.0. A cylinder-shaped stone carved with script. The Cyrus Cylinder, which was discovered at Babylon, was a piece of royal propaganda from the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great. In it he proclaims that Marduk, god of Babylon, had personally chosen Cyrus to rescue Babylon from its corrupt king. By Mike Peel, CC BY-SA 4.0. Death and taxes: Controlling the periphery Ensuring the loyalty of the periphery was no easy feat. Loyalty was important for two reasons: collecting taxes and preventing revolts. In addition to the taxes, an important benefit of conquering other people was being able to use them as soldiers. The only thing an empire hates more than a subject who doesn't pay taxes is a subject who rebels. Making someone a loyal soldier was a great way to keep rebellion off their mind. Empires have used many different strategies to ensure loyalty in the periphery—some more brutal than others. The Han Empire of China created commanderies (administrative districts) to manage its peripheries. Based on a code of laws, these commanderies allowed for more efficient administration and taxation while establishing peace and order. In its early period, the Roman Empire preferred to allow peripheral areas to be run by vassal kings. Although vassal means "subordinate", these kings would be recognized as independent rulers, who would just happen to do whatever the Romans wanted. Eventually, the periphery of the Roman Empire was placed in the hands of bureaucrats loyal to the emperor. As mentioned, empires love taxes and hate rebellion—but that's like loving soda and hating burps. A very old piece of paper or papyrus with script written on it.This libellus (250 CE) was a signed and countersigned document proving that a Roman citizen, here the women Aurelia Bellias and her daughter Kapinis, had made sacrifice to the gods. Failure to perform sacrifice could result in imprisonment, loss of property, and death. Public domain. A very old piece of paper or papyrus with script written on it. This libellus (250 CE) was a signed and countersigned document proving that a Roman citizen, here the women Aurelia Bellias and her daughter Kapinis, had made sacrifice to the gods. Failure to perform sacrifice could result in imprisonment, loss of property, and death. Public domain. In 66 CE, during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, the First Jewish Revolt broke out. Jews in Judea were being heavily taxed by Romans. Then, after a series of abuses by Greeks living in Judea, Romans failed to stand up for the Jewish population that had been so profitable, so a series of riots broke out that soon turned into rebellion. Four years later the city of Jerusalem was taken by the Romans, resulting in perhaps nearly one million deaths. The revolt ended in 73 CE with the fall of the fortress of Masada. When the Romans finally broke into this mountaintop fortress, they found that 960 of the 967 Jews there had committed suicide. Birds-eye view of a rocky, mountainous area. The site is on top of a large rock formation with a flat top.The site of Masada in Israel. Here 967 Jewish rebels resisted the Roman army from 72-73 CE. When the Romans finally broke into the city (the ramp they created can be seen on the right of the image), they found that 960 of the rebels had committed suicide. By Andrew Shiva, CC BY-SA 4.0. Birds-eye view of a rocky, mountainous area. The site is on top of a large rock formation with a flat top. The site of Masada in Israel. Here 967 Jewish rebels resisted the Roman army from 72-73 CE. When the Romans finally broke into the city (the ramp they created can be seen on the right of the image), they found that 960 of the rebels had committed suicide. By Andrew Shiva, CC BY-SA 4.0. Control through toleration and violence The Persian Emperor believed that it was his responsibility to protect his empire from chaos. He allowed peripheral states, including the Greeks, considerable freedom as long as they paid lip service3^33cubed to the emperor as provider of order. The Romans, on the other hand, controlled their peripheral people by treating them as inferiors. A few wealthy peripherals were granted citizen rights, but the majority were not so lucky. They could be punished harshly for any reason. During the reign of Caracalla (211-217 CE), citizenship was granted to all peoples within the borders of the empire. This drew even harsher lines dividing the "haves" (honestiores) on the inside and "have-nots" (humiliores) on the periphery, and the latter group was exploited and abused. Conclusion Families, gods, and force. These are time-tested methods by which empires tax and control their subjects, particularly their conquered peripheries. It's remarkable just how well these methods have stood the test of time. Many European empires in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries still had dynastic rulers. And in those that did not (America, for example), rulers still called back to ancient symbols and traditions like the Roman Empire in order to lend legitimacy to their rule. Religious conversion played a central role in controlling British colonies. Efficient bureaucracies extracted taxes and resources from its colonies. And when this failed or local leaders resisted, there was always the British navy with its cannons. [Notes] Author bio Dennis RM Campbell is an associate professor of History at San Francisco State University. He primarily conducts research on esoteric topics in ancient history and writes about ancient language, religions, and societies. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was life like in early farming villages?How was life in early farming villages different from life in hunter-gatherer communities?What do we know about women’s lives in early farming villages? How did this change as early farming villages grew?What are some examples of trade between villages? How do historians know about this trade?How did changes in production and distribution affect communities?In what ways did village networks affect the population of villages, towns, and cities? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Because there’s a lack of written records from early villages, historians and anthropologists mostly rely on archeological data as evidence. What do you think are some of the limitations of archeological evidence? Are there any pieces of evidence presented in this article that you could interpret differently than the author did?How does this article help you think about the Era 3 Problem: How did new complex societies develop and what was their impact on humans both inside and outside these communities? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Village Networks Birds-eye view drawing shows a network of structures and homes. By Eman M. Elshaikh For much of human history, we lived in small villages and towns, not in the large cities and societies we’re used to today. What was life like in these villages? Introduction One of the most significant moments in human history was the advent of farming. It didn't all happen at the same time or to the same extent across societies, but the switch from looking for food to growing it changed everything. Farming allowed humans to actually store extra food, leaving more time for activities that weren't always about eating, like the establishment of complex societies. Painting shows a couple using what appears to be a tilling machine pulled by an ox, below them are several plantsSennedjem and his wife in the fields sowing and tilling, from the Tomb of Sennedjem, The Workers’ Village, New Kingdom (wall painting) Painting shows a couple using what appears to be a tilling machine pulled by an ox, below them are several plants Sennedjem and his wife in the fields sowing and tilling, from the Tomb of Sennedjem, The Workers’ Village, New Kingdom (wall painting) As with most big changes, it didn't happen overnight. Cities, states, and societies evolved over a long period of human history. Most communities from this period lived in villages and small towns. Even the Roman Empire was mostly people living in small, agricultural settlements. These early villages grew in different ways. Some were proto-cities that eventually developed into large urban population centers and parts of states. Others remained self-sufficient villages, exchanging with other villages in networks. We don't have written records from most villages, but archeological excavations have literally unearthed a lot of information about village life. Things like clothing and mud homes don't usually survive after thousands of years. But pottery, artifacts made from shells, and homes made of sturdy materials last longer. Looking at the surviving objects of infrastructure, archeologists and historians have been able to reconstruct a story about early village life. Social life before the city So what was life like before farming gave us all this free time? Many scholars consider earlier foraging societies to be largely egalitarian, meaning that there was comparatively less social inequality. It seems like this continued to be the case in early farming villages, where people had relatively equal social status. Most people living in villages spent the majority of their time producing food. Hunting, foraging, caring for animals, and growing food was still everyone's primary job. Although some people began to work on storing and preserving food, labor was mostly divided by gender, with women spending more time taking care of small children but also participating in food production. However, these gender divisions did not necessarily mean gender inequalities. How do historians know this? Archeological evidence shows that people in villages probably shared tools and work spaces. Excavations of the Tripolye culture (c. 5200- 3500 BCE) in modern-day Ukraine and of the town of Çatalhüyük (c. 7500-5700 BCE) in modern-day Turkey show that homes were mostly about the same size, and the objects in homes and graves were of relatively equal value. Analysis of human bones also tells us that people living in villages had similar diets. Photo shows what the inside of a typical dwelling might have looked like: there is a woodstove, a ladder, a grindstone, woven mat, and pottery. A restoration of a typical living quarter in Catal Hüyük. By Elelicht, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photo shows what the inside of a typical dwelling might have looked like: there is a woodstove, a ladder, a grindstone, woven mat, and pottery. A restoration of a typical living quarter in Catal Hüyük. By Elelicht, CC BY-SA 3.0. People living in farming communities had pretty different lives from their hunter-gatherer ancestors. They lived in closer quarters, allowing disease to spread much faster, and some research suggests that people had more anxieties about disease. Also, as their food supply became increasingly dependent on favorable environmental conditions, they worried more about the weather. The weather was so important that it influenced many spiritual beliefs and practices, and honoring the source of life and the Earth were often at the center of early religious beliefs. Some artifacts found in early villages suggest that women were regarded as the source of life because they symbolized fertility. For example, goddess figures found in Çatalhüyük depict feminine deities. Sculpture shows a female body in a seat with two animals by her side.Seated Mother Goddess of Çatalhüyük c.5500 BCE. By Nevit Dilmen, CC BY-SA 3.0. Sculpture shows a female body in a seat with two animals by her side. Seated Mother Goddess of Çatalhüyük c.5500 BCE. By Nevit Dilmen, CC BY-SA 3.0. However, that celebration of the feminine did not exactly put farming communities at the forefront of gender equality. As these villages introduced things like permanent dwellings, the concept of ownership, and a more specific definition of family, gender hierarchies tended to intensify. Kinship systems in general became more complicated and rigid. Hunter-gatherer societies had needed full-time effort from all men and women to stay fed, but the new farming communities could build up surpluses of food, allowing women to have more children. Over time, most women's lives became less about the work of food production and more about children and maintaining small family homes. Before long-distance trade Usually when we talk about trade and its tremendous impact on human history, we think of ships crossing oceans. But long before any of that happened, villages began trading with each other in local networks, and that development was also pretty major. When farming villages started trading with nomadic foraging communities and other farming communities, they could get their hands on things like obsidian. This specialty of the people from Çatalhüyük was a hard volcanic glass that villagers used to create many tools. This old-school hardware wasn't just in Turkey — archeologists have also traced obsidian trade among village networks in the many islands of Oceania. The Lapita culture, which existed from about 1600-500 BCE, left behind plenty of obsidian artifacts, as well as ceramics, marine shells, and plants. The excavation sites on these islands suggest that inter-island trade occurred way before long-distance trade routes emerged. In the Americas during the last millennium BCE, coastal villages in the Norte Chico society (Peru today) traded fish, mollusks, and shells with inland villages, which cultivated corn, textiles, potatoes, quinoa, and cattle, specifically llamas. Photo of small, shiny, black rocksObsidian mirrors excavated by James Mellaart and his team in Çatalhöyük. By Omar hoftun, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photo of small, shiny, black rocks Obsidian mirrors excavated by James Mellaart and his team in Çatalhöyük. By Omar hoftun, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows small area where Lapita pottery has been found between three larger regionsRegion where Lapita pottery has been found. By Christophe cagé, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows small area where Lapita pottery has been found between three larger regions Region where Lapita pottery has been found. By Christophe cagé, CC BY-SA 3.0. Well, once you start trading potatoes and llamas, it isn't long before you're building roads, bridges, and irrigation and drainage systems. This kind of trade also contributed to food surpluses and specialization as villages grew more productive. In studying the lives of people living in village communities and the networks between them, historians can see the emergence of new social functions. More people made pottery, wove baskets and cloth, and worked with leather and wood. Labor became increasingly divided, and larger projects needed to be coordinated by administrators and leaders. This resulted in greater social hierarchies, with more defined notions of property, class, and caste. Sure enough, the archeological record bears this out. Burial sites start to look very different from one another, with some graves—including those of children—containing gold artifacts and jewelry, while others did not. The fact that even children had such valuable items in their graves suggests that people in villages and towns began to accumulate private wealth and transfer it across generations, providing evidence of the beginning of social classes. Similarly, gender roles generally changed. Male heads of family tended to gain control over wealth, and political considerations required more defined families and strategic marriage alliances. However, this didn't happen everywhere in quite the same way, and there was still plenty of variety in the way people understood gender and family in different regions of the world. Trade helped villages grow, but village networks also boosted trade in a big way. As trade routes grew, villages located near trade hubs or that controlled strategic crossings were able to grow even faster. This cycle reinforced itself over time. Eventually, many villages would come together into large urban centers, creating a type of social life in the city that looked very different from village life. Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

Use the “Three Close Reads” approach as you watch the video below (next in the lineup!). If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you watch, you should skim the [transcript](transcript link here) first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the video is about. You should be looking at the title, thumbnails, pictures, and first few seconds of the video for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the video transcript and taken a quick peek at the video, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the video. Keep in mind that when you watch the video, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you read or hear that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What evidence does John Green give to illustrate that China was the first modern state?What reasons does John Green give to explain the dynastic cycle (rise and fall of different Chinese dynasties)?What was the Mandate of Heaven?How does the Mandate of Heaven reinforce Confucian philosophy?Why was the Qin so important to Chinese history?Why might the brutality of the Qin have been exaggerated?Who was Confucius and what was his philosophy based upon?What are ren and li? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this video matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: John Green states that the Mandate of Heaven “is a remarkably flexible explanation of historical causation.” What does he mean by this?This video pays a lot of attention to the sources from which we get our information about two millennia of Chinese dynasties. Who wrote these sources? Does John Green trust these sources? What kinds of information from these sources do you trust? Why? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to watch! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished watching.

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How did Hinduism emerge in South Asia?How do Hindus believe that a person’s status is determined?Why did Hinduism spread? What made it appealing to people?How was the social hierarchy organized under Hinduism? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: You’ve read about Judaism, which spread all around the world, but did not spread to large numbers of people. You’ve also read about Christianity, which spread all around the world to become the world’s largest religion. Hinduism, by contrast, spread to many people but was only widely adopted in South Asia. Can you think of any reasons for this? What role might networks and communities have played in Hinduism’s expansion (and lack of expansion)? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Hinduism Photograph of an incredibly ornate Hindu temple. Figures are carved into stone, as well as many other symbols By Merry Wiesner-Hanks The Hindu belief system developed over hundreds of years through the intellectual work of Brahmins and the practices and ideas of millions of practitioners. About a billion people follow this faith today, mostly in South Asia. Introduction During the millennium from 1500 to 500 BCE, people who called themselves Aryans (from the word for "noble" in Sanskrit, the major language of ancient India) came to dominate northern India politically and culturally. They created a body of sacred works, epics, hymns, philosophical treatises, and ritual texts called the Vedas, which serve as the primary source of information about this era. The traditional view is that the Aryans came into India from the north using the superior military technology of chariots and bronze weaponry, and conquered the indigenous tribal population. (This is why, in the twentieth century, the Nazis glorified the Aryans as a superior race and claimed links with them.) Although archaeological evidence for the Aryan invasion is slim, this is the story told in the Vedas—the oldest of the Hindu religious texts—which present their leaders as heroic figures, aided by priests and warriors. The Aryans recognized a number of gods and goddesses, who could be approached through the ceremonies of priests called Brahmins. These rituals might allow a person to achieve union with the ultimate unchanging reality that is the source of the universe, called brahman. Originally this was seen as possible only for men who were Brahmins and lived an ascetic life focused on purity rather than pleasure, but in the third century BCE this idea began to widen. The brahmanic religion developed into what was later called Hinduism, a diverse set of practices and beliefs in which individual worshippers could show their devotion to the gods directly, without using priests as intermediaries. Personal gods could be honored through saying prayers, singing hymns, dancing, presenting offerings, and making pilgrimages to holy sites, and also by living an honorable life in one's own situation. Religious ideas and practices The high status of Brahmins was affirmed in the Upanishads, cosmological texts composed between 750 and 500 BCE. In these the universe was understood to be an endlessly repeating cycle in which souls were reincarnated through a continual process of rebirth known as samsara. Actions performed in one's life— known as karma—determined one's status in the next life. Good deeds led to higher status and bad deeds to lower. The ultimate goal of life was to escape this relentless cycle of birth and rebirth and achieve moksha, a state of liberation, bliss, and awareness in which one achieved union with brahman. The quest for brahman involved personal devotion to one or more of the many gods and goddesses who were manifestations of brahman. They were usually represented by images in homes and temples. Devotion to one did not mean denial of the others, and over the centuries new gods, doctrines, beliefs, and rituals were added and incorporated. Reaching brahman also involved living a moral life, what became known as dharma, a Sanskrit word with many shades of meaning, involving piety, moral law, ethics, order, duty, mutual understanding, justice, and peace. The moral and spiritual teachings of Hinduism were widely appealing because they offered direct contact with the gods, often in exuberant rituals, and guidance for everyday life. Following rules of behavior and performing ceremonies associated with one's social group and favored gods might lead to being born in a higher status group in the next life, an attractive idea for most people. A small, ancient stone temple. The temple rests at the top of a set of stairs.The sixth century CE Dashavatara Temple to the god Vishnu in north-central India also contains images of various other gods and goddesses. It is one of the oldest surviving Hindu stone temples. By Work2win, CC BY-SA 4.0 A small, ancient stone temple. The temple rests at the top of a set of stairs. The sixth century CE Dashavatara Temple to the god Vishnu in north-central India also contains images of various other gods and goddesses. It is one of the oldest surviving Hindu stone temples. By Work2win, CC BY-SA 4.0 Society and family life Like every ancient society, early Aryan society distinguished among various social groups. Priests and warriors became the two highest social strata (varna in Sanskrit), the Brahmin and the Kshatriya. Merchants formed the third strata (Vaishya) and peasants, laborers, and conquered peoples the fourth and largest strata (Shudra). The Vedas portray this system as created by the gods, who divided the original cosmic being into four parts corresponding to parts of the body; this gave social divisions religious sanctions. Skin color may have played a role in the origins of these social strata—Aryan epics describe those who opposed them as dark-skinned savages—but societal roles was the key source of differentiations. Thus attitudes toward certain types of work underlay them: memorizing religious texts and engaging in intellectual debates was honored work, while farming or making things with one's hands were demeaning. Over time, occupational and geographic distinctions were elaborated into an increasingly complex system of thousands of hereditary groups known as jati— which literally means "births." Each of these were understood to have a common identity and ancestors, and had roles, rituals, and status prescribed by custom and tradition. They were reinforced by endogamy, that is, marrying within the group. As new occupations developed because of technological change or cultural interactions, or as groups migrated in or invaded, new jati were created for them or older ones redefined, so the system was both stable and flexible. When Portuguese traders came to India in the late fifteenth century, they called these groups casta from their own word for hereditary social divisions. This became the English word "caste," now used widely to describe the Indian social hierarchy. Certain tasks were regarded as beneath the dignity of even the lowest shudras, and those who did them were viewed as outside of the caste system, a social classification that developed into the notion that certain groups were "untouchable" because they were impure. That designation became a circular one: untouchables were scorned because their occupations polluted them, but certain occupations polluted all who did them. Scholars debate many aspects of the caste system. Some argue that British rule in India in the nineteenth century made the system far more rigid than it had been earlier because it codified the system in writing, while others stress that unwritten norms can be just as authoritative as written law. The power of caste in contemporary Indian society is a sharply disputed political issue. There is little debate that, whatever one's social group, the family was where one was to observe dharma. All men and women were expected to marry, with sexual pleasure, fulfilling religious obligations, and having children regarded as the three purposes of marriage. Hindu deities include powerful female gods, but only male Brahmins could go through the most important religious ceremonies and study sacred texts. While her brothers were off studying, a Brahmin girl learned housekeeping and domestic religious rituals. After her husband's death, a widow was regarded as unlucky, so not welcome at family festivities. But like the male members of her family, after death she could hope for a favorable rebirth, which might include being reborn as a man. Political developments and the spread of Hinduism The Aryans established small kingdoms in northern India, and priests supported the expanding power of rulers, who in return confirmed the superior status of the priests. The Persians and the Greeks under Alexander conquered parts of northwest India, but at times Indian rulers also created larger empires, some of which favored Buddhism and some Hinduism. Religious and social practices associated with Hinduism spread into Nepal and Sri Lanka, where they blended with local religious and social systems. They also spread into Southeast Asia, carried across the Indian Ocean by merchants and sailors on ships. After about 100 CE, Indian priests and officials travelled to Southeast Asia as well, where they married into powerful families and were appointed as advisers by rulers attempting to build up their authority on the Indian model. In these Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia, imported traditions fused with local ones. Some groups understood themselves to be members of specific Indian castes, especially lineages within the Kshatriyas warrior caste. Huge stone temples were built to Hindu deities, but rituals also continued to indigenous gods and spirits, who retained their power over the rice harvest, daily life, and cosmic order. Other than among South Asian migrants, the impact of caste was limited, and locally-created social hierarchies remained the most important. In more recent times, South Asian migrants have taken Hinduism around the world, though it has not spread widely to people from other areas. Today there are about a billion Hindus, about 95 percent of whom live in India. Birds-eye view of Angkor Wat, a very large and ornate temple. There is a main structure, surrounded by a wall that borders the temple. Around the temple are blue pools, grass, and trees.Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia, the largest religious structure in the world, was built as a Hindu temple by the rulers of the Khmer Empire in the twelfth century. When the rulers became Buddhist, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist holy site. Birds-eye view of Angkor Wat, a very large and ornate temple. There is a main structure, surrounded by a wall that borders the temple. Around the temple are blue pools, grass, and trees. Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia, the largest religious structure in the world, was built as a Hindu temple by the rulers of the Khmer Empire in the twelfth century. When the rulers became Buddhist, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist holy site. Primary source: The Rig Veda The Rig Veda, one of the Hindu sacred texts known as the Vedas, is a collection of about 1000 hymns dedicated to specific deities. This is Hymn 10.11, in praise of the heroic god Indra. All sacred songs have magnified Indra expansive as the sea, The best of warriors borne on carts, the Lord, the very Lord of strength.Strong in thy friendship, Indra, Lord of power and might, we have no fear. We glorify with praises thee, the never-conquered conqueror.The gifts of Indra from of old, his saving succors, never fail, When to the praise-singers he gives the boon of substance rich in kine [cattle].Crusher of forts, the young, the wise, of strength unmeasured, was he born Sustainer of each sacred rite, Indra, the Thunderer, much-extolled. Author bio Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is Distinguished Professor of History emerita at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and currently the president of the World History Association. She is the author or editor of 30 books that have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Turkish, and Korean. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: We have no written records or art depicting specific rulers from Teotihuacan, so what evidence does the author present that it was a powerful city and state?The author argues that Maya society was a collection of city-states. What is a city-state, and how did the local environment help to promote a city-state system rather than one centralized state?The Andes region in South America features mountains, deserts, and a coast rather than river valleys. How did Andean societies manage to develop agriculture and form states in this environment? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Because the Americas were populated somewhat later than most of Eurasia or Africa, it would be logical to think that states probably developed a bit later there. According to this article and others in the course, does the evidence suggest that to be the case?Given that there isn’t a lot of written evidence for early Mesoamerican and Andean societies (perhaps other than Maya societies), what kinds of evidence would you expect scholars to use to figure out how they operated and what people’s experiences were like? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Pre-contact Americas Drawn model of a city made up of several structures, some are pyramid-shaped and some are flat-roofed. There is a wall around the perimeter of the city. By Eman M. Elshaikh (adapted from Khan Academy) You thought the Aztecs were ancient? A whole millennia before them, states in Mesoamerica and the Andes overcame geographic obstacles to form a variety of kingdoms that traded, fought, and thrived. City of the gods Northeast of Mexico City, surrounded by lakes, the ruins of a once-massive city still inspire awe. A four-mile-long avenue runs through the remains of a complex grid. The avenue cuts through numerous apartments and colorful murals, and then leads up to a pyramid that's over 700 feet tall and 700 feet wide! Basically, imagine a giant mound the height of San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge—but also as tall as it is wide. This massive architectural feat is no modern structure. It's over two thousand years old. A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the backgroundA photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background. Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán. By Daniel Case, CC BY-SA 3.0. A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background. Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán. By Daniel Case, CC BY-SA 3.0. The Aztecs who discovered the city long after its collapse named it Teotihuacán, roughly translated as "city of the gods." Unfortunately, no written records or art depicting specific rulers survive from Teotihuacán itself. But other archeological methods show that the city center wielded enormous power between 300 and 600 CE. Teotihuacán likely housed 200,000 people in the city itself, governed the surrounding 10,000 square miles directly, and used its armies to colonize other regions as far as 600 miles away. Photograph shows the bright-red golden gate bridge against a blue sky and green hillsidesFor comparison’s sake, the Golden Gate Bridge! Connecting San Francisco to Marin County in California, the bridge is 4,200 feet long and 746 feet tall. Public Domain. Photograph shows the bright-red golden gate bridge against a blue sky and green hillsides For comparison’s sake, the Golden Gate Bridge! Connecting San Francisco to Marin County in California, the bridge is 4,200 feet long and 746 feet tall. Public Domain. What made Teotihuacán so powerful? Despite many unanswered questions about this city, we know that its growth and feats of urban planning show that it had a powerful centralized government. The intricate urban grid and the massive temples must have required a coordinated effort and plenty of money. We also know that Teotihuacán traded with other societies. For example, tools made of obsidian—that black, shiny material made of volcanic glass that's great for tools and weapons—were found in Maya territory. Similarly, Teotihuacán-style pottery has been found throughout Mesoamerica. This serves as evidence of Teotihuacán's reach and expansion in the region. A tall, oblong-shaped slab of stone that features elaborate carvings.Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument. It describes the arrival of Siyaj K'ak', who some historians believe to be a powerful military general from Teotihuacán. By Greg Willis, CC BY-SA 2.0. A tall, oblong-shaped slab of stone that features elaborate carvings. Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument. It describes the arrival of Siyaj K'ak', who some historians believe to be a powerful military general from Teotihuacán. By Greg Willis, CC BY-SA 2.0. The city's reach is also evident in documents from the Maya city of Tikal recording the arrival of the Teotihuacán military in 378 CE. These writings also suggest that Teotihuacán became involved in the local government. This pattern echoes other examples in the early Americas where leaders sought to build states in order to control resources and create more cohesive (united) societies. The Maya: independent city-states The Maya people inhabited Mesoamerica after the Olmec in what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Complex Maya societies—including city-states—arose in many areas, and local lords struggled with one another for power and access to trade networks and goods. Surviving artwork from the time suggests that these rulers held considerable power in their own kingdoms and were possibly seen as divine. A detailed male figure carved out of wood in a seated position. His hands are placed together at his heart and his eyes are closedThis Mirror-Bearer figure is the best-preserved example of Maya wood sculpture from the Early Classic period (ca. A.D. 250–550). This figure represents a royal court dwarf, which was thought to have divine powers. By The Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. A detailed male figure carved out of wood in a seated position. His hands are placed together at his heart and his eyes are closed This Mirror-Bearer figure is the best-preserved example of Maya wood sculpture from the Early Classic period (ca. A.D. 250–550). This figure represents a royal court dwarf, which was thought to have divine powers. By The Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. Starting in the third century BCE, Maya people settled in the fertile highlands of modern Guatemala. One major city, Kaminaljuyú,—near what is now Guatemala City— boasted impressive temples and access to trade routes into central Mexico. In the fourth century CE, however, Teotihuacán colonized the Kaminaljuyú. A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the northA zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. By Simon Burchell, CC BY-SA 4.0. A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. By Simon Burchell, CC BY-SA 4.0. As empires go, Maya was not as cohesive or expansive as most. Across Mesoamerica many rulers jostled for power even as the difficult geographical features challenged urban and agricultural development. Maya cities were located in diverse environments ranging from rainforest to highlands, which made governing over multiple cities problematic. The Andes: innovations in agriculture Early communities in the Andes region—modern Peru and Bolivia—faced geographical hurdles just as the Maya did. The towering Andes mountain range and coastal deserts made it tough for different societies to come together. On the plus side, snow runoff from those mountains trickled into a network of rivers, and that was great for agriculture. The Moche society on the northern coast of Peru developed a successful irrigation system and harvested maize, cotton, beans, and squash. A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background.A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. By Alexson Scheppa Peisino, public domain. A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. By Alexson Scheppa Peisino, public domain. Farther east, the Wari people in the northern highlands used the mountains themselves as a means of tiered agriculture. They irrigated the hillsides using the melted snow that flowed down from the mountains. Evidence also shows the Wari kingdom developed city planning and roadways that connected its major city to trade networks. Andean kingdoms sought to control trade and imports such as seafood from the coast and potatoes and quinoa from the high plains. Kingdoms made sure to put their large cities at lower elevations for easier access to trade routes and imports. Although they did not create expansive empires, early states in Mesoamerica and the Andes did build states with many of the complex features we associate with empires. They had centralized governments, irrigation for crops, and roadways for travel and trade to bring wealth back to the capitals. They also had armies to defend and enlarge their territories. We don't know the full reach of power that cities like Teotihuacán claimed, but we can conclude that their success must have been the result of a centralized government and technology. Author bio Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences, focusing on history and anthropology. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How was Legalism a response to conditions in Chinese society during the Warring States Period?How is Legalism different from Confucianism?What were some important contributions of Legalism?How does the excerpt from Han Feizi’s writing show Legalist thought? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Consider a society that has elements of Legalism, Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. How can these belief systems work together? What can each belief system contribute to a society to make it healthier, more stable, and better for people?Does the society you live in have many different belief systems? What are they? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Legalism Detailed terracotta statues of warriors in various stages of ruin. By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Like Confucianism, Daoism, and Chinese Buddhism, the goal of legalism was to achieve order in Chinese society during a time of unrest. Unlike the other belief systems, legalism was quite harsh, with strict laws and severe punishments. Introduction The Warring States period, which began in either 481 or 475 BCE (depending on the source) and ended in 221 BCE, was a time of intense fighting between rival Chinese states. When the Eastern Zhou Dynasty weakened in their control over China, almost 100 small states began fighting each other. Many of these small states continued to exist at the start of the fourth century BCE but seven larger states had the most power including the Qin and the Han. In just over 300 years, there were more than 300 wars fought. In light of these numerous battles, the dominant view of human nature during this time was pretty bleak. Many people believed that humans were naturally selfish and needed strict laws to keep them under control. As a result, the philosophy known as legalism became the overriding principle for organizing government. Map shows all of the different warring states of China and how they intersectWarring States Period, China c. 260 BCE. By Philg88, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows all of the different warring states of China and how they intersect Warring States Period, China c. 260 BCE. By Philg88, CC BY-SA 3.0. Legalism is based on the viewpoint that in order for a ruler to maintain order in society, people must obey a set of strict laws and those in authority (the rulers and government officials). Legalist philosophers thus created a system of punishment and reward for certain behaviors. If humans followed these rules, philosophers argued, then the state and its authority would be strengthened. Legalism became particularly important in the period that followed the Warring States period. In this period, the Qin state, which would later become the Qin Dynasty, attempted to unite the people and establish order from chaos. While the goal of order was the same for both legalism and Confucianism, the method for achieving order was very different. Confucianists believed that peace could be restored to China if everyone lived by a code of conduct that promoted virtue and respect. They wanted to restore the Chinese people to a former glory and were more traditionalist. Legalists also wanted to restore and reunite China, but they thought that this could only be achieved through the application of harsh laws and a focus on agriculture and military strength. The founders of legalism Shang Yang (c. 390-338 BCE) is considered one of the important early philosophers of legalism. A Qin state official, he reorganized the state under the Qin leader Duke Xiao. Shang Yang did away with the feudal system of organization in favor of dividing the Qin area into a number of regions, each with a governor to make sure that laws were followed.1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript He also standardized the system of weights and measures and encouraged people to work as farmers and soldiers, both of which were considered to be jobs that were beneficial to the state. In addition to these reforms, he also set up a new system of taxation, specifically targeting merchants with high taxes, and required citizens of the Qin state to join the military. But perhaps his best known legacy was the institution of a strict legal code that was written to strike fear into the members of the Qin community. Shang Yang eventually fell out of favor with the Duke Xiao and was executed in a rather gruesome way. Statue of a man’s upper body. He is looking down and holding two scrolls underneath his elbow.Statue of Shang Yang. By Fanghong, CC BY 2.5. Statue of a man’s upper body. He is looking down and holding two scrolls underneath his elbow. Statue of Shang Yang. By Fanghong, CC BY 2.5. Han Feizi (c. 280-233 BCE) was the author of a series of essays outlining the legalist philosophy. These writings became a guide for rulers in how to organize their states using legalist beliefs. He stressed the importance of a harsh code of laws and believed that the strength of the ruler depended on the application of these laws along with a strong military to enforce order. Han Feizi worked as a government official for the state of Han. When the Qin leader and future first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, Emperor Zheng, attacked the Han, the Han leader sent Han Feizi to negotiate with Zheng, who greatly admired Han Feizi's legalist writings. Han Feizi ended up staying at the emperor's court. His teachings became enormously influential in organizing the principles of legalism. Here are two brief excerpts from his work that demonstrate those principles: On Having Standards "In our present age he who can put an end to private scheming and make men uphold the public law will see his people secure and his state well ordered; he who can block selfish pursuits and enforce the public law will see his armies growing stronger and his enemies weakening. Find men who have a clear understanding of what is beneficial to the nation and a feeling for the system of laws and regulations, and place them in charge of the lesser officials; then the ruler can never be deceived by lies and falsehoods. Find men who have a clear understanding of what is beneficial to the nation and the judgment to weigh issues properly, and put them in charge of foreign affairs; then the ruler can never be deceived in his relations with the other powers of the world… Wielding Power "The ruler does not try to work side by side with his people, and they accordingly respect the dignity of his position. He does not try to tell others what to do, but leaves them to do things by themselves. Tightly he bars his inner door, and from his room looks out into the courtyard; he has provided the rules and yardsticks, so that all things know their place. Those who merit reward are rewarded; those who deserve punishment are punished. Reward and punishment follow the deed; each man brings them upon himself. Therefore, whether the result is pleasant or hateful, who dares to question it? When compass and rule have marked out one corner of truth, the other three corners will become evident of themselves." Thus, Han Feizi clearly articulated the idea that a strong and principled leader can establish order and create prosperity, to the benefit of all, by writing clear laws, enforcing them strongly, and shaping society to obey them. Han Feizi himself, however, did not meet a good end. While at the court of the Qin leader, a former colleague of his, Li Si, managed to have him imprisoned. Li Si was jealous of Han Feizi's knowledge and skills. Fearing Han Feizi might take over his position at court, Li Si ordered him to drink the poison, and Han Feizi died. By getting Han Feizi out of the way, Li Si (c. 280-208 BCE) became the leading legalist philosopher. It was he who actually implemented the ideas of the legalists across the growing Qin state. His most famous achievements included the construction of the Great Wall to protect the newly unified state from barbarian invaders and the creation of a universal system of writing. Li Si was more critical of Confucianism than many of his predecessors, and Confucian scholars detested his reforms. Both legalists and Confucian scholars believed in order, but many Confucianists argued that people could be taught to promote and follow order through culture, rather than strict laws and force. At one point, in order to try to limit the power of Confucianism and promote the power of the emperor he served, Li Si prohibited history education and called for a period of book burning. This brought the conflict between legalists and Confucianists to even greater heights. Stone slab carved with charactersStone slab with twelve Qin seal characters. By Editor at Large, CC BY-SA 2.5. Stone slab carved with characters Stone slab with twelve Qin seal characters. By Editor at Large, CC BY-SA 2.5. Legalism eventually fell out of fashion with the end of the Qin dynasty and the beginning of the Han. The Han emperor rejected the philosophy of legalism in favor of Confucianism. In addition, he expelled all followers of the legalist philosophy from government. While legalism worked in the short term to unite China, most believed that it was not a philosophy that could be sustained in the long term. [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How do historians know about Phoenician society?What system of production and distribution sustained Phoenician society?What aspects of Phoenician sailing technology helped them become “masters of the sea?”Describe women’s roles in Phoenician society, according to the author.What’s the significance of Phoenician colonies?Where did the Phoenician script come from? What was special about it, and what were its benefits? How do historians know about Phoenician society? What system of production and distribution sustained Phoenician society? What aspects of Phoenician sailing technology helped them become “masters of the sea?” Describe women’s roles in Phoenician society, according to the author. What’s the significance of Phoenician colonies? Where did the Phoenician script come from? What was special about it, and what were its benefits? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How was Phoenician community organization unique compared to other states during this era? How was it similar?Phoenicia was a complex society, with a state structure, and it arguably even became an empire. But it had an unusual system of production and distribution. How does this fit with the narrative of most complex societies during this era? How was Phoenician community organization unique compared to other states during this era? How was it similar? Phoenicia was a complex society, with a state structure, and it arguably even became an empire. But it had an unusual system of production and distribution. How does this fit with the narrative of most complex societies during this era? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Phoenicians: Masters of the Sea Black and white line drawing of a ship leaving a big city. The ship holds several men and has a horse head carved into the mast. By Eman M. Elshaikh The Phoenicians were master seafarers and traders who created a robust network across—and beyond—the Mediterranean Sea, spreading technologies and ideas as they traveled. A seafaring people When we think about societies that had a massive impact on world history, we often forget about the "purple people." The Greeks gave this name to their seafaring trade partners, the Phoenicians, because of the rare purple dye they made from snail shells. And although the Phoenicians called themselves Can'ani (Canaanites), the name the Greeks gave them seems to have stuck. This is partly because historians mainly used Greek, Assyrian, and Latin sources along with Biblical references to learn about Phoenician society. The Phoenicians are perhaps best known for creating the first alphabet, which influenced writing systems everywhere. The Phoenicians used this alphabet to record their histories on papyrus1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. Unfortunately, almost all of their original writings were lost due to changing environmental conditions and multiple migrations and invasions. Still, historians and archaeologists are able to piece together a story about the Phoenicians. Historians think "Phoenicia" was never a unified society. Rather, it was a loose alliance of many city-states in modern-day Lebanon and Syria, including Tyre, Byblos, Beirut, and Sidon. Phoenician cities were also often controlled by other regional powers like the Egyptians and Assyrians. Photo of three different colors of perfect next to the shells of the sea snails that leave such dyes.Dyed purple fabric with their corresponding sea snail, Museum of Natural History, Vienna. By Eigenes Werk, CC BY-SA 4.0. Photo of three different colors of perfect next to the shells of the sea snails that leave such dyes. Dyed purple fabric with their corresponding sea snail, Museum of Natural History, Vienna. By Eigenes Werk, CC BY-SA 4.0. Though the Phoenician people didn't form a powerful empire, they were still incredibly influential. As master seafarers and traders, they created a robust network across and beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenician ships carried technologies and ideas. As a result, Phoenician merchant communities absorbed and adapted foreign ideas. They formed critical connections between places, and drove cultural exchanges that would impact the world for millennia. Map of Phoenicia, a very small area near Cyprus, and the vast trade routes that stemmed from it.Map of Phoenicia and its trade routes and colonies. By Rodrigo, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map of Phoenicia, a very small area near Cyprus, and the vast trade routes that stemmed from it. Map of Phoenicia and its trade routes and colonies. By Rodrigo, CC BY-SA 3.0. Masters of the sea Driven to the coast, probably by their aggressive Assyrian neighbors, Phoenicians were not able to develop extensive farming. The environmental conditions inland were not favorable to large-scale agriculture. Living in a narrow coastal corridor that connected Asia to Africa, Phoenicians took advantage of their location to foster trade. Image of land jutting into a wide expanse of deep blue sea.A satellite image of Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, jutting into the Mediterranean Sea. By NASA Earth Observatory, public domain. Image of land jutting into a wide expanse of deep blue sea. A satellite image of Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, jutting into the Mediterranean Sea. By NASA Earth Observatory, public domain. Ancient writers describe the Phoenicians as expert sailors. They were first to venture from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. By 1200 BCE, they were the dominant maritime power, and they continued to dominate until around 800 BCE. They built commercial colonies in Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and north Africa. This gave them a network of ports in the Mediterranean. There's also evidence that they ventured far west to what is now Spain and beyond to the Atlantic coast of Africa. According to ancient Greek historian Herodotus, they traveled as far as South Africa! Their success was due to their ships. They were known for their speed and their ability to maneuver harsh seas. In fact, the ancient Egyptians called boats that could travel in the deep seas "Byblos boats," after the Phoenician city-state. Phoenician boats had room for many rowers and were built to sail long distances. One key ship technology was the cutwater, a sharp point that allowed ships to, well, cut through water. Phoenician ships were so advanced that both Persian and Assyrian royalty used Phoenician ships to sail. Phoenician sailors themselves were also skilled. They were some of the first people to use stars to navigate. Fragment of a detailed rock carving depicting a ship on the sea, with men rowing the ship using oars. The sea is shown with wavy lines, and there is a fish swimming beneath the boat.Assyrian warship (probably built by Phoenicians) with two rows of oars, relief from Nineveh, c. 700 BC. CC BY-SA 3.0. Fragment of a detailed rock carving depicting a ship on the sea, with men rowing the ship using oars. The sea is shown with wavy lines, and there is a fish swimming beneath the boat. Assyrian warship (probably built by Phoenicians) with two rows of oars, relief from Nineveh, c. 700 BC. CC BY-SA 3.0. Along with their famous purple dyes, Phoenician sailors traded textiles, wood, glass, metals, incense, papyrus, and carved ivory. In fact, the word "Bible," from the Greek biblion, or book, came from the city of Byblos. It was a center of the trade of papyrus, a common writing material in the ancient world. They also traded wine, spices, salted fish and other food. The Phoenician political structure supported this trade. Foreign policy was determined by the dominant merchant class. They had an economic interest in maintaining sea lanes and making it easy to get raw materials. A photo of a yellowed, torn piece of papyrus that has been written on.Papyrus with Greek writing from the second century CE, public domain. A photo of a yellowed, torn piece of papyrus that has been written on. Papyrus with Greek writing from the second century CE, public domain. The Phoenician community Trade was at the center of the Phoenician economy, so merchants were at the center of the political structure and community. Merchant families made up the Phoenician senate, which determined the affairs of the city-state. This created a kind of merchant aristocracy (upper class). But unlike other aristocracies, this wasn't a closed group for those of noble birth. Painting depicts four people, two in the forefront of the painting and two in the background. The frontmost two are seated, mostly nude, the woman's arms draped around the man's shoulders.Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeii, Italy (10 BCE – 45 CE). By Stefano Bolognini, public domain. Painting depicts four people, two in the forefront of the painting and two in the background. The frontmost two are seated, mostly nude, the woman's arms draped around the man's shoulders. Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeii, Italy (10 BCE – 45 CE). By Stefano Bolognini, public domain. In general, there was a lot of social mobility in Phoenician communities. Phoenicians frequently married non- Phoenicians, and women had more freedom than many other women in the ancient world. There are few sources about Phoenician life in general and even less about women. But evidence suggests that women had a seat at the table—literally. Carvings and inscriptions show women at banquets and large gatherings alongside their male family members. They are also seen at religious events. There were many respected female deities (gods). The Phoenicians also had famous female leaders, including Dido, the Queen of Carthage. Photo of a sculpture of a person holding up one arm.Figure of the god Ba’al with raised arm, 14th–12th century BCE, found at ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. By Jastrow, public domain. Photo of a sculpture of a person holding up one arm. Figure of the god Ba’al with raised arm, 14th–12th century BCE, found at ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. By Jastrow, public domain. But hierarchies did exist. There were many enslaved people in Phoenician society. Many of these slaves were captured enemy soldiers. There were also reports that Phoenician sailors tricked people onto ships, pretending to show them goods, then capturing them as slaves. But since these reports came from Phoenicia's competitors, we should be aware of historical bias from these sources. Historians have a better understanding of Phoenician's belief system. This may be because it's one of the main things uniting the many Phoenician communities. Even the faraway colony of Carthage in modern-day Tunisia sent people back to Tyre annually to participate in a sacrifice at the temple of the god Melqart. There were multiple Phoenician deities. Like the Greek gods, they were seen as powerful and unpredictable. Many of these religious beliefs were based on Mesopotamian traditions. Indeed, much of Phoenician culture was a kind of adaptation. Phoenician art borrowed a lot from Asian and Egyptian styles, probably partly because Phoenicians had customers in those regions. But although Phoenicians borrowed a lot, they also innovated. In fact, the incredibly innovative Phoenician alphabet—which we'll come back to in a moment—may have begun as an experimentation based on Mesopotamian and Egyptian systems of writing. Phoenicians abroad Phoenicians were often under pressure by aggressive neighbors. Without enough land to feed their growing population, Phoenicians ventured abroad looking for land, resources, and trading partners. Some colonies, most notably Carthage, came to be more powerful than the original city-states. By 500 BCE, Carthage was one of the biggest cities in the world, with nearly half a million residents. These colonies played a critical role in the production and distribution of goods. They formed the basis of a lively trade network. Over two dozen ports and colonies were strung together, linking Mediterranean and Atlantic trade. Colonies were ethnically diverse. Phoenicians, indigenous people, and migrants from across the Mediterranean and sub-Saharan Africa lived in them. Though the Phoenicians built colonies, they didn't really build an empire, because they didn't directly rule over a large territory. However, they did have power over the colonized people. For example, in fertile Carthage, enslaved people and indigenous peasants farmed to provide a stable food supply. Carthage also had a powerful military. It was therefore the most empire-like of the Phoenician city-states. Many commercial colonies became vibrant city-states. In fact, some historians argue that these Phoenician urban centers became the model for the Greek city-state. But perhaps the most influential thing the Phoenicians introduced to Greece was their alphabet. A revolutionary script The twenty-two characters of the Phoenician script revolutionized the written language. But where did it come from, and why was it so revolutionary? The Phoenician alphabet basically simplified writing. Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian early systems of writing used pictographs, which are pictures used as symbols. And there's evidence that Phoenicians were drawing on both of these systems of writing. But instead of using pictures to represent things, Phoenicians used symbols to represent sounds. This might sound pretty unexciting, but it was a huge leap. Once you learned the sounds symbolized by the letters, you could read without having to know the meanings of countless little pictures. This made literacy a lot easier, and writing a whole lot faster. Photo of two square-shaped rocks that have been carved with symbols.The Kish tablet, a limestone tablet from Kish with pictographic, early cuneiform, writing, 3500 BCE. Possibly the earliest known example of writing. Ashmolean Museum. By José-Manuel Benit, public domain. Photo of two square-shaped rocks that have been carved with symbols. The Kish tablet, a limestone tablet from Kish with pictographic, early cuneiform, writing, 3500 BCE. Possibly the earliest known example of writing. Ashmolean Museum. By José-Manuel Benit, public domain. This simplified alphabet made trade and accounting easier. As Phoenicians traveled across their networks, their system of writing moved with them. By 800 BCE, the Greeks had adopted it, adding vowels to make it even more efficient. It formed the basis of the Greek, Aramaic, and Etruscan systems of writing. By extension, it influenced Latin and dozens of other Indo-European languages. It influenced a big fraction of ancient writing systems, with the notable exception of East Asian writing. Where did the Phoenicians go? Historians debate what happened to this innovative, seafaring society. As empires like Persia expanded, Phoenicians strategically played these empires against each other and accepted their control when it was necessary. But over time, the original city-states lost their power. Eventually, the colonies were the only independent Phoenician societies left. As the Phoenicians traveled and traded, they spread cultural ideas, mixed with indigenous populations, and came up with some of the most innovative technologies in world history. [Notes] Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: The author begins with a piece from the Epic of Gilgamesh, which he compares to music from Jay-Z and Alicia Keys. Why does he compare these two artistic works?Where does this author state that cities first appeared, and where did they appear afterward in this period?The author argues that an essential part of urbanization was hierarchy. Does the evidence he presents support this argument?The author also argues that cities allowed for job specialization, but that people in cities were still dependent on rural farms and villages. Why was that true?The author suggests that cities created a kind of network that was an “urban archipelago”. An archipelago is a group of islands. What do you think he means by this metaphor?How were the networks that cities built not like an archipelago? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: We generally think of cities as having hierarchies, but the author suggests that there are some cities where we cannot see evidence of hierarchies. Do you think that means there were no hierarchies? What is another explanation?How does this author’s argument and evidence compare and contrast to the evidence in “Introduction to Agrarian Societies”? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Growth of Cities Drawing of a city. There is one very large building, and many groups of smaller structures. The city is surrounded by a large wall. By Bennett Sherry Cities forever changed the way humans lived. Cities connected the people living in them to one another, to surrounding farmland, and to people in other cities. Let’s hear it for Uruk In 2009 CE, two musical artists named Jay-Z and Alicia Keyes sang the praises of New York in lyrics that included the phrases, "concrete jungle where dreams are made of" and "big lights will inspire you". Nearly four millennia earlier another poet had written about the Mesopotamian city of Uruk, celebrating "the outer wall's cornice gleaming like copper in the sun" and declaring that "no king could ever build their equal." Different artists from different eras, but all were pretty excited about cities. These artists weren't alone. Ever since there have been cities, people have been singing their praises. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese writers repeatedly compared their cities favorably to the countryside. In ancient literature, cities are often portrayed as sites of learning and prosperity, while rural areas get characterized as backward and uncivilized. However, many writers also noted the dangers of city life: that cities were immoral and corrupt. In twenty-first century America, you only need to read a news article to find a journalist wringing their hands1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript over the "rural-urban divide" in American politics. For almost 6,000 years, people have divided their world between urban and rural, civilized and uncivilized. In 3000 BCE, the largest city in the world was Uruk. At about 50,000 people, it was half the size of South Bend, Indiana in the United States. Today, there are almost 50 different cities in the world with more than 10 million inhabitants. Tokyo alone has more people than the entire global population in 3000 BCE. Love them or hate them, the growth of cities fundamentally changed human society and the ways we live together. The first cities Like agriculture, the world's first cities developed independently in different parts of the world at different times. They first sprang up in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 6,000 years ago and in China, India, and Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Another wave of urbanization began 4,000 to 2,500 years ago in Mesoamerica, the Andes mountains of South America, and sub-Saharan Africa. There was no single factor that made a city develop, but location certainly mattered. A city might sit at a good spot for agriculture, trade, or defense. A photo of a slab of rock carved with text being shown in a museumTablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan. Many believe this story is the old surviving work or literature. By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, CC BY-SA 4.0. A photo of a slab of rock carved with text being shown in a museum Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan. Many believe this story is the old surviving work or literature. By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, CC BY-SA 4.0. City life usually meant you would be in a hierarchical social structure. And living in crowded conditions meant disease spread faster. On average, people in cities died earlier than those in rural areas. So why would anyone choose to live in a city? There are a few reasons. Diseases or not, cities provide safety. Walls and soldiers protected people from enemies, bandits, and wild animals. But cities were also exciting arenas of social mobility. Like today, young people moved from rural areas to cities in search of money or jobs. Urban areas offer wider employment opportunities, while rural communities had few options besides farming. In a city, you could be a soldier or a priest, an artisan or a builder, a merchant or a weaver. The new possibilities would have been enticing. And cities only kept growing. By 1200 BCE, China had some of the world's largest, with Anyang in the Yellow River Valley housing as many as 200,000. By 100 CE, Rome was the largest city in the world with over a million inhabitants, and the largest city in the Americas was Teotihuacan with over 100,000. Birds-eye view of what remains of Teotihuacan. There are several large, leveled structures featuring staircases, and one larger pyramid-shaped structureView of Teotihuacan from the top of the Pyramid of the Moon. By Rene Trohs, CC BY-SA 4.0. Birds-eye view of what remains of Teotihuacan. There are several large, leveled structures featuring staircases, and one larger pyramid-shaped structure View of Teotihuacan from the top of the Pyramid of the Moon. By Rene Trohs, CC BY-SA 4.0. Urban hierarchy: Organizing cities An essential part of urbanization was the creation of hierarchies. The very word civilization creates a hierarchy. It comes from the Latin word for citizen. So, it suggests that city people are "civilized" by definition, and rural people are not. So the hierarchy starts by placing non-city folks at the bottom. But inside the city walls, there are far more levels. Cities held complex social hierarchies to keep things operating smoothly by convincing—or even coercing—people to do their jobs. Priests convinced people that the gods wanted the king to be king, and soldiers enforced the king's decisions. While Mesopotamian, Chinese, Mediterranean, and Mesoamerican cities had these characteristic hierarchies, others were quite different. Our understanding of ancient cities often comes from the writing left behind by the city dwellers of places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. In other cities, whose writing we don't have or can't read, there is archaeological evidence of very different types of societies. In places like Jenne-Jeno on the Niger River (in modern-day Mali) and Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa on the Indus River (in modern-day Pakistan), there is no evidence of centralized authority of kings or temples, and it seems war was uncommon. Photo of ruins shows an empty pool built into the ground, surrounded by many other brick structures.The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, with the great bath in the foreground and granary in the background. By Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photo of ruins shows an empty pool built into the ground, surrounded by many other brick structures. The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, with the great bath in the foreground and granary in the background. By Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0. Cities required impressive technological innovations. With more people living together on less land, city-dwellers needed new ways to feed everyone, store food surplus (more on that below), defend the city, and keep it clean. In cities, people produced new architectural methods, metalworking, and even running water and sewers. Aqueducts and qanats (underground water tunnels) brought clean water from distant mountains into the city. Extensive canals and irrigation improved transportation and farming. Irrigation and rice patties, dams and mines, canals and roads all reshaped the natural world surrounding ancient cities. Division of labor: Job specialization in cities Every city ever built relied on the availability of food surplus. If a society can't produce enough food, it can't support a bunch of people who don't farm. A surplus of food frees up some people from farming so they can store the surplus, count the surplus, protect the surplus, and decide who gets to eat how much of the surplus. This is how you get laborers, scribes, soldiers, and kings. Each occupies a different level on the hierarchy, and each gets different amounts or types of food. Cities were organized and made possible by a division of labor. Cities connected people through their work. It takes complicated networks of labor for cities to function. In a city, everybody relies on a bunch of other people in order to live. A shoemaker, for example, needs food from farmers in the hinterlands2^22squared, leather from animals herded by pastoralists or hunters, protection from soldiers, blessings from priests, and merchants to distribute their product. And all those people needed shoes from the shoemaker. In smaller rural villages, people were often more self-sufficient and networks were less dense. Cities reorganized community structures. In villages and towns, where people lived was determined by kinship groups. In cities, neighborhoods were based on economic functions and social status. Urban divisions of labor allowed cities to be productive, but they were still dependent on farms and villages. As cities grew, the hinterlands were pressured to produce food. When city rulers grew powerful, a networked hierarchy emerged. Cities were at the top, followed by towns, villages, and rural areas. As cities grew, rulers often conquered neighboring lands for the sole purpose of increasing agricultural productivity. When people in urban areas had steady access to food, they could focus on new professions and establish more extensive contacts through trade. Urban archipelago: Cities build networks Cities connected the world. The rise of a world of cities in this era built larger and more complex networks. As some places got better at producing different things, cities traded more with each other. Different crops and animals were available in different places. If your city had a shortage of wheat, you could trade some of your wool for another city's surplus of food. Luxuries were also traded across the networks linking cities. For example, the Standard of Ur in the image below is from the Sumerian city of Ur and was made sometime around 2500 BCE. It is evidence of just how far ancient trade networks extended. The artist used lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, red marble from India, and seashells from the Persian Gulf. Paneled artwork depicting a journey. There are domesticated animals and people carrying large packs. The Standard of Ur in the British Museum, London. By LeastCommonAncestor, CC BY-SA 3.0.* Paneled artwork depicting a journey. There are domesticated animals and people carrying large packs. The Standard of Ur in the British Museum, London. By LeastCommonAncestor, CC BY-SA 3.0.* Cities also connected people in unfortunate ways. Sometimes, a king in one city got full of himself and launched wars to conquer other cities, establishing an empire and intensifying regional webs even more. And with so many people cramped together beside animals and waste, disease was a constant danger. The trade networks that connected cities meant that diseases in one place spread quickly to others. Conclusion: Rural-urban divide? This article started with a discussion of the enduring divide between city and country. Ancient and modern writers all talk about urban and rural life as though they are distinct and separate. But if you've been reading this article carefully, you might already be suspicious of those talking points. Cities certainly created hierarchies and divisions of labor, but as divisive as that seems, cities overall were a triumph of connectedness. Many would say those connections included the rural areas as well. Kim Donehower, Charlotte Hogg, and Eileen Schell are all professors of writing specializing in rural rhetoric3^33cubed. They argue that, "rural should not be seen in opposition to urban but as part of a complex global economic and social network." The growth of cities connected people in new ways, and rural farmers and nomadic pastoralists were essential to urban livelihoods. People and goods moved between these two worlds. Since there have been cities, writers have been contrasting urban and rural life. But they could not have made these comparisons unless they were familiar with both. Urban and rural lives have always been deeply interconnected. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in History from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a Research Associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was the Mandate of Heaven?Who was more powerful, the Zhou or the Qin?What was legalism? Who was responsible for spreading this concept?Why did merchants do worse under the Qin?How did Chinese philosophy and moral codes restrict women? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: You read an article about authority and control in empires. What are some methods of control mentioned in that article that you see reflected in the Zhou and Qin Dynasties? Did these empires use any methods of control that weren’t mentioned in the earlier article?You’ve read some definitions and characteristics of empires. What about these empires seems characteristic of all empires? What seems unique? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Zhou and Qin Dynasty: China A picture of a vast number of terracotta warriors in various stages of ruin. The warriors are incredibly detailed and impressive sculptures. There are three horses in the center. By Dennis RM Campbell From religion and philosophy to trading and gender roles, the Zhou and Qin dynasties were vastly different. But each left their mark on Chinese history. Background – From dynasty to empire Our tale of two dynasties begins after the fall of another dynasty, the Shang. Ruling from about 1600 to 1050 BCE, the Shang Dynasty only loosely controlled their territory. Local regions were ruled by their own elite. In 1050, taking advantage of a weak Shang ruler, the Zhou rose up and overthrew the Shang. The Zhou controlled eastern China, from north of the Yellow River down to the Yangtze River. But like the Shang, they left regional control to local leaders. History would, as they say, repeat itself. The Zhou weakened and the Qin Dynasty took over, conquering most of what is now China and creating the first Chinese empire. Formation – Heaven said we could In 1046 BCE, the Zhou King Wu fought and defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. But "fought" may be stretching it, since the Shang troops abandoned their king and went over to Wu willingly. The Zhou claimed the right to overthrow the Shang through the Mandate of Heaven (tian). While this may seem like the Chinese ruler had the divine right to rule or rule from heaven, tian in Chinese is more aligned with virtue and benevolence. So, if a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven then it was thought that he had become immoral or tyrannical. As a result, he should lose his right to rule. Unfortunately, this mandate also applied to the Zhou, who would themselves be overthrown later. Map shows the intersection and location of the various warring statesMap of the Warring States Period of the Eastern Zhou. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map shows the intersection and location of the various warring states Map of the Warring States Period of the Eastern Zhou. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. Impressively, the Zhou Dynasty ruled for over 700 years (1046-226 BCE), though that depends on your definition of "rule". Zhou kings did not tightly govern their states, and over time found it harder to control them. By 771, the Zhou kings were really just religious figureheads presiding over a group of mostly independent states. These kings could only sit and watch as the states warred against each other, with larger states consuming smaller ones. Around 334 BCE some of the stronger states began to break away from the Zhou. By then, Zhou rulers had lost all power in China. Map of the Qin empire shows the large number of cities controlled by the empireMap of the Qin Empire. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map of the Qin empire shows the large number of cities controlled by the empire Map of the Qin Empire. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. So when all those states were warring each other, the Qin Dynasty moved in and by 221 BCE managed to conquer them all. The Qin only ruled for 15 years, but it was significant. King Zheng of Qin wasn't very happy with the title of wang, meaning "king". To fully capture his greatness, he developed the title huang-di (making his full name Qin Shihuangdi) meaning "August Emperor". He ruled over his empire with an iron fist. This didn't really inspire much love, as three assassination attempts suggested. Fear of death drove him to look for an elixir (potion) of immortality. Ironically, he died in 210 BCE on one of his elixir-seeking trips. He was succeeded by his younger son Qin Ershi, who ruled harshly and cruelly until 206, when he was forced to commit suicide. The Qin Dynasty had officially ended. Stone rubbing of Qin era depiction of one of the three assassination attempts against Qin Shihuangdi. The would-be assassin Jin Ke is on the left, being restrained by a physician. Qin Shihuangdi is center right fleeing the scene while holding a jade disc. The assassin’s blade is stuck in the pillar in the center.Stone rubbing of Qin era depiction of one of the three assassination attempts against Qin Shihuangdi. The would-be assassin Jin Ke is on the left, being restrained by a physician. Qin Shihuangdi is center right fleeing the scene while holding a jade disc. The assassin’s blade is stuck in the pillar in the center. Public domain. Stone rubbing of Qin era depiction of one of the three assassination attempts against Qin Shihuangdi. The would-be assassin Jin Ke is on the left, being restrained by a physician. Qin Shihuangdi is center right fleeing the scene while holding a jade disc. The assassin’s blade is stuck in the pillar in the center. Stone rubbing of Qin era depiction of one of the three assassination attempts against Qin Shihuangdi. The would-be assassin Jin Ke is on the left, being restrained by a physician. Qin Shihuangdi is center right fleeing the scene while holding a jade disc. The assassin’s blade is stuck in the pillar in the center. Public domain. Administration Zhou kings ruled over a largely decentralized kingdom. It was made up of as many as 200 states. These states were largely self-run, with only military and financial obligations to the Zhou. In the beginning, these rulers were family members of the Zhou king. This created a network of states united by kinship (family ties). It became easier to share ideas and technology, as well as develop a common language for China, now known as Archaic Chinese. This system of rule was similar in many ways to the feudalism of Medieval Europe. Drawing of a man in ornate clothing featuring an image of a dragon. Drawing of Qin Shihuangdi by unknown artist (c. 1850 CE). Public domain. Drawing of a man in ornate clothing featuring an image of a dragon. Drawing of Qin Shihuangdi by unknown artist (c. 1850 CE). Public domain. As kinship connections weakened, the leaders of the various states felt less attached to the Zhou king. After all, it wasn't like he was family. By 771, the Zhou had about 170 states of various size, but by the third century BCE, only seven large states remained. The Zhou ruler had less and less control over these states as they fought each other and became larger and more powerful. China became increasingly chaotic as it descended into lawlessness. Eventually one of these states, controlled by the Qin Dynasty, overthrew the Zhou and conquered all of China. Qin rule over China was very different from that of the Zhou. The Qin followed the doctrine of legalism. This was a harsh practice that required strict adherence to the laws, and even minor infractions could result in execution. Qin Shihuangdi brought his empire under direct control by limiting the power and wealth of the traditional nobles. He also sponsored book burnings, destroying any scholarly works that might inspire people to challenge his rule. The emperor began a number of large-scale state-sponsored building projects, most notably the Great Wall of China. A birds-eye photo of the Great Wall of China shows the vastness of the wall against a green hillsideThe Great Wall of China at Jinshanling. By Severin.Stadler, CC BY-SA 3.0. A birds-eye photo of the Great Wall of China shows the vastness of the wall against a green hillside The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling. By Severin.Stadler, CC BY-SA 3.0. Religion and philosophy Religion in China was polytheistic, recognizing and worshipping a variety of gods. Before the Zhou, the Shang rulers had worshipped ti, a god who controlled destinies. The chief deity of the Zhou kings was tian, meaning "Heaven." The Zhou claimed that Heaven granted them kingship. But by the end of the Zhou period, various states had taken up renewed worship of ti, challenging Zhou rule. We see this in the title Qin Shihuangdi, where the -di at the end represents the god ti. During the later Zhou, several major thinkers inspired Chinese religion and philosophy. Confucius (551-479 BCE) believed that the violence of his day could be cured if everyone knew their place in the social hierarchy and respected one another. Laozi developed Daoism, which stressed freedom and nature. Sun Tzu, a military man, wrote The Art of War, which has influenced military thinking across the world. In 361 BCE, Lord Shang arrived in Qin and began to spread the concept of legalism. According to Shang, the law (fa) was the basis of power and it was to be applied equally to all. Peasants and noblemen should suffer the same severe punishments. For Shang, the ruler was the absolute power. He was eventually killed. Nobles found his willingness to punish them like peasants to be a little too harsh! But legalism lived on, becoming the defining principal of the Qin empire. Portrait of Confucius. He is portrayed as elderly, and has his hands in clasped together near his heart. He is wearing ornate, long robes.Portrait of Confucius by the Tang Dynasty artist Wu Daozi (685-758 CE). Public domain. Portrait of Confucius. He is portrayed as elderly, and has his hands in clasped together near his heart. He is wearing ornate, long robes. Portrait of Confucius by the Tang Dynasty artist Wu Daozi (685-758 CE). Public domain. Trade – No merchants, please Market economies in China, including the use of bronze coins began to appear during the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou system of roads made it easier for merchants to distribute goods, resources, and even ideas between states. As trade made them wealthier, merchants began to exploit peasants for labor. However, the ideas of both Confucianism and legalism clashed with business. For Confucians, the wealth and power of the merchants could disrupt society, and so the merchant profession was the lowest possible status. Qin legalists believed that society should be divided between only farmers and soldiers—merchants need not apply! Anti-merchant feelings during the Qin eventually led to many of them being deported. Understandably, there wasn't much commercial growth under Qin rule. Spade coin used as money. The coin is shaped almost like a flattened shovel, with a slimmer handle and larger rectangular paddle that comes to two points and has a curved edge.Example of a spade coin (as in money) dating to the Eastern Zhou period (650-200 BCE). By Davidhartill, CC BY-SA 3.0. Spade coin used as money. The coin is shaped almost like a flattened shovel, with a slimmer handle and larger rectangular paddle that comes to two points and has a curved edge. Example of a spade coin (as in money) dating to the Eastern Zhou period (650-200 BCE). By Davidhartill, CC BY-SA 3.0. Women and society The Zhou and Qin followed the traditional separation between men and women that stretched back to at least Chalcolithic times. The basis of this separation appears to have been work—men and women were assigned specific tasks based on their gender. During the last centuries of the Zhou, women's roles became increasingly formalized and idealized. Men farmed, and women spun cloth. These jobs came to symbolize proper order in society. By the end of the Zhou period and the early Qin dynasty, men and women were increasingly separated. This separation became tied into Confucian moral values. In works such as Liu Xiang's Lienüzhuan, we read of women such as Boji. When the palace was on fire, Boji's only option for escape would have put her in view of men. Rather than violate that taboo, she remained behind and burned to death. Decline and fall – A sinking (kin)ship The Zhou system was destined to collapse. The kings had only a loose control over their states. These states were originally tied to the king through kinship—trusted family members. But over time, kinship ties ended, and state rulers lost any important connection to the king. They became more interested in their own power than in loyally supporting the Zhou king. By the later Zhou period, powerful states competed for dominance while the Zhou rulers were increasingly pushed to the side. Close up of the head of a terracotta warrior shows the detail of the sculpture. The warrior’s face is extremely lifelike, and he wears his hair in a neat bun.Photograph close up of the head of a terracotta archer from Qin Shihuangdi’s tomb complex. By Charlie, CC BY-SA 4.0. Close up of the head of a terracotta warrior shows the detail of the sculpture. The warrior’s face is extremely lifelike, and he wears his hair in a neat bun. Photograph close up of the head of a terracotta archer from Qin Shihuangdi’s tomb complex. By Charlie, CC BY-SA 4.0. Causes for the Qin collapse are difficult to determine. Traditional Chinese historians—including those from the centuries immediately following the Qin—blame the collapse on one of three factors. They are, 1) moral decline, usually due to an abusive ruler, 2) intellectual failings when a ruler fails to learn from past mistakes, or, 3) people turning their backs on traditional values of kinship. Western historians tend to look to social factors as causes for the collapse. These include numerous peasant revolts, which weakened the emperor's hold over his empire, causing it to collapse. Regardless of the cause, the Qin left a major mark on China for millennia to come—in fact the actual name "China", which came later than all of these events, likely comes from "Qin"! Picture of a small section of the detailed terracotta warriorsPhotograph of one (small) section of the terracotta army (pit 1) buried along with Qin Shihuangdi at his tomb complex (Xi’an, China). By Maros M r a z (Maros), CC BY-SA 3.0. Picture of a small section of the detailed terracotta warriors Photograph of one (small) section of the terracotta army (pit 1) buried along with Qin Shihuangdi at his tomb complex (Xi’an, China). By Maros M r a z (Maros), CC BY-SA 3.0. Author bio Dennis RM Campbell is an associate professor of History at San Francisco State University. He primarily conducts research on esoteric topics in ancient history and writes about ancient language, religions, and societies. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the authors, what are two ways innovation happens?What is an empire, according to the article?What were some technologies, developed in this period, that helped long-distance travel and trade networks emerge?How were cities different from foraging societies in terms of social systems?Within these social systems, who did writing serve first, and how? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Given what you have learned so far, can you make a list of the topics and transformations you think you will learn about in this era? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Era 3 Overview: Cities, States, and Empires A drawn image of many people in a procession walking into a grand, blue-colored gate adorned with animal carvings. By Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Between about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, societies grew bigger and more complex. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. As foragers became pastoralists and farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders. People living in these societies, either by choice or by force, then constructed government and systems of religion to help manage the problems, and the opportunities, of bigger populations and more complex life-styles. When the last era ended, the world was a patchwork of human societies. Our ancestors had spread from Africa to most of the world's continents and large islands. Some of them were farming and herding animals, while others still largely foraged for wild plants and animals. Many people did both. We ended the era by comparing and contrasting Neolithic farming and pastoral communities in different parts of the world. These societies had made enormous innovations over thousands of years and each of these communities had created unique new cultures. But change in human history isn't only driven by innovation within a society. In fact that's not even the principal driver of change. We also learn from each other's societies. New techniques, strategies, ideas, and tools are invented in one place, and then they're shared with other regions. People in nearby societies see what their neighbors are doing, and either adopt their ideas (essentially copying them) or adapt them (changing them to serve their own needs). Some of the most important inventions in human history—like iron and ramen—were only invented once or twice independently, and then people around the world learned to use and love them! Growing communities In this era, we ask how new complex political and economic systems developed, and how their emergence affected their communities and their relationships with other communities. And there were a lot more, and bigger, communities in this era! Between about 6000 BCE and 600 CE, societies, significant population growth, and increasing population density happened in many parts of the world. Families joined with each other to make villages, and villages grew into cities. This was especially true in the Neolithic communities discussed in the last era. You may have noticed that this unit overlaps with the last one by several thousand years. That's because the two key transformations of Era 2 and Era 3 overlapped. As foragers became pastoralists and farmers, they also became village dwellers and city-builders. A modern-day photo showing the ruins of Teotihuacan, which is made up of several multi-level structures. Ancient ruins of Teotihuacan, Mexico. By BrCG2007, public domain. A modern-day photo showing the ruins of Teotihuacan, which is made up of several multi-level structures. Ancient ruins of Teotihuacan, Mexico. By BrCG2007, public domain. In many places, cities and villages also came together under one government as states. Sometimes these states were centered on a single city, with many villages connected to them. This was an early pattern in Mesopotamia, for example. Sometimes there were several cities and lots of villages linked together. This happened quite early in Egypt. Over time, some states grew very large, and became empires—several groups of different communities ruled by one government, often with some inequality between the communities. In fact, inequality was something of a feature of these new cities and states. While we often talk of these developments as evidence of positive changes, they also brought new problems. For a poor person in a city, or a conquered person in a large state, life was often brutal, dirty, and filled with hard work. But for others, the city and the state brought excitement and opportunity. Village, metropolitan, and long-distance networks Whether good or bad, humans living in these societies had many new experiences. This was due largely to the growth of communities and expansion of networks. There were also many new humans to have these experiences. Populations grew dramatically in Era 3. The rate of growth sped up over time. It took 1600 years—between 2600 and 1000 BCE—for the world's population to double. It grew from about 60,000,000 to about 120,000,000 people. But it took only 1,000 years—between 1000 BCE and 1 CE—for the population to double again, to 250,000,000 people. So populations, like the size of communities and the extent of networks, grew in this period. The most important networks for everyday life remained quite localized. Villages connected to each other and to local, nomadic people through village networks. As cities emerged, a new type of network developed known as a metropolitan network. This network connected cities with the villages and rural areas around them, which they could to some degree control. But during Era 3, long-distance networks also gradually developed. In Eurasia, the domestication of horses allowed for much speedier communication and allowed rulers to extend their influence and control over people hundreds of miles away from the capitals of their empires. Similarly, the domestication of the camel in western Asia and Africa meant that people and goods could now move across deserts at an accelerated rate. At sea, new and improving ship-building and navigation technologies helped states and empires spread across larger areas. In many regions, infrastructure projects such as the building of roads connected empires in a more efficient way. As a result, more people travelled—although the number of people traveling compared to the overall population was still quite low. But for those that did travel, they learned each other's languages and read each other's ideas. Interlocking networks of roads, trails, and sea lanes connected almost all parts of Afro-Eurasia. Such networks also existed in the Americas, across extensive areas of Mesoamerica and the Andean mountain spine of South America. Increased trade, new experiences Of course, each of these innovations also helped to stimulate production and distribution. Networks that allowed for the sharing of ideas and growth of communities across oceans and along land routes also stimulated trade. The most extensive trade route of this era was the Silk Road, which connected the imperial centers of Rome and Han Dynasty China during the second and first centuries BCE. Long-distance trade played a role in concentrating immense amounts of wealth in the hands of a minority of people. Hunter-gatherers had lived in relative equality. But life in agrarian cities and states generally was different. These societies tended to have more sharply defined social classes. The elite controlled much of the wealth and had many other privileges. However, some cities and societies seem to have relatively little hierarchy, while others had a great deal. A painting shows a person in a horse-drawn carriage shooting a bow and arrow at many people.Egyptian painting depicting the Hyksos invasion and the use of domesticated horses in battle. Public domain. A painting shows a person in a horse-drawn carriage shooting a bow and arrow at many people. Egyptian painting depicting the Hyksos invasion and the use of domesticated horses in battle. Public domain. Rulers and wealthy merchants also drove the development of writing, probably the most important development during this era. The ability to read and write was rare and generally something only the wealthy had. Therefore, writing deepened the distance between the elite and commoners. The first written texts were generally not love poems or novels. Writing started as a way to record the trading of goods and surpluses of food. Writing let merchants record that they had traded three goats for five bushels of wheat. It let rulers write down instructions to the commanders and governors overseeing the furthest edges of their state. Writing also helped to solidify and spread an important element of increasingly complex cultures of cities, states, and empires. These were large- scale belief systems of people from different cultures and with different languages. Most people of this era believed in more local religions with their own set of rituals and practices. These systems of belief were particular to their community. Their sacred places were within their local environment and they worshipped their own gods and goddesses. Image of a piece of papyrus. Drawn symbols are separated by vertical lines.Papyrus of Ani. Egyptian hieroglyphics, which originated from a logographic script. By Flembles, public domain. Image of a piece of papyrus. Drawn symbols are separated by vertical lines. Papyrus of Ani. Egyptian hieroglyphics, which originated from a logographic script. By Flembles, public domain. Beginning in Era 3, however, religions emerged that were portable—they were not tied to one place—and congregational—meaning they brought groups of people together. Many of the world's major portable, congregational religions appeared during this time. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Daoism, Buddhism, and Christianity all appeared, as networks of commerce and cultural exchange in Afro-Eurasia were appearing for the first time. With these new connections across local communities and different languages, humans began adopting shared belief systems. From that perspective, the growth of world religions seemed inevitable due to growing connectedness. These particular systems of belief were by no means the same—and by no means inevitable. The leaders of these world religions struggled with persistent questions about suffering and meaning. They looked at these issues through different lenses and came to different conclusions. But they formed both networks and communities of great significance in this era. They helped to shape and connect human experiences over vast regions and over thousands of years. Conclusion Despite the growth of portable religions, empires, and long-distance networks, most people in Era 3 still lived lives that were very local. They barely moved a few miles from where they were born, and their deepest connections were with people in their own local communities or their language networks. Similarly, not everybody lived in big states or cities. In fact, foragers still populated large regions of the world. Within cities, states, and empires, life experiences were also very diverse. The wealthy and powerful might profit greatly from the growth of agriculture and trade to enjoy very high standards of living. But one of the enduring truths about the human transition to cities is that life did not universally improve. In fact, for many people, living in early settlements meant shorter and less healthy lives than hunting and gathering. So rather than thinking of Era 3 as one step in a chain of progress, you might use the evidence in this unit to think about how new political and economic systems developed in this era, how it changed the way people lived, and what might be the lessons we can take away from these answers that might be meaningful today. Author bios Trevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries. Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the article, what are some reasons why Buddhism became popular in China?Who is the main person who brought Buddhism to China, according to the traditional story?What is one example of how Buddhism sinicized in China, according to the article?Why and how did sinicization of Buddhism happen, according to Zenryū Tsukamoto?How did systems of belief change people’s behaviors? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: What does the sinicization of Buddhism tell us about the nature of a belief system as a community? As a network? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Why do Belief Systems Spread? How China Made Buddhism its Own An extremely detailed and ornate painting of the Buddha in the center of a city or collection of temples By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor Historically, belief systems have been shared along trade routes and at times, have been transformed once they’ve entered a new region. This was certainly the case with Buddhism. Introduction Many non-Buddhists’ picture the Buddha as a happy, shirtless man with a large belly that people rub for good luck. This idea of Buddha is a particularly Chinese one. You wouldn’t often see that representation in India, where Buddhism originated. Images of the “Laughing Buddha”, or Budai, can also be seen in other parts of Southeast Asia such as Thailand and Singapore, as well as in Japan. So why is the image of Buddha so different in these areas compared to India?1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript A photo of a golden sculpted smiling Buddha surrounded by flowers and giftsMaitreya (“Laughing Buddha”) at Miaoying Temple, Beijing, China. By Shizhao, Public Domain. A photo of a golden sculpted smiling Buddha surrounded by flowers and gifts Maitreya (“Laughing Buddha”) at Miaoying Temple, Beijing, China. By Shizhao, Public Domain. As you read earlier in this lesson, Buddhism began in India with the life and teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. But Buddhism was not confined to this region. Merchants traveled from India to nearby locations such as China and Southeast Asia bringing goods to exchange. But they also brought ideas, including belief systems. One of the most popular belief systems was Buddhism. There are many reasons why Buddhism became popular in China. Buddhism united the Chinese people into a community of believers. This unification helped the Chinese overcome a period of war and unrest during the Warring States period. There is also the connection to exchange networks. When trade increased along the Silk Road, ideas and belief systems also spread. Sometimes the area that adopted these new beliefs changed the beliefs into something that was their own. Map shows the expansion of Buddhism from India to ChinaExpansion of Buddhism from India to China, Southeast Asia, and Japan. By Gunawan Kartapranata, CC BY-SA 3 Map shows the expansion of Buddhism from India to China Expansion of Buddhism from India to China, Southeast Asia, and Japan. By Gunawan Kartapranata, CC BY-SA 3 Scholars have asked, “Who spread these ideas across China?” Did Indian people move to China and bring this faith? Did the Chinese spread these beliefs around the empire themselves? Or maybe it was a combination of these two explanations? The traditional origin story of the arrival of Buddhism in China began with a dream of the Emperor Ming Ti. He reigned during the Han Dynasty in the mid-first century CE. He dreamed of a golden god, thought to be the Buddha. In order to understand this vision better, he sent representatives to India to learn more about the Buddha. Ming’s advisors brought back Buddhist sutra (scripture) and housed these works in a temple near the capital city. There could be some truth to this, just as many origin stories might have some truth to them. But historical accounts focus on a more gradual introduction of Buddhism to China through trade routes. As Buddhist ideas spread from Indian merchants throughout China, parts of the faith were adopted. Some Buddhist ideas became mixed with similar beliefs that already existed, like Daoism. Both Buddhism and Daoism focused on magical beliefs and rituals. Many Chinese found it easy to blend these two belief systems. The Chinese followers of Daoism also had another origin story about their founder, Laozi. They believed Laozi traveled to India where he was reborn as the Buddha. This belief helped to mesh these two faiths together. The Chinese kept some of the Indian faith’s practices and beliefs. This included the more traditional beliefs in karma and nirvana. Over time, these central doctrines to Buddhism became “Sinicized” (changed through Chinese influence). For example, many Chinese emperors had a fascination with immortality. As a result, there were many court members who attempted to create tonics that would extend the emperor’s life on Earth. Some of these elixirs actually ended up causing the death of a few emperors. But this focus of extending life on Earth and achieving immortality became interwoven with some Buddhist practices like enlightenment (nirvana). So, for many Chinese who adopted Buddhist beliefs, the idea of nirvana morphed into one that was different from the definition of nirvana in India. One of the most popular forms of Buddhism in both China and Japan is the Pure Land School. The Pure Land School believes in the Indian sutras but has a different focus than Indian Buddhism. “While in India rebirth in the Pure Land meant a complete break with earthly life, which was considered a life of suffering, in the Chinese Pure Land School it means an extension of earthly living.”2^22squared Buddhism became Sinicized. It was changed for a Chinese audience and combined with other Chinese beliefs such as Daoism and more traditional cult practices. The height or “golden age” of Buddhism in China was during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). During this period, many of the Tang emperors protected monasteries. The faith grew both spiritually and economically. But as foreign influences became less trusted in the ninth century, Buddhism experienced persecution. The Chinese government ordered over 4000 monasteries destroyed. In addition, close to 300,000 monks and nuns were forced out of their homes and places of worship. While Buddhism in China declined somewhat after the Tang, it never disappeared. In some areas, it combined with both Daoism and Confucianism. These three belief systems combined with more traditional Chinese rituals to become a mixture practiced together. Historical scholars explain how the Chinese made Buddhism their own How and why did Buddhism change after it was brought to China? Chinese and Buddhist history experts looked at evidence and formed ideas to explain the spread of this belief system. The Japanese expert Zenryū Tsukamoto wrote A History of Early Chinese Buddhism (1979). In these two volumes he says mistakes may have been made in translating Buddhist writings into Chinese. Did these mistakes in translation lead to a different form of Buddhism in China than the one practiced in India? Or were the differences in Chinese and Indian Buddhism a result of other factors? “Eventually Indian artifacts joined this stream [of goods and ideas shared along the Silk Road] and, most important for our purposes, Buddhism began to flow with it, exerting an enormous influence not only on Chinese cultural forms but on those of the rest of Asia as well…Buddhism, this rebel child of Indian culture, proceeded eastward quite as if it were the representative of Indian civilization, functioning very actively and over an extended period of time as an embassy of peace, uniting the sophisticated, and at the same time utterly dissimilar, cultures of India and China… As an example of the transformation just mentioned, one might cite the fact that scriptures of this foreign religion, written with a phonetic script or recited orally, in a language with a highly developed morphology [structure], were now rendered into a literary language of a totally different character, that of China, written with ideographs [characters] each of which had an independent meaning of its own and characterized by an absence of morphology. Now the Chinese had recourse not to the original but to Buddhist scriptures translated into their own language, which they read, interpreted, and equipped with commentary, developing a set of Buddhist doctrines and practices able to function in Chinese society…Under the circumstances, the original sense of the Indian Buddhist scriptures inevitably underwent a typically Chinese interpretation. However mistaken this interpretation might be from the point of view of the originals, Chinese Buddhism developed on the assumption that the interpretation was an accurate one.” (4-5) Kenneth Kuan Sheng Ch’en expresses a slightly different view in his work Chinese Transformation of Buddhism (1973). Ch’en thought that Buddhism went through a gradual process of Sinicization. The Chinese were willing to accept this belief system because it fit with beliefs and practices they already had, such as Daoism. However, in order for the Chinese to fully embrace Buddhism, the faith was organized into a more orderly format. “It is true that the process of Indianization [of China] did take place, but it is also true that another process was going on, namely, the adaptation of Buddhism to Chinese conditions. While Indian ideas were gaining ground, the Chinese were also fashioning changes in the Indian ideas and practices, so that Buddhism became more and more Chinese and more acceptable to the Chinese. I call this process the Sinicization of Buddhism in China… Already possessed of a high level of civilization when Buddhism was introduced about the beginning of the Christian era, the Chinese were not totally overwhelmed by the new religion. It is true that for a few centuries, the Chinese were captivated by the overpowering religious panorama brought in with Buddhism, but in time, what some scholars call the basic personality or the local genius of the Chinese began manifesting itself… Further examples of such Sinicization may be cited here. One is the classification of the Buddhist sutras [scripture] according to chronological periods, which may be attributed to the Chinese predilection [preference] for history. During the centuries after the introduction of Buddhism in China, a tremendous body of literature, conveying the widest assortment of doctrines and ideas, was translated into Chinese. This huge body of literature must have been a constant source of amazement to the Chinese, for how could one individual preach such a variety of teachings during his brief span of life? Moreover, how could one explain the numerous doctrinal differences taught…These problems led the Chinese Buddhists to undertake the task of organizing and classifying the entire corpus [collection] of literature according to periods and doctrines. By classifying the sutras according to chronological periods, the Chinese succeeded in bringing some order out of chaos.” (5-9) [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O'Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was the Nobleman of Rao buried with? Which of these items led archaeologists to believe that he was a nobleman?According to the biography, what do the items found with the nobleman’s body tell us about trade in this region during his lifetime?How does the text of the biography suggest that there were both positive and negative sides to the development of hierarchy?How does the artwork depict a “bad” side of the development of hierarchy? How does the artwork depict a “good” side of the development of hierarchy? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: What evidence does this biography provide for how the development of complex societies changed communities during Era 3?How does this evidence support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about the development of complex societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . The Nobleman of Rao (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor Getz Artist: Peter Quach The objects buried alongside a wealthy man in Rao, West Africa, more than seven hundred years ago, can help us understand some of the effects hierarchies had on communities. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why was ancient Mesopotamia a hard place to live?Why did so many different empires conquer Mesopotamia?What was one innovation that allowed Sargon to conquer the world’s first empire?Give one example of a method that the Assyrian Empire used to establish control and authority over conquered peoples.What was life like for women in ancient Mesopotamia?What are some possible reasons the author gives for the fall of the Akkadian and Assyrian Empires? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: This article talks a little about how the Mesopotamian empires made trade networks over long distances possible. But empire building also requires a lot of wars, which can make trade hard. Do you agree with the author’s reasoning? Do empires create trade networks or do trade networks create empires? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Rise of Empires: Akkadians and Assyrians A painted scene of an elaborate city along a body of water. There are ornate, large buildings lining the water, and people in boats on the water. On the other side, three men sit with several farm animals surrounded by trees. By Bennett Sherry The Akkadian and Assyrian empires were two of the world’s first empires. Their conquests reshaped Mesopotamia. The many empires that would follow, worldwide, had much in common with these originals. The land between the rivers Mesopotamia is the land between and around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (in present-day Iraq). There are some river valleys like the Nile that flood predictably, making it easy to live and farm near them. The Mesopotamian rivers are not the Nile. The currents are more violent, and people living there had to work harder to produce food. To make matters worse, resources like wood were scarce. This meant that societies in Mesopotamia had to trade or fight with each other to get the resources they needed. Map shows the area that was Mesopotamia, which included parts of modern-day Iraq and SyriaMap of Mesopotamia.By Goren tek-en, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map shows the area that was Mesopotamia, which included parts of modern-day Iraq and Syria Map of Mesopotamia.By Goren tek-en, CC BY-SA 4.0. In 3000 BCE, Mesopotamia was a land of city-states1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. Most people lived in walled cities under the rule of a king. Dozens of city-states along the Tigris and Euphrates fought with each other in a struggle for power and limited resources. Around 2334 BCE, one city grew powerful enough to start conquering the others. 5,000 year-old text messages Before 3000 BCE, the cities of Mesopotamia were predominately Sumerian. Sumerian was the dominant language of Mesopotamia until this time, and it was the first written language. The Sumerians developed a system of writing called cuneiform that became the basis of several later written languages. Around 3000 BCE, a new people migrated into northern Mesopotamia. They spoke a Semitic language2^22squared . We call them Akkadians after the city they built, Akkad. The Akkadians ruled history's first empire. As you've read, an empire is a political organization with a dominant core state that controls weaker states around that core. Empires have flexible borders and a core culture that exerts control over other cultures. A bunch of different ancient empires rose in Mesopotamia because it was pretty easy to get to. The Nile river valley, by contrast, was surrounded by hundreds of miles of desert and quite hard to reach. This is why Mesopotamia was home to the first empires: it was a bunch of separate city-states in an agriculturally rich land that was easy to march an army across. Many foreign invaders did just that, building new empires and destroying old ones. A photo of the Tigris river and surrounding land. The Tigris River outside Mosul, Iraq. By Matthew Glennon, public domain. A photo of the Tigris river and surrounding land. The Tigris River outside Mosul, Iraq. By Matthew Glennon, public domain. The Akkadians In 2334 BCE, Sargon of Akkad launched a series of conquests from his city on the Euphrates River. The empire he conquered extended from the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as far as Anatolia (modern Turkey). To support his wars, Sargon created the world's first permanent army. Other states in this era only had armies during war, but not in times of peace. Sargon's professional army allowed him to build the world's first empire. With 5,400 soldiers, Sargon quickly extended Akkad's control over several weaker city-states in the region. The Akkadian Empire did not last long after Sargon's death. In just a few generations, it collapsed, and Mesopotamia returned to a collection of warring city-states. However, the region would not be long without an empire. Map showing the extent of the Akkadian EmpireMap showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire. Map showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire Map showing the extent of the Akkadian Empire. The Assyrians They might not have been the first, but the Assyrian Empire was much longer-lived than the Akkadian, and its influence was much larger. The empire lasted from 2025 to 609 BCE, though it was interrupted a few times. Historians divide the Assyrian empire into three parts: "Old Kingdom," "Middle Empire," and "Neo-Assyrian Empire"3^33cubed . For about 1,400 years, the Assyrian Empire dominated Mesopotamia. The Assyrians were originally a group of pastoralists who spoke the Akkadian language and migrated south into Mesopotamia. The Assyrian Empire began modestly, with its city of Asur originally ruled by Akkad. After the Akkadian empire collapsed, Asur dominated several nearby cities like Nineveh, which later became the Assyrian capital. By the seventh century BCE, they ruled an empire stretching from Egypt to Iran. Map showing the extent of the Assyrian Empire, which covered the area between the Persian Gulf and Mediterranean sea and part of EgyptMap showing the extent of the Assyrian Empire. Map showing the extent of the Assyrian Empire, which covered the area between the Persian Gulf and Mediterranean sea and part of Egypt Map showing the extent of the Assyrian Empire. Empire and power, violence and management The Assyrians were really good at war. They're remembered in particular for their ruthlessness. They demolished cities that resisted and executed people in horrific ways. One of their tactics when conquering a new people was to steal statues and religious symbols from temples and bring them home. This practice of "godnapping" was intended to lower the morale of conquered peoples. The Assyrians also probably believed that taking the statues would prevent the gods of the conquered from hearing their prayers. But the Assyrians didn't just deport gods. They also moved conquered people around their empire. Relocating conquered peoples made cities less unified, less likely to organize a rebellion, and easier to rule over. In addition to their fearsome abilities at warfare, the Assyrians were also very good administrators. While the Akkadian Empire had taken a more hands-off approach, the Assyrians micromanaged the areas they conquered. They appointed Assyrian governors and officials to run conquered cities and maintain political control. The power of the Assyrian military rested on the control of its periphery (outlying areas) and a hierarchy that increased production. An image carved in stone: People stand on top of buildings with axes, knocking them down. In the bottom-right corner, people are fleeing.Stone relief showing the destruction of the city of Susa by the Assyrian emperor Ashurbanipal in 647 BCE. By Zereshk, CC BY-SA 3.0. An image carved in stone: People stand on top of buildings with axes, knocking them down. In the bottom-right corner, people are fleeing. Stone relief showing the destruction of the city of Susa by the Assyrian emperor Ashurbanipal in 647 BCE. By Zereshk, CC BY-SA 3.0. Production, women, and enslavement Mesopotamian (including Akkadian and Assyrian) society was patriarchal, but women played important public roles. They could act as witnesses in legal and financial matters and own property. Generally, women were employed in the home, in food production, or textile weaving. But women sometimes worked in typically male jobs and vice versa. Women also wielded political power. At least one woman ruled the Assyrian Empire, and female officials known as sakintus acted as palace administrators. Conditions for Mesopotamian women declined over time. By the end of the Assyrian period, they were more restricted in job opportunities and public life. One Assyrian law divided women based on whether a man controlled them. The law declared that "a wife-of-a-man" and any "daughters-of-a-man" were to wear veils while in public, which signaled a higher status. Women who were on their own, enslaved women, and women who worked as prostitutes could not wear a veil in public. Adultery was punishable by death, and many other restrictions were placed on women's bodies and sexuality. Women weren't the only people who were restricted in this society. The use of forced labor was central to production and distribution in Mesopotamia. Agricultural work was difficult and dangerous on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Both the Akkadians and Assyrians enslaved their prisoners of war. Enslaved women were forced into textile production or housekeeping for elites, and men worked in agriculture, mines, and construction. The Assyrians administered a nearly industrial level of textile weaving with the labor of enslaved men and women. They used these textiles to trade for silver from the west, and could spend that on luxuries from the east. Carved rock depiction of a very large man stomping on much smaller peopleA rock relief showing Akkadian emperor Naram-Sin trampling on conquered people. By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg), CC BY-SA 4.0. Carved rock depiction of a very large man stomping on much smaller people A rock relief showing Akkadian emperor Naram-Sin trampling on conquered people. By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg), CC BY-SA 4.0. Trade networks The Akkadians and Assyrians came to Mesopotamia as foreign invaders. Both empires started because their rulers wanted to control more trade routes. Both Akkad and Asur were inland cities, far away from the ports of the eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf. They began their conquests with the goal of seizing important trading centers and getting access to the sea. The conquests of both empires united the divided city-states of Mesopotamia, enabling them to trade peacefully with each other and with distant regions. Beginning with Akkad, strong empires made it possible for merchants to create trade networks between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. The fun of buying nice things didn't begin with the modern shopping mall. The Mesopotamian empires often traded with distant societies for luxury goods. They traded with the Indus River valley cities by sea, and overland routes connected them as far west as Egypt and as far east as Afghanistan. As luxury goods moved along these networks, so did ideas and new technology. Assyrian advances in chariot warfare and ironworking spread through trade and conquest, as did Mesopotamian gods and cuneiform. The Assyrians extended regional networks across their empire and beyond. Assyrian roads and a postal system connected the region internally and improved trade. As one of the first empires to adopt iron in weapon making, the Assyrian conquests spread new iron technology across their conquered lands. 6 rock panels carved with scriptA cuneiform letter between Assyrian merchants concerning trade in precious metals. Itur-ili, the senior partner, offers wise words of advice to Ennam-Ashur: "This is important; no dishonest man must cheat you! So do not succumb to drink!" Good advice in any era. By Itur-ili, public domain. 6 rock panels carved with script A cuneiform letter between Assyrian merchants concerning trade in precious metals. Itur-ili, the senior partner, offers wise words of advice to Ennam-Ashur: "This is important; no dishonest man must cheat you! So do not succumb to drink!" Good advice in any era. By Itur-ili, public domain. Conclusion: The land between the empires You're going to read a lot about empires in this class. They've been a really popular way to organize human communities ever since Sargon declared himself the "True King." One thing you'll notice is that all empires eventually collapse. They might last for 100 years or 1,000. They might decline or fall to invasion or become something new. But they all end. The Akkadian Empire lasted for somewhere between 100 and 200 years. Why did it collapse so quickly? Archaeologists now believe they have identified the small but powerful culprit: dust. Several centuries of dry and dusty conditions—caused by climate change and over-farming—crippled the mighty Akkadian empire. As dust and drought choked Mesopotamian agriculture, whole cities disappeared from the archeological record. By contrast, the Assyrian Empire, like many empires since, collapsed because it depended on military expansion. Dust they could handle, but this expansion was expensive and made a lot of enemies. The financial and administrative burden of running the empire made it crumble from within and gave enemy armies an easier target. Though these two empires collapsed, they were inspirations and lessons for later empires. The Assyrians replaced the Akkadians with an even larger, more powerful empire. The Assyrians were in turn replaced by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, which were replaced by… well you get the idea. Photo shows an immense cloud of dust covering the Persian Gulf Satellite image of a dust storm over the Persian Gulf in 2009. Similar storms likely led to the collapse of the world’s first empire. NASA, Jeff Schmaltz, public domain. Photo shows an immense cloud of dust covering the Persian Gulf Satellite image of a dust storm over the Persian Gulf in 2009. Similar storms likely led to the collapse of the world’s first empire. NASA, Jeff Schmaltz, public domain. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in History from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a Research Associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?What does evidence from the Indus River region tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley Painted depiction of a city. Some people are gathered in the center, and some are working on the roofs of structures By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor More clues would have been nice, but ancient artifacts from the Indus River Valley (3500-1700 BCE), plus some current technology, still tell a story of big cities and a sophisticated society. Introduction The society of the Indus River Valley (now Pakistan and northern India) was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century. Substantial digs that began in the 1920s have provided lots of artifacts from the people who lived here, but their writing remains a mystery. Therefore, we are left to make conclusions based on the evidence that we do have, namely archaeological, anthropological, artistic, and more recently, genetic studies. What we do know is that the major cities of this society were well organized and technologically advanced. These agricultural communities shared common bonds based upon religious or spiritual beliefs and language and trade networks. The society appears to have suffered a decline around 1700 BCE. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate the causes of this decline. Map image shows the extent of the Indus River Valley society. The society existed along and around the perimeter of the river.Map showing the extent of the Indus River Valley society from 2800 to 1900 BCE. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map image shows the extent of the Indus River Valley society. The society existed along and around the perimeter of the river. Map showing the extent of the Indus River Valley society from 2800 to 1900 BCE. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (c. 3500 – 1700 BCE) The two largest cities of the Indus River Valley society that have been unearthed are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, both located in modern-day Pakistan. While the cities are about 400 miles from each other, they have interesting similarities. Some areas of the cities are constructed on mounds that provided protection from flooding and could have also been used as defensive positioning. The streets were laid out in a grid with elaborate well systems to deliver fresh water to the inhabitants. An advanced drainage system could dump sewage outside of the city near the agricultural fields. Neither city had a central palace or temple structure, so it's possible this society was run by a number of wealthy families rather than a central ruler. The production and distribution of goods seemed to be the top priority of those who lived in this society. Trade networks were extensive and goods traveled back and forth from the Indus cities to local areas and to more distant locations such as Mesopotamia. Each city's population has been estimated from 40,000 to 60,000, and with numbers that high farming was an essential priority, if they were to feed everyone. The area that these culturally connected cities encompassed was much larger than the contemporary city-states of Mesopotamia and the society that had formed in Egypt. A photo of an empty pool made of brickGreat Bath at Mohenjo-daro. Constructed of mud bricks, the pool area was painted with tar, which acted as a water sealer. The pool was supplied with water from nearby wells. This may have been used for religious purposes or ritual cleansings. By Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0. A photo of an empty pool made of brick Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. Constructed of mud bricks, the pool area was painted with tar, which acted as a water sealer. The pool was supplied with water from nearby wells. This may have been used for religious purposes or ritual cleansings. By Saqib Qayyum, CC BY-SA 3.0. Both cities began as small agrarian communities that also produced handcrafted items such as beads and metal work. These cities grew over time to become important trading areas. As their wealth grew, so did their size. More mounds were added with structures for producing goods, along with residential areas. They put in roads that allowed wheeled carts to move through the city for trade, and some expanded to two-lane roads that could accommodate even more traffic. (Yes, traffic, four thousand years ago, already begging the question whether or not progress is a good thing.) Writing, trade, and spiritual beliefs The most significant forms of writing that we have of these societies also have to do with trade. Thousands of stamp seals1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript have been found that have a variety of animals and decorations on them. While the script on these seals has yet to be deciphered (translated), some images show up more than others. More than 65 percent of the seals found depict a unicorn. Other seals with real animals have also been uncovered. Archaeologists believe that the animal motifs represented a wealthy family or person. These would have been used to mark their goods for trading purposes. It's possible that some of the seals had religious significance. For example, the seated male figure below that is shown with a horned headdress appears often. He may be a god but we don't know for certain. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, depicting a figure (god) seated in a yogic position with hornsSeated male figure: Indus River Valley seal depicting a figure (god) seated in a yogic position with horns. Image by lsmoon, Wikimedia Commons. By Ismoon, CC0. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, depicting a figure (god) seated in a yogic position with horns Seated male figure: Indus River Valley seal depicting a figure (god) seated in a yogic position with horns. Image by lsmoon, Wikimedia Commons. By Ismoon, CC0. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, depicting a figure (goddess) strangling two lionsFemale figure: Indus River Valley seal depicting a figure (goddess) strangling two lions. Housed at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya Museum, India. By Ismoon, CC0. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, depicting a figure (goddess) strangling two lions Female figure: Indus River Valley seal depicting a figure (goddess) strangling two lions. Housed at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya Museum, India. By Ismoon, CC0. The same theory holds true for the female figure (shown below at right) that is strangling two tigers. Archaeologists, however, haven't found any evidence of a central temple for the worship of gods. It may be that religious beliefs were more personal for these communities. Without a translation of the Indus script, scholars can only speculate. These symbols and images bear similarities with those of other cultures in the area. The image of a god-like figure strangling wild beasts such as tigers can also be found in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh2^22squared . This may be evidence of the sharing of ideas and beliefs through trade networks. Researchers have also found pottery with some of the same markings as those on seals, suggesting an additional connection between the seals and wealthy families involved in trade. Furthermore, small tablets with the Indus script and symbols have been found. Linguists believe that these could be a numbering or accounting system. Interestingly, a lot of the tablets were broken in half, so they may have been business contracts where each party received half of the tablet as proof of the transaction—a rock receipt. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, featuring language symbols.Indus script as shown on a stamp seal from the third millennium BCE. By Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. Indus River Valley seal, or stamp, featuring language symbols. Indus script as shown on a stamp seal from the third millennium BCE. By Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain. Trade networks were certainly at their height between 2600 and 1900 BCE. A multitude of items from different societies, dating to that period, have been found in the region. The beautiful blue stone called Lapis lazuli and metals such as gold, silver, and tin have all turned up in Harappa. These would have traveled from areas such as modern-day Afghanistan and Iran. Harappan pottery, seals, and weights have been found in many contemporary societies such as those in Mesopotamia. From about 1900 BCE, some of the main cities experienced changes in habitation and population, though despite more evidence discovered in recent decades, historians still don't know why these changes occurred. Or rather—surprise, surprise—they don't agree. Decline? Invasion? Transition? The inhabitants of Mohenjo-daro abandoned the city about the same time Harappa declined (or at least deurbanized). According to environmental historians and geographers, the river that supplied fresh water to Mohenjo-daro changed course, and that would have been a good reason to abandon the city. Archaeologists have noticed a decline in the maintenance of drains and roads in Harappa from about 1900 BCE. They believe that this may have been the result of resources being spread too thin due to the effects of decreased trade, overpopulation, and climate change. For many years, scholars theorized that Indo-Europeans invaded the Indus River Valley region. We do have evidence of a group of Indo-Europeans from the Eurasian steppes moving into the Indian subcontinent. They brought their language, knowledge, and the use of horses and chariots, which were pretty high-tech at the time. Modern genetic studies3^33cubed show that, rather than invading, the Indo-Europeans migrated and assimilated with the indigenous people of the Indian subcontinent. But they did not cause the population to decline or shift, as far as we can tell. Today, the most accepted theory is that a combination of environmental factors such as climate change, shifting tectonic plates, and a change in the course of rivers contributed to the abandonment of some cities like Mohenjo-daro and the shift in population of others like Harappa. The Indus River Valley communities did not die out or collapse. Populations migrated in some areas and trade declined but the culture endured and transformed for many more years. [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What are some ways in which Christianity changed as it spread to new societies, especially in Asia?What are some ways in which Buddhism changed as it spread?How did the adoption of Buddhism and Christianity by political powers help those religions spread? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: This article begins and ends with the example of a Nestorian Christian gravestone in Central Asia. Why do you think this gravestone had both a western calendar year and a Chinese Zodiac year?How does syncretism help explain how a belief system could be a network? Does that change how you think about belief systems as communities? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Syncretism A painting of the Buddha, flanked by two others, on an ornate throne. Beneath the throne are two other people kneeling. To the right of the throne, another depiction of the Buddha shows them laying horizontally on a platform. *By David Rheinstrom and Rosie Friedland, revised by Eman M. Elshaikh Is a pizza with pineapple still pizza? Systems of belief, though a weightier subject, have also adapted the ingredients as trade routes and politics helped new ideas spread and change. A history of cultural exchange In what is now Kyrgyzstan in Central Asia, there sits an ancient Christian cemetery. Its gravestones are marked with Nestorian images that feature a cross over a lotus blossom. The inscription on one says, "This is the grave of Jeremiah, the believer." It gives the year of Jeremiah's death, but then it also says, "the year of the sheep," referencing the twelve-animal cycle of the Chinese Zodiac. Wait. Why is there a Christian gravestone in Central Asia with the Chinese Zodiac year on it? The Nestorians were one of many examples of a process called syncretism, which is what happens when a combination of different belief systems create something new. Transformed and even hybrid versions of religions, cultures, and ways of thinking emerge and spread for a variety of reasons. Syncretism can be when trade networks, shifts in political power, or the environment bring different groups of people into contact. Let's consider some historical examples of syncretism during this era. Photo of a stone carved with a cross-like symbolA reproduction of a stone tablet found in a Christian monastery in 13th-century Beijing. By Gary Lee Todd, CC BY-SA 4.0. Photo of a stone carved with a cross-like symbol A reproduction of a stone tablet found in a Christian monastery in 13th-century Beijing. By Gary Lee Todd, CC BY-SA 4.0. We can start along the winding trade routes of the Silk Road. Let's just say that silk, spices, and diseases weren't the only things carried along the Silk Road. Nomadic merchants brought philosophies and faiths, too. Buddhism and Christianity traveled along trade networks as surely as lapis, pepper, and plague. These ideas changed and adapted the communities they encountered. As a Daoist might say, however, just as water changes its shape to fit the vessel, so do faiths and ideologies change to fit the contexts of the cultures that adopt them. Trade networks and the expansion of classical empires The growth of classical empires meant that exchanges of cultures and ideas became possible and more common. Whenever Eurasian empires of antiquity expanded, their trade routes and networks of communication grew and improved as well. Some empires even got so big that they bordered one another. For example, Alexander of Macedon's Greek empire reached as far as India, resulting in the development of Greco-Buddhism. Christianity took some interesting routes as it spread and changed. Early Christian missionaries and preachers managed to turn Roman infrastructure to their advantage. They used Roman roads and Rome's expansive imperial trade network to spread their message far beyond the Mediterranean region. By the eleventh century CE, fully one-third of the world's Christians lived in Asia. Photograph of a long brick road. The road is made of large and very old stone.Ancient Roman road near Tall Aqibrin in Syria. By Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0. Photograph of a long brick road. The road is made of large and very old stone. Ancient Roman road near Tall Aqibrin in Syria. By Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0. As it spread, it adapted to local cultures. For starters, the language could change. Rather than the traditional Greek or Latin, the Church of the East used Syriac, a Semitic language, to write and read scriptures. Many of these Syriac-speaking Christians were Nestorians. This was a branch of Christianity that the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches branded as heresy—out of line with accepted teachings and therefore a big no-no. Nestorians held that Jesus Christ was someone both human and divine in nature. Many early Christian ascetics (those who practiced moderation and led minimalist lives) were also influenced by the self-denying practices of Jewish, Hindu, and Buddhist mystics. Some of these ascetics spent many years in seclusion as an expression of spiritual devotion. Map shows the variations of the Church of the East and where they were located during the middle ages Map of the Church of the East in the Middle Ages. By Kościół_Wschodu, CC BY-SA 3.0 Map shows the variations of the Church of the East and where they were located during the middle ages Map of the Church of the East in the Middle Ages. By Kościół_Wschodu, CC BY-SA 3.0 As Christianity spread further east, it took on elements of other belief systems. A monument in the imperial capital of the Tang dynasty describes Christ in Buddhist language: "[Christ] fixed the extent of the Eight Boundaries [the Eight Consciousnesses of Mahayana Buddhism], thus completing the truth and freeing it from dross [worthlessness]; he opened the gate of the three constant principles [impermanence, suffering, and non-self], introducing life and destroying death." Buddhism itself was transformed as it spread across the world. In India, many members of the merchant caste were practicing Buddhists. They talked to people as they traveled and traded. In this way, Buddhism spread along the Silk Road to Iran, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. As Buddhism spread, it was adopted within the context of peoples and their communities. For example, Mahayana Buddhism was much more popular in China than it was in India. Buddhist monks in India engaged in stricter, more ascetic practices and placed a higher value on meditation. A lifetime of meditation practice was difficult for an ordinary person to achieve. On the other hand, Mahayana, literally meaning "the great vehicle," was a form of Buddhism more people were willing to accept. In this branch you could attain salvation with acts of devotion such as paying for religious verses, rather than through asceticism (extreme self-denial). Missionaries and merchants promoting this more accessible version of the belief system attracted more followers. As a result, Buddhism gained a greater foothold in places like China. Its universal message of attaining salvation appealed to people and was easier for diverse cultures to understand and adopt. Blackened wall or stone slab carved with charactersA rubbing of the Nestorian Stele. Public domain. Blackened wall or stone slab carved with characters A rubbing of the Nestorian Stele. Public domain. Furthermore, Mahayana Buddhism made allowances for incorporating existing cultures and practices into its philosophy. In Mongolia and Tibet, Mahayana Buddhism shifted to allow for cultural beliefs in magic. In Tibet, for example, Mahayana Buddhists taught that it was possible to attain enlightenment through rituals and incantation. As with Christianity, Buddhism took on entirely new forms based on the diverse contexts of the communities it reached. Political power also played a massive role in reshaping belief systems. The Tang dynasty, through the strength of its military, imposed peace and order over Central Asia. This stability made it safe enough for traveling scholars and missionaries to accompany trading parties across the deserts and steppes. Its domain extended from the East China Sea all the way to Kashgar, near the border of present-day Kyrgyzstan. Buddhist monks traveled west along the Silk Road in efforts to study Buddhist doctrine in India, where they encountered massive Buddhist statues carved into cliffs as far west as modern-day Afghanistan. Merging of political and religious authority For both Christianity and Buddhism, political and religious authority were often mixed. For example, Constantine I, a fourth-century Roman Emperor, changed the rules after reportedly having a religious vision. He made it legal for Christians to practice their faith openly. By the late fourth century, emperor Theodosius had established Christianity as the official religion of Imperial Rome. Christians were able to hold positions of power in government, which granted the religion more legitimacy and followers. During this time, conversions increased in Spain, Italy, north Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean area. A photograph shows a person standing next to a massive Buddha sculpture. The person barely comes to the ankle of the sculpture.A photo of one of the Bamiyan Buddhas. The sculpture is massive; for scale, a person is standing at the foot of the statue and reaches the statue’s ankle. By Phecda109, public domain. A photograph shows a person standing next to a massive Buddha sculpture. The person barely comes to the ankle of the sculpture. A photo of one of the Bamiyan Buddhas. The sculpture is massive; for scale, a person is standing at the foot of the statue and reaches the statue’s ankle. By Phecda109, public domain. Buddhism also spread and transformed as a result of political power. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism possibly as a means of uniting his citizens around a common belief system. He also sent missionaries to a variety of locations. The first missionaries arrived in modern-day Sri Lanka in 250 BCE. Ashoka also sent missionaries to central Asia and the Middle East. From Sri Lanka, Buddhism spread to Burma, Java, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. From central Asia, it eventually spread to East Asia and Tibet. Why does this matter? Well, these missionaries acted as official spokespeople for the royal government, which gave them access to the rulers in the cities they visited. When a ruler likes what you have to say, it's pretty much the BCE version of having a celebrity re-share your post. You get a lot more followers. Buddhism was able to spread quickly and efficiently as more kings adopted the belief system in their own communities. Syncretism of cultures and traditions also developed in many different contexts during the classical period. Hinduism is a highly syncretic religion that developed and spread through diverse parts of the Indian subcontinent. Mesopotamian culture and legal codes influenced Judaism and the Hebrew Scriptures. Greek culture influenced Judaism as Alexander of Macedon's empire spread east. So, let's go back to that Nestorian gravestone in Central Asia. Do you have a better sense now of why the grave would give both a western calendar year and a Chinese Zodiac year? Do you see how doing business along Silk Road networks allowed ideas, not just goods, to be delivered? Author bios Rosie Friedland is a content contributor at Khan Academy. She has created materials for a variety of Khan Academy's test prep offerings, including free SAT prep in partnership with College Board. She has also worked on course materials for Grammar, World History, U.S. History, and early-grade English Language Arts. David Rheinstrom is a content creator at Khan Academy, and a former Grammar Fellow. Together with Rosie Friedland and Paige Finch, he developed the Grammar section of the website, and has contributed work to the test prep domain, World History, U.S. History, and a collaboration with the National Constitution Center. He lives in Washington, D.C. Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences, focusing on history and anthropology. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Based on their written rules, which belief system gave more rights to women, Confucianism or Daoism? Give some examples.What do the authors mean when they say “kinship”?What factors determined differences between women’s lives within Chinese society?How were Imperial Rome and Han China similar in their treatment of women? How were they different? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Some historians argue that historically, paleolithic societies had high levels of gender equality. As societies became larger and more complex, that gender equality disappeared, women’s authority diminished, and their lives became worse. You’ve read a lot about empires, the largest form of complex society in this region. Do you agree that the evidence always, or predominantly, supports this assertion? Or, do you think that it doesn’t? Why or why not? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Women and Families in Classical Society Painting of a woman weaving on a very large loom. Another woman walks past her and a man looks on. By Eman M. Elshaikh and Rosie Friedland, revised by Eman M. Elshaikh During the early period of the Song Dynasty, women had legal rights, property, and inheritance, though the rise of Neo-Confucianism resulted in the curtailing of women’s rights. During the classical period, between 600 BCE and 600 CE, many influential belief systems developed and evolved into more complex institutions, which are established laws, practices, or customs. Institutions often influence how communities are organized. These institutions affected communities by altering social structures like family and marriage, which had a large impact on the lives of women and children. During this period, women had comparatively less power than their male counterparts, but they still lived very diverse lives. Based on research from primary and secondary sources, we know that women exercised varying degrees of freedom and independence in the private and public worlds due to different belief systems, family relations, political contexts, and social classes. A painting of a woman sitting in a chair that has a floral design. She is wearing ornate clothing and reading a text.The Chinese scholar Ban Zhao. By AKappa, public domain. A painting of a woman sitting in a chair that has a floral design. She is wearing ornate clothing and reading a text. The Chinese scholar Ban Zhao. By AKappa, public domain. Belief systems Belief systems, philosophies, and religions may seem to exist simply in the world of ideas, but they have considerable effects on people's daily lives. Over time, concepts become parts of institutions that include rules and expectations for how people relate to one another. This is particularly true in the way women live in relation to their male counterparts and to society in general. For example, women in China experienced very different social roles under Confucianism and Daoism. Based on its written rules, Daoism gave more leeway for women to play active roles in religion and to make decisions about their lives. The written rules of Confucianism limited women's power more severely. But it is unclear whether women actually abided by these rules in all cases. As with any religious or moral system, there is a difference between rules and how they are actually practiced. Belief systemViews on womenPhilosophiesConfucianism in Han ChinaFilial piety required that people respect their elders and ancestors, especially male ones. The ideal role for women was to take care of a large household. Women typically didn’t have formal roles in Confucian life outside the home.Both Confucianism and Daoism have the concept of yin and yang, or duality. Women are seen as part of the yin: yielding, submissive, soft, etc. Men are seen as part of the yang: aggressive, powerful, etc.Daoism in Han ChinaWomen were allowed to be priests and teachers in the Daoist tradition. In the classical Daoist text, the Daodejing, feminine characteristics such as fertility, softness, and submission are seen as positive and respected features.In Daoism, the female contribution as the yin is more respected than it is in Confucianism; it is seen as a part of nature. Daoism suggests that a softer, more yielding attitude may eventually lead to more favorable results. Table 1: Table comparing views on women and philosophies in Confucianism and Daoism in Han China Family and marriage In many societies, women's primary roles revolved around motherhood and managing a household. While women in many historical contexts and different locations had this in common, there were significant differences in how women performed these roles depending on kinship relations. Kinship is a broad concept that encompasses familial relationships, like those of common descent, blood relation, and marriage. We can compare different kinship relations within one society. In Han China, a woman's power in a particular household depended on how she related to the men in the family. This can be seen in the Confucian principle of the three obediences. According to this principle, a woman's first obedience is to her father before she is married, to her husband while she is married, and to her son, after her husband dies. During the course of their lives, women were dependent on their male kin, but they had different levels of power depending on their age and influence over male family members. Mothers of influential older sons, for example, exercised far greater control over household affairs than a younger son's new bride. In this way, Chinese thinkers of the Han dynasty understood the family as the core unit. Men were formally the heads of the family unit and exercised legal power over the women and children in the household. Imperial Rome was similar in that the paterfamilias—Latin for "the father of the family"—was legally responsible for the family unit. In both societies, women exercised some legal power. For example, Roman women could own property and inherit after the deaths of their fathers. In Han China, the wills of women reveal that some older women held property, inherited assets, and managed businesses. Similarly, despite strict laws, both elite and ordinary women in Imperial Rome regularly bought and sold property with apparently very few limits on their freedom. This suggests that formal roles for women were not always followed and that women often had informal power. While the two societies share these similarities, they were different in other significant ways. For example, while women in Han China were mostly limited to separate women's spaces, Roman homes were not formally segregated. Roman women were confined to the back rows of theaters and arenas, but they had more of a role in public life than their Han Chinese counterparts. Han women were mostly limited to the private, domestic sphere (the household). This can be seen in the fact that Roman women often dined with men and visited public baths, something women in Han China would not have been permitted to do. Formal legal statusEconomic powerRole in public lifeHan ChinaFormally, women’s lives were controlled by male kin.Some women had wills and managed businesses.Women were mostly limited to private, segregated spacesImperial RomePaterfamilias was in charge of the women and children.Women could inherit and own property after a father’s death.Women could go out to dinner and visit public baths Table 2: Table comparing the formal legal status, economic power, and roles in public life of women in Han China vs. Imperial Rome Class and social hierarchy Because the majority of primary sources about women's lives come from wealthy people, scholars don't always know how the lives of families living in poverty played out. However, we can deduce that there were differences between elite and common women. In Han China, the ability to keep a large household with lots of family members was highly valued. But this Confucian ideal was not possible for families with fewer economic resources who could only feed a limited number of people. Men with less money often sold their daughters as servants and kept their more valuable male children at home. Statue of a seated woman wearing flowing, layered clothing. The sculpture’s arm and nose are missing due to age.Statue of Livia Drusilla, the wife of the Roman emperor Augustus, wearing a stola and palla. By Luis García, public domain. Statue of a seated woman wearing flowing, layered clothing. The sculpture’s arm and nose are missing due to age. Statue of Livia Drusilla, the wife of the Roman emperor Augustus, wearing a stola and palla. By Luis García, public domain. In Imperial Rome, women of different socioeconomic classes were distinguished by clothing style. Women with more socioeconomic power wore a long dress or stola, and a loose coat called a palla. They also wore ties in their hair. Prostitutes wore togas. If a woman of a higher socioeconomic class was found guilty of adultery, one of the punishments was to wear a toga. The distinction Imperial Roman society made between these two groups was more than just a moral one. Prostitutes and women of lower socioeconomic levels were also given fewer rights than women of a higher social status. Author bios Eman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history. Rosie Friedland is a content contributor at Khan Academy. She has created materials for a variety of Khan Academy's test prep offerings, including free SAT prep in partnership with the College Board. Rosie has also worked on course materials for grammar, world history, US history, and early-grade English language arts. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was Judea like under Roman rule during the life of Jesus?How were the teachings of Jesus similar to and different from those of Judaism?How were the teachings of Jesus recorded and spread?What was the role of women in early Christianity?How did Christianity become the official religion of the Roman Empire? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How did the rise of Christianity both disrupt and create communities in its first few centuries of existence? Does this support or challenge the communities frame?From a small sect in Judea, Christianity grew into the world’s largest religion today. How did networks make this spread possible? Was there anything new or different about the networks through which Christianity spread? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Christianity A detailed and busy painted scene. There are many people crowded together, and some are looking up at the sky, where a parting in the clouds shows a group of cherubs holding a cross By Merry Wiesner-Hanks Christianity emerged among a Jewish population living under Roman rule. The teachings of Jesus Christ included a universalism that appealed to many different communities. Today its many sects and churches include over 2 billion practitioners worldwide. Introduction Christianity appeared in the early Roman Empire, a time and place in which there was a great mixing of cultures, languages, and traditions, and when it was fairly easy to move around and exchange ideas and practices on roads and sea routes. It developed initially in the Roman province of Judaea, where movements in opposition to the Romans were spreading among Jews. Many Jews came to believe that a final struggle was near and that it would lead to the coming of a savior, or Messiah, who would destroy the Roman army and inaugurate a period of happiness and plenty for Jews. Painting of Jesus with sheep on either side of him, as well as one resting on his shouldersThis wall painting from a third-century Roman catacomb shows Jesus as the Good Shepherd, a very common way in which he was portrayed. Catacombs were burial passageways dug in the soft rock where Christians placed the dead and held memorial services. Public domain. Painting of Jesus with sheep on either side of him, as well as one resting on his shoulders This wall painting from a third-century Roman catacomb shows Jesus as the Good Shepherd, a very common way in which he was portrayed. Catacombs were burial passageways dug in the soft rock where Christians placed the dead and held memorial services. Public domain. Into this climate came Jesus of Nazareth (ca. 3 BCE–29 BCE). According to Christian scripture, he was born to deeply religious Jewish parents. His ministry began when he was about thirty. He taught by preaching and telling stories, and left no writings. Accounts of his sayings and teachings first circulated orally among his followers. Beginning in the late first century they were collected and written down to help build a community of faith, in books later called the gospels. Jesus' followers had different beliefs about his purpose, but they agreed that Jesus preached of a kingdom of eternal happiness in a life after death and of the importance of devotion to God and love of others. His teachings were based on Hebrew Scripture and reflected a conception of God and morality that came from Jewish tradition. He said that he was the Son of God and the Messiah (Christus in Greek, the origin of the English word Christ), but also asserted that he had come to establish a spiritual kingdom, not an earthly one based on wealth and power. Worried about maintaining order in Jerusalem, the Roman official Pontius Pilate arrested Jesus and ordered him executed. On the third day after Jesus' crucifixion, some of his followers declared that he had risen from the dead, an event that became a central element of faith for Christians. Religious ideas and practices The memory of Jesus and his teachings survived and flourished. Believers in his resurrection and divinity met in small assemblies, often in one another's homes. They celebrated a ritual (later called the Eucharist or Lord's Supper) commemorating his last meal with his disciples. They looked forward to Jesus' imminent return. Early Christians often called each other brother and sister, a metaphorical use of family terms that was new to the Roman Empire. Jesus' teachings were spread by many, including Paul of Tarsus, a well-educated Jew who was comfortable in the Roman world. After a conversion experience, Paul travelled the Roman Empire promoting Jesus' ideas, and writing letters of advice that were widely circulated. His writings transformed Jesus' ideas into more specific moral teachings and later became part of Christian scripture. The earliest Christian converts included men and women from all social classes. People were attracted to Christian teachings for a variety of reasons: they offered the promise of a blissful life after death for all who believed; stressed the ideal of striving for a goal; urged concern for the poor; and provided a sense of identity, community, and spiritual kinship welcome in the often highly mobile world of the Roman Empire. By the second century CE, Christianity was changing. The belief that Jesus was coming again soon waned. As the number of converts increased, permanent institutions were established, including large buildings for worship and a hierarchy of officials—priests, bishops, archbishops—often modeled on those of the Roman Empire. Christianity was becoming more formal and centralized. Educated men who became Christians developed complex theological interpretations of issues that were not clear in early texts. Often drawing on Greek philosophy, they worked out understandings of such issues as how Jesus could be both divine and human and how God could be both a father and a son (and later a spirit as well, a Christian doctrine known as the Trinity). These interpretations became official doctrine through decisions made at church councils. Not everyone agreed with these decisions, however, and splits over doctrinal issues led to the formation of variant branches. Although Christianity had sacred books, most people in the ancient world could not read, so rituals were more important than texts in the transmission of Christian teachings. The veneration of saints, including Jesus' mother Mary, became especially important. Saints were people who had lived (or died) in a way that was spiritually heroic or noteworthy. They were understood to provide protection and assistance, and objects connected with them, such as their bones or clothing, became relics with special power. Churches that housed saints' relics became places of pilgrimage for those seeking help or blessing, and saints' days provided rest and celebration. Society and family life Because they expected Jesus to return soon, many early Christians regarded earthly life and institutions as unimportant. Marriage and normal family life should be abandoned, they thought, and instead followers of Jesus should depend on their new spiritual family of co-believers. Some women and men decided to give up life in the world, and devote themselves to worship and prayer alone or in communities. They established monasteries and convents, often in isolated places. These ideas seemed dangerous to many Romans, who viewed marriage and family as the foundation of society. They especially worried about women who were not under the control of a father or husband, ideas that many male converts shared. Although in his plan of salvation, Jesus considered women the equal of men, by the late first century male church leaders began to place restrictions on female believers. Women were forbidden to preach or hold official positions in Christianity outside of women's convents. In some branches of Christianity, church leaders were increasingly expected to be celibate, that is, not to marry, which came to be seen as spiritually superior. They worried about being tempted by women, and some of their writings contain a strong streak of misogyny (hatred of women). According to Scripture, Jesus had harsh words to say about wealth, and shortly before he died drove money-changers and merchants out of the temple in Jerusalem with a whip. Poverty became one of the vows expected of people who joined monastic communities, but this was not expected of all Christians. As an institution, the Christian Church became very wealthy, owning land and buildings, and running agricultural estates and commercial enterprises. Political developments and the spread of Christianity In the early centuries, Christians were sometimes persecuted by governors of Roman provinces and the emperor. Although most persecutions were local and sporadic, some were intense, and accounts of heroic martyrs provided important models for later Christians. The third century brought civil war, invasions, and chaos to the Roman Empire. Hoping that Christianity could be a unifying force in an empire plagued by problems, Emperor Constantine (r. 306–337 CE) supported the Christian Church financially and legally. He expected in return the support of church officials in maintaining order. Christians altered their practices to follow the emperor's wishes. Worship became increasingly elaborate, churches grew large and fancy, and clergy began to wear ornate clothing. A detailed mosaic depicts a woman, holding a baby, with a man at either side. Each man is holding a castle, perhaps representing their empires.This mosaic from the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople shows the Virgin Mary with the Christ child on her lap, flanked by two Roman emperors, Constantine and Justinian. Built by Justinian in the sixth century, the Hagia Sophia was the world’s largest building at the time. Public domain A detailed mosaic depicts a woman, holding a baby, with a man at either side. Each man is holding a castle, perhaps representing their empires. This mosaic from the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople shows the Virgin Mary with the Christ child on her lap, flanked by two Roman emperors, Constantine and Justinian. Built by Justinian in the sixth century, the Hagia Sophia was the world’s largest building at the time. Public domain Helped in part by its favored position, Christianity slowly became the leading religion in the empire, and in 380 CE the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. He allowed the church to establish its own courts and to use its own body of law, called "canon law." With this he laid the foundation for later growth in church power. As Christianity became more politically powerful, it also spread. Christian missionaries, sometimes sent by bishops, and Christian travelers ventured beyond the borders of the Roman Empire. They brought Christianity to Kush and Aksum (now Ethiopia) in eastern Africa, where in the fourth century King Ezana of Aksum made Christianity the official religion of his kingdom. Missionaries, merchants, and soldiers took Christian teachings eastward and northward, into the Parthian Empire centered in Persia and to the tribal Celtic and Germanic peoples of Europe. Missionaries and converts often fused existing local religious customs with Christian teachings, so that rituals, practices, and doctrines differed significantly from one place to another. By 400 CE, there may have been 10 million Christians in the world; today, there are over 2 billion. Primary source: The Gospel of Matthew The Gospel of Matthew, the first book in the Christian New Testament, contains a long collection of Jesus' teachings, usually called the Sermon on the Mount. Among these are the following: Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust consume and where thieves break in and steal, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also… No one can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon (riches). (Matthew 6:19–21, 24) Author bio Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is Distinguished Professor of History emerita at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and currently the president of the World History Association. She is the author or editor of thirty books that have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Turkish, and Korean. [Sources and attributions]

Mesoamerica [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown Civilization in Mesoamerica flourished and crashed repeatedly, giving rise to a distinctive worldview and some remaining mysteries. The geography of the Americas The Americas constitute one of the world’s four geographical zones. Each of these belts is a large area of the world that developed almost entirely separately from the others during the eras of hunting and gathering and of early agriculture. The four world zones are the Afro-Eurasian zone, the Americas, the Australasian zone, and the Pacific islands. About 245 million years ago, when all the continents on Earth were fused into one continent called Pangaea, North and South America were more closely packed together. The current shape of Mesoamerica (Middle America) began to emerge as Pangaea broke up, and North and South America separated, not to be rejoined again until about 3 million years ago. This reconnection happened as two tectonic plates moved against each other, causing volcanoes to erupt, which created islands. Sediment gradually filled in among the islands. This had an enormous impact on Earth’s climate, because it reconfigured the ocean currents. Since the Atlantic current could no longer flow into the Pacific Ocean, it turned north up the coast of North America and over to Europe, carrying warm water from the Caribbean that raised temperatures in Europe. Today the land joining the two continents, called the Isthmus of Panama, is only 40 miles wide and 400 miles long. (Isthmus comes from the Greek word isthmos and means a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas, with water on either side.) The areas in which civilization developed in Mesoamerica include Mexico and neighboring parts of Central America, all just north of the Isthmus of Panama. [[image 1]] Early developments in Mesoamerica People in the Americas developed an entirely different menu of foods than those in Mesopotamia for the simple reason that the indigenous plants and animals were different than those in the Fertile Crescent. Instead of wild grains, goats, and sheep, people in the highlands of Mexico had corn (sometimes called maize), beans, peppers, tomatoes, and squash as their staple foods. The ancestor of modern corn, called “teosinte,” has cobs about the size of a human thumb. It took people about 5,000 years, until 2000 BCE, to domesticate teosinte and breed corncobs large enough to support city life. They also cultivated peanuts and cotton. The only animals that could be domesticated were dogs and turkeys. The Olmecs The founding culture of Mesoamerica appeared along the southwestern curve of the Gulf of Mexico, near the present-day city of Veracruz. This culture emerged in a series of river valleys, as Uruk did in Mesopotamia. Called the Olmecs (the “rubber people”), this culture lasted from about 1400 BCE to 100 BCE. It produced nearly imperishable art, notably large carved heads of volcanic rock, the largest weighing some 20 tons and standing about 10 feet tall. Monumental sculptures or tombs are typically indicative of a civilization with powerful leaders, but this culture probably ranks more as a chiefdom than as a state with extensive coercive power. The last Olmec site, Tres Zapotes, declined by about 100 BCE for unknown reasons. Was it volcanic eruptions? A shift in the flow of rivers? Scholars believe that the Olmecs may have deliberately destroyed their capital. Was there civil unrest? Class strife? No one knows. The Maya As the Olmecs declined, their neighbors to the east — the Maya — prospered in an area the size of Colorado or Great Britain. This area, around the curve of the Gulf of Mexico on the Yucatan Peninsula and south into present-day Guatemala, had poor, infertile soil and no large rivers, not what one would expect for a flourishing civilization. Yet its people built terraces to trap silt from the small rivers and grew corn, beans, squash, peppers, cassava, and cacao (chocolate). With no beasts of burden, their luxury goods were portable by humans — feathers, jade, gold, and shells. The Maya organized themselves into small city-states instead of one big empire. The largest was Tikal, which by 750 CE, had about 40,000 inhabitants, in specialized occupations and ruled by elites. The city-states fought each other frequently with the main purpose being to capture their enemies to sacrifice them to the Mayan gods. We know about the Maya because they developed the most elaborate and sophisticated writing system of the several different ones used in Mesoamerica. Mayan writing included both pictographs and symbols for syllables. Since the 1980s, scholars have made great strides in deciphering this script. Many carved inscriptions have survived, but only a few accordion books on bark or deerskin remain. Maya shamans or priests worked out remarkable systems of cosmology and mathematics. They devised three kinds of calendars. A calendar of the solar year of 365 days governed the agricultural cycle, and a calendar of the ritual year of 260 days dictated daily affairs; these two calendars coincided every 52 years. A third calendar, called the Long Count calendar, extended back to the date August 13, 3114 BCE (on the Gregorian calendar), to record the large-scale passage of time. The Maya calculated a solar year as 365.242 days, about 17 seconds shorter than the figures of modern astronomers. They also introduced the concept of zero; the first evidence of zero as a number dates from 357 BCE, but it may go back further, to Olmec times. In Afro-Eurasia, Hindu scholars first represented zero in the 800s CE. Mayan cosmology included the idea that the world had come to an end four times already and that the Maya were living in the Fifth Sun (the fifth world), whose persistence depended on the life energy of sacrificial blood. Remember in the Mayan creation story, the Popol Vuh, that the gods created people out of their own genius and sacrifice, nothing else. The Maya believed that the gods set the Sun burning by sacrificing themselves to start it. Since they believed that the Sun’s energy would continue only with the life-giving energy found in human blood to replenish it, they practiced ritual blood-letting achieved by using cactus or bone spines to pierce their earlobes, hands, or penises. They also carried out some ritual sacrifice of human victims. The Maya may have inherited their calendar and sacrificial rituals from the Olmecs. Certainly the Maya inherited from the Olmecs a ball game played with a rubber ball about 8 inches (20 centimeters) in diameter. The object was to put the ball through a high ring without using hands (no-handed basketball!). Sometimes the game was played for simple sport, but sometimes high-ranking captives were forced to play for their lives. The losers were sacrificed to the gods, and their heads were displayed on racks alongside some ball courts. Between 800 and 925 CE, Mayan society experienced a rapid transition. The world of cities ended as populations moved back into the countryside. Historians debate the possible causes of the change — civil revolts, invasions, erosion, earthquakes, disease, drought. Likely some combination of these brought on an unusually rapid fading of a once-vibrant civilization. The Maya didn’t just disappear; several million descendants are still alive today. Teotihuacan Meanwhile, back in the center of Mexico at about the same time, another amazing city developed: Teotihuacan (tay-oh-tee-wa-KAHN). Its site was in the highlands of Mexico, more than a mile (some 2 kilometers) above sea level, in a place where water flowing from surrounding mountains created several large lakes. Teotihuacan began as an agricultural village located about 31 miles (50 kilometers) north of present-day Mexico City. By 500 CE, it had an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 people, to rank as one of the six largest cities in the world. Not much is understood about its government; its art portrays deities rather than royalty. Its people expanded Olmec graphic symbols, but all its books were destroyed about 750 CE, when it seems that unknown invaders burned the city. Tenochtitlan The city that carried Mesoamerican civilization to its height proved to be Tenochtitlan (the-noch-tee-TLAHN), or “place of the cactus fruit” in their language, Nahuatl. Its people, called the Mexica (me-SHI-ka), came from northern Mexico looking for a place to settle. All the desirable places were already inhabited, except an island in a large lake in the Valley of Mexico, where they settled in 1325. They were given the name Aztecs by the German explorer and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt in the early nineteenth century. The Mexica/Aztecs built up their food production by creating floating islands of soil, called chinampas, held together by willow trees. Their men hired themselves out as paid soldiers to other towns until they became strong enough to conquer others on their own. In 1428, they allied themselves with two other neighboring cities to form the so-called Triple Alliance and set out to conquer other cities to provide tribute that could support the Alliance’s expanding population. The conquests would also provide sacrificial victims for their religious rituals, carried down from the Olmecs, Maya, and Teotihuacanians. By the early 1500s, the Aztecs had conquered most of Mesoamerica and had imposed their rule on an estimated 11 million to 12 million people. The annual tribute they received in corn alone amounted to 7,000 tons. They also received 2 million cotton cloaks, as well as jewelry, obsidian knives, rubber balls, jaguar skins, parrot feathers, jade, emeralds, seashells, vanilla beans, and chocolate. Without money, everyone was paid in food and goods. Their population had grown to at least 200,000 to 300,000 in the capital, several times the size of the contemporary London of King Henry VIII. The Aztecs bestowed great honor to their warriors, building their society around a military elite. A council of the most successful warriors chose the ruler. Warriors could wear fine cotton cloth and feathers instead of clothing made from the fibers of an agave-like plant; they were believed to go straight to the paradise of the Sun God if they died in battle. (This also applied to women who died in childbirth with their first child.) Priests also ranked among the elite. Most people were commoners who cultivated land and a large number of slaves worked mostly as domestic servants. The Aztecs adopted traditions that dated back to the Olmecs. They played the same ball game and kept a sophisticated calendar. They adopted traditional religious beliefs, holding that the gods had set the world in motion by their individual acts of sacrifice. Priests practiced bloodletting on themselves and believed that ritual sacrifice of humans was essential to prevent the destruction of the Fifth Sun by earthquakes or famine. The god of war, Huitzilopochli (we-tsee-loh-POCK-tlee), came to be the prevailing god in Tenochtitlan, and his priests placed more emphasis on human sacrifice than did earlier traditions. Priests laid the victims — mostly captives of war — over a curved stone high on a pyramid and cut open the chest with an obsidian blade to fling the still-beating heart into a ceremonial basin, while the desired blood flowed down the pyramid. Aztec society provided universal schooling for both boys and girls between 15 and 20 years of age. It’s likely they were the only people in the world to do this in the early sixteenth century. Commoner boys learned to be warriors; girls learned songs, dances, and household skills. A third kind of school provided lessons in administration, ideology, and literacy for elite boys. At the same time that the elites supported warfare, they also devoted them-selves to poetry, which they considered the highest art. One of the rulers of another city in the Triple Alliance, Nezahualcoyotl (“Hungry Coyote”), composed this poem in the early 1400s, revealing the Aztec sense of the fleeting world: Truly do we live on earth? Not forever on earth; only a little while here. Be it jade, it shatters. Be it gold, it breaks. Be it quetzal feathers, it tears apart. Like a painting, we will be erased. Like a flower, we will dry up here on earth, Like plumed vestments of the precious bird, That precious bird with an agile neck, We will come to an end. The fall of the Aztecs In 1520, just as the Aztec civilization of the Fifth Sun was flourishing, it was destroyed — by a small group of Spanish conquistadors and their Mexican allies, under the command of Hernán Cortés. After many battles in which the Spanish used their horses, guns, and steel swords to their advantage, they surrounded Tenochtitlan and starved its inhabitants; many Aztecs died of smallpox, to which they had no immunity since it was a disease that originated in cows. When the Aztecs surrendered, only one-fifth of their initial population remained. Within 10 years, the Spanish controlled all of Mexico, easily overwhelming the traumatized survivors of the deadly disease. How do we know this? The Aztecs had a system of writing, although it was not as expressive as that of the Maya. The Spanish conquerors destroyed the books of the Aztecs, in an attempt to eradicate their religious beliefs; only a few books, and many inscriptions, remain. But a Franciscan priest, Bernadino de Sahagun (1499 — 1590), learned the Aztec language, Nahuatl, and interviewed many Aztec survivors to produce a 12-volume encyclopedia of their customs and beliefs. Nahuatl is still a living language for hundreds of thousands of Mexicans. It has given English such important words as chocolate, tomato, coyote, and tamale. Comparing Tenochtitlan to Uruk, we can say that there are remarkable similarities. Both cities had social and occupational hierarchies with elite rulers, some slaves, lots of warfare, coerced tribute, monumental buildings, powerful religious rituals, and fantastic art and literature. The differences are also striking: Tenochtitlan’s emphasis on human sacrifice, its anxiety about the world coming to an end, and its emergence thousands of years later than that of Uruk’s. Comparing the Americas to Afro-Eurasia To compare the Americas with Afro-Eurasia, let’s look around the Americas a bit. We have seen agrarian civilization develop in Mesoamerica; can we find it anywhere else? In South America, civilization developed along the lengthy coastline on the western side of the continent. Plate tectonics formed a unique landscape with high mountains near the ocean as the Nazca plate slid beneath the South American plate. Early states developed along the coastline, but they could not overcome the frequent floods, earthquakes, and torrential rains to continue their development and increase their populations. Finally, in the fifteenth century, the Incas built a state high in the mountains with its capital at Cuzco, at 13,000 feet. At its height, the Inca Empire controlled 10 million to 11 million people, covering lands from present-day Quito, Ecuador, all the way to Santiago, Chile. Strikingly, this civilization had no written language; it used knots tied into ropes as a system of writing called quipu. But smallpox spread to this area even before the Spanish soldiers arrived, and by 1527, the Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizzaro had used their technological advantage to conquer a vast Inca civilization compromised by disease. Nowhere else in the Americas did civilization, as we have defined it, emerge. Many wonderful cultures and chiefdoms arose, but none achieved the surplus of food necessary for highly dense populations. The cultivation of tobacco and corn spread widely. Even the basin of the Amazon River may have been more densely populated than previously suspected. People farmed, but everywhere they needed to supplement their agriculture with hunting and gathering. The Americas did not develop many of the technological innovations present in Afro-Eurasia. For example, Americans did not use wheels (except the Maya, who put them on toys), probably because they had no large domestic animals to pull wheeled devices. Americans did not melt iron or steel; they used obsidian (glassy volcanic rock that can be sharpened to a thinness of one molecule) for blades. They had no swords or guns. They had no horses, which had evolved in the Americas but became extinct at the end of the last ice age, about when humans were arriving in the Americas. How much long-distance trade and travel occurred in the Americas? Not as much as in Afro-Eurasia, which stretched out east to west so that people could travel at approximately the same latitude (the distance from the equator) in similar climates. The Americas stretched north and south, with huge changes in climate. Crops could not be carried or exchanged because they would not grow at different latitudes without time to adapt. Americans built large canoes but not sailing vessels, and they stayed close to the shore and in calm waters. They made north-south connections, but these were less frequent than the east-west connections of Afro-Eurasia. As a result of these factors, states and civilizations arose somewhat later in the Americas than they did in Afro-Eurasia. Once American civilizations emerged, they were not able to connect with each other, share their innovations, or learn collectively to the same extent as their counterparts in Afro-Eurasia. The civilizations created were similar in all their basic characteristics to those in Afro-Eurasia and seemed likely to continue their development if they had not been prematurely cut down by Europeans. Most historians believe that the difference in disease immunity made the biggest impact when the people of the two hemispheres connected in 1492. Many common diseases in Afro-Eurasia — measles, smallpox, influenza, diphtheria, and bubonic plague — had originated in domestic animals and then passed to humans, who are closely enough related that some of the same bacteria and viruses are harmful. Since Afro-Eurasians had frequent contact with domestic animals, they developed some immunity to the diseases by being exposed to mild forms of the dangerous microorganisms as children. Disease exchanges along the Silk Roads spread these immunities. This could not happen in the Americas without domestic animals; when Africans and Europeans brought these “bugs” to the Americas, plus malaria and yellow fever from tropical Africa, wholesale disease and death overtook the Americans. Historical and geographical contingencies gave Europeans the edge in conquering the people of the Americas, while many Africans were swept into prevailing events as valuable slave commodities. It is a disturbing story, but it is the one that helped create the modern world. [Sources and attributions]

The Ghana Empire [[header image]] By David Baker, adapted by Newsela West Africa independently developed agriculture, and the “human experiment” proceeded for many centuries as West Africa developed large and complex states, before getting caught up in the “unification of the world zones.” The start of West African states West Africa was one of those regions of the world that, like the Fertile Crescent, independently invented agriculture. Around 3000 BCE, West Africans had begun the “energy bonanza” that supports many more people in a given land area than foraging. Although the rest of sub-Saharan Africa did not begin adopting agriculture until 1000 BCE or later, West Africa began the process around the same time as the Americas. It launched into the development of agrarian civilizations around the same time as well. This contradicts the myth that Africa was always “disadvantaged” or “primitive” in comparison to some other world zones. For centuries, West Africa independently blazed the trail of rising complexity in human culture, before it was swept up in the unification of the world zones and the clashes and tragedies that resulted. Complex societies emerged in West Africa around 1500 BCE, and the archaeology of the region reveals a number of settlements. By 600 BCE, there were some large towns and villages in West Africa where there was enough of an agricultural surplus that not everybody needed to farm, but could perform the duties of rulers, artisans, engineers, and bureaucrats. By this time, many cultures were also making thorough use of iron technology, which further increased farming productivity. One of the earliest complex societies of this time was the Nok culture in northern Nigeria. Their terracotta statues portray people in a variety of societal roles and indicate an immense amount of hierarchy, division of labor, and cultural complexity. Further to the west, there were many farmers on the Sahel, a strip of land running across Africa just below the Sahara. Around 1000 BCE, the climate of the Sahel was wetter than it is today and there was a lot of grass for pasture. The inhabitants of the western Sahel herded cattle and farmed millet and sorghum. By 1 CE, there were many large urban centers. Dhar Tichitt was one such place, and formed a hub for the many herders and farmers of the region. However, as the climate got hotter, the town was abandoned and the inhabitants migrated farther south in the Sahel, where the grasses still grew in abundance. This more southerly region was to become the power center of West Africa’s first major empire: Ghana. One thing to note is the Ghana Empire was not where the modern country is today. Instead, the modern country was named in honor of this powerful, ancient, and independent West African civilization. You will notice that the dates for rising agrarian states in West Africa “lag behind” those of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. At the beginning of the Common Era, West Africa had formed large urban centers and small kingdoms. But to the north and east, the Romans had already established a sprawling empire, as had the Greeks and Egyptians before them. The same goes for the mighty Persian Empire in the Middle East and the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Sumerians before them. The earliest states in the world arose around 3500 BCE, in Mesopotamia, just as agriculture was getting its independent start in West Africa. Farming in the Fertile Crescent, meanwhile, had begun to appear approximately 10,000-8000 BCE. The Fertile Crescent and its descendant powers thus had a head start on West Africa by many thousands of years. Yet within just 3,000 years, West Africa had developed complex agrarian states of its own. The Ghana empire While there were many city-states and small kingdoms in West Africa for centuries, the Ghana Empire was the first major agrarian empire to arise in the region. Its history is shrouded in mystery. While they had a complex society, a division of labor, wealth, and trade, the Ghana Empire (like the Inca in the Americas) did not have a form of writing as we know it. As such, much of the information we have of the civilization depends on oral histories and the medieval writings of Arab traders. The story goes that a man named Kaya Magar Cissé, king of a realm called Wagadou, rose to prominence in West Africa around 300 CE. The sons and grandsons of his house then extended their rule over several other kingdoms, turning them into vassal states. Many of the names of the Ghana rulers are unknown and only a few of their deeds have passed into recorded history. [[image 1]] What we do know is, around 300 CE, West Africans domesticated the camel. That species has a distinct advantage in the desert, and this revolutionized trade across the Sahara. Rapidly growing trade brought a lot of wealth and power to West Africa, just as the Ghana Empire was getting its start. The Ghana Empire, in particular, grew rich from the trans-Sahara trade. It certainly helped that the empire had control over the three major gold fields to the south of them. As such, Ghana was referred to by traders as “the Land of Gold,” and the kings of Ghana were sometimes called “the Lords of the Gold.” As a result, the empire flourished. The king of Ghana had a monopoly on all gold nuggets that were found in the mines. The people were allowed to trade in gold dust, but had to turn over any gold nuggets to the government. As such, the state became very powerful as well, adding to the complexity of Ghana’s agrarian civilization. Once the Arabs moved into Egypt and Northwest Africa in the 600s and 700s CE, trade intensified and Ghana grew even richer. The West Africans became major traders in the Old World. They sold ivory, salt, iron tools and weapons, furniture, textiles, sandals, herbs, spices, fish, rice, honey, and kola nuts. This is also the point in history when the large exportation of slave labor from West Africa to the Islamic world began. Centuries later, with the arrival of the Portuguese, a similar exportation of African people as slave labor would kick off the massive coerced exodus of Africans to the Americas, in which millions died in the appalling conditions of the crossing, and millions more led a life of subjugation and cruelty once they arrived. Slavery is a negative characteristic of many early agrarian civilizations, from Mesopotamia, to Egypt, to the Greco-Romans, but in the long run it was to prove particularly devastating to the populations of West Africa, after about 1500 CE. It was the monopoly on West African gold, however, that allowed the Ghana Empire to reach the height of its power, at a time when Europe was undergoing decline after the fall of the Roman Empire. Ghana’s rule extended as far as the Niger valley. The city of Koumbi Saleh, thought by many archaeologists to be the empire’s capital, is estimated to have supported 15,000 to 20,000 people. This may not seem like much compared to other ancient cities. However, this was an astounding feat for a city in the Sahel, where the climate was dry and drinking water was scarce. The town had many wells to support its populace, and also to irrigate plants that were grown within the city. The fact that 15,000 to 20,000 people were able to live in a city so close to the harsh Sahara is an astounding feat of architecture and engineering. Koumbi Saleh also boasted an impressive palace complex with a number of ornate buildings to house the many nobles, officials, and the king. The ruler of the Ghana Empire is also said to have sent many opulent gifts to his neighbors. This was easily done, considering the immense amounts of gold he possessed. Also, Arab sources tell us that in the 1000s, the Ghana Empire could field 200,000 soldiers in the field, of whom 40,000 were archers. The number is almost certainly exaggerated, as medieval writers are known to do, but the point is that the empire’s military force was considerable and enough to give Arab visitors cause for amazement. All seems to indicate that thanks to agriculture, mining, and trade, Ghana was a wealthy and powerful civilization in Africa. Its society was to dominate the region for centuries. It was West Africa’s first major power, and was not the last. Competition of agrarian states The competition between agrarian states is a universal characteristic of this stage of human complexity. Once the process of agrarian civilization begins, and humans start to get better and better at harnessing the food and resources (or put more simply, energy) of their environment, different civilizations begin competing for that energy. In that sense, they are similar to organisms competing for access to energy in nature. All of them seek energy to either sustain or increase their complexity. In the eleventh century, Ghana’s power was first challenged by the Almoravids, a powerful force that arose in the Atlas region and became masters of the Western Sahara. We know that there was conflict of some kind between Ghana and the Almoravids, perhaps even with the capital, Koumbi Saleh, being sacked, as Arab sources claim, though the archaeological evidence makes this seem doubtful. At any rate, the Ghana Empire managed to fend off the Almoravids, who in the next century went into decline. In the twelfth century, Ghana began incorporating more Muslims into its government, including the master of the treasury, diplomats, and, some sources say, even the majority of officials. By then end of the 1100s, Ghana had converted entirely to Islam. Previously, Ghana had subscribed to an animist religion, which involved spirits of the forests and sacred groves that only priests could enter. By 1200, however, Ghana was becoming more and more culturally incorporated into the Afro-Eurasian world zone as trade continued to share collective learning. West Africa sat at the very end of a long network forming the Silk Roads that stretched across the Afro-Eurasian supercontinent. Ghana’s long period as the dominant agrarian civilization of West Africa came to an end in the 1200s. Scholars have argued that climate change played a role. The wet climate that had once made farming prosperous in the Sahel continued to deteriorate. With dwindling resources and power, along with some political infighting, Ghana left a power vacuum that was soon filled. Rivals called the Sosso briefly occupied territories of Ghana, including its capital, and built their own short-lived empire. They, in turn, were conquered by the Mali Empire, who forged an even larger and wealthier empire in West Africa. They, in turn, were overthrown by the Songhai Empire in the 1400s. In the 1590s, however, the Songhai Empire fell to the Moroccans who overpowered them with the use of early muskets, which were the product of collective learning imported from elsewhere in the world. From that point forward, West Africa got increasingly caught up in the global story, as the world zones became increasingly unified. The West African "experiment" West Africa became characterized by smaller kingdoms. Powerful Islamic states exerted an increasing amount of influence from the north. Then, the European slave trade began. The Europeans took West African slaves in their millions to the Americas. This had a disastrous effect on the population numbers and collective learning of West Africa, removing thousands upon thousands of potential innovators to lives of bondage and manual labor overseas. Along with commoners, West African agricultural experts, engineers, soldiers, and bureaucrats found themselves suddenly ripped from their positions and their homes. The sheer scale of the slave trade did severe damage to West African societal structures and collective learning. The lucrative nature of the slave trade also did much to turn one West African group against another. For a time, tropical diseases kept European colonialism from gaining too much of a foothold, but by the nineteenth century, West Africa began to fall increasingly under direct colonial rule. All of this is a symptom of the painful transformations that struck many world zones, as they became increasingly unified after about 1500. West Africa and the Americas, for instance, both started to develop agriculture at roughly the same time; they began to build agrarian civilizations at roughly the same time. And while the agrarian civilizations of the Americas were being devastated by European diseases and culturally devastated by the encroachments of the Spanish and Portuguese, around the same time West Africa was beginning to suffer the tragedies of world unification as well. The unification of the world zones ultimately brings people together into a close-knit web of collective learning, which can potentially be used to the benefit of all. However, the early phases of global unification were often full of suffering. World zones that enjoyed a head start on collective learning and a great deal of global connectivity had not yet shed the uglier aspects of agrarian civilizations: slavery, religious and ethnic intolerance, and an all-consuming drive to control more resources. This often had traumatic and predatory effects on other agrarian civilizations that were smaller or still developing. As Big History teaches us, collective learning can bring us greater connectivity and technological advancement, but it is not always fast enough to bring us the wisdom to handle it. While West Africa’s story gets increasingly swept up in the global one after 1500 CE, its agrarian civilizations were an important milestone in the tale of rising complexity. Between 3000 BCE and 1500 CE, West Africa represents another version of the “human experiment” that independently appeared all over the world. If you compare the early world zones to separate “petri dishes,” you can observe the differences and similarities that each “experiment” reveals. In a very short time after the dawn of agriculture around 3000 BCE, West Africa quickly developed large agrarian states, very similar in many respects to the complex agrarian civilizations we see elsewhere in the world. Figuring out what those similarities are is essential to figuring out the core characteristics of all agrarian civilizations. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why were Muhammad and his successors so successful at spreading Islam?What are the Five Pillars of Islam?How did the umma split early in Islam’s history?What were the central practices of Sufism?How did early Islamic society view women? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: You’ve now read about four (five, counting Buddhism) different portable belief systems. Islam is the youngest of the five religions, by several centuries. Is the Islamic concept of umma something new in the history of communities? Why or why not?Like Christianity, Islam has spread all over the world to billions of people. What role do you think networks played in this spread? Do you think Islam would have spread as far and as fast if it had emerged centuries earlier? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Islam Painted depiction of the Hajj, or a pilgrimage. The scene shows of a large group of people walking by the sea. They carry many bags and are traveling with camels. By Merry Wiesner-Hanks Prophet Muhammad founded the Islamic faith in the seventh century. A hundred years later, it was a widespread faith with a core set of values and practices, but that had also adapted to local culture in many different regions. Today there are 1.8 billion Muslims connected in a network of belief and community. Introduction Islam was founded by the religious reformer and prophet Muhammad (ca. 570-632 CE). He was born in Arabia, became a merchant, and married a wealthy widow, Khadija. A pious man, when he was about forty he began to experience religious visions instructing him to preach, which continued for the rest of his life. Muhammad described his revelations in a stylized and often rhyming prose as his Qur'an, or "recitation." His followers memorized his words and some wrote them down. Shortly after the Prophet's death, memorized and written materials were collected and organized into an official standard version. Muslims regard the Qur'an as the direct words of God to his Prophet Muhammad and it is therefore especially revered. (When Muslims around the world use translations of the Qur'an, they do so alongside the original Arabic, the language of Muhammad's revelations.) Picture of a book, held open in a museum display case, featuring Arabic scriptThis eleventh-century Qur’an, now in the British Museum, was designed for reading aloud, which was and is an important part of Muslim worship. The small marks indicate proper pronunciation and pauses. By LordHarris, CC BY-SA 3.0 Picture of a book, held open in a museum display case, featuring Arabic script This eleventh-century Qur’an, now in the British Museum, was designed for reading aloud, which was and is an important part of Muslim worship. The small marks indicate proper pronunciation and pauses. By LordHarris, CC BY-SA 3.0 Muhammad's visions ordered him to preach a message of a single God, which he began to do in his hometown of Mecca. He gathered followers, but also provoked resistance. In 622 he migrated with his followers to Medina, an event termed the hijra that marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. At Medina, Muhammad was more successful, gaining converts and forming the first umma, a word meaning "those who comply with God's will." This community united his followers from different tribes and set religious ties above clan loyalty. He returned to Mecca at the head of a large army. He soon united the nomads of the desert and the merchants of the cities into an even larger umma of Muslims. By the time Muhammad died in 632, Muslim forces had conquered all of the Arabian peninsula. The religion itself came to be called Islam, which means "submission to God." Mecca became its most holy city. Religious ideas The political authority of Muslim rulers was spread by military victories, but the religious practices and ideas of Islam proved attractive to people both inside and outside Muslim states, partly because of the straightforward nature of its doctrines, and many converted. The strictly monotheistic theology outlined in the Qur'an has only a few central teachings: Allah, the Arabic word for God, is all-powerful and all-knowing. Muhammad, Allah's prophet, preached his word and carried his message. All Muslims had the obligation of jihad (literally, "self-exertion"), to strive to submit to God, spread God's rule, and lead a virtuous life. According to the Muslim shari'a, or sacred law, five practices—the profession of faith in God and in Muhammad as God's prophet, regular prayer at home or in mosques, fasting during the sacred month of Ramadan, giving alms (charity) to the poor, and a pilgrimage to Mecca, if possible—constitute what became known as the Five Pillars of Islam. In addition, the Qur'an forbids alcoholic beverages and gambling, as well as a number of foods, such as pork. A birds-eye photo shows a black stone building surrounded by millions of people. There are so many people that it is difficult to identify them as such; they appear like little dots surrounding the building.The Ka’aba, the black stone building at the center of the most important mosque in Mecca, is the holiest site in Islam. Today more than 2 million visitors come to Mecca every year during the five-day period of pilgrimage. By Adli Wahid, CC BY-SA 4.0 A birds-eye photo shows a black stone building surrounded by millions of people. There are so many people that it is difficult to identify them as such; they appear like little dots surrounding the building. The Ka’aba, the black stone building at the center of the most important mosque in Mecca, is the holiest site in Islam. Today more than 2 million visitors come to Mecca every year during the five-day period of pilgrimage. By Adli Wahid, CC BY-SA 4.0 Muhammad called for unity within the umma, but shortly after his death his followers split over who was his proper successor, resulting in assassinations and civil war. This dispute created a permanent division within Islam between a larger group known as Sunnis and a smaller group known as Shi'a, which sometimes erupted into violence. This split did not halt the expansion of Islam. As the Dar-al-Islam—the "abode of Islam"—grew, laws and practices that had been developed in the Arabian peninsula mixed with existing traditions and new teachings emerged. Especially in cities such as Baghdad and Córdoba, creative thinkers and scholars from many different backgrounds built on Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge, translating works into and out of Arabic and writing new works. The eighth century saw the beginning of a mystical movement within Islam known as Sufism, which emphasized personal spiritual experience. Sufis taught that divine revelation could come not only to scholars studying the Qur'an, but also to certain holy individuals who could fully lose themselves and unite with God. This did not become a separate branch, because most Sufis taught that those who gained knowledge of God through mysticism still had to follow the Qur'an and obey the shari'a. Sufis were often wandering ascetics, venerated for their wisdom and austere lifestyle, and some were poets. Many people came to regard them as saints, made pilgrimages to shrines dedicated to them, and engaged in distinctive rituals, often involving music, dance, or the recitation of sacred texts. Learned theologians sometimes objected to these rituals, arguing that they led people away from the essentials of Islam, but they were very popular. Society and family life The Qur'an and other sacred texts of Islam recommend marriage for everyone, and approve of heterosexual sex within marriage for both procreation and pleasure. As in Judaism, most teachers, judges, and religious leaders in Muslim societies were married men. Polygyny (when a man has more than one wife) was common in Arabian society before Muhammad, though it was generally limited to wealthier families. The Qur'an restricted the number of wives a man could have to four, and prescribed that he treat them equitably. As elsewhere, marriages in Muslim societies were generally arranged by the family. The production of children—especially sons—was viewed as essential, with rituals and prayers devised to help assure the procreation and survival of offspring. The Qur'an holds men and women to be fully equal in God's eyes. Both are capable of going to heaven and responsible to carry out the duties of believers for themselves. But it makes clear distinctions between men and women, allowing men to have up to four wives and setting a daughter's share of inheritance at half that of a son's. Though women played a major role in the early development of Islam, after the first generation the seclusion of women became more common in the Muslim heartland. Men were to fulfill their religious obligations publicly, at mosques and other communal gatherings, and women in the home, though women generally had access to a separate section of the mosque. Muslim law did allow women more rights to property than was common in other contemporary law codes, however, and wealthy Muslim women used their money to establish schools, shrines, hospitals, and mosques. Islamic culture was urban and commercial and gave merchants considerable respect. Muslim merchants developed a number of business practices that would later spread widely, including the sakk (the Arabic word that is the root of the English check), an order to a banker to pay money held on account to a third party. Political developments and the spread of Islam During the century after Muhammad's death, Muslim rule expanded from the Iberian peninsula in the west to Central Asia and the Indus River in the east, along the trade routes that had long facilitated the movement of people and ideas. The unified Muslim state, called the caliphate, broke apart. Regional dynasties established their own Muslim states in Spain, North Africa, Egypt, and elsewhere, which themselves fought with one another and saw ruling families rise and fall. During the ninth and tenth centuries, Turkic peoples in the steppes of Western and Central Asia converted to Islam, and in the thirteenth century many Mongols did as well. Merchants and teachers carried Islam to West Africa on the camel caravan routes that crossed the Sahara, and to the East African Swahili (Arabic for "people of the coast") coast and Southeast Asia on the ships that criss-crossed the Indian Ocean. Intermarriage between Muslim traders from distant lands and local women was often essential to its growth, with women providing access to power through their kin networks. People were attracted by Islam's spiritual and moral teachings, approval of trade, and global connections. Islam also appealed to many rulers for a combination of religious, political, and commercial reasons. When people at any social level converted, they often blended in their existing religious ideas and rituals. They passed these on to their children, and very diverse patterns of Islamic practices, rituals, and norms of behavior developed. For example, in Arabia, Persia, and South Asia, women's presence in public was restricted, but in Western Africa, Southeast Asia, and the central Asian steppes, women often worked, socialized, and traveled independently. Male merchants or scholars visiting from areas where women's activities were more restricted were shocked at these very different customs, just as they were at other aspects of Islamic practice that differed from their own. This diversity has continued to today, when there are about 1.8 billion Muslims, in every country of the world. Primary source: The Qur’an The Qur'an is organized into chapters called suras, which are divided into verses. This is an English translation of the first sura, recited in daily prayers and on other occasions. Praised be God, Lord of the Universe, the Beneficent, the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment, You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance, guide us to the right path, the path of those to whom You have granted blessings, those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray. Author bio Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is Distinguished Professor of History emerita at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and currently the president of the World History Association. She is the author or editor of thirty books that have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Turkish, and Korean. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?What does evidence from Aksum tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Compare and contrast this society to societies in other readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Ancient Agrarian Societies: Aksum Photograph of several tall, pointed stone slabs. One, in the center, rests on a staircase and is carved with symbols By David Baker Human origins have been traced back to sub-Saharan Africa. But the origins of agriculture are clearly found outside of Africa. While the shift to farming took more time in Africa, agrarian societies like Aksum grew to be powerful centers of farming and trade. Introduction East Africa was the cradle of our species. For millions of years, our early human ancestors roamed across the land. It is, therefore, the homeland of every human being spread across the planet. In East Africa, one of the mightiest agrarian societies formed: the Aksum Empire. At its height in the third century CE, some ancient writers considered it one of the four great powers of the world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China. African agriculture, in general, got a late start. It was invented independently in 3000 BCE on the other side of the continent in West Africa. One of the reasons for this "late start" is that human communities in this area had many resources available. They continued foraging and pastoralism, as they began domesticating cattle, sheep, and goats early in these regions. The African environment was well suited to foraging. Some communities were also reluctant to shift to agriculture. This change would mean a less healthy and more work-filled life. Collective learning from two agrarian networks Agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent. But the "Northern Horn" region of East Africa continued foraging for many thousands of years later. As agrarian societies in the Fertile Crescent grew larger, they had more communication with the Northern Horn. Knowledge of farming filtered down from Egypt and Southwest Asia. The communities of the Northern Horn began to adopt a mixture of foraging, farming, and animal herding. They domesticated ensete as early as 3000 BCE or more. This flowering plant was classified in the banana family. The people of the Northern Horn foraged for animal hides and bird feathers. They also foraged myrrh for use as perfume, and obsidian rocks to trade with Egypt. By 2000 BCE, most communities in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic. They made use of foraging, farming, and pastoralism. They still used stone tools, as copper and bronze were rare in the region. However, eventually they began to use iron. Knowledge of iron smelting may have been discovered independently or this technique could have been adopted from other African societies. Some people in the region still foraged without making the shift to farming. Map shows the locations of sixth-century empires, including AksumAksum, on the east coast of Africa near the Red Sea, and other empires of the sixth century CE, By Talessman, CC BY 3.0. Map shows the locations of sixth-century empires, including Aksum Aksum, on the east coast of Africa near the Red Sea, and other empires of the sixth century CE, By Talessman, CC BY 3.0. But farming knowledge from Southwest Asia and Egypt eventually moved along trade networks. To the south, the rest of Africa would transition to farming much more slowly. But East Africa was influenced by their location between these two major trade networks. Early East African states Around the same time, a major agrarian society arose in the Northern Horn, popularly known as D'mt. This kingdom reached its height between the tenth and fifth centuries BCE. Due to their trade connections with Egypt, they began developing more sustained farming. The surpluses were then traded, along with intricate stone jewelry. When the kingdom of D'mt fell, smaller kingdoms populated the area. These societies adopted iron and began exporting their metal work. Collective learning via the trade networks of Arabia and Egypt influenced Aksum's architecture and culture. For many years, Aksum was just a tiny settlement in the Northern Horn, slowly building more land and wealth from trade. Then in 30 BCE, something changed. The Romans under Augustus conquered Egypt. Aksum was brought into contact with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. Trade networks shifted from the Persian Gulf and overland Asian routes more to the Red Sea. Aksum soon became a hub of overseas trade between the Roman Empire and India. Aksum at the center of Afro-Eurasia Becoming a member of this trade network transformed Aksum from a small state into a powerful kingdom very quickly. Aksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean in ivory, gold, emeralds, silk, spices, crops, salt, exotic animals, manufactured goods, and much more. In the first century CE, Aksum became very wealthy and powerful. They could afford to build a strong navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes. It was at this time that Aksum was first mentioned by Greco-Roman scholars. As the society continued to grow, Aksum's capital showed signs of rapid expansion. The town grew so quickly that there seems to have been no master plan for the city's layout, or to detail where the city walls would be placed. Aksum built many grand monuments, and the elite were buried in elaborate tombs marked by huge stone pillars (stelae). These stelae had intricate carvings on them and were also used to commemorate victories, regions of the kingdom, and great events. They also provide some evidence that Aksum had a social hierarchy: bureaucrats, priests, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. Aksum had its own coinage, each dynasty etched onto the gold coins. Archaeologists have found these gold pieces from Rome to Persia to India, proof of the immense size of the trade network in which Aksum participated. Aksum was able to transport troops and expand its frontiers with naval power. The third century CE marks a period of intense military expansion. At its height, Aksum controlled North Ethiopia and parts of Sudan. They also controlled the southern Arabian Peninsula, most notably Yemen. Aksum was one of the true powers of the ancient world. They had wealth to hire swords and ships, and no comparable power in East Africa existed to oppose them. They were also one of the first agrarian societies in Africa. In the fourth century CE, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as its state religion. This linked Aksum to the Roman Empire, which had also officially made Christianity its state religion. Aksum sat at the center of an ancient trade network that crossed Afro-Eurasia. So they would easily learn of technological developments. A tall, pointed stone slab is carved with symbols and rests on a staircase.Aksum stela of King Ezanas. By Pzbinden7, CC BY-SA 3.0. A tall, pointed stone slab is carved with symbols and rests on a staircase. Aksum stela of King Ezanas. By Pzbinden7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Social and political history of Aksum Aksum was unified under the rule of kings and grew through military conquests. Eventually it became an empire that controlled an important region of trade. The Aksum king was considered the "king of kings", and smaller kingdoms paid tribute to him. In order to keep these regional kings from uprising, the Aksum king stationed warriors in each feudal area. The king and his administrators would then collect the tribute from these areas and meet with the regional kings, who pledged their support. The main sources of income for the kingdom were agriculture and herding. This was mainly from growing cereal grains and raising cattle, sheep, and goats. As the population grew, certain cities became more urbanized. Job specialization also became more varied. Examples of monumental architecture increased with palaces as the largest structures. The city of Aksum became the main center for kings and the royal court. The city of Adulis grew into a large market town where goods from the interior of Africa were traded. This included ivory, gold, perfume and exotic animals. These were all exchanged for foreign products such as wine, olive oil, Roman and Indian coins, and bronze lamps. As these goods were exchanged over trade networks, new ideas were also traded. The Aksum elite adopted aspects of Greek culture. This included the language and religious beliefs. The local reigion of Aksum began as animistic (a belief in many spirits that exist in the natural world). Later it became more formalized into a belief in gods that were tied to astronomy. Deities such as Mahrem (the king of gods and god of war), Astar (Venus), and Behēr (god of the sea) were honored with animal sacrifices and rituals. As trade networks grew and Aksum gained power, connections between the empire and the Roman Empire (Byzantium) became stronger. Christianity had recently become the state religion of the Roman Empire. It probably made its way to Aksum along these networks. According to some historical sources, the Aksum royal children had a Greco-Phoenician tutor named Frumentius. These sources indicate Frumentius may have influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity. As tutor to the royal family, he introduced the heirs to the throne to this faith. He eventually became the Bishop of Aksum. Full conversion of the empire probably happened gradually over many decades. Local customs were often incorporated into the Christian faith. Decline Aksum continued to prosper long after the Western Roman Empire declined in the fifth century CE. However, its desire to expand was part of its own downfall. Aksum launched a series of military campaigns to control Yemen in the sixth century CE. But they began to run out of funds. At the same time, the Aksum elite were fighting among each other. Around 541 CE, Aksum was hit with the destructive Justinianic Plague. Scholars are fairly certain this plague was the same disease that caused the Black Death in the fourteenth century CE. Aksum held on mainly due to its profits from trade, but its territory and community shrank. Two gold coins featuring symbols and a depiction of a person’s profile. One is bright and shiny and the other is tarnished, and they feature slightly different markings.Gold coins, Aksum, King Endybis (227-235 CE). By PHGCOM, CC BY-SA 3.0. Two gold coins featuring symbols and a depiction of a person’s profile. One is bright and shiny and the other is tarnished, and they feature slightly different markings. Gold coins, Aksum, King Endybis (227-235 CE). By PHGCOM, CC BY-SA 3.0. Note: This original version of this article is from the Big History Project (lesson 7.1). It has been modified for WHP. Author bio David Baker studied his PhD in Big History under Professor David Christian at Macquarie University. He now teaches Big History alongside Fred Spier and Esther Quaedackers at the University of Amsterdam. He is writer of the YouTube series Crash Course Big History, hosted by John and Hank Green in partnership with the Big History Project. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What is a belief system? How is it not the same as a religion?What are animistic belief systems?How did the development of the state, hierarchies, and specialization contribute to the development of religions?What does it mean to state that a religion is portable?What does it mean to state that a religion is universal?How did systems of belief change people’s behaviors? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How would you explain a belief system as a network? How would you explain a belief system as a community? What is the value of looking at belief systems through both frames? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Overview of Belief Systems Close up image of a person’s hand holding a panel with written symbols on it Bridgette Byrd O’Connor and Bob Bain The many belief systems in our world all stem from a fundamental human ability, and desire, to pursue the big questions. Here’s a look at when we started asking ourselves who we are. Introduction – The big questions Why are we here? Do we have a creator? What happens when we die? What's the meaning of life? Please answer clearly and concisely as your final grade depends on it. Okay not really, but humans have been asking these big questions, no matter where or when we've lived, for thousands of years. Somehow we still don't have definitive answers. But people do believe in a number of different explanations. Some believe in an all-knowing, all-seeing god or many gods. Others believe in a spiritual connection that we share as humans and with the Earth. Historians call these diverse ways of thinking "belief systems" or "systems of belief". One of the common threads is that all of these belief systems seem to be trying to answer these "big" questions about life's meaning and our place in the universe. However, it's important not to equate "systems of belief" precisely with religious beliefs or with religious organizations, sacred books, special buildings (such as temples), and holy practices. Of course, these are all important parts of human history. Many religious people—including most Jews, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians and many Buddhists—consider their beliefs, rituals, and practices as sacred because they come from God (or gods). But many other people have participated in systems of belief without referring to the divine, as you will see in your studies of Confucian China or Ancient Greek philosophies. Throughout human history, a wide variety of belief systems and experiences have sprung from our big questions. These diverse systems of belief and rituals have evolved over time. They shaped—and were shaped by—the changes in our networks of interaction, in our communities, and in our collective understanding of the world. Here's an overview of some of these changes. The human spirit – Our earliest belief systems The creation of belief systems probably begins with humanity itself. Thousands of years ago, primates evolved into consciously thinking human beings in what we call a cognitive revolution. The distinct human ability to think abstractly and communicate about things beyond the "here and now" may have led to the creation of a spiritual, and eventually, religious world. The earliest systems of belief imagined a spirit world, often invisible, that existed alongside the physical world of human communities. For example, some foraging communities may have created ritual songs or dances or staged mock hunts to please the spirits in the natural world. Some spirits were attached to certain people, families, places, or objects, while others controlled certain aspects of life. There was an incredible amount of diversity across societies. These spirits weren't gods, and these belief systems were not religions—at least not in the sense of today's organized religions. Instead, the whole of the natural world was a part of this spiritual world, which is often referred to as animism. A photo of a page of one of Shakespeare’s works. The illustration shows a person walking up stone stairs; behind them, a fairy causes mischief by knocking over pots and bowls In this page from A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Puck, a fairy from the spirit world, makes trouble in our world. Shakespeare’s imaginative setting is based on a variety of actual beliefs from long before his time. A photo of a page of one of Shakespeare’s works. The illustration shows a person walking up stone stairs; behind them, a fairy causes mischief by knocking over pots and bowls In this page from A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Puck, a fairy from the spirit world, makes trouble in our world. Shakespeare’s imaginative setting is based on a variety of actual beliefs from long before his time. In animistic communities, spiritual beings could be benevolent (nice) or mischievous (naughty) or downright evil. People dealt with the spirits according to these qualities. Sometimes specific rituals such as dances or sacrifices were performed to appease the spirits or ask for aid, or to get answers. At other times a diviner (someone who received messages from the spirit world) or a shaman (someone who entered a trance-like state to visit the spirit world) communicated with the spirit to achieve a desired result. Many early belief systems also sought to contact ancestors who had passed into the spirit world. Everything was connected from humans to nature to spirits—such as ghosts, fairies, monsters, and demons. Humans asked these spirits for protection and well-being amid the harsh realities of Earth-bound life. In this way, belief systems provided comfort for people in a frightening, uncertain world. Animism served our ancestors well. It offered people meaningful connections to the world they inhabited and united communities through common rituals and beliefs. It remains a common system of belief among many people today. Some historians, such as John and William McNeil, think that these animistic systems of belief deserve our respect since "[n]o worldview has lasted nearly so long nor explained so much to so many so convincingly" (The Human Web, 18). A photo of a slab of bone inscribed with language symbolsOracle bone from Shang dynasty China, c. 1600-1046 BCE. A diviner carves a question into the bone to ask if anything bad will happen in the next 10 days. The Shang ruler wrote that he asked the diviner’s question to an ancestor in a worship ritual. By Editor at Large, CC BY-SA 2.5. A photo of a slab of bone inscribed with language symbols Oracle bone from Shang dynasty China, c. 1600-1046 BCE. A diviner carves a question into the bone to ask if anything bad will happen in the next 10 days. The Shang ruler wrote that he asked the diviner’s question to an ancestor in a worship ritual. By Editor at Large, CC BY-SA 2.5. A picture of a sculpture of a Pharoah made of a marbled stone. The face is detailed and the sculpture wears a headdress. Sahure, pharaoh (divine king) of Ancient Egypt, who reigned from 2490 to 2477 BCE. By Keith Schengili-Roberts, CC BY-SA 2.5. A picture of a sculpture of a Pharoah made of a marbled stone. The face is detailed and the sculpture wears a headdress. Sahure, pharaoh (divine king) of Ancient Egypt, who reigned from 2490 to 2477 BCE. By Keith Schengili-Roberts, CC BY-SA 2.5. Faith communities – Organized systems of belief in early societies As communities became larger and more structured, some belief systems changed. This probably had a lot to do with the development of hierarchies brought on by early farming societies. As these societies were formed and farming created food surpluses, specialization of labor and social hierarchies developed. Certain members of society became specialists such as priests and priestesses who communicated with gods and goddesses. Additionally, as religion became more structured, it gave rulers a way to establish common practices and beliefs that bound together everyone living in the state. The increased organization of religion gave rulers more control over their subjects, especially when the ruler claimed to be a priest-king or divine (god-like). These more structured beliefs systems usually had a pantheon (collection of gods and goddesses) with a main or supreme deity (god or goddess) at the top. They also had creation stories about how the world and humans originated. As exchange networks grew and empires began conquering new territories, these religions and their stories began to spread. Eventually, belief systems began to change and some local community spirits and rituals were incorporated into the wider pantheon of deities and religious practices. God on the go – Portable and universal systems of beliefs and ideas Another major change in our systems of beliefs and ideas began in some regions around 3,000 years ago as networks and connections among Afro-Eurasian peoples increased. Many started to transform their specific, local belief systems to make them more portable. The ideas were also more universal, in that they were open to people outside their local community. German philosopher Karl Jaspers was among the first to argue that these portable and universal systems of belief were different from those that came before in three important ways. First, unlike previous belief systems, these did not depend on local spirits, rituals, or ideas tied to a specific place. As we have seen, in those older systems, worshippers had to be close to the sacred place—such as a river or shrine or temple—to be able to perform the rituals or to communicate with a spirit or god. These new systems were "portable" in that they could be transported to different regions. They could perform the rituals and communicate with the spirits, gods, and goddesses just about anywhere. A collection of scriptures or sacred writings helped make the belief systems transportable to new places. These texts helped ensure that new and existing believers would be able to perform the rituals as intended by whoever wrote them down. It was also a way to ensure they were sincere in their beliefs and devotion to the faith. Second, these new systems of belief were accessible to people beyond the local or original community of believers. We call these systems "universal" because they could be practiced by anyone willing to learn and accept the required beliefs, ideas, and rituals. Finally, along with belief and ritual these systems inspired a change in behavior. In one way or another, the new systems—such as Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Daoism, and Zoroastrianism, among others—encouraged people to be selfless, self-disciplined, self-aware, and engage in cooperative behavior toward other people. Many of these portable, universal systems of belief established compassion, charity, respect for life, and care for children as important and necessary behaviors. Of course, the earlier non-portable, non-universal belief systems may have often called for these qualities as well. But the new systems made these characteristics part of their sacred scriptures, rituals, and guided how people lived their daily lives. These portable and universal systems of belief affected and were affected by the expanding networks, increasing populations, and more complex societies such as empires. Over time, some of these systems of beliefs or ideas became popular, or even became the dominant system among most people. Historians refer to these portable faiths as "world religions" or universal belief systems. Picture of a book, held open in a museum display case, featuring Arabic scriptPage from an eleventh-century CE Quran from North Africa, housed in the British Museum. By LordHarris, CC BY-SA 3.0. Picture of a book, held open in a museum display case, featuring Arabic script Page from an eleventh-century CE Quran from North Africa, housed in the British Museum. By LordHarris, CC BY-SA 3.0. Conclusion As ideas have continued to expand across global networks into new areas, new followers join these world religion communities every day. But localized belief systems still exist, including more spiritual or animistic practices. In addition, people have blended many of these belief systems throughout history in a process called syncretism. And even after thousands of years of human history and the formation of belief systems, most of these religious and spiritual systems of belief are still trying to answer those same big questions we threw at you at the start of this article: Why are we here?What's our place in the universe?What's the meaning of life? Author bios Bob Bain is associate professor in the School of Education and in the Departments of History and Museum Studies at the University of Michigan. He also is the director of U-M’s World History and Literature Initiative and the faculty lead on the Big History Project. Before coming to the U-M in 1998, he taught high school history and social studies for 26 years. Bain’s research centers on teaching and learning history and the social sciences in the classroom, on-line, in museums, and at home. Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The Origin of World Religions [[header image]] By Anita Ravi As people created more efficient systems of communication and more complex governments in early agrarian civilizations, they also developed what we now call religion. Having done some research on the common features of early agrarian cities, I’m interested in finding out why all civilizations adopted some sort of religion and how these religions spread over vast regions. I know that by 1200 BCE, there were developed cities in most parts of the world. Having examined some early writing from the city of Sumer in Mesopotamia, I know that people had already conceived of gods that looked out for them and the welfare of their crops and cities. But the world religions I know of — Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam — were bigger than a single city or even a single region of the world. In fact, these religions have survived for thousands of years, and all of them seem to have developed around the same time. Since people do not appear to have lacked for religious life on a local scale from very early times, why did several large-scale belief systems emerge between 1200 BCE and 700 CE? In fact, why did all the major world religions appear in that era? Why religions became global One possibility is that by about 100 BCE, the population in Afro-Eurasia had climbed to over a million. As a result of increasing commercial and cultural interaction between people across this large area, religions were shared. The new religious systems provided foundations of cultural communication, moral expectation, and personal trust among people who were meeting, sharing ideas, and doing business with one another far beyond their local neighborhoods. The historians J.R. and William McNeil call this the development of “portable, congregational religions.” Common features of these religions are the following: there is usually a founding man who receives the word of God; there is a key text or set of texts that defines man’s relationship with God; there are recommended ways of living and worshipping; people come together regularly to have God’s word interpreted for them by an authority; and there is a path to self-transformation and eternal salvation in one way or another. In The Human Web: A Bird’s-Eye View of World History, the McNeills argue that religion took hold during this time period for the following reasons: In subsequent centuries, urban dwellers, and particularly poor, marginal persons, found that authoritative religious guidance, shared faith, and mutual support among congregations of believers could substitute for the tight-knit custom of village existence (within which the rural majority continued to live) and give meaning and value to ordinary lives, despite daily contact with uncaring strangers. Such religious congregations, in turn, helped to stabilize urban society by making its inherent inequality and insecurity more tolerable. (61) So what they’re saying is that religion provided structure and meaning for large groups of people in ways that small, tight-knit village communities used to do. Religion, especially faiths that were shared by large groups of people, actually provided stability in cities. These religions were accepted by thousands of followers because they appealed to many different people from all social classes and occupations. If the texts and tenets of these faiths spoke to such a wide variety of people then the religious beliefs were more likely to spread along trade routes, unlike the earlier village-based religions. [[image 1]] While many people were drawn to these early religions, they are not all the same. Each faith has its own answers to questions about humanity and each one has different practices. All faiths, apart from Confucianism, which some scholars classify as an ethical system rather than a religion, offer eternal salvation in one form or another. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic, with one omnipotent and omniscient deity. Hinduism allows for the worship of numerous, powerful gods and goddesses. Buddhism and Daoism also accept the existence of multiple divine beings in various forms and incarnations. All of these religions teach that human relations should be guided by kindness, selflessness, and decency. Confucianism, in particular, emphasizes public moral behavior, good government, and social responsibility. A closer look at Hinduism and Buddhism So how did each belief system define these relationships with God, with society, and with other humans? First, I’m going to take a look at Hinduism. I learned through a few web searches and from several secondary sources that Hinduism is often called the “oldest religion” mainly because there is no single founder and because the main ideas of the religion appear in a variety of different texts written over time, starting around 4,000 years ago. What’s interesting about Hinduism is that it was developed by a group of people living in the Indus Valley who had a rigid hierarchical social structure called the caste system. Michelle Ferrer sums up the basic tenets of Hinduism in The Budding of Buddhism, which is quoted below. The untouchables, the lowest members of society, dealt with human waste and the dead. This group did the jobs no one else wanted to do. They were regarded by the other groups as ritually impure and therefore outside the hierarchy of groups altogether. The Sudras had service jobs, and the Vaisya were herders, farmers, artisans, and merchants. The Ksatriyas, the second highest caste, were the warriors and rulers. At the top were the Brahmans, who were priests, scholars, and teachers. Because priests were part of this caste, the early religion is known as Brahmanism. Brahmanism evolved into the larger Hindu tradition. The Hindus revered many gods. They believed that people had many lives (reincarnation). Also, they believed in karma. This meant that whatever a person did in this life would determine what he or she would be in the next life. Thus, reincarnation creates a cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. The cycle ends only when a person realizes that his or her soul and God’s soul are one. To help achieve this goal, the Hindus had several spiritual practices, some of which are done in the western world today, including meditation and yoga. The Hindus also believed in the Purusharthas: Four Goals of Life. These goals motivated people in their lives: 1. dharma: living a virtuous life 2. kama: pleasure of the senses 3. artha: achieving wealth and success lawfully 4. moksha: release from reincarnation So what this is telling me is that the religion evolved from a social class structure where people had very defined roles. Since the religion hinges on this idea of karma — what you do in life today determines what you do in the next life — I wonder if the untouchables could come back as a higher caste if they “lived a virtuous life.” If I look back to what the McNeills said about religion giving meaning to the drudgery of daily life, Hinduism seems to fit that description perfectly. What’s more, it seems to be an effective system for maintaining a social hierarchy and control over the population. If indeed you can improve your lot in the next life by living well in this one, why dwell on how miserable your life is now if you can focus on having a better one next time around? It is also interesting that the four paths in life aren’t just about spirituality and God. The second and third goals are really about daily life — specifically, living a pleasurable daily life. In this view, the path toward moksha seems enjoyable. You’re supposed to be happy, wealthy, and successful. This sounds a lot like later seventeenth and eighteenth century political philosophies that would shape the founding of America: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Focusing on the positive and trying to achieve happiness now does indeed bring meaning to life and lift people’s focus away from daily drudgery or suffering, with the hope that one day people might achieve eternal salvation or be released from the reincarnation cycle (samsara). The second religion I’m going to take a look at is Buddhism. Buddhism evolved from Hinduism and the ancient Indian social structure. In this case, there is a male founder of the religion. His name was Siddhartha Gautama and he was born in South Asia (what is now Nepal) in 563 BCE. He was born into a Ksatriya Hindu family, which was the warrior/ruler class. The story goes that Siddhartha’s father asked some wise men what his son would become in life. These wise men said he would become a great leader, unless he saw suffering. So Siddhartha’s dad kept him inside the palace walls all of his life. When he was 16, he got married and had a son. Then, he went outside of the palace and saw all the illness, poverty, death, and human suffering in the world. He fled his home and began to search for peace. Siddhartha spent six years wandering around South Asia trying to find ways to ease the suffering of the world. One day, he sat under a Bodhi tree to meditate. While he was meditating, he became enlightened, or saw the truth. This is how he earned the name Buddha, the Bhodi Satva, or the Enlightened One. After his enlightenment, he began to share what had been revealed to him under the Bhodi tree. These teachings include the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold Path. I learned that the whole purpose of ending suffering (dukkha) in the world is to achieve the ultimate goal of enlightenment (nirvana). The Four Noble Truths: Life is filled with suffering (dukkha).The root of this suffering comes from a person's material desires (to want what you do not have).In order to stop suffering, you must get ride of desire or greed.If you follow the Eight-Fold Path then you can eliminate your material desires, and therefore, your suffering. Life is filled with suffering (dukkha). The root of this suffering comes from a person's material desires (to want what you do not have). In order to stop suffering, you must get ride of desire or greed. If you follow the Eight-Fold Path then you can eliminate your material desires, and therefore, your suffering. The Eight-Fold Path 1. Right View: Understand that there is suffering in the world and that the Four Noble Truths can break this pattern of suffering. 2. Right Intention: Avoid harmful thoughts, care for others, and think about more than yourself. 3. Right Speech: Speak kindly and avoid lying or gossip. 4. Right Action: Be faithful and do the right thing; do not kill, steal, or lie. 5. Right Living: Make sure that your livelihood does not harm others. Do no promote slavery or the selling of weapons or poisons. 6. Right Effort: Work hard and avoid negative situations. 7. Right Awareness: Exercise control over your mind and increase your wisdom. 8. Right Concentration: Increase your peacefulness and calmness, in particular through meditation.\ What a story! This young man from the upper class of society gave up his status and position when he saw the effects his status was having on people outside of his palace walls. These eight tenets of Buddhism are really about how people should relate to each other and how people develop self-discipline. Each of the eight “rights” is a simple statement about how to ease suffering in life. They are simple and they are, in fact, present in one form or another in all of the other religions as well: be kind to each other, don’t gossip, don’t kill or steal, be loyal, make good choices, learn a lot, and chill out. I also learned that after he revealed these ideas, the Buddha stopped worshipping Hindu gods and stopped believing that one caste was better than the others. But similar to Hinduism, Buddhists came to believe that following these steps leads toward nirvana and therefore, stops the cycle of reincarnation. So what have I learned about the development of early religions from studying Hinduism and Buddhism? In both cases, the development of religious ideology was intimately linked to the already established systems that humans used to relate to one another — the social hierarchy of caste, in this case. The major ideas in each religion provided more structure and guidance for how people should peacefully relate to one another and how they should live their best lives. Both provided a pathway and documents (texts) on how to earn salvation — in this case, by ending the cycle of reincarnation. This short journal entry is an example of how historians go about exploring important questions and looking at new information. They use a mixture of historical documents and the writings of other historians to inform their thinking. All sources are listed in the working bibliography. [Sources and attributions]

Jericho [[header image]] By Craig Benjamin Jericho, located in the West Bank region of the Middle East, is the oldest continuously inhabited city on the planet. History and environment Jericho’s 14,000-year survival is a direct result of biological and geological advantages that explain why a settlement was established there in the first place. This essay explores the idea that the history of a place is just as much about its physical environment as it is about superior technology or government. Big Historians, who are interested in the appearance and development of the first agrarian civilizations, ask probing questions: What were the geographical and biological advantages favoring certain regions that facilitated the appearance of the first towns and cities there? What role did climate play in allowing for agrarian civilizations to appear in some regions, while others remained better suited for foraging? And why is it that, while some agrarian civilizations seem to have abused their environments, and thus sowed the seeds of their own destruction, others were able to husband the advantages provided by geography and biology and successfully sustain themselves for thousands of years? To illustrate this critical relationship between history and its environmental context, we use the city of Jericho as a case study. Jericho is the oldest city on the planet, situated today in the West Bank region of the Middle East. The location and long-term survival of the city is an excellent example of the impact of the environment on human history. The establishment of Jericho 14,000 years ago resulted from the same geographical and biological factors that led to the most significant revolution in all human history — the appearance of agriculture. To remind ourselves just how revolutionary this transition was, let’s consider the situation some 15,000 years ago. Humans had by then occupied every continent on the globe except Antarctica. Every single human, wherever they lived, survived by foraging, also known as hunting and gathering. Humans had invented a wide array of foraging techniques specifically adapted to different environments, which ranged from the deserts of Australia to the Arctic ice. But the small size of most foraging bands, and the fact that few exchanges took place between them, limited the amount of collective learning that went on. But then something changed. Between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago, new ways of life and technologies associated with farming began to appear. Farming eventually gave humans access to more food and energy; consequently, humans began to multiply more rapidly and live in larger communities like villages, towns, and eventually cities. These processes led to an entirely new level of complexity in the human condition. The transition to agriculture was the first step in a cultural revolution that utterly transformed human societies and drove our species onto a path that led rapidly toward the astonishing complexity of the modern world. And one of the most significant steps in the early stages of that process was the emergence of large settlements like Uruk and Tenochtitlan — and Jericho. To explore the history of Jericho, we need first to take a look at the role of climate change in encouraging humans to make this transition to farming, particularly in the Fertile Crescent. Then we need to consider the Natufian people, who were some of the first humans to adopt farming and also were the founders of the small foraging base that went on to become the city of Jericho. Next we need to ask, why there? What particular geological and biological advantages did Jericho have that not only explain why it was established where it was but also account for its longevity? We conclude with a closer look at events in Jericho, further evidence of the importance of environmental factors in the rich tapestry of human history. [[image 1]] The role of climate change As we have seen elsewhere in the course, of all the factors that help explain the transition to agriculture and the appearance of large settlements, the most critical is the climate change that occurred at the end of the last ice age. It was only with the end of the last ice age early in the Holocene epoch, some 13,000 years ago, that the first evidence of farming begins to appear in the archaeological record. Conditions were warmer and more stable; entire landscapes were transformed. Forests spread across the steppes, displacing the large animal species, such as mammoths and bison, that had grazed there. As the herds of these big animals that humans had hunted for tens of thousands of years migrated northward, communities became dependent on smaller game like boar, deer, and rabbit, as well as on new root and seed plants. These changes were especially notable in the Fertile Crescent, an arc of high ground that stretches north up the coast of the eastern Mediterranean, east through the mountains of Turkey and northern Iraq, and then south along the high ground between Iraq and Iran. All across the Fertile Crescent, the change in climate encouraged the spread of small game and warmth-loving cereal grasses. Abundance was particularly great in regions where there were good supplies of water, of course, and also where the local environment had produced a range of plants and animals that were good potential domesticates. These same locations attracted humans, too, and we have evidence of numerous Stone Age foraging communities that were experimenting with these plants and animals. The most important of the groups attracted to the abundance of the Fertile Crescent was the Natufians. Natufians and the "trap of sedentism" From about 11,000 years ago, some groups of humans began to adopt less nomadic lifestyles, becoming at least “part-time” sedentary. There were two main reasons for this: climate change and local population pressure. With the arrival of more stable climates at the end of the last ice age, regions of natural abundance appeared where large numbers of humans were able to settle. These people were not farming, but living off the rich natural resources of the land. Those communities that abandoned nomadism but still lived as foragers are called “affluent foragers,” or wealthy hunter-gatherers, meaning those who have enough resources to settle down and stay in one place. The most important affluent foragers in the story of Jericho were the Natufian people, who began occupying the western Fertile Crescent (present-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria) just over 14,000 years ago. Evidence for the Natufian culture first came to light in 1928 with discoveries made in northern Israel by Dorothy Garrod at a place called Wadi en-Natuf (hence the name Natufian — we have no idea what they called themselves). We do know that they lived in villages, harvested wild grains, and hunted gazelles. The Natufian toolkit was not really any more sophisticated than that of other foragers, but their more intense use of stone sickle blades to harvest large quantities of wild cereal grains is evidence of a serious change in food-gathering practices. The grain they harvested was also subject to much higher levels of processing than ever before. Many Natufian sites show that standard mortars and grinding stones were supplemented by much larger pipe-shaped mortars dug deep into the bedrock. The construction of regular cemeteries also separates the Natufians from their contemporaries, because they suggest more complex communities with leaders and social hierarchies. Some individuals were buried wearing personal adornments like caps, bracelets, and garters, which look like indicators of their higher status. It’s also worth noting that only a tiny minority of the population was selected for ceremonial burial, which reinforces this idea that Natufian society was more socially stratified than any earlier human community. Evidence that the Natufian diet consisted mainly of harvested and prepared cereal grains was discovered at the important Ain Mallaha site in Syria. Skeletal remains showed that most of the residents had suffered from rotten teeth as a result of eating too much barley and wheat. Ain Mallaha also shows that affluent foraging was leading to increasing populations. Although the site’s estimated year-round population of 200 to 300 people might seem tiny by today’s standards, this may well have been one of the largest human communities that had ever existed up to that time. This tells us that one of the most important impacts of affluent foraging is that population pressure was forcing humans into smaller territories and denser settlements. By 10,000 BCE, foragers had migrated to most parts of this region, and in some areas there was simply not enough room for them all to settle. With each group having to survive off smaller and smaller parcels of land, these communities found themselves caught in what Big Historian David Christian has called the “trap of sedentism.” Traditional foraging is almost always nomadic, requiring near constant migration, so human communities had to keep populations small. It is impossible for migrating bands to support too many feeding infants or less mobile elderly members. Survival necessitated not only natural birth control but also killing off unwanted infants and the elderly to keep populations sustainable. Once groups like the Natufians decided to remain in one place through the pursuit of affluent foraging, all this changed. There were no longer the same constraints on population. Older members of the community did not have to be abandoned; more children could be supported. As a result, affluent foraging groups began to increase in size, and this led to the problem of overpopulation. This is, in fact, what we find at most Natufian sites — clear evidence of population pressure. Eventually there were simply too many mouths to feed by foraging practices, which is what archaeologists have found at the site of Ain Ghazal on the outskirts of Amman, Jordan — a rapid fourfold increase in population around 9,000 years ago. This created so much pressure that increasingly desperate and environmentally unsustainable attempts were made to increase food supplies. The result at Ain Ghazal and so many other sites was that groups were forced to leave the settlement to try to survive elsewhere. At a handful of more sustainable sites, however, agriculture did prove capable of supporting much larger populations, once the inhabitants learned to domesticate certain plant and animal species and increase their production through full-scale farming. One such site was Jericho. The environmental advantages of Jericho's site The ultimate significance of this transition to farming is that eventually sedentism led to the creation of larger settlements, until towns, cities, states, and empires appeared on the surface of the Earth for the first time. But cities and states emerged only in a handful of regions that possessed enough favorable environmental factors to allow for the establishment of these large communities. Rather than thinking of the emergence of cities and states as an inevitable outcome, we need to focus on the particular natural reasons that allowed some villages to continue to grow until they became towns and cities. There are many examples of villages that did grow especially large, although the reasons are not always clear. Some may have become important ritual centers of great spiritual significance. Others had access to a critical resource, such as a reliable water supply. Yet others became important commercial centers because they controlled the trade in valuable goods, or they occupied a strategic site on important migration routes. Jericho has proven itself remarkably sustainable because it benefited from several of these advantages, most importantly a very favorable environment. Jericho is located in the Jordan River Valley in the West Bank. At an elevation of 864 feet below sea level, Jericho is not only the oldest city on Earth but also the lowest one. The city is well known in the Judeo-Christian tradition as the place where the Israelites returned from slavery in Egypt under the leadership of Joshua. According to the Bible, the walls of Jericho came crashing down after the Israelites unleashed the devastating sound of ram’s horn trumpets, a story we will return to in a moment. But it is the natural walls surrounding Jericho that are of even greater importance in the story of this most ancient of cities. The geological walls of Jericho were created by seismographic activity so intense that it tore a great rift in the Earth’s crust extending all the way from Palestine to northeastern Africa. Of course, the engine that drives plate tectonic movements such as this, and that forces entire continents to move about the surface of the Earth, is the heat trapped deep inside the planet, heat that can be traced back to the processes that created the Earth and Solar System in the first place, heat that can ultimately be traced back to the energy generated in the Big Bang itself. Jericho lies deep in this Jordan Rift Valley, a tectonic feature formed by a fault along the boundary between the African and Arabian plates. As a result of the fault that opened up between these two plates, the land dropped 3,000 feet, eventually settling almost 900 feet below sea level. At this astonishingly low elevation Natufians established the settlement that became Jericho around 14,000 years ago. But we still haven’t answered the question why. What attracted these affluent foragers to this particular location? Again, it is geography and biology that provide the answer. The Jordan River is the only major water source that flows into the Dead Sea, and Jericho is located just a couple of miles west of the river, about 10 miles north of the Dead Sea. The city is well protected by Mount Nebo to the east and the Central Mountains to the west. These geological features form natural defenses because they rise up over a mile above the city. Jericho’s location in central Palestine was also ideal for the control of trade and migration routes, which pass up and down this natural valley. Throughout the city’s long history these geographically strategic advantages have made it a source of envy and a coveted possession for a whole series of invaders, many of whom have seen Jericho as the key to controlling Palestine. Despite the importance of these natural defenses and location, by far the most significant environmental advantage Jericho possessed is access to reliable supplies of water. This critical resource, essential for survival in the harsh desert environment, explains the city’s ancient origin and long history. Jericho is located in an oasis and sustained by an astonishingly dependable underground water supply known as the Ain es-Sultan. This natural spring — also known as Elisha’s spring, after a biblical story in the Book of Kings in which the prophet Elisha heals these waters — has apparently never dried up during 14,000 years of continuous human residency. More than 1,000 gallons of fresh water bubble up from the source every minute. Early farmers quickly worked out a system of irrigation canals to disburse this precious resource to the surrounding farmland, which is made up of very fertile alluvial soil. It is this almost unique combination, of natural defenses, strategic location, rich soil, abundant sunshine, and, most of all, plentiful water, that has made Jericho such an attractive and sustainable place for foragers and farmers alike for so many thousands of years. When we tally up this list of environmental advantages it’s hardly surprising that Jericho has enjoyed the sort of long and rich history that it has. The human history of Jericho Archaeologists have discovered at least 20 successive layers of settlement at the site of Jericho. Kathleen Kenyon was the first to extensively investigate the site using modern techniques, back in the 1950s. She was searching for the Bronze Age city named in the Hebrew Bible as the “city of palm trees,” but her excavations quickly revealed evidence of occupation dating back many thousands of years before the Bronze Age. Her trenches reached the remains of an early farming settlement about six acres in area, dated to circa 9600 BCE. Continued excavations revealed even earlier layers, proving that the site had been first occupied, most probably by Natufian foragers, as early as 12,000 BCE. This made Jericho the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in all human history. After the original foraging settlement, evidence showed that early farmers had learned to domesticate emmer wheat and barley. The availability of these two cereal grains is another significant biological advantage enjoyed by this region. Of the hundred or so domesticated plants humans depend upon today, wheat is one of the most important. It is a superb example of a species genetically pre-adapted for domestication. It can grow in a wide range of environments, and it can generate new diversity at an incredibly rapid rate, which accounts for its tremendous global success as a food crop. Domesticated emmer wheat rapidly spread from the Fertile Crescent all across West Asia until it was replaced in the Bronze Age by free-threshing wheat. Today, our planet produces more than 620 million tons of wheat each year, providing roughly one-fifth of all the calories consumed by the 6.5 billion members of the human community. Over the thousand years between 8350 and 7350 BCE, the village of Jericho evolved into a town that was home to perhaps 3,000 farmers. They lived in mud-brick houses arranged without any obvious evidence of town planning. Subsequent residents learned to domesticate sheep and also developed a cult of preserving human skulls and placing shells in their eye sockets. Later farming communities were more socially complex and better coordinated than their predecessors. The residents now lived in rectangular shaped buildings made of mud bricks resting on stone foundations. In each of these buildings, a number of rooms were clustered around a central courtyard. One room was usually larger — the living room — while the rest were small and probably used for storage. Kathleen Kenyon believed that one particularly large room she excavated may have been a shrine where some type of sacred object — perhaps a pillar of volcanic rock she found nearby — was worshipped in a niche in the wall. Archaeologists working in these later agrarian layers have discovered farming implements like sickle blades, axes, and grindstones; eating vessels including dishes and bowls made from limestone; spinning whorls and loom weights for weaving textiles; and extraordinary full-sized plaster human figures that must have been associated with some sort of religious practice. [[image 2]] After more than 10,000 years of continuous occupation, Jericho reached its apex in the Bronze Age, between 1700 and 1550 BCE. A class of chariot-riding elites dominated and defended the city during an age of widespread intercity conflict across much of Palestine, or the “land of Canaan,” as it was then called. The defenses were based upon a massive stone wall, but even this was not strong enough to prevent disaster; evidence shows conclusively that around 1550 BCE the ancient city of Jericho was destroyed. For more than a century, archaeologists and biblical historians have debated the question of whether this destruction might be evidence of the Battle of Jericho. This is described in the Book of Joshua as the first battle fought by the Israelites in their campaign for the conquest of Canaan. In the biblical account, Joshua’s army marched around the city walls for seven days. On the seventh day, the priests sounded their ram’s horn trumpets, the Israelites unleashed a mighty war cry, and the walls of Jericho collapsed, killing every man, woman, and child in the city. [[image 4]] According to biblical chronology, this battle would have taken place in 1400 BCE, but modern archaeologists date (with 95 percent certainty) the destruction of Jericho to a century and a half earlier. Because of the discrepancy, modern scholars often dismiss the historical accuracy of the Battle of Jericho, although many biblical historians continue to make claims for its veracity. Despite this calamity, Jericho rose again in the centuries that followed. By the eighth century BCE it had fallen to the Assyrians. The powerful Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar also conquered the land of Israel and sent tens of thousands of residents into exile. But the exiles were freed soon after by the Persian king Cyrus the Great. Jericho then served as an administrative center for the Persians, and later as a private estate for Alexander the Great, both of whom were attracted to the city by its strategic location and abundant resources. Three centuries later, the Hebrew king Herod the Great was granted control over Jericho by the Romans. Under Herod the city flourished as an important agricultural, commercial, and administrative center, and also as a winter resort for Jerusalem’s aristocracy. In the first century of the Common Era, the Greek geographer Strabo described the city’s environmental advantages like this: Jericho is surrounded by mountainous country which slopes toward it like a theater. It is mixed with all kinds of cultivated and fruitful trees, though it consists mostly of palm trees. It is everywhere watered with streams. In the same century, according to the Christian Gospels, Jesus passed through Jericho, where he healed a blind beggar and inspired the local tax collector Zacchaeus to repent of his unethical practices. After the fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in 70 CE, Jericho entered a period of decline, although it remained an important Christian pilgrimage site into the Byzantine period. In the seventh century, Jericho became part of the expansive realm of Islam, and we have another description of the advantages of the city written by the tenth-century Arab geographer Al Maqdisi: The water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor. During the Crusades, Christians occupied the city until they were driven out by Saladin, the leader of the Arab and Muslim opposition to the Crusaders. Throughout the long reign of the Ottomans, from 1517 to 1918, Jericho slowly shrank to the size of a village and was regularly raided by Bedouins. In the twentieth century, Jericho was controlled at various times by Britain, Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinians. Today Israel and the Palestinian Authority continue to argue over the status of Jericho, and the future of the city and its 20,000 residents is anything but clear. Physical endurance The history of Jericho is rich and complex, punctuated with the same parade of triumphs and tragedies that so many other ancient cities have experienced. But Jericho’s status as the most ancient city on Earth makes it unique. This longevity strongly supports the idea that history is ultimately as much about the physical environment in which it takes place as it is about technology or leadership. At the end of the last ice age the Fertile Crescent was favored with an array of natural advantages, which explains not only the emergence of agriculture but also that of the first villages, towns, and cities. These same advantages of geography, flora, fauna, and climate made it possible for the Natufians to establish a small foraging community deep in the tectonic fault of the Jordan Rift Valley, surrounded by natural defensive walls, and blessed with rich soil and a seemingly endless supply of fresh water, that easily transitioned into a thriving agricultural community. The history of Jericho is a 14,000-year-long reminder that the story of humanity can really be understood only if it is embedded deeply into the natural context in which it has played out, for the environment is truly the great physical stage upon which our human drama continues to unfold. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How does this author define empire?Does the author think ancient Egypt was an empire? Why or why not?What reasons does the author give for early states forming empires? What advantages did those early states have?How does the author explain the power dynamic of the core’s control over the periphery?What challenges did early empires face? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Write down a list of the major characteristics that the author thinks are common to empires. Are any or all of these characteristics present in the political communities of which you are a part? Do you live in an empire? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. What is an Empire? Carvings in golden-colored gates show depictions of people traveling, hunting, and presenting gifts. By Dennis RM Campbell There are as many definitions of empire as there have been empires, but some pretty familiar elements appear in most of them. It starts with working on our “control issues”. All shapes and sizes We tend to think of empires as being really big. The British Empire controlled nearly 14 million square miles, about 24% of the entire world! But that example, from 1920 CE, is a little too recent to really get an idea of the world's 4,300 years of empire that the world has experienced. The Akkadian Empire of Mesopotamia (2330 – 2200 BCE) controlled only 30,000 square miles when it began, roughly the size of South Carolina, and it's doubtful that imperial control ever extended much further. As we will see, empires are more accurately measured by power and wealth than by square miles. Developing a definition At its most basic, an empire is a complex political organization where a dominant central state controls weaker peripheral (outer) states. There is no single recipe for making an empire, but the main ingredient is always control. In history's numerous examples of empires, we find that virtually any kind of state can exert power over other states to create an empire, but results will vary. The center's control over its peripheries can be either loose or strong, and can fluctuate even within an empire. Map shows the area ruled by the Akkadian EmpireMap of the Akkadian Empire. All regions north and west of Eshnunna were at best very weakly controlled by the Akkadian Emperors. By Zunkir, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows the area ruled by the Akkadian Empire Map of the Akkadian Empire. All regions north and west of Eshnunna were at best very weakly controlled by the Akkadian Emperors. By Zunkir, CC BY-SA 3.0. The earliest known empire was the Akkadian Empire. For around 1,000 years, Mesopotamia was dominated by city-states—small political units, where a city controlled its surrounding area. In 2330 BCE, Sargon of Akkad took control of southern Mesopotamia. He ruled from the city of Akkad, the center of his small empire. The other city-states maintained their political identities, but now functioned as the periphery of Sargon's empire, whether they liked it or not. Let's compare this with what happened in Egypt. Between 3100-3000 BCE, a ruler of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt. This may have been one event or a series of events over the reigns of multiple rulers. Though Egypt was actually larger, it didn't become an empire like Akkad. It was really a kingdom. Upper and Lower Egypt became politically and culturally united, with citizens of both regions self-identifying as "Egyptians" rather than as citizens of a particular city or region. Bronze sculpted head of an Akkadian emperor featuring a very detailed carved beard and hat. One eye is missing from the sculpture, probably a result of age decay.Bronze head of an Akkadian emperor, possibly Sargon, discovered at the site of Nineveh (Iraq). The piece is currently on display at the National Museum of Iraq. By Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities, Public Domain. Bronze sculpted head of an Akkadian emperor featuring a very detailed carved beard and hat. One eye is missing from the sculpture, probably a result of age decay. Bronze head of an Akkadian emperor, possibly Sargon, discovered at the site of Nineveh (Iraq). The piece is currently on display at the National Museum of Iraq. By Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities, Public Domain. In general, empire creation is a result of a drive to accumulate power and control. In Mesopotamia, powerful city-state rulers gained more power by conquering their neighbors. From the 6th through 4th centuries BCE, various states in northern India (Mahajanapadas) fought for power. The region eventually fell to the Nanda Empire (345-322 BCE), which itself lost control to the Maurya Empire (322-185 BCE). We see a similar development in China: As the kingdoms of the Warring States Period (402-221 BCE) fought for dominance, the Qin conquered all of them, creating the first Chinese empire. Map shows a comparison between the size of the area ruled by the Magadha empire and the center of the empire, Rajagriha, which is very small in comparison.Map of the Magadha Empire (6th-4th centuries BCE). Note that the center (dark red) is quite small. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows a comparison between the size of the area ruled by the Magadha empire and the center of the empire, Rajagriha, which is very small in comparison. Map of the Magadha Empire (6th-4th centuries BCE). Note that the center (dark red) is quite small. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows the area ruled by the Maurya EmpireMap of the Maurya Empire (c. 250 BCE). Compared to the earlier empire of Magadha and that of the Nandas, the Maurya Empire was extremely large. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows the area ruled by the Maurya Empire Map of the Maurya Empire (c. 250 BCE). Compared to the earlier empire of Magadha and that of the Nandas, the Maurya Empire was extremely large. By Avantiputra7, CC BY-SA 3.0. So why empire? Empire requires a center to control peripheral states, but why would rulers want an empire in the first place? Running an empire is complicated. They create inequality with peripheral peoples who are not given the same rights and status as people in the center. In fact, most peripheral people are oppressed, and that often leads to rebellions that need to be put down. All of this is expensive, so expansion and control over the periphery needs to be worth the high cost. There is no single reason empires existed. The many reasons are unique to each empire's center. In the case of Mesopotamia, empire was a practical solution to the issue of resources. The region lacked important materials like hard wood, stone, and metal ore. True, these things could be obtained through networks of trade with outside states. Then again, simply conquering regions with these resources would secure a cheaper and more reliable source for the empire. Map features areas in green to show the areas ruled by the Roman empire. These areas are mostly around the perimeter of the area shown, along the sea. Map of the extent of the empire created during the Roman Republic period (created between 264 and 61 BCE). The empire continued to grow until it encompassed all of the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, Gaul (France), and contested areas in Germany and the Near East. By G.W., CC BY-SA 3.0. Map features areas in green to show the areas ruled by the Roman empire. These areas are mostly around the perimeter of the area shown, along the sea. Map of the extent of the empire created during the Roman Republic period (created between 264 and 61 BCE). The empire continued to grow until it encompassed all of the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, Gaul (France), and contested areas in Germany and the Near East. By G.W., CC BY-SA 3.0. For other empires, resources were a secondary benefit. The primary goals were often security and wealth. Rome first expanded out of Italy during the Punic Wars against Carthage (264-146 BCE). They quickly became an empire, controlling most of the Mediterranean basin. Their initial expansion was the result of a fear of powerful neighbors, which the Romans believed could become a threat at any time. So they would attack and defeat them before they could hurt Rome. As their empire expanded, resources such as grain, ore, enslaved people, and even fish sauce (yum!) flowed into Rome in great numbers, making the Romans, or at least some of them, immensely rich. Center vs. periphery The relationship between center and periphery is defined by inequality. The center, as the seat of power, identifies itself as superior over its periphery. This helps justify the center's control of the periphery. This inequality is often reinforced through the legal system. People living in the periphery are usually denied the rights and protections given to those of the center. In this way, the general community of an empire is divided by status into smaller communities. When an empire exerts direct control over its periphery, it runs the risk of abuses against the peripheral people. This may be a “bug” of empires, but it may also be a “feature”, since it is so common. Since peripheral peoples are not typically seen as true citizens, they do not have much legal protection. There were countless complaints by peripheral peoples against Roman governors, who were legally allowed to rob, beat, and even kill them. The Han Empire committed similar abuses against its peripheral people. One of the most graphic examples comes from the Athenian Empire of ancient Greece. The city-state of Mytilene belonged to its periphery. When Mytilene attempted to break away from Athenian control, the Athenians declared the following punishment: all males would be killed, and all women and children would be sold into slavery. At the last minute, the Athenians decided to spare the people of the city, having sufficiently terrorized them into submission. Challenges to empire The first empires didn't have role models, and that was a challenge. World history courses didn't exist yet, so early emperors couldn't research previous examples. The earliest empires of Mesopotamia only lasted about four generations each—less than 200 years. That's because each one had to figure out how to run an empire. Ruling and feeding millions, defending against enemies, enforcing social hierarchies was a lot to learn. It was like learning to fly a plane that was already in the air. There was considerable trial and error involved, and it only takes a few errors to make an empire plummet. Then there is the periphery problem. We've mentioned the issue of inequality, with the strong center often oppressing the weak outsiders. But when the periphery is strong, it's difficult for the center to control it. Each time an Akkadian Emperor died, his successor faced uprisings in the periphery as city-states rebelled. Weaker peripheries are easier to control. Map uses arrows to represent areas invaded by Germanic peoples, including Rome, Carthage, and the Hun Capital.Map of the various Germanic invasions of the Roman Empire. The northern border of the Roman Empire was extremely long, making it difficult to prevent incursions from outside groups. By MapMaster, CC BY-SA 2.5. Map uses arrows to represent areas invaded by Germanic peoples, including Rome, Carthage, and the Hun Capital. Map of the various Germanic invasions of the Roman Empire. The northern border of the Roman Empire was extremely long, making it difficult to prevent incursions from outside groups. By MapMaster, CC BY-SA 2.5. Another group that could be a problem for empires were the nomadic and semi-nomadic people living beyond its borders. These groups developed a complicated relationship with their neighboring empires. They wanted, and often needed, the wealth from the empire. But because they were typically treated as "barbarians," they often had to attack the empire to get anything. If they wanted to become part of the empire, as they often did, they faced significant abuses due to their difference, or "otherness." Overextension is another potential problem. As empires conquer more territory, controlling the periphery is harder. People living in territories further away from the center typically do not feel any close connection to the empire. Empires needed loyalty from their periphery, and often sent large armies to get it. Another problem is that as the empire expands, so do its borders. Longer borders cost more to defend against outsiders. Both the Han and Roman Empires struggled to protect their expansive borders against invaders. Conclusion Empires have formed across the world throughout history. The earliest were typically short-lived and not very successful, but over time, empires became better at exerting their control over other people. The primary benefit for developing an empire is better access to resources. However, empire comes with a high cost. When empires lose control and collapse—as all eventually do—it is usually because they can no longer pay that cost. Author bio Dennis RM Campbell is an associate professor of History at San Francisco State University. He primarily conducts research on esoteric topics in ancient history and writes about ancient language, religions, and societies. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why do historians divide early human history using terms like Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? Does this periodization work all over the world?What made iron both difficult and easy to make?Why was the timing significant, when it comes to the invention of iron-smelting technology? How did some societies benefit from this timing?Which society used iron-smelting technologies extensively first? Where did this technology travel afterward? Did any other societies develop iron-smelting independently?Aside from making weapons, how else was iron primarily used?What does iron have to do with population growth?What environmental impact did iron-smelting technologies have? Why do historians divide early human history using terms like Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? Does this periodization work all over the world? What made iron both difficult and easy to make? Why was the timing significant, when it comes to the invention of iron-smelting technology? How did some societies benefit from this timing? Which society used iron-smelting technologies extensively first? Where did this technology travel afterward? Did any other societies develop iron-smelting independently? Aside from making weapons, how else was iron primarily used? What does iron have to do with population growth? What environmental impact did iron-smelting technologies have? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Iron-smelting technologies had a huge impact on social order. Were iron technologies the primary cause for some of these changes? If not, what other factors played a role? Find evidence in support of your claim, from this article and other assets from this era.Can you think of other technologies from this era or earlier ones that completely reorganized communities, networks, or systems of production and distribution? Iron-smelting technologies had a huge impact on social order. Were iron technologies the primary cause for some of these changes? If not, what other factors played a role? Find evidence in support of your claim, from this article and other assets from this era. Can you think of other technologies from this era or earlier ones that completely reorganized communities, networks, or systems of production and distribution? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Iron Age Illustrations of various tools made of iron, including swords as well pieces. By Bennett Sherry Between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE a new technology swept through Afro- Eurasia, reshaping warfare, trade, the environment, and human social relationships. And it’s why there are so many of us now. Iron: The origin story Word reaches your village slowly. The king's army has been defeated, and the invaders are headed your way. They have weapons that seem many times more deadly than your own. Their soldiers are armed and armored with a strange new technology. Even worse, they outnumber your people. Their advanced technology allows them to sustain larger populations and reshape the world around them. As they swarm along the rivers of Mesopotamia, they leave the burnt remains of forests behind them. But these are not supernatural invaders. They're humans, and they have learned to harness the most common metal on Earth: iron. Early human history is usually studied in three periods: the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Historians periodize early human history in this way because tools made of hard materials like metal and stone are often the only remnants from these ancient societies. It varies by region, but this periodization is most accurate when we are talking about Afro-Eurasia. The Iron Age lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. We're used to iron now, but iron-making technology was a major innovation, and it took thousands of years for people to figure it out. Smelting1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript bronze wasn't exactly easy either, so let's compare. To make bronze, you combine tin and copper, melting them at about 950 degrees Celsius. Early humans could do this in a pottery furnace. Iron needs a furnace that can handle 1,538 degrees Celsius—way too hot for a pottery furnace. A big advantage with iron was that you only need one metal, which is much easier to get than copper or tin. Photograph of Neolithic stone tools, which look like jagged rocks.Stone tools, Neolithic, Hungarian, c. 5400-4000 BCE. By Bjoertvedt, CC BY-Sa 4.0. Photograph of Neolithic stone tools, which look like jagged rocks. Stone tools, Neolithic, Hungarian, c. 5400-4000 BCE. By Bjoertvedt, CC BY-Sa 4.0. The timing of the first iron-smelting technologies is significant. Several major states in the Eastern Mediterranean began to collapse around 1200 BCE, the Late Bronze Age. Egyptian, Greek, and Hittite cultures all faced a crisis. Several different factors caused this collapse, including earthquakes, droughts, and invasion by a mysterious group known as "Sea Peoples." The introduction of iron technology, combined with this collapse, rapidly changed the ancient world into something that began to look a lot less ancient. In the wake of ecological catastrophe and invasion, iron reshaped regional power dynamics, trade networks, natural environments, and human social orders from the Mediterranean to China. Swords into ploughshares: Iron reshapes power dynamics When we talk about the Iron Age, we usually picture swords, but that's not really what made iron technology so powerful. Sure, iron weapons are stronger than bronze, but the real advantage is that iron is easier to make. It all comes down to the chemical composition of the Earth. Iron is the most abundant metal on our planet, so it's easy to get your hands on. Photo of a blackened bronze sword.Bronze Age Sword, Eastern Zhou Dynasty, China, c. 500-400 BCE. By British Museum, public domain. Photo of a blackened bronze sword. Bronze Age Sword, Eastern Zhou Dynasty, China, c. 500-400 BCE. By British Museum, public domain. The copper and tin needed to make bronze are hard to find, and not always found in the same area. States using bronze technology to outfit their armies were dependent on trade to obtain one or both metals. When war or a large-scale disaster like the Late Bronze Age collapse disrupted trade, they couldn't make weapons and tools. Meanwhile, societies that solved the high-temperature furnace problem were able to grow much stronger as the Iron Age began. Suddenly they could make more tools and weapons faster and cheaper. More ore: Iron reshapes trade networks Ancient Eurasia was interconnected and interdependent during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Wars and trade connected the Eastern Mediterranean to Western India and the lands in between. Armies and merchants brought bronze and iron technologies along these trade networks over several centuries. Communities in world zones outside these networks, such as the Americas and the Pacific Ocean, were left out of the Iron Age transformations. These zones would not use iron technology until the sixteenth century CE. Photograph of tools that may have been used to prepare the soil. Two are rounded and one is straight and dagger-shaped.Iron Age Farming Tool. By British Museum, public domain. Photograph of tools that may have been used to prepare the soil. Two are rounded and one is straight and dagger-shaped. Iron Age Farming Tool. By British Museum, public domain. Map shows the region ruled by the Hittite Empire.The Hittite Empire, approximate extent of the maximum area of the Hittite rule (light green) and the Hittite rule ca. 1350-1300 BCE (green line). By Ikonact, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows the region ruled by the Hittite Empire. The Hittite Empire, approximate extent of the maximum area of the Hittite rule (light green) and the Hittite rule ca. 1350-1300 BCE (green line). By Ikonact, CC BY-SA 3.0. The earliest evidence of extensive iron smelting comes from the Hittites, who ruled an empire in Anatolia from around 1500 BCE to 1177 BCE. Iron smelting technology gradually spread from Anatolia and Mesopotamia across Eurasia. By around 1000 BCE, Indian farmers needed more rice paddies to feed the growing number of people in new cities. So they used iron tools to clear the forests around the subcontinent's great rivers to make room for rice. By 700 BCE, people in China adopted iron smelting technology, innovating iron production by developing larger, even hotter furnaces capable of melting iron to a more liquid state. That meant it could be poured into molds, a method known as cast iron. This type of metal was too brittle for weapons, but it was excellent for making cheap iron plows, tools, pots, and art. An abundance of cast iron tools allowed Chinese farmers to increase and intensify agricultural production. More food led to rapid population increases in China, just as iron technology had done in Mesopotamia and India. There is evidence to suggest that iron-smelting technology developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa around the same time that the Hittites began working with the metal. In Central Africa, several communities were already connected by the Bantu2^22squared language. But it was iron that allowed them to clear African forests and spread their agricultural societies across a region larger than the United States. Turning trees into swords: Iron reshapes the environment Humans have always impacted the environment, but Iron Age societies reshaped the world around them in unprecedented ways. Iron smelting furnaces needed lots of fuel. The most abundant and hottest-burning fuel available to ancient societies was wood. Map shows the regions where different major African language groups are spoken.Map of major African language families. By SUM1, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map shows the regions where different major African language groups are spoken. Map of major African language families. By SUM1, CC BY-SA 4.0. Once people started using iron tools, they became dependent on increased productivity to sustain growing populations. That meant more crops needed to be planted. So, they cut down more trees to, 1) make larger fields and, 2) use the wood to fuel their furnaces. More wood meant they could smelt more iron and feed even more people. Even more people meant they needed more iron tools, which required—you guessed it—more wood. Armed with new iron axes, farmers set out to harvest more trees and clear more land. Soon, forests started to disappear. For most of human history, populations increased only gradually. The Bronze and Iron Ages kicked off a population boom for ancient human communities. Photograph shows a comparison of axes from three ages; iron axe is blackened and broken down around the edges.Axes from the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. By British Museum, public domain. Photograph shows a comparison of axes from three ages; iron axe is blackened and broken down around the edges. Axes from the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. By British Museum, public domain. A graph showing population data.Population data adapted from McEvedy, Colin and Richard Jones. Atlas of World Population History. New York: Facts on File, 1978 (p. 344). A graph showing population data. Population data adapted from McEvedy, Colin and Richard Jones. Atlas of World Population History. New York: Facts on File, 1978 (p. 344). Iron forges social relationships As iron helped populations grow, empires extended their reach over larger territories. By 800 BCE, the Assyrian Empire dominated Mesopotamia with an army of 200,000 soldiers. Sustaining such a large army was only possible with an efficient government and iron technology. Now that empires ruled people in faraway places, new social hierarchies developed as rulers sought methods to hold their diverse empires together. Even after the Iron Age, iron smelting technologies continued to reshape relationships between people. The huge empires of Rome and Han China depended on iron tools as their agricultural efforts spread rapidly to new areas. Once again, more food meant that empires could support more people, now in densely populated cities. To manage their large empires, rulers built new roads and infrastructure3^33cubed. As for the lower classes, iron technology meant that even peasant farmers could afford tools. According to historian Daniel Headrick, "for most people, it was iron, not bronze, that brought an end to the Stone Age." Gender mattered when it came to iron work. The production of iron was done by men in most regions, with some variations. In places where women dominated farming, as in large parts of Central Africa, it was probably women who drove the adoption of iron. Even here, however, most metal-workers were men. As iron became more important to communities, men often held more power in those communities. One metal, many paths The journey to iron technology took different routes. In Bantu Africa, the route included termite mounds and complex gender relationships. Historians Catherine Fourshey, Rhonda Gonzales, and Christine Saidi explain how the massive termite mounds of Central Africa helped inspire iron kilns. Bantu iron smelters could repurpose a termite hill as the foundation for a new kiln and then use clay from the same mound to build furnace walls. When it came to metal working, Bantu society did not strictly separate "men's work" from "women's work." It was far more complex. Evidence from the Bantu language confirms that Bantu speakers made connections linking termite mounds, iron smelting, and motherhood. The iron kilns were associated with the idea of giving birth, though it was men who worked them. In this way "the male production of iron" was linked to matrilineal history through "the metaphor of birth or female reproduction." Matrilineal societies trace ancestry through mothers. This is just one example of the variety of relationships linking humans to iron working, their environment, and each other. Photograph of a termite mound, which looks similar to a tall, craggy rock formation the color of red-brown clay.Termite Mound, Ghana. By Shawn Zamechek, CC BY 2.0. Photograph of a termite mound, which looks similar to a tall, craggy rock formation the color of red-brown clay. Termite Mound, Ghana. By Shawn Zamechek, CC BY 2.0. Photo of a boy standing next to a furnace, that looks similar in shape to the termite mound shown to the left.Iron smelting furnace, nineteenth century. By National Archives of Malawi, CC BY-SA 4.0. Photo of a boy standing next to a furnace, that looks similar in shape to the termite mound shown to the left. Iron smelting furnace, nineteenth century. By National Archives of Malawi, CC BY-SA 4.0. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a research associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What technologies helped Hittites travel across wide distances?Why were the Hittites “pioneers of the Iron Age,” and how did this help their empire grow?What was the Hittite political structure like?What evidence do historians have that the Hittites were linked to Mesopotamia?Why is the Battle of Kadesh an important “first” in human history? What technologies helped Hittites travel across wide distances? Why were the Hittites “pioneers of the Iron Age,” and how did this help their empire grow? What was the Hittite political structure like? What evidence do historians have that the Hittites were linked to Mesopotamia? Why is the Battle of Kadesh an important “first” in human history? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Historians use similarities between the Hittites, the Mesopotamians, and the Hattians as evidence that these communities were linked by trade, migration, or conquest. Do you find this analysis convincing? Why or why not? If not, what are some alternative explanations for similarities between the communities? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Hittites and Ancient Anatolia Photo of a very detailed Egyptian carved stone wall. The wall depicts two people in the center, engaged in battle. They are surrounded by smaller depictions of people and symbols. Khan Academy Staff, revised by Eman M. Elshaikh Most of modern day Turkey used to be called Anatolia. The Hittites who formed an empire there were pretty high tech for 1600-1180 BCE, and were able to create a formidable economy and military. Introduction The Hittites were an ancient group of Indo-Europeans1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript who formed an empire around 1600 BCE at Hattusa in Anatolia (the western peninsula of Asia, which is mostly modern-day Turkey). The Hittite Empire peaked in the mid-1300s BCE, when it spread across Asia Minor, into the northern Levant2^22squared and Upper Mesopotamia (northern Middle East). Like many Indo-Europeans, the Hittites could travel long distances and migrate to other lands, thanks to a type of transportation that was pretty high tech at the time: domesticated horses. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early societies in the region, boosted the success of both pastoralists (animal farmers) and agrarian states. After about 1180 BCE, the empire ended and splintered into several independent city-states, some of which survived until the eighth century BCE. These were Neo-Hittites, and of course neo means "new." Map shows the region ruled by the Hittite EmpireA map of the Hittite empire at its greatest extent in the mid-1300s. The Hittite empire is colored in green and is bordered by the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Image courtesy of Boundless World History. Map shows the region ruled by the Hittite Empire A map of the Hittite empire at its greatest extent in the mid-1300s. The Hittite empire is colored in green and is bordered by the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Image courtesy of Boundless World History. Culture The Hittite language was part of the Indo-European family of related languages. Today these languages are widely spoken in the Americas, Europe, and Western and Southern Asia. Although their society thrived during the Bronze Age, starting around 3000 BCE, the Hittites were pioneers of the Iron Age. Quite the trend-setters, they began manufacturing iron artifacts around 1400 BCE. Tools and weapons using iron were a lot more efficient than those made of bronze, so iron became the hot new thing. Literally, as it turns out, since iron melts at a higher temperature than copper or tin. There are a couple of theories about how the Hittites developed this technology. Some scholars believe they had been experimenting with metalworking for years, and eventually discovered a smelting process hot enough to melt iron. Or maybe they learned some of this technology from communities in the Zagros Mountains in western Iran. However they figured it out, the Hittites now had a gold mine—in iron production, that is. As they profited from the high demand of iron, they established new trade networks. Bronze statue of three animals. All three of them have large, curving antlers; the animal in the center is the largest.Bronze Hittite figures of animals. By Klaus-Peter Simon, CC BY-SA 3.0. Bronze statue of three animals. All three of them have large, curving antlers; the animal in the center is the largest. Bronze Hittite figures of animals. By Klaus-Peter Simon, CC BY-SA 3.0. After 1180 BCE, a new community known as the Sea Peoples caused turmoil in the Levant as they raided these areas. The Sea Peoples were of an unknown origin, but they had enough ships to raid Mediterranean and Egyptian cities. The raids caused the Hittite kingdom to scatter into several independent Neo-Hittite city-states. What we know of Hittite history and society comes mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their former kingdom. We have also learned about them from diplomatic and commercial mail found in archives in Egypt and the Middle East. The cuneiform3^33cubed writing suggests that the Hittites had some connection with the city-states of Mesopotamia, perhaps due to established networks with Mesopotamia. The Hittite state Now for some politics. The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent, usually the king's son. But there were some officials who had independent authority over various branches of the government. That means the king didn't really control all aspects of the kingdom. For example, there was a Chief of the Royal Bodyguards, a Chief of the Scribes4^44start superscript, 4, end superscript, and even a Chief of the Wine Stewards. Photo of a pillar carved with the image of a man holding a trident-like weapon and standing on top of a bullNeo-Hittite storm god. By Verity Cridland, CC BY 2.0. Photo of a pillar carved with the image of a man holding a trident-like weapon and standing on top of a bull Neo-Hittite storm god. By Verity Cridland, CC BY 2.0. Not much is known about the actual day-to-day life and culture of the Hittites. The written documents that survived are mostly about kings and their campaigns. It is known that the Hittites wrote using Akkadian script (cuneiform) but in their own Indo-European language. They used cylinder seals to sign documents and mark property, just as people did throughout Mesopotamia. That suggests a link or network between Hittite and Mesopotamian cultures. Then again, it's possible the Hittites learned those Mesopotamian customs from other groups they had conquered, like the Hattians. Some scholars have suggested this connection because the details of Hittite life and culture seem to be slight variations on those of the Hattian people—even the name Hittite is derived from the word Hattie. But we don't know the exact nature of the relationship between the Hittites and the Mesopotamians because so few primary sources survived. Some of the writings and artifacts we have from the Hittites tell us about their belief system, which was similar to the Hatti's. Storm gods were important in the Hittite pantheon (a pantheon is the group of gods in a polytheistic religion). The storm god known as Tarhunt was called the Conqueror, the King of Kummiya, King of Heaven, and Lord of the land of Hatti. He was the god of battle and victory, especially against foreign powers. This suggests the Hittites cared a lot about military might. Military technology One military engagement the Hittites are famous for is the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE. They faced the army of the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II. This battle is especially important because both sides claimed victory, and that led to the first known peace treaty in the history of the world, in 1258 BCE. A detailed drawing showing an enlarged Ramesses II on horseback pointing an arrow at a large number of people Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II storming the Hittite fortress of Dapur. By Nordisk familjebok, Public Domain. A detailed drawing showing an enlarged Ramesses II on horseback pointing an arrow at a large number of people Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II storming the Hittite fortress of Dapur. By Nordisk familjebok, Public Domain. The Hittites had been pushing into Egyptian territory for centuries before Pharaoh Ramesses II resolved to drive the Hittites from his borders in 1274 BCE. He hoped to gain an advantage by capturing of the city of Kadesh, a center of commerce, which the Hittites held. Ramesses marched from Egypt leading over 20,000 soldiers in four divisions to fight against the troops that were being led by the king of the Hittites, named Muwatalli. Simple drawing shows three people on a chariot being drawn by horseHittite chariot, from an Egyptian relief. By Paul Volz, Public Domain. Simple drawing shows three people on a chariot being drawn by horse Hittite chariot, from an Egyptian relief. By Paul Volz, Public Domain. The Egyptian and Hittite armies were pretty evenly matched, which must be why the fight was too close to call, and both sides claimed victory. The Egyptian chariots were faster because they only had two people aboard them. But since the Hittite chariots had an extra person, they could throw more spears. The combination of chariots and iron tools, which were stronger than bronze ones, meant that the Egyptian and Hittite military technology was some of the most sophisticated of its time. Each side had a military powerful enough to send troops to war as they fought to maintain control over their respective empires. A modern-day photograph of pieces of an ancient stone carved with textEgypto-Hittite Peace Treaty (c. 1258 BC) between Hattusili III and Ramesses II. By Iocanus, CC BY 3.0. A modern-day photograph of pieces of an ancient stone carved with text Egypto-Hittite Peace Treaty (c. 1258 BC) between Hattusili III and Ramesses II. By Iocanus, CC BY 3.0. From Ramesses' point of view, he had defeated his enemy in battle, so he claimed victory for Egypt. But Muwatalli noticed he still had control over Kadesh, which was what Ramesses was after, so he claimed victory as well. Muwatalli’s brother, and successor who participated in the battle, was the one who arranged a truce with Ramesses II. The Treaty of Kadesh—the first peace treaty—written about 15 years after the Battle of Kadesh, was an important document because it represented how rulers negotiated to maintain control of their empires. [Notes] Author bio Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences, focusing on history and anthropology. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: According to the author, what are some ways that Mesoamerica differed from Afro-Eurasian regions where many of the first complex societies developed?How did the Maya overcome the environmental challenges they faced?How did a drought destabilize the authority of the Maya rulers?What are the three pyramids the author mentions in Teotihuacan? What does he suggest people used them for?What explanations does the author provide for why Teotihuacan grew so large and important?Why do we know so little about life in Teotihuacan?What are some possible explanations for Teotihuacan’s collapse? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: This article begins by making the point that not all complex societies need navigable rivers and fertile river valleys in order to develop. But the two examples the author uses (Classic Maya and Teotihuacan) both collapsed, possibly due to drought. How can you use this information to challenge the narratives in this article?Think about the area you live in. Is it an environment that could have encouraged the development of ancient complex societies? What environmental or other factors in your home town would have helped or prevented the development of cities like Teotihuacan? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Teotihuacan and Classic Mesoamerica Photo of Teotihuacan, showing a long narrow road to a center area surrounded by the structures that make up Teotihuacan. There is a larger, pyramid structure, and several smaller structures that are leveled and have staircases going up them By Bennett Sherry During the Classic Period of Mesoamerica, huge cities arose in the Yucatan and in the Mexican Highlands. These cities challenge many assumptions about ancient urbanization. Introduction – No Nile? No problem! You've probably heard that complex societies and the first cities and states arose around river valleys like the Tigris and Euphrates or the Nile. You've probably even heard that in this course. And to be fair, it makes a lot of sense. Cities need farms to produce surplus food, and rivers make farming a lot easier. We have clear evidence that navigable rivers—if they flooded predictably—helped the growth of complex, urbanized societies in places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. But there's also evidence that those type of societies developed without river valleys. For example, consider Mesoamerica (present-day Mexico and Central America). During the Classic Period1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript of Mesoamerica, sometimes dated 100–900 CE, this became one of the most urbanized regions on Earth. Mesoamerica doesn't have many rivers, like the Nile over in Africa, that flood regularly and provide easy transportation. Yet, some of the earliest and largest cities in the Americas developed in Mesoamerica. This difference makes Mesoamerica a useful case to challenge narratives about why and where complex societies developed. Map shows Teotihuacan in relation to the cities it was allied with and controlledA map of Mesoamerica showing the position of Teotihuacan and cities controlled by (green and black) or allied with (yellow) Teotihuacan. By Yavidaxiu, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows Teotihuacan in relation to the cities it was allied with and controlled A map of Mesoamerica showing the position of Teotihuacan and cities controlled by (green and black) or allied with (yellow) Teotihuacan. By Yavidaxiu, CC BY-SA 3.0. Classic Maya The lowlands between Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala have dense jungles, poor soil, and few large rivers, yet somehow the Maya city-states flourished there. The Maya overcame these limitations, engineering the land to redirect and store water in reservoirs and canals. They developed a system of hieroglyphics and the ancient world's most advanced mathematics, astronomy, and architecture. At their height, the various Maya city-states held about 14 million people. Modern day image of many people visiting an ancient ruins site that features a large, tower-like structure and several smaller brick structuresThe ruins of Tikal, in the Guatemalan lowlands. Tikal was one of the largest Maya cities. Once home to tens of thousands of people. By Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, CC BY-SA 3.0. Modern day image of many people visiting an ancient ruins site that features a large, tower-like structure and several smaller brick structures The ruins of Tikal, in the Guatemalan lowlands. Tikal was one of the largest Maya cities. Once home to tens of thousands of people. By Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, CC BY-SA 3.0. So what led to the Maya's collapse? Most likely it was the complexity of their society. The well-engineered system that collected, stored, and distributed water was controlled by a ruling class of kings and priests. So, when a series of droughts arrived in the ninth century, their authority also dried up, and the whole social pyramid collapsed. The Maya people didn't disappear—millions still live in Central America and Mexico—but the collapse destroyed many of the great Maya cities and achievements of the Classic Period. Like many ancient societies, there is an element of guesswork in our knowledge of the Maya. Very little Mayan writing survives today—in 1562, the Spanish Bishop of Yucatán, Diego de Landa, had most of it burned. But still, we have more written records from the Maya than we do from the Classic Period's largest city: Teotihuacan. A paneled, painted manuscript featuring language symbols and detailed artThe Dresden Codex, one of the few surviving Maya manuscripts. Public domain. A paneled, painted manuscript featuring language symbols and detailed art The Dresden Codex, one of the few surviving Maya manuscripts. Public domain. Teotihuacan: City of the Gods In the center of the Mexican Highlands, just 25 miles north of present-day Mexico City, a ruined city of divine proportions has been baffling visitors for centuries. Its people left no written records, and our only clues are the stones of ruined buildings, some artwork, and burial chambers. Oral histories collected after the Spanish conquered Mesoamerica in the sixteenth century give us some additional information. But even with these, we still don't know the original name of this massive society. In the fifteenth century, almost a thousand years after the city collapsed, people from the Aztec Empire found its ruins. Amazed, they named the city Teotihuacan, the City of the Gods. Birds-eye photo of Teotihuacan shows the city’s two largest structures. Both are pyramid-shaped, tall, and there is a road connecting the two structures.Teotihuacan, facing south. The Pyramid of the Moon is in the foreground, the Pyramid of the Sun in the background. The Temple of the Feathered Serpent is in the top-right corner. By JOMA-MAC, CC BY-SA 3.0. Birds-eye photo of Teotihuacan shows the city’s two largest structures. Both are pyramid-shaped, tall, and there is a road connecting the two structures. Teotihuacan, facing south. The Pyramid of the Moon is in the foreground, the Pyramid of the Sun in the background. The Temple of the Feathered Serpent is in the top-right corner. By JOMA-MAC, CC BY-SA 3.0. At its peak in the fifth century CE, Teotihuacan was a city of 200,000 people, one of the largest cities in the world at the time. Its residents built three pyramids that still loom over the landscape. The Pyramid of the Sun, at 216 feet tall, is the world's third-largest pyramid. Some archaeologists believe that the top of the pyramid once held a temple to the god of fire. On the north side of the city, the Pyramid of the Moon rises 151 feet. It was built in layers over generations and holds burial chambers filled with greenstone and obsidian statues alongside the bones of humans and animals. To the south, the Temple of the Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcóatl) is the smallest, but also the most beautifully decorated of the three. It was a center of Teotihuacan's social life. Though it is named for the carvings of the serpent god, Quetzalcóatl that line its walls, the pyramid is also decorated with reliefs of Tlaloc, the god of rain. The large central plaza of the temple might have been periodically flooded with water as part of an elaborate ritual intended to appease the gods and remind people of their rulers' control of the city's most important resource—water. Three images show temples and structures at Teotihuacan from various viewpoints. (From left to right) The Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and the plaza of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. Left: From the Minneapolis College of Art and Design Library, CC BY 2.0. Middle: By Ricardo David Sanchez, CC BY-SA 3.0. Right: Public domain. Three images show temples and structures at Teotihuacan from various viewpoints. (From left to right) The Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and the plaza of the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. Left: From the Minneapolis College of Art and Design Library, CC BY 2.0. Middle: By Ricardo David Sanchez, CC BY-SA 3.0. Right: Public domain. Teotihuacan sits in the arid Mexican highlands, where the dry season could last eight months. The average rainfall was just above the minimum needed to grow maize. Even slight variations could mean disaster and famine. But like the Maya cities, Teotihuacan survived and thrived by engineering wells and canals to collect water during the rainy seasons and irrigate during the dry season. The people living there redirected the course of the river to match the carefully planned streets of their city. Teotihuacan might have been the largest city in Mesoamerica during the Classic Period, but it was not the only one. Dozens of other cities, including Cholula, Cantona, and Monte Albán, dotted the region. So, with plenty of other places around for people to settle, why did people settle in this particular spot and build a massive city? Origins of Teotihuacan Again, we don't know much about the people who built Teotihuacan, but we can make some educated guesses. Archeologist David Carballo argues that urbanization in Mesoamerica happened in two phases, and that before the Classic period there was a Formative period when market centers and trade networks developed, linking early settlements. In a way, trade might have been what urbanized Mesoamerica. Trade networks linked these small markets together, and they eventually grew into cities. Teotihuacan was the most important center of trade in Mesoamerica. Its streets and huge market were once filled with merchants and goods from distant cities. A sharpened, blackened tool carved from obsidian.An obsidian blade from Teotihuacan. By Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY-SA 3.0. A sharpened, blackened tool carved from obsidian. An obsidian blade from Teotihuacan. By Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY-SA 3.0. Why was Teotihuacan such a dominant economic power? Obsidian. Obsidian is a black volcanic glass used for making tools and weapons. Teotihuacan monopolized access to two nearby sources of obsidian, so they controlled most of the obsidian in the region. Metalworking was rare in Mesoamerica, so obsidian was essential to everyday life and military power. Controlling it allowed Teotihuacan to dominate regional trade. Trade—and the presence of obsidian—is one possible reason that Teotihuacan was settled and grew so large. But there are other possibilities… if you look beneath the pyramids. Recent excavations have revealed several tunnels under the city. One spans 300 feet under the Temple of the Feathered Serpent. Tunnels are an important symbol in Mesoamerican religions. Scholars think they represented the passage to the underworld. The artifacts in the tunnel suggest that it was dug before the construction of the pyramids above. These tunnels indicate that Teotihuacan might have been an important religious site centuries before it became a market center or a city. People might have moved here to worship their gods or complete a religious pilgrimage long before it became a center of trade. Whatever the reason people moved to Teotihuacan, we know from human remains that it was a city of immigrants. People from all over Mesoamerica made their home in the shadow of Teotihuacan's pyramids. We're not sure why it attracted so many different people. Maybe they came to sell goods or practice their religions. The destruction of a nearby city in a volcanic eruption might have sent refugees to Teotihuacan. Many others probably arrived as enslaved prisoners of war. We know that Teotihuacan had a hierarchical society. Large palaces surround the pyramids. The homes of the ruling class were decorated with colorful murals and intricate carvings. Thousands of smaller standardized apartment compounds spread around the city in a grid. The similarity of these buildings and their careful placement suggest that a powerful ruling class directed their construction. Most of these apartments held extended families, which produced the city's trade goods, like obsidian tools, in their homes. A photo of a courtyard that is surrounded by pillars made of carved stoneThe Palace of Quetzalpapalotl, in Teotihuacan, built in the fifth or sixth century CE. It was rediscovered by archeologists in 1962 and restored by the Mexican government in 2011. By Jarek Tuszynski, CC BY 4.0. A photo of a courtyard that is surrounded by pillars made of carved stone The Palace of Quetzalpapalotl, in Teotihuacan, built in the fifth or sixth century CE. It was rediscovered by archeologists in 1962 and restored by the Mexican government in 2011. By Jarek Tuszynski, CC BY 4.0. Teotihuacan benefited from trade, but the city also grew its own food. Even without fancy river valleys full of fertile soil, the people of Teotihuacan engineered the land to increase agricultural output. They farmed maize, squash, tomatoes and other crops in the fields around the city. Their hierarchical society allowed them to manage urban planning, large-scale agriculture, production of trade goods, obsidian mining, and the construction of massive pyramids. Some scholars even believe Teotihuacan was the center of a huge empire, conquering several of the Maya city-states. There is archeological evidence from the Maya city of Tikal that warriors from Teotihuacan participated in an internal conflict in Tikal. We can make good guesses about life in Teotihuacan, but with such limited evidence, our knowledge of the city is in many ways as confused as those Aztecs who gave it its name. A photo of the long road leading to one of Teotihuacan’s largest structures. Along either side of the road are smaller structures. A view of Teotihuacan showing the Avenue of the Dead leading to the Pyramid of the Moon. By Ricardo David Sanchez, CC BY-SA 3.0. A photo of the long road leading to one of Teotihuacan’s largest structures. Along either side of the road are smaller structures. A view of Teotihuacan showing the Avenue of the Dead leading to the Pyramid of the Moon. By Ricardo David Sanchez, CC BY-SA 3.0. Mystery of collapse We do know that Teotihuacan collapsed sometime around 550 CE, after a large fire devastated the city. We still don't know why the city burned, but fire alone usually doesn't mean a society's permanent collapse, so that mystery remains. Some scholars blame foreign invaders. Others argue the city became less important as trade declined. Some reject both theories, pointing to an internal enemy: a rebellion of the people against the ruling class. Others claim that Teotihuacan fell to the same enemy that brought down the Maya: drought. The influence of Teotihuacan on Mesoamerican religion, art, and architecture continued long after the city fell into ruin. Later Aztec architecture and religion resembles what was found in Teotihuacan. Archeological excavations unearth new discoveries every year. Each discovery improves our understanding of this place and the people who lived there. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in History from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a Research Associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Looking at the map of Alexander’s empire, what do you notice?What does the author argue was Alexander’s biggest advantage in his conquests?What is the most important legacy of Alexander’s empire?How did Alexander’s conquest affect the ancient economy of this region?The author argues that the Macedonian Empire was “Alexander’s empire.” What does he mean, and what evidence does he provide? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: You read an article about authority and control in empires. What are some methods of control mentioned in that article that you see reflected in the Macedonian Empire? Did Alexander use any methods of control that weren’t mentioned in the earlier article?You’ve read some definitions and characteristics of an empire. What aspects of the Macedonian Empire seem characteristic of all empires? What seems unique? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Macedonian Empire Extremely detailed mosaic depicts a bloody and violent battle. Men on horseback, carrying spears, race forward, trampling people in their wake. Bennett Sherry Alexander the Great conquered a vast empire that crumbled after his death. Though short-lived, his conquests shaped culture, trade, and politics across Asia and the Mediterranean for centuries. Background Many of us set goals when we're young. We list future accomplishments we will achieve by the age of 18, 20, our mid-30s—a degree, a job, a great place to live. Goals are great, but for your own sanity, please do not compare yourself to Alexander III of Macedon. Extremely detailed mosaic depicts Alexander the Great on horseback in the midst of a battle. He carries a spearA mosaic portraying Alexander the Great. Public domain. Extremely detailed mosaic depicts Alexander the Great on horseback in the midst of a battle. He carries a spear A mosaic portraying Alexander the Great. Public domain. Tutored by Aristotle as a teenager, this guy had ended rebellions and won battles before turning 18. By 20, he was crowned king of Macedon and ruled over the Greek peninsula. At 24, he was proclaimed the pharaoh of Egypt. By the time he died at the ripe old age of 32, Alexander had founded 70 cities and towns, destroyed the mighty Persian Empire, and conquered all the lands between Egypt and India. He never lost a battle. Maybe his name could have been Alexander the Overachiever, but history remembers him as Alexander the Great. Formation For centuries, the Greek city-states had clashed with the Persian Empire to its east. The Persian Empire was a massive superpower of the ancient world. Ruled by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, the empire covered an area from the Nile River in the west to the Indus River in the east. Its wealth and power were as vast as its territory. The Greeks, on the other hand, had always been a divided people, living in separate city-states and constantly competing for power. Alexander the Great inherited a kingdom from his father, Phillip II of Macedon. Phillip conquered the divided city-states and united them under Macedonian rule. By attacking Persia—the old enemy of the Greek city-states—Alexander united the city-states to a common cause: Greeks against Persia. Alexander's empire grew like wildfire and was snuffed out like a candle flame. In 12 years (334–323 BCE), Alexander conquered everything from the Mediterranean to India. It crumbled to pieces soon after his death, making it pretty short-lived, as empires go. Still, the effects of his conquests lasted for centuries. Hellenistic (ancient Greek) culture spread and was incorporated into local traditions in every corner of the lands he had conquered. Several of his generals established their own empires. The Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Persia and Mesopotamia were particularly powerful. A map shows the vast portion of land invaded and conquered by Alexander the GreatA map showing the extent of Alexander’s conquests. By Thomas Lessman, CC BY-SA 3.0. A map shows the vast portion of land invaded and conquered by Alexander the Great A map showing the extent of Alexander’s conquests. By Thomas Lessman, CC BY-SA 3.0. Administration Historians generally name empires after a group of people, a place or a dynasty. Empires are usually big, multi-generational projects built by many hands. It's rare that empires are named after an individual. Historians sometimes call this the "Macedonian Empire," but don't be surprised if you hear it called by another name. From the moment he began his conquests to the fallout of his death, this was "Alexander's Empire." The empire of Alexander the Great was held together by the personality, legend, and military victories of one man. This was not a good thing. Alexander's power and the authority of his government depended on his continued success. Whenever that faltered, the foundations of the empire crumbled. His enemy, the Persians, ruled a huge and unified empire with vast networks of roads linking its cities and far-flung provinces. Ironically, it was the unity of his opponents that became Alexander's greatest administrative advantage in conquering them. Alexander's armies used the Persians' roads to resupply and communicate with their own forces. In his push for the integration of Greek and Persian culture and populations, he encouraged his soldiers to marry Persian women. He himself married three women connected with the fallen Persian dynasty. While his reputation as a conqueror might make us imagine he destroyed one empire to make room for his own, he was actually careful to keep the structures of Persian government in place. Generally, the new masters from Macedonia changed little about the organization of Persia's government. Greeks made up a minority in the lands they conquered, and Alexander kept Persian elites in positions of power to help smooth the transition. A panoramic photograph of what remains of Persepolis. Some structures remain, mostly broken or partially burned.The ruins of Persepolis, the seat of the Persian emperors. Alexander’s army captured and burned the city. By Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0. A panoramic photograph of what remains of Persepolis. Some structures remain, mostly broken or partially burned. The ruins of Persepolis, the seat of the Persian emperors. Alexander’s army captured and burned the city. By Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0. Religion and culture While Alexander kept the Persian infrastructure, he did seek to spread Greek culture across the world. But the Macedonian ruler and his officials were also remarkably tolerant of local religions and customs. Alexander supported Persian and Egyptian priests and sponsored the building of temples. But he also built new cities with Hellenistic architecture and sought to spread Greek ideas through new educational institutions. Greek became the common language of elite culture and diplomacy in Western Asia. Greeks also integrated the culture and traditions of those they conquered. Some, in the eastern part of the empire, converted to Buddhism. Over in India, Greeks became a part of the caste system. Though Alexander's empire did not outlast him, the effects of Hellenistic religion and culture on local traditions endured for centuries. A stone carving of three men and three women, standing in a line, with pillars at either side. Both the men and women are wearing draped clothing. All but two of the people’s faces have fallen off or broken due to age.An example of Greco-Buddhist art from the first to second century CE, almost 500 years after Alexander’s death. This frieze in Hellenistic style is from the Gandhara kingdom in what is today Pakistan. By World Imaging, public domain. A stone carving of three men and three women, standing in a line, with pillars at either side. Both the men and women are wearing draped clothing. All but two of the people’s faces have fallen off or broken due to age. An example of Greco-Buddhist art from the first to second century CE, almost 500 years after Alexander’s death. This frieze in Hellenistic style is from the Gandhara kingdom in what is today Pakistan. By World Imaging, public domain. Trade The cities that Alexander founded became important intersections of new and old trade networks connecting Asia to the Mediterranean. Alexander's architect, Dinocrates, was responsible for planning the city of Alexandria in Egypt. This city became an important trade center connecting networks that extended from the Mediterranean through the Middle East and into India. Exports from Egypt to other areas of the empire included grains, cotton, perfumes, and fruits and vegetables. From the eastern section of the empire goods such as metals, spices, and animals were traded with the lands that extended to the west. A coin features a detailed profile of Alexander the great.A coin featuring Alexander the Great. Minted after his death, the coin portrays him as a god with ram horns. The memory of Alexander remained a powerful political tool for generations after his death. By Mike Peel, CC BY-SA 4.0. A coin features a detailed profile of Alexander the great. A coin featuring Alexander the Great. Minted after his death, the coin portrays him as a god with ram horns. The memory of Alexander remained a powerful political tool for generations after his death. By Mike Peel, CC BY-SA 4.0. Alexander's conquest of Persia opened the floodgates for the expansion of trade. For centuries, Persia had hoarded gold from its conquered lands. Alexander, however, turned the gold and silver into coinage and spent it lavishly. This spending pumped huge amounts of money into the economy, making some elites very rich and stimulating trade. Some historians and economists have argued that the world did not see another injection of so much new wealth into the economy until nearly 2,000 years later when the Spanish began plundering the Americas. Historian Frank Lee Holt notes that Alexander's lavish spending of Persian gold "served as the mainspring [driving force] of ancient economic progress." Holt says that Alexander's military "dominated the Near East for years, but his money dominated Eurasia for centuries." But it wasn't just men who benefited from the new wealth generated in the Macedonian Empire. Some women became powerful in their own right. Women in society Women in the Hellenistic world experienced an increase in their power and influence, especially when compared with women's opportunities in Classical city-states such as Athens. However, the valued roles for women were generally still limited to marriage, motherhood, and virtue. Public records show that some Hellenistic women were gaining economic power and acquiring a great deal of wealth. This allowed privileged women to participate in local politics as magistrates (government officials) since their wealth meant that they would contribute to financing public works. Due to the cosmopolitan (multicultural/ multiethnic) nature of the Hellenistic world, non-Greek women seemed to have more freedoms than those who came from more restricted city-states. Women were active in contracts and business negotiations, but not equally. For example, if you were a Greek woman you needed a guardian present when doing official business, while other women, such as Egyptians, did not. In addition, educational opportunities expanded for women during this era, with many contracts and public records being signed by women. The most educated, however, remained those of the upper classes as well as courtesans (female companions/prostitutes). Decline and fall The successes of Alexander's rapid conquests would also be his downfall. With the Persian Empire conquered and humbled, many of his soldiers started to question why they needed to keep fighting. Alexander loved adopting local customs, but the soldiers were less enthusiastic. His foreign wives, Persian fashion choices, and willingness to keep Persian elites in power made his soldiers suspicious that he was forgetting his Macedonian roots. They followed him to India, where Alexander continued to display military brilliance. However, they did not share Alexander's lust for conquest. In India, they refused to travel any farther and forced him to turn around. Without new conquests to keep him busy, Alexander reluctantly turned his attention to making his diverse and widespread empire stronger and more stable. But further improvements were cut short in 323 BCE when he died of a sudden illness. The effects of Alexander's death were immediate. His generals and governors began fighting over the empire, and with no clear heir in place, it split into rival factions. The successor kingdoms ruled by Alexander's generals ensured that Alexander's influence outlasted his life. They continued to spread Greek culture and religion across Asia. And even after those empires fell, the Roman Empire continued the spread of ideas, religion, and culture that had distinctly Greek roots. Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a research associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What is the author’s definition of a village? What is the author’s definition of a city? Do you agree that this is a good definition of a city?What is the author’s definition of a state? Do you agree that this is a useful definition of a state?Where and when did agrarian societies emerge first? Where did they emerge independently?According to the author, what processes led people to form states?Where, according to the author, were there regions without “early societies”? What do you think of this argument?What, according to the author, were some common characteristics of agrarian societies? What is the author’s definition of a village? What is the author’s definition of a city? Do you agree that this is a good definition of a city? What is the author’s definition of a state? Do you agree that this is a useful definition of a state? Where and when did agrarian societies emerge first? Where did they emerge independently? According to the author, what processes led people to form states? Where, according to the author, were there regions without “early societies”? What do you think of this argument? What, according to the author, were some common characteristics of agrarian societies? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: The author points out that large states are often called “societies” or “civilizations”, but this course doesn’t use the term “civilizations” very often. Why do you think that might be, and what do you think of that decision?Think back to the video Farming and the State. How might the two experts in that video have agreed or disagreed with the author of this piece in terms of the relationship between agrarian society and the rise of states? The author points out that large states are often called “societies” or “civilizations”, but this course doesn’t use the term “civilizations” very often. Why do you think that might be, and what do you think of that decision? Think back to the video Farming and the State. How might the two experts in that video have agreed or disagreed with the author of this piece in terms of the relationship between agrarian society and the rise of states? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Introduction to Agrarian Societies Paneled artwork depicting a journey. There are domesticated animals and people carrying large packs. By Cynthia Stokes Brown About 5000 years ago, cities, states, and societies began forming around the world. Though they knew little or nothing of humans outside their own regions, these developments happened during the same narrow sliver of cosmic time. Definitions The first agrarian societies began to develop about 3300 BCE. These early farming societies started in four areas: 1) Mesopotamia, 2) Egypt and Nubia, 3) the Indus Valley, and 4) the Andes Mountains of South America. More appeared in China around 2000 BCE and in modern-day Mexico and Central America c. 1500 BCE. Why did societies form in these places? First agrarian societies around the world. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. First, let's clarify the definitions of the words city, state, and society. A "city" contains tens of thousands of people. It's larger than a town, which contains usually fewer than ten thousand people. A village usually has fewer than a thousand people. In towns and villages, farming was the most common occupation. People in cities had a wider variety of occupations, but farmers lived there as well. A "state" is a city, or several cities, plus the surrounding villages and farms. A state could include hundreds of thousands of people, even millions. The people living in a state had different status depending on their social rank, wealth, and power. Also, some individuals commanded great respect as religious figures when it was believed they could communicate with the gods or spirit world. A few people called "elites" were on top. Elites typically made up no more than 10 percent of the population, yet had more wealth and power than the bottom 90 percent. Most states were ruled by these elites, who kept order and collected taxes or tribute1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript through the use of force, if necessary. And it doesn't end with states, because from states arose empires. Usually a single ruler, who controlled large territories of cities and farmland, maintained control over the empire. These large states are often called "societies" or "civilizations."2^22squared Since these early societies always depended on the farming around them, we call them "agrarian societies." Most of these societies share certain characteristics. They have dense populations and are controlled by elites. Other kinds of societies were less complex, but it is important to note that complex does not mean better, just different. Places of early societies Four of the earliest agrarian societies developed in fertile river valleys. Since people had already tamed plants and animals in those areas, societies had a head start. The first of these formed in Mesopotamia, now called Iraq. What made this area so fertile was the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Easy access to water helped people grow more crops in these valleys, in particular wheat and barley. Mesopotamians also grew lentils and chickpeas and herded sheep and goats. The next three places in Afro-Eurasia where agrarian societies emerged were in the Nile River Valley in Egypt and Nubia, the Indus River Valley in modern-day Pakistan and India, and the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley in China. Each river valley had its own types of plants and animals that people had cultivated from the wild nearby. The Egyptians and Nubians had wheat, barley, cattle, fish, and birds. The Indus Valley people raised cattle and cotton, as well as wheat, barley, lentils, sheep, goats, and chickens. In China, wheat was grown in the north. Rice was cultivated later in the south. Pigs, chickens, and soybeans also formed the main crops in China. Meanwhile in the Americas, large societies began to emerge as well. The first was at Norte-Chico in modern-day Peru about 3200 BCE, then later among the Olmec founded in modern-day Mexico about 1500 BCE. Of course food production was still key, but the menu was pretty different. People in Central America learned to grow maize (corn), peppers, tomatoes, squash, beans, peanuts, and cotton. Their only domestic animals were dogs and turkeys. Along the Andes Mountains in South America, people used llamas and alpacas for wool and transport, and they domesticated cotton for use in clothing and tapestries. For food they depended mostly on potatoes and quinoa, a grain rich in protein. They had guinea pigs, and fish brought up from the coast. Why and how did states emerge? After people learned to grow plants and tame animals, they gradually learned to utilize animals for a variety of things other than food. At first, they used animals just for milk, wool, manure, and muscle power. The world's population was able to grow dramatically as humans farmed more. In 8000 BCE, it stood at approximately 5 million. By 3000 BCE, it was about 14 million. Photograph shows the remains of a staircase and a structure carved into rockRemains of pyramid at Caral, Norte Chico, Peru, 2004. By Xauxa, CC BY 2.5. Photograph shows the remains of a staircase and a structure carved into rock Remains of pyramid at Caral, Norte Chico, Peru, 2004. By Xauxa, CC BY 2.5. At the same time, the climate was changing dramatically. The Earth had been gradually warming since the height of the last ice age, which was about 20,000 BCE. By about 8000 BCE it had reached a stable level of warmth. After this point, the climate in the northern hemisphere generally became drier, possibly due to slight changes in the Earth's orbit. This dryness drove people from mountain areas down into river valleys to find water and resources. During floods, rich soil was deposited into the valleys. It made the land fertile and good for farming. As more food became available and people lived closer together, the social structure changed. A handful of people became more powerful than the rest. In most societies, these groups of elite members, who usually had accumulated more wealth and possessions, became a ruling class. Why did the majority of people allow this to happen? We can only guess that leaders were needed to manage projects like building big watering systems (irrigation) or erecting large structures like temples or dividing up extra (surplus) food. They also needed armed protection against groups nearby. At the same time, priests and rulers could take opportunities to control the extra food supply. Controlling food meant power, and gradually their power grew. They formed political or religious groups that ruled over the land and its people. It would be a mistake to assume that all early societies were organized in the same way. Certainly, many were ruled and organized by the elites with the most power and wealth. However, there were other social organizations that did not measure a person's power by wealth or military strength but rather on different aspects such as family status or belief in a person's spiritual powers. There were also states that had elders or those with some authority, but that power was limited and seen as advisory rather than authoritarian. Helpful, but not a "boss". Even though states with these types of limited power were in the minority, it is important to know that not all societies worked the same way. There were shared characteristics among societies, but each had different ways of organizing and dividing their communities. In other words, there is not one generic formula for analyzing the ways in which societies formed or were structured. Areas without early societies Some areas of the world did not produce full-blown cities or states early on. Even so, the trend toward agriculture seems to have been present everywhere. In sub-Saharan Africa, people were separated from the northern coast by the harsh desert. Rain forests covered much of the land. The Bantu people, in the eastern part of modern Nigeria, cultivated yams, oil palm trees, millet, and sorghum and herded cattle. Eventually camels replaced horses and donkeys for travel across the Sahara. Arab merchants could now make their way across the desert to the west coast. Small regional states and kingdoms emerged. But in this more challenging region it took some time before a major agrarian society would form. Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian societies. But their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world. In Australia, agriculture never really materialized. This was mainly due to poor soil and the isolation of the island. But also there was less need for large-scale farming because the techniques used, such as controlled burns and continued foraging, provided ample resources to feed the people who lived there. And let's not leave out South America. Archaeologists have long thought that the basin of the Amazon River didn't contain the resources to support dense human societies. But recent evidence suggests that people there found ways to fertilize the soil by adding charcoal. Comparing early agrarian societies The earliest agrarian states always had at least two things in common: a high-ranking group in control, and the forceful collection of taxes or tribute. It seems centralized state control was needed to bring together and support large populations of people. Yet, these societies developed many similar traits beyond those. Common characteristics included the following: Storage of surplus foodDevelopment of a priestly class; a state religion based on gods/goddessesCentral rule (such as a king, pharaoh, or emperor)Specialized jobsSocial rank based on wealth, ancestry, and jobIncreased tradeSystems of writing or recording information; increased collective learningArmies and increased warfareMonumental public architecture (temples, pyramids)More inequality between men and women; male-dominated traditions Painting of a person using a domesticated animal to farm and work on the land. The animal is pulling a machine and the person is following behind the machine.Egyptian farming, c. 1200 BCE. By The Yorck Project, Public Domain. Painting of a person using a domesticated animal to farm and work on the land. The animal is pulling a machine and the person is following behind the machine. Egyptian farming, c. 1200 BCE. By The Yorck Project, Public Domain. Despite all these similarities, the differences between these early societies was just as important. For example, societies in northern Africa and Eurasia were connected with each other soon after they began. Together they formed an Afro-Eurasian zone where people traded goods and exchanged ideas and technology. A complex network of roads and sea routes used for the production and distribution of goods as well as for the transmission of ideas and diseases ran across this region. In the Americas it was a different story. True, artifacts found in numerous locations show evidence of some connection among early societies in the Americas. But they were not as well-connected as those in Afro-Eurasia. This was mainly because they had fewer kinds of transport animals. In addition, the terrain separating the north from south was more difficult to get through and included high mountain ranges and dense rainforests. Early states shared many traits that made them successful. But with a closer look we can see fascinating details that made them different. The vast majority of early societies developed writing—except the Inca in the Andes. They instead used a system of tying knots in different colored string, called quipu, to record their trade and possibly even their stories. Most early societies engaged in warfare—except, perhaps, in the Indus Valley (Harappa) and in some areas of South America (Norte Chico and Chavín). Though some arrowheads and spears have been found in Harappa, archeologists have not turned up any swords, helmets, or shields that a warring society would have used. We have found no evidence that the Chavín had a military or rulers, apart from signs of a priestly class that conducted rituals. Of the societies that used writing, all started by using pictographs, but most switched to some form of alphabet, which the exceptions of the Chinese and Central and South American cultures that existed before the arrival of Europeans. To this day the Chinese still use pictographs in their writing. Many societies sacrificed animals and sometimes humans to the gods, but some societies in Central and South America used human bloodletting and sacrifice on a much larger scale than others. While early societies shared many common features, the differences form a rich and varied collage of human culture. [Notes] Author bio Cynthia Stokes Brown was a professor emerita of education and history at Dominican University of California. She pioneered the teaching of big history at Dominican and is the author of Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?What does evidence from the Americas tell you about how production and distribution worked in these societies?What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in these societies formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Ancient Agrarian Societies: The Olmec and Chavín Detailed stone carving of a person sitting cross-legged in a dome By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor They didn’t leave us much, but two ancient societies in the Americas left enough clues behind to piece together the rituals and systems they may have developed several millennia ago. Introduction Early humans migrated to the Americas at least 15,000 years ago, but possibly much earlier. They established foraging communities throughout North, Central, and South America. As in other parts of the world, these foragers eventually began to cultivate (farm) crops, usually along river valleys. The earliest community that practiced a mixture of farming as well as foraging methods like hunting and fishing was known as the Olmec, in modern-day Mexico. One of the earliest settlements in South America was the community at Chavín de Huántar in modern- day Peru. These cultures had a lot in common with other Mesoamerican and Andean people who inhabited these regions from Paleolithic times until the arrival of the Spanish in the fifteenth century. The Olmec (c. 1600-350 BCE) Foraging communities lived in this portion of Mesoamerica from at least 2500 BCE. Around 1600 BCE, the Olmec people founded settlements along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico in modern-day Veracruz, Mexico. These settlements included structures used for religious rituals and more permanent dwelling sites. The largest Olmec city was San Lorenzo, initially occupied by the ruling elites and religious leaders of Olmec society. Other major cities of the Olmec included Tres Zapotes, Laguna de los Cerros, and La Venta. These were located along the Papaloapan and Tonalá rivers that also extend from the Gulf of Mexico. Those areas are known today as Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico. Archaeologists believe that central rulers, such as kings or chiefs, governed these cities using political and economic power as well as religious authority. Map shows major Olmec settlement sites along the Gulf of MexicoOlmec, major settlement sites (yellow) and secondary sites (red). By Madman2001, CC BY 3.0. Map shows major Olmec settlement sites along the Gulf of Mexico Olmec, major settlement sites (yellow) and secondary sites (red). By Madman2001, CC BY 3.0. The Olmec did not leave any written records, but archaeological evidence provides a wealth of information about this early Mesoamerican society. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec are the massive sculpted heads that were carved from volcanic rock, called basalt, and weighed about 20 tons each. These statues were carved out of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas Mountains to the north of the Olmec cities. They were then transported about 60-70 km (37-43 miles) to various sites. Each depicts a male head and face with pretty distinctive features, suggesting that these statues represented individual Olmec kings rather than gods. Depictions of gods tended to be more magical creations that blended animal and human imagery. Temple structures in the major Olmec cities also contained freestanding and relief sculptures, pottery, masks, and ritual tools. Much of this art was created using clay and stone but there are also many pieces made from the green gemstone called jade and the volcanic glassy rock known as obsidian. While the basalt and stone were sourced locally, the jade was imported from areas to the south of the Olmec settlements, and they obtained obsidian from the north. The frequent use of these materials in Olmec art suggests that this society developed extensive trade networks with other cultures in this region. Later societies like the Maya and Aztecs also share enough similarities with Olmec art and culture to suggest that they adopted certain cultural aspects of this earlier community. Very large, detailed Olmec sculpture of a head. Olmec head, San Lorenzo, c. 1200-900 BCE. By Mesamerican, CC BY-SA 4.0. Very large, detailed Olmec sculpture of a head. Olmec head, San Lorenzo, c. 1200-900 BCE. By Mesamerican, CC BY-SA 4.0. The main cities were reserved for the kings and elite members of Olmec society, and were usually places for rituals. Most people lived in more rural areas, where they worked as farmers and craftspeople. The Olmec cultivated a variety of crops including maize, cotton, squash, beans, sweet potatoes, manioc, and rubber. The Olmec society was one of the first to discover how to extract the sap and juice of the rubber tree to create a useful substance that could be stretched and bounced. Archaeologists also found the ruins of a ball court, which the Olmec used to play an ancient Mesoamerican game using a rubber ball. In fact, it was the Aztecs who would give the Olmecs their name, which translates to "rubber people." The Olmec ballgame may have been played for sport as well as part of a ritual where the losing team was subject to sacrifice—as in, killed. There is also evidence of ritual bloodletting1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript practices as archaeologists have found daggers and other bloodletting tools. These rituals of human sacrifice and bloodletting were probably performed to appease the Olmec gods, who were a combination of human and animal forms, both male and female. They could have also been used as a way to control the people through a mixture of spiritual beliefs and fear. At its height, Olmec society may have grown as large as 20,000 inhabitants. But without any written documents to support these numbers, archaeologists have to make assumptions based on the land area and artifacts. Over the course of Olmec history, it appears that certain cities gained prominence at different times and then declined. This may indicate that the ritual centers had to be moved for some reason. Archaeologists and environmental historians have theorized that climate change as well as volcanic eruptions could have ruined the farmland in certain parts. These are the main reasons that historians use to explain why the Olmec society eventually ended around 350 BCE. Chavín (c. 900-250 BCE) South of the Olmecs by about 5,500 km (3,500 miles)—we never said the Americas were small—a society known as the Chavín developed. They inhabited the area where the Mosna and Huachecsa rivers meet along the Peruvian Pacific coast and in the Andes Mountains region. Like the Olmec up north, Chavín culture did not leave any written records. Actually, we don't even know what they were really called. Chavín comes from the Spanish name for the temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar. Map shows location of Chavín and its area of influence in relation to Peru and BrazilLocation of Chavín and its area of influence. By Zenyu, public domain. Map shows location of Chavín and its area of influence in relation to Peru and Brazil Location of Chavín and its area of influence. By Zenyu, public domain. Archaeologists have determined that the temple was used for ritual purposes and may have been shared by different settlements in the region. The temple has staircases, archways, and numerous underground corridors like a maze. It is thought that processions of people would enter the temple and witness a shaman (priest) conduct ceremonies on various platforms in the complex. However, archaeologists haven't found any evidence of people residing at this location. There are no hearths, trash, dwellings, or any other of the typical archeological finds that can prove people lived there. Renovations occurred at the temple after 500 BCE, possibly to accommodate a larger population taking part in religious ceremonies. A photograph of an interior hallway featuring large stone walls and ceilingChavín de Huántar, interior hallway of the temple. By Martin St-Amant, CC BY 3.0. A photograph of an interior hallway featuring large stone walls and ceiling Chavín de Huántar, interior hallway of the temple. By Martin St-Amant, CC BY 3.0. The dwellings and agricultural sites they did find at Chavín were located outside of the temple complex. These sites were spaced out, so in the lowlands near the river, crops such as quinoa were grown, while up in the mountains they grew potatoes. There was also an increase in the production of pottery after 500 BCE, indicating an increase in food production. People needed more jars to carry and store extra food. There is also evidence that the Chavín society domesticated llamas. They used these animals for transporting goods throughout the Chavín region and beyond, as more products originating from regions outside Chavín have been found (some of these goods were located hundreds of miles from the center of Chavín society). This also leads scholars to believe that the Chavín were a part of a larger, interregional trade network. Other nearby societies also incorporated Chavín artistic style in their own pottery and sculptures, which shows interconnection and communication between communities. Chavín society was organized hierarchically, and shaman-priests had the most authority. They also appear to have performed bloodletting rituals on stone slabs at the temple. It is thought that shamans induced a trance-like state by ingesting mushrooms, coca leaves, and cactus juice. As in Olmec society, the residents of Chavín may have been controlled through the use of religion and fear. This indicates that the Chavín may have had a central authority such as a religious leader, but we don't really know how their society was organized politically. There don't appear to be any defensive structures to protect the area or weapons of war. The imagery used in the temple site combined a mix of real and mythical animals including jaguars, snakes, eagles, and a winged crocodile. The Chavín people were also skilled at metal work. They soldered2^22squared gold to create crowns, masks, and jewelry. In addition, they wove cotton textiles to create wall hangings as well as clothing. Photo of a llama sitting on the grassThe Chavín used llamas to transport goods over long distances, though this one does not appear to be in a hurry. By Johann "nojhan" Dréo, CC BY-SA 2.5. Photo of a llama sitting on the grass The Chavín used llamas to transport goods over long distances, though this one does not appear to be in a hurry. By Johann "nojhan" Dréo, CC BY-SA 2.5. At its height, the center of Chavín society encompassed an area of about 1,000 acres, which could support a population of about 2,000-3,000 people. Scholars are not sure why the Chavín society's population declined or relocated. Some possible explanations include environmental changes such as overuse of the surrounding land, or the site that was used for religious purposes declined somehow. [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What is the Torah?What was the Covenant the Hebrews believed they had with Yahweh?How did life for the Hebrews change as they shifted from pastoral to settled farming?How did the Hebrews rule themselves following the defeat of the Philistines?How did the Hebrews maintain cohesion after their exile from Canaan? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Judaism created both a large community and an extensive network of believers. What do you think was new or different about Judaism as a community? What about as a network? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Judaism Painted depiction of many people pressing their faces against a very large stone wall. By Merry Wiesner-Hanks Judaism is a monotheistic faith that developed among the Hebrew people and was first written down in the first millennium BCE. Never a large community, its ideas were highly influential for later belief systems and were spread over a large geographic region by a series of diasporae. Introduction In the first millennium BCE., traditions and ideas that had earlier been handed down orally were often written down for the first time in many places around the world. Among these written traditions are those created by the Hebrews, a group of people who briefly established two small kingdoms in the area between the Mediterranean and the Jordan River known as Canaan. Politically unimportant when compared with larger empires in the area such as the Egyptians or the Babylonians, the Hebrews created a new form of religious belief. This was a monotheism based on the worship of an all-powerful god they called "YHWH", generally spelled "Yahweh" in English. Beginning in the late 600s BCE., the Hebrews began to write down their traditions, laws, history, and ethics, which were edited and brought together in five books known as the Torah. More history and traditions, and other types of works—advice literature, prayers, hymns, and prophecies—were added, to form the Hebrew Bible. Christians later adopted this and termed it the "Old Testament" to parallel specific Christian writings they called the "New Testament." These writings became the core of the Hebrews' religion, Judaism. The word, Judaism, comes from the Kingdom of Judah, the southern of the two Hebrew kingdoms and the one that was the primary force in developing religious traditions. A painting of a man holding his arm out, holding a wide-eyed expressionIn this fresco from the Dura-Europas synagogue built in the third century C.E. along the Euphrates River in what is now Iraq, Moses hears the voice of God calling him from a burning bush. This event is related in the Book of Exodus from the Bible, Chapter 3. Public domain. A painting of a man holding his arm out, holding a wide-eyed expression In this fresco from the Dura-Europas synagogue built in the third century C.E. along the Euphrates River in what is now Iraq, Moses hears the voice of God calling him from a burning bush. This event is related in the Book of Exodus from the Bible, Chapter 3. Public domain. Most of the information about the early Hebrews comes from the Bible, some of which has been supported by archaeological evidence and other written documents. Extensive research into everything the Bible discusses has continued for centuries, with enormous controversies among scholars and believers about how to interpret these findings. Religious ideas Fundamental to an understanding of the Jewish religion is the concept of the Covenant, an agreement that people believed to exist between themselves and God. According to the Hebrew Bible, God appeared to the tribal leader Abraham, promising him that he would be blessed, as would his descendants, if they followed God. (Because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all regard this event as part of their origins, they are referred to as the "Abrahamic religions.") The Bible recounts that Yahweh next appeared to a charismatic leader named Moses when the Hebrews had been enslaved by the Egyptians. Moses led the Hebrews out of enslavement, and God made a covenant with the Hebrews: if they worshipped God as their only god, he would consider them his chosen people and protect them from their enemies. Early leaders such as Abraham and Moses and later individuals such as Jeremiah, Ezekial, and Isaiah who mediated between God and the Hebrew people were known as "prophets." Much of the Hebrew Bible consists of writings in their voices, understood as messages from God to which the Hebrews were to listen. According to the Biblical text, God also gave the Hebrews a series of rules of behavior, the Ten Commandments. These related to worship and ethics, requiring certain kinds of religious observances and actions and forbidding others, including stealing, lying, killing, swearing, and wanting things that belonged to others. From the Ten Commandments a complex system of rules of conduct was created and later written down as Hebrew law. This included rules about eating and food preparation, holy days, menstruation, sexual actions, marriage, and many other aspects of life. It is not clear how these rules were followed during the biblical period. As with any law code, it is much easier to learn about what people were supposed to do according to Hebrew law than what they actually did. Jews engaged in rituals through which they showed their devotion, including prayer, communal worship, study of sacred texts, and household rituals. They also were to please God by living up to high moral standards, and by treating others fairly and justly. Goodness was understood to come from God, a single transcendent god who became the sole focus of worship. Religious leaders were important in Judaism, but personally following the instructions of God as recorded in sacred texts was the central task for observant Jews in the ancient world. Society and family life The Hebrews were originally nomadic pastoralists following their herds of sheep and goats. They were organized into tribes, each tribe consisting of numerous families who thought of themselves as related to one another. They adopted settled agriculture in Canaan, and some lived in cities. Over time, communal use of land gave way to family or private ownership, and devotions to the traditions of Judaism replaced tribal identity. The development of urban life among Jews created new and more specialized economic opportunities, especially in crafts and trade. People specialized in certain occupations and, as in most ancient societies, these crafts were family trades. Women worked in the fields alongside their husbands in rural areas, and in shops in the cities. Family relationships also reflected evolving circumstances. Marriage and the family were fundamentally important in Jewish life. Celibacy was frowned upon, and almost all major Jewish thinkers and priests—who all were male—were married. As in other ancient cultures, marriage was a family matter, too important to be left solely to the whims of young people. The bearing of children was seen in some ways as a religious function. Sons were especially desired because they maintained the family bloodline while keeping ancestral property in the family. A firstborn son became the head of the household upon his father's death. Mothers oversaw the early education of the children, but as boys grew older, their fathers provided more of their education. Later as formal schooling developed among Jews, boys might also study religious texts in schools or synagogues, places for study and prayer. A grey, white, and red mosaic shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot.This mosaic, from a Jewish synagogue built in the sixth century C.E. in what is now Tunisia, shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. Ancient Jewish places of worship have been discovered in many Afro-Eurasian cities. Public domain. A grey, white, and red mosaic shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. This mosaic, from a Jewish synagogue built in the sixth century C.E. in what is now Tunisia, shows a menorah, a candelabrum used for worship, along with two of the plants used to observe the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. Ancient Jewish places of worship have been discovered in many Afro-Eurasian cities. Public domain. Political developments and the spread of Judaism When the Hebrews settled in Canaan, they faced spiritual, military, and political challenges. Not surprisingly, at times they worshipped the agricultural gods of their neighbors, despite warnings from the prophets that they were not to do this. In this they followed the common historical pattern of newcomers by adapting the culture of an older, well-established people. The Bible reports that the greatest military danger to the Hebrews came from a group known as the Philistines, who had established a kingdom in Canaan. The Hebrews found a leader in Saul, who with his men fought the Philistines. Saul subsequently established a monarchy over the Hebrew tribes. Saul's work was carried on by David of Bethlehem, who captured the city of Jerusalem, which he made the religious and political center of the realm. In the tenth century BCE., David's son Solomon launched a building program that the biblical narrative describes as including cities, palaces, fortresses, and roads. The most symbolic of these projects was the Temple of Jerusalem, intended to be the religious heart of the kingdom, a symbol of Hebrew unity and of God's approval of the Hebrew state. This state did not last long. At Solomon's death his kingdom broke into political halves. The northern part became Israel, and the southern half was Judah, with Jerusalem as its center. War broke out between the northern and southern halves, which weakened both. Stronger neighboring kingdoms conquered both, sometimes exiling the Hebrews, and the area became part of the larger empires that ruled this area, including the Persian, Greek, and Roman empires. Jews did not again have their own state until the foundation of Israel in the twentieth century. Political and military developments led Jews to scatter widely in a diaspora, first throughout the Mediterranean and then beyond. Jews maintained their cohesion as a group through intermarriage, shared rituals, and devotion to a sacred text. They only rarely actively sought converts. Judaism thus became widespread geographically, but never very large in terms of numbers of adherents when compared with other world religions. Today the Jewish population of the world is estimated at about 15 million. Primary source: The Book of Psalms Hebrews believed that God punished people, but also believed he was a loving and forgiving god who would protect and reward all those who obeyed his commandments. A hymn recorded in the book of Psalms of the Hebrew Bible captures this idea: Blessed is every one who fears the Lord, who walks in his ways! You shall eat the fruit of the labor of your hands; you shall be happy, and it shall be well with you. Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table. Lo, thus shall the man be blessed who fears the Lord. The Lord bless you from Zion! May you see the prosperity of Jerusalem all the days of your life! May you see your children’s children! Peace be upon Israel! (Psalms 128:1–6) Author bio Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks is Distinguished Professor of History emerita at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and currently the president of the World History Association. She is the author or editor of thirty books that have appeared in English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Turkish, and Korean. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What, according to the article, is the core belief of Buddhism, and how was this a challenge to Vedic beliefs?What are the Four Noble Truths?Who could follow the Eightfold Path easily, and why? How did Mahayana Buddhism change this?How did Buddhism change when it entered China? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: Buddhism adapted to local ideas in China and other parts of the world. Yet we generally argue that it remained Buddhism in all of these different places. Why do you think we consider it a single belief system, even if it is adapting and changing to local conditions? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Buddhism A detailed, paneled line drawing shows many people surrounding a person seated on an elaborate throne. Before the crowd, a person is seated, looking up at the ruler, their hands in prayer position. By Eman M. Elshaikh Buddhism began with a young prince’s spiritual epiphany, then traveled with missionaries, merchants, and political power across Asia. As it moved, it changed along with the communities that adopted it. What would you do? Imagine you're a young Indian prince living in the sixth-century BCE. You have every material thing you could want in life. Soon, you will inherit your family's wealth and become a powerful warrior prince. But one day, you pop your head out of the palace and see that the world can be a pretty rough place for people who aren't rich princes. What do you do? Well, if you're Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE), you renounce your titles and worldly possessions and begin wandering the countryside, begging for food and living the life of an ascetic—a person who lives a disciplined life by refusing to indulge in luxuries like ice cream, alcohol, and comfortable mattresses. As he adopted this lifestyle, Siddhartha began preaching a new belief system, and people started calling him "the Buddha." His teachings became the foundation of Buddhism. A statue shows the Buddha seated in a cross-legged position with their eyes closed. The Buddha is seated on a throne or chair that is covered in ornate symbols.A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, 4th century CE. By Tevaprapas Makklay, CC BY-SA 3.0. A statue shows the Buddha seated in a cross-legged position with their eyes closed. The Buddha is seated on a throne or chair that is covered in ornate symbols. A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, 4th century CE. By Tevaprapas Makklay, CC BY-SA 3.0. But this isn't the story of one guy. The story of Buddhism is as much about the spread of Buddhism as its origins and teachings. The Buddha's simple teachings quickly spread from India across Asia and beyond. As it traveled along trade networks, Buddhism touched the lives of millions of people. But Buddhism itself changed as it moved. In some places, like China, powerful leaders and movements adopted Buddhism, transforming it into one of the world's major belief systems. Origins In the sixth century BCE, India was changing. After centuries of conquest, the Aryan people1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript had established new kingdoms, cities were growing again, and trade flourished in India's ports and along its roads. But this was also a time of religious change across the ancient world2^22squared. The Aryan conquests of India introduced a new belief system called Brahmanism. Brahmanism was based on the Vedic texts and was dominated by a priestly class of brahmins. Brahmanism brought the caste system to India, which divided all people into a strict social hierarchy. Both Hinduism and Buddhism emerged from this earlier belief system. But while Hinduism formalized elements of Brahmanism, such as the caste system and the divinity of the Vedas, Buddhism rejected many elements of the old religion. Buddhist beliefs challenged the social structure that gave priests special access to spiritual life. Instead, Buddhism suggested that anyone could gain salvation and wisdom by letting go of desire. In this way, Buddhist teachings rejected the caste system and challenged the existing social order. Calcus of enlightenment This article began by asking what you would have done in Siddhartha's place. You probably had a different answer than he did. Maybe you enjoy ice cream and mattresses. And that's okay. Not every convert to Buddhism was forced to adopt an extreme ascetic lifestyle. Buddhism offered believers a "middle path," which was guided by the principles the Buddha had gained back when he was the young prince Siddhartha. According to Buddhist sources, Siddhartha had been meditating under a tree near the Ganges River when he had a spiritual epiphany (breakthrough). This epiphany revealed to him truths about the universe. He called these the "Four Noble Truths": life is sufferingsuffering comes from desireone must limit desire to limit sufferingto limit suffering, one must follow the "Eightfold Path". Four truths? Eight paths? This is starting to sound like math. Don't worry. Math is suffering. This is not math. Here's a primary source to prove it. The Pali Canon, an early text of Buddha's teachings, describes the Eightfold Path like this: And what is that ancient path, that ancient road? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path: that is, [1] right view, [2] right intention, [3] right speech, [4] right action, [5] right livelihood, [6] right effort, [7] right mindfulness, [8] right concentration. I followed that path and by doing so I have directly known aging-and-death, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation [end]. I have directly known birth…existence…clinging…craving…feeling…contact…the six sense bases…name-and-form…consciousness…volitional formations [desires], their origin, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessation. (Gautama, 69). A golden sculpture of an 8-spoke wheel carved with symbols. On either side of the wheel is a sculpture of an animal facing the wheel.The eight spoke Dharma wheel symbolizes the Noble Eightfold Path. By Chris Falter, CC BY-SA 3.0. A golden sculpture of an 8-spoke wheel carved with symbols. On either side of the wheel is a sculpture of an animal facing the wheel. The eight spoke Dharma wheel symbolizes the Noble Eightfold Path. By Chris Falter, CC BY-SA 3.0. Buddhism teaches that by controlling desire and limiting suffering, this path could lead a person to spiritual enlightenment. But the road to enlightenment was not easy. The Eightfold Path required a great deal of self-sacrifice and dedication. The women and men who followed this path often adopted a monastic way of life, leaving behind worldly affairs and devoting their lives to attaining spiritual enlightenment. This usually meant becoming monks or nuns and taking vows of celibacy and poverty, meditating, and abstaining from violence. Buddhism and social change Buddhist beliefs might have focused on individual enlightenment, but they had important social consequences. Buddhism challenged the structure of Indian society, where Brahmins had authority and status. It also challenged the caste system more broadly, because enlightenment was not limited to those of upper castes. Buddhism also welcomed women into monastic life, providing roles outside of the home. These differences made Buddhism appeal to many in the lower castes of Indian society. Ruins of brick structures that made up an ancient monasteryAncient Buddhist monasteries in Sarnath, India near where the Buddha is said to have given his first sermon. By Yusuke Kawasaki, CC BY 2.0. Ruins of brick structures that made up an ancient monastery Ancient Buddhist monasteries in Sarnath, India near where the Buddha is said to have given his first sermon. By Yusuke Kawasaki, CC BY 2.0. As mentioned above, the road to enlightenment was difficult, and—probably like you—most people were unable or unwilling to abandon their families and possessions for a life of spiritual devotion. Most people who chose lives as monks or nuns did so because they could afford it. Laborers and servants, for example, could not simply abandon their livelihoods and retreat into spiritual contemplation. But Buddhism was flexible. As it spread, new versions emerged to meet the different needs of converts. For example, Mahayana Buddhism, which means "the great vehicle," allowed people to strive toward enlightenment even if they couldn't become monks. Mahayana Buddhism grew into the most widespread form of Buddhism in the world. Buddhism's rejection of the caste system and the flexibility of its "middle path" is what helped it spread across Asia. From one Buddha to many Buddhisms Though Buddhist beliefs originated in India, they spread quickly. Buddhism moved through trade networks, traveling on Silk Road caravans through Central Asia to China and aboard merchant ships to Southeast Asia. Buddhism also got some help from powerful leaders. Emperor Ashoka, who ruled the Mauryan Empire in India from 268 to 232 BCE, used his power and conquests to spread Buddhism through India and beyond. He sent missionaries from his empire into the surrounding regions, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. A big part of Buddhism's success outside India was its ability to accommodate local beliefs. As it spread, Buddhism changed, blending with elements of different belief systems, a process known as "syncretism." For example, Buddhist ideas blended with Confucian and Daoist beliefs in China, where concepts like ancestor veneration (honor) and filial piety (honoring elders3^33cubed) became part of Buddhism. Another example is Greco-Buddhism. Descendants of Alexander the Great's empire still lived in Central Asia, and when they converted to Buddhism, they blended it with elements of Greek culture. In some places, the Buddha came to be regarded as a deity, and new Buddhas were added to the pantheon, though these were not part of the original belief system. A sculpture of a Buddha standing, wearing draped, long robesGautama Buddha in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st–2nd century CE, Gandhara (modern eastern Afghanistan). Public Domain. A sculpture of a Buddha standing, wearing draped, long robes Gautama Buddha in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st–2nd century CE, Gandhara (modern eastern Afghanistan). Public Domain. After reaching China, Buddhism began to expand during the third century CE. An age of political upheaval followed the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE. This collapse of political authority meant many people sought meaning in new kinds of communities. For many, Buddhism offered a fresh start as the old order collapsed. Chinese rulers began using Buddhism to unite their people. From China, Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. There too, Buddhism blended with local practices. Buddhist monks in Japan even became caretakers for Shinto shrines and participated in Shinto rituals. Extremely ornate jar features carvings and sculptures all around the top of it. There is a row of seated Buddhas, as well as a temple.Jiangnan funerary jar, ca. 250–300 CE, Jin dynasty (China), decorated with a row of Buddhas seated on lotus thrones. In the Metropolitan Museum of Art. By Vmenkov, CC BY-SA 3.0. Extremely ornate jar features carvings and sculptures all around the top of it. There is a row of seated Buddhas, as well as a temple. Jiangnan funerary jar, ca. 250–300 CE, Jin dynasty (China), decorated with a row of Buddhas seated on lotus thrones. In the Metropolitan Museum of Art. By Vmenkov, CC BY-SA 3.0. Why did Buddhism spread around the world? First, it offered a universalist message: that every individual could attain enlightenment by following its teachings. This message appealed to those, like women and peasants, who were marginalized in society. Second, Buddhism was missionary and had several powerful political supporters. Buddhists believed that their message could and should be spread to everyone and anyone. Emperor Ashoka was the first ruler to encourage Buddhist missionaries to travel abroad, and later Chinese rulers sought to spread Buddhism as a way to build their own power and influence. Finally, Buddhism was a flexible belief system, capable of adapting and changing to fit very different places and people. A color-coded map shows the regions where various divisions of Buddhism existed in relation to one another and to China, India, and Japan.Map showing the spread and major divisions of Buddhism. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. A color-coded map shows the regions where various divisions of Buddhism existed in relation to one another and to China, India, and Japan. Map showing the spread and major divisions of Buddhism. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. Though it is one of the largest belief systems in the world, with about 500 million followers today, Buddhism is not singular. It has taken on many forms in many places. From northern India, where it originated, Buddhism traveled along trade networks to Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and beyond. And though it originated and spread in India, Buddhism gradually became less popular there. In countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, and Cambodia, Buddhism is today the dominant belief system. Wherever it went, Buddhism changed how communities were organized. It challenged social hierarchy, created opportunities for women, and gave individuals of all classes a role in spiritual practice. But as Buddhism changed each new society it touched, so too did Buddhism change. Indeed, it was Buddhism's ability to adapt to new contexts that allowed it to spread so far. [Notes] Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Looking at the map of Alexander’s Empire, what do you notice?How did the Ptolemies organize the hierarchy of Egyptian society?How did the Ptolemies use religion to assert authority?Earlier articles pointed out that Persian women had a greater role in society than Greek women. How would you characterize the role of women in this blended Greek-Egyptian society (which had once been ruled by Persia)?Why did Rome invade Egypt? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: You read an article about authority and control in empires. What are some methods of control mentioned in that article that you see reflected in the Ptolemaic empire? Did the Ptolemies use any methods of control that weren’t mentioned in the earlier article?You’ve read some definitions and characteristics of empires. What aspects of the Ptolemaic empire seem characteristic of all empires? What seems unique? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Ptolemaic Dynasty A large stone wall. There is text and symbols that are inscribed in the wall, as well as four figures. One of the figures is holding incense, burning in his hand. By Bennett Sherry In 305 BCE, one of Alexander the Great's generals built an empire that dominated the Mediterranean for 200 years, carefully controlling vastly different cultures under Greek rule. Background The conquests of Alexander the Great changed the lands they touched. In Egypt, Alexander was welcomed as a liberator when he conquered the country from the Persians. When Alexander died in 323 BCE, the Greeks stayed in Egypt, led by one of Alexander's favorite generals, Ptolemy. He and his successors capitalized on Egypt's strategic position along trade networks to build a rich and powerful empire that dominated the eastern Mediterranean for two centuries. Formation After Alexander's death, his empire quickly fell apart. While wars of succession and power struggles raged across the crumbling empire, Ptolemy continued to rule in Egypt. In 305 BCE, he declared himself Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter and established the Ptolemaic dynasty. Under the Ptolemies, Egypt became the center of an empire stretching from Libya to the Arabian Peninsula including the island of Cyprus in the Aegean Sea1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. But their influence extended over most of the Greek world in the Mediterranean. The city of Alexandria on Egypt's Mediterranean coast was founded by Alexander (surprise!) in 332 BCE. As the capital city, it was the cultural, administrative, and economic heart of the Ptolemaic dynasty. It was the largest of the many cities Alexander founded from the Mediterranean to India, home to over 500,000 people. Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, Syrians, Jews, and others mingled in the city's huge harbor and busy markets. Rising above the city streets, a massive library and lighthouse dominated the skyline. Map shows land claimed by Ptolemaic Empire, most of which is along the sea. Map of lands claimed by the Ptolemaic Empire. Much of the Ptolemies’ power came from their navy, with which they could defend their far-flung territories. By Thomas Lessman, CC BY-SA 3.0. Map shows land claimed by Ptolemaic Empire, most of which is along the sea. Map of lands claimed by the Ptolemaic Empire. Much of the Ptolemies’ power came from their navy, with which they could defend their far-flung territories. By Thomas Lessman, CC BY-SA 3.0. Administration The architecture built by the Ptolemies was impressive to many, but to common Egyptians, it was a constant reminder that they were ruled by foreigners. Only those of Greek lineage (ancestry) held powerful positions in government and society, while actual Egyptians held lower roles. Just as Alexander's empire had been cosmopolitan (multicultural/multiethnic), Ptolemaic life in Egypt was pretty diverse. Though most lived harmoniously together, wealth and ethnicity often kept the diverse peoples of the empire in separate groups. The Ptolemies built upon existing Egyptian systems when possible. But, as a minority in the lands they ruled, the descendants of Alexander's soldiers held themselves apart from Egyptians. Greek citizens were governed by a different set of laws, and the Ptolemies avoided marrying Egyptians, opting instead to marry within their own family. The Ptolemies faced external threats, particularly from the Seleucid Empire to the east. The two empires battled repeatedly over border territory around Anatolia and Arabia. These wars were expensive and required the Ptolemies to conscript (draft) Egyptians in their army. Repeated wars and higher taxes caused unrest that sometimes erupted into revolts against Greek rule. Religion Wars against external threats were not the only strategies the Ptolemies used to secure their reign. They also had to find ways to establish themselves as rulers in the minds of Egyptians. Though Greek culture dominated Egypt, the Ptolemies did not try to make Egyptians change their own culture. On the contrary, they sponsored temples to Egyptian gods and supported Egyptian priests. They did, however, introduce new practices of worship to Egypt. Ptolemy I created a new god, Serapis, in an effort to blend elements of Greek and Egyptian religion. The Ptolemies used this type of religious syncretism (the blending of different religious practices and beliefs) to gain acceptance as rulers. A bust of Ptolemy I made of smooth stone. The sculpture is detailed. Bust of Ptolemy I Soter in the Louvre Museum. By Jastrow, public domain. A bust of Ptolemy I made of smooth stone. The sculpture is detailed. Bust of Ptolemy I Soter in the Louvre Museum. By Jastrow, public domain. Though they had endured the conquests of Greeks, Persians, and others, Egyptians still kept their ancient religious and political systems. One of the most important aspects of this was the idea that the pharaohs ruled Egypt as living gods. The Ptolemies adopted this tradition when Ptolemy II (the son of the first Ptolemy) declared himself a living god. This should give you an idea of how highly skilled the Ptolemies really were in their rule over Egypt. They insisted on the primacy (No. 1 position) of Greeks within the empire. At the same time, they skillfully positioned themselves in Egyptian society and religion in order to secure their rule. By also retaining essential parts of their Greek culture, they continued to rule in a way that was acceptable to Greek elites. It was their flexibility as much as their wealth and power that made the Ptolemaic dynasty the most enduring of all Alexander's successor states. Trade Alexandria sat at the crossroads of trade routes linking the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, Africa, and Asia. Its enormous harbor was capable of holding over 1,000 ships. The Ptolemies introduced coinage to the Egyptian economy for the first time and oversaw an expansion of Egyptian influence in regional trade networks. Much of this trade related to the production and distribution of agricultural goods. Egypt fed the Mediterranean world, and the fertile soil of the Nile River valley enriched the rulers. The Ptolemies directly owned almost half of Egypt's farmland, and Egyptian exports of grain, linen, and other goods helped fund the empire's expansion. Anyone producing linen, papyrus, and beer also had to meet strict government controls. One advantage of all these taxes and oversight was that the government could pay for improvements that further boosted the economy. This included irrigation projects that expanded farmland. Of course, all of this tax revenue also made the royal family and ruling class very, very rich. Drawing of the inside of a library. Three men sit at a table, looking at a scroll. One man stands on a ladder, looking at scrolls lined up on a high shelf, and two others stand below him, looking at the shelf.The Library of Alexandria, built by the Ptolemies, was a center of learning, employing dozens of scholars and holding up to 500,000 scrolls. Public domain. Drawing of the inside of a library. Three men sit at a table, looking at a scroll. One man stands on a ladder, looking at scrolls lined up on a high shelf, and two others stand below him, looking at the shelf. The Library of Alexandria, built by the Ptolemies, was a center of learning, employing dozens of scholars and holding up to 500,000 scrolls. Public domain. Greek elites used their new wealth to purchase luxuries from abroad. Alexandria's place in networks of trade meant that luxury goods were funneled through Egypt as they made their way to the Mediterranean. Frankincense and myrrh2^22squared arrived in Egypt aboard caravans from Arabia. Chinese silk, cotton from India, and Indian Ocean spices from the east arrived aboard ships sailing the Red Sea. Ivory and gold traveled down the Nile from inland parts of Africa. And while the Greek elites were happy to enjoy the riches of Egypt, they also wanted a taste of home. They imported grapevines and olive trees to increase the production of Egyptian wine and olive oil. Many Greeks preferred the wools of their home to the linens of Egypt and so they imported sheep to Egypt. What is left of a temple: mostly fallen down rock, but some remnants of stone walls remain.The ruins of the Serapeum of Alexandria, a temple built to honor the god Serapis. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, CC BY 2.0. What is left of a temple: mostly fallen down rock, but some remnants of stone walls remain. The ruins of the Serapeum of Alexandria, a temple built to honor the god Serapis. By Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, CC BY 2.0. Map uses icons to show different goods traded in the Ptolemaic dynasty: In Africa, items such as Ivory, linen, gold, and perfume, In Eurasia, sheep, grapes, and silk. India produced cotton, and Arabia produced tree resins Frankincense and Myrrh Trade networks of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. Map uses icons to show different goods traded in the Ptolemaic dynasty: In Africa, items such as Ivory, linen, gold, and perfume, In Eurasia, sheep, grapes, and silk. India produced cotton, and Arabia produced tree resins Frankincense and Myrrh Trade networks of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. Women in society Like women in other ancient societies, Ptolemaic women were active participants in religious ceremonies and cults3^33cubed during this era. There is some indication that these women had access to education, as their role required them to read music and religious texts. Wealthy women in Alexandria often acted as patrons, meaning they contributed time and money to support the arts, sciences, and religion. However, education and wealth were often reserved for elite members of the community. For women not in the elite classes, there were some exceptions. For example, sometimes a father would teach his daughter the skills of his profession, such as painting, writing, science, and math. As with men, women at the upper levels of society generally had the most power in Ptolemaic Egypt. The queens of the empire also exercised almost equal power with the kings. The Ptolemaic kings of Egypt often wed numerous women. In some cases they even married their full sisters, just to preserve the bloodline. Ptolemy II married his sister Arsinoë II (both were children of Ptolemy I and Berenice I). Both Ptolemy II and Arsinoë II were designated as pharaohs of the region, indicating they both had power over the empire. Future pharaohs and queens would also share power on the throne, which made sense in Egypt but would have been pretty strange in Greece. Perhaps the most famous pharaoh of this period, male or female, was Cleopatra VII. Her reign marked the transition from Ptolemaic Egypt to Roman Egypt. She exercised a great deal of power and ultimately aligned with both Julius Caesar and Marc Antony. But when Octavian (Augustus) became emperor of Rome the alliance spelled disaster, and Rome formally conquered Egypt. A detailed gold coin shows the profiles of Ptolemy II and his sister, Arsinoe II. Arsinoe II is behind her brother, partially obscured.Gold coin featuring the busts of Ptolemy II and his sister/co-ruler, Arsinoe II. By MatthiasKabel, CC BY-SA 3.0. A detailed gold coin shows the profiles of Ptolemy II and his sister, Arsinoe II. Arsinoe II is behind her brother, partially obscured. Gold coin featuring the busts of Ptolemy II and his sister/co-ruler, Arsinoe II. By MatthiasKabel, CC BY-SA 3.0. Decline and fall Grain ended the Ptolemaic dynasty. By the time Julius Caesar rose to power, Egypt had become one of the main grain suppliers for Rome. The Ptolemies allied themselves with the growing power of the Roman Republic, handing over large amounts of grain tribute in return for Roman military support against Egypt's rivals in the east. A quarrel between two of the last Ptolemies, Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII (they were brother and sister) threatened Rome's supply of wheat and provided the justification for Roman intervention. A stone statue of a Ptolemaic queen.Statue of a Ptolemaic queen, possibly Cleopatra VII. By the Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0. A stone statue of a Ptolemaic queen. Statue of a Ptolemaic queen, possibly Cleopatra VII. By the Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0. Because Egypt produced so much of the food that Rome needed to supply its growing empire, Julius Caesar intervened to help Cleopatra secure her throne—and Rome's breadbasket. Caesar's intervention invited even more Roman involvement in Egyptian politics, ending in Octavian's conquest of Egypt. After that, the Ptolemy dynasty ended and Egypt became a Roman province. Egypt remained the breadbasket of the Roman Empire, exporting grain to pay Roman taxes and feed Roman legions. The Ptolemaic rule might have ended, but Egypt's centrality to long-distance trade networks only increased as it was integrated into the Roman Empire. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in History from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a Research Associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was the Pax Romana?How did Rome’s wars of conquest shape Roman society?How did the Romans approach to religion help them create an empire?According to the author, what does silk tell us about women in Roman society?When did the Roman Empire fall? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: You read an article about authority and control in empires. What are some methods of control mentioned in that article that you see reflected in the Roman Empire? Did Rome use any methods of control that weren’t mentioned in the earlier article?You’ve read some definitions and characteristics of empires. What aspects of the Roman Empire seem characteristic of all empires? What seems unique? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Roman Empire Marble sculpture of an emperor. He is wearing a shield embossed with detailed figures. A baby is at his side. Bennett Sherry By the time it got an emperor, Rome was already an empire. Its conquests connected new parts of the world, but cultural exchange, new trade networks, and luxury shopping habits also changed Rome. Background Historians generally divide the history of the Roman state into three large periods. The city of Rome itself was built at a favorable location: one of the few places people could cross the River Tiber, surrounded by hills that could be defended, and with nearby farmland. Early in its history, it was dominated by nearby states, but maybe around 753 BCE it became an independent kingdom, Rome's first period. We don't know when this happened for sure, because a lot of Rome's early records were destroyed and most of what we know comes from oral tradition. Rome had kings for around two and a half centuries. Then, around 509 BCE, it became a republic, with some democratic features, Rome's second period. The republic lasted for almost 500 years. In 27 BCE, Rome entered its third period. Caesar Augustus became Rome's first emperor, and the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire. Or at least that's the story. In reality, Rome had an empire long before it became an empire. The Roman Republic controlled a multitude of cultures and peoples all around the Mediterranean Sea for centuries before Augustus became the first actual emperor. Map shows the initial capture of Italy and part of Spain by the Roman empire, as well as regions that were captured later, including the rest of Spain and Macedonia.A map showing Roman conquests during the Republican period. Rome had an empire well before Julius Caesar was even born. Public domain. Map shows the initial capture of Italy and part of Spain by the Roman empire, as well as regions that were captured later, including the rest of Spain and Macedonia. A map showing Roman conquests during the Republican period. Rome had an empire well before Julius Caesar was even born. Public domain. Formation Though he took the title princeps, meaning "first" or "foremost," there's no doubt that Augustus, and only Augustus, ruled the Roman Empire. He enacted a set of reforms that changed Roman politics and launched a golden age of peace and stability within the empire. This period, from 27 BCE to 180 CE is known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace). Beginning with Augustus, the Roman emperors seized more power over the political life of the empire and its military. They kept many of the titles and traditions of the Republic, but in practice they ruled as dictators. The figure of the emperor became central to Roman political life. His image was minted on coins, and he was linked to the gods. Augustus only ever claimed to be the son of a god (very humble). But after his death the Senate declared him a full god. Several later emperors were also honored in this way. Coin inscribed with the profile of a man and inscribed with the words "Augustus Caesar" and "DIVVS IVLIVS".You know you’ve made it big when your face is on money. This Roman coin carries the image of Augustus, and the inscription, “DIVVS IVLIVS” means “Divine Julius.” By Classical Numismatic Group, CC BY-SA 2.5. Coin inscribed with the profile of a man and inscribed with the words "Augustus Caesar" and "DIVVS IVLIVS". You know you’ve made it big when your face is on money. This Roman coin carries the image of Augustus, and the inscription, “DIVVS IVLIVS” means “Divine Julius.” By Classical Numismatic Group, CC BY-SA 2.5. Administration: human resources The Roman Empire expanded during the first century after Augustus, reaching its height in 117 CE. These wars of expansion shaped life in the empire. They made military service an important way for men to gain political power and wealth. And Rome's wars of conquest ensured a steady supply of enslaved people. These people, unlike citizens, could not be drafted into the Roman army, so they were a more reliable labor source for the wealthy people who enslaved them. By 1 CE, as much as one-third of the people living on the Italian peninsula were enslaved. These people were forced to work on plantations owned by wealthy Romans who turned from subsistence farming toward more lucrative crops like olives. Enslaved people could be freed or purchase their own freedom. People freed in this way gained limited rights, and their children were born Roman citizens. The Roman Empire under Augustus ruled about 45 million people. Only 4 million of these were citizens. At its peak, Rome was the largest city in the world, with a population of 1 million or so. The empire controlled 2 million square miles of territory. This many people and this much land required sophisticated administration and technology. Hundreds of miles of Roman roads connected the empire, linking its cities, allowing its armies to march, and facilitating trade. Aqueducts linked major cities to the essential resource of fresh water. Picture of an aqueduct crossing a river valley: a bridge-like structure featuring many arches.A Roman aqueduct in southern France that carried water to the city of Nîmes. By Benh Lieu Song, CC BY-SA 3.0. Picture of an aqueduct crossing a river valley: a bridge-like structure featuring many arches. A Roman aqueduct in southern France that carried water to the city of Nîmes. By Benh Lieu Song, CC BY-SA 3.0. Religion and culture: beliefs that travel The Romans generally avoided forcing their religion on the people they conquered. As long as people paid their taxes to Rome and followed Roman rules, they were allowed to practice their own religion. This tolerance changed Roman culture. Early Romans adopted Greek gods and religious practices, with some alterations to suit a Roman context. But as the empire expanded, cross-cultural encounters reshaped Roman approaches to religion. Roman soldiers and officials who had journeyed to the edges of the empire returned home with new beliefs from abroad. For example, the cult of Mithras—inspired by Mithra from Persian Zoroastrianism—spread across the Roman world. Similarly, other foreign gods like Isis from Egypt and Baal from Mesopotamia were refashioned and incorporated in the Roman pantheon (group of gods). Stone carving depicts a scene of a man killing a bull with a dagger. He is looking behind him, where there is a man on horseback.A relief of Mithras killing a bull. The Cult of Mithras was popular among soldiers, which is part of why it spread so quickly through the empire. By Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0. Stone carving depicts a scene of a man killing a bull with a dagger. He is looking behind him, where there is a man on horseback. A relief of Mithras killing a bull. The Cult of Mithras was popular among soldiers, which is part of why it spread so quickly through the empire. By Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0. Early Christians faced persecution for refusing to honor the emperor. Unlike Roman religion, Christianity was a missionary religion—their goal was to convert the citizens and subjects of Rome. It worked, because, by 313 CE, the Roman Emperor Constantine had legally recognized Christianity, and by 380, Christianity was the empire's state religion. Trade networks: silk and more silk As the Roman Empire expanded and got richer, people in Rome wanted to use their new wealth to buy luxuries from far away. Luxury shopping may sound unimportant, however, the vast trade networks that were extended to meet this demand were anything but. Merchants linked Rome to the Chinese Han Empire, trading fancy silks and other luxuries. By the time they reached Rome, these luxuries traveled across thousands of miles of desert, mountains, and sea. There is some debate as to how far these networks extended. It's unlikely that the two empires ever directly interacted. Goods moved more like a relay race than a marathon. Networks of merchants in the Parthian and Kushan empires and around the Indian Ocean carried spices and silk west and Roman metals and glass east. Most silk that made its way to Rome came through India, where archaeologists have found many Roman coins. Spices from the Indian Ocean were somewhat common in Rome. In the earliest Roman cookbook, titled Apicius, some recipes call for pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and cumin, all of which came from the Indian Ocean. But it wasn't all spice and silk–uninvited germs allowed several devastating plagues to spread along these routes of exchange. Spices and diseases aside, we can't underestimate the importance of silk. These trade networks grew because Romans craved this soft and beautiful fabric that only the Chinese knew how to make. There was so much silk being imported that the Roman Senate restricted the trade. They worried that too much Roman wealth was leaving the empire in exchange for silk, and the trade imbalance would ruin the Roman economy. However, silk was so popular that attempts to ban it ultimately failed. Women in society Silk tells us quite a bit about the place of women in Roman society. For example, we know that part of the reason the Roman Senate tried to ban silk was because they believed the fabric was too revealing and undermined good Roman morality. They worried that too much silk corrupted Rome's masculine virtues. Wealthy women might have been able to afford the luxuries of distant lands, but much of their public life was dictated by men in Rome's patriarchal society. The early years of the Roman empire saw many such attempts to regulate women. Augustus passed new laws that gave advantages to women who married and had children and punished those who did not. Augustus hoped to impose an image of the moral Roman family on the empire. In addition to regulations on women's bodies and sexuality, women in the Roman Empire lacked full legal rights. They were technically citizens, but could not vote or hold political office. Women were required to have a male relative represent them in financial and legal matters. A painting of a figure. They appear to be floating on air and is holding a mirror in one hand. They are wearing a flowing, silk dress.A fresco from Pompeii depicting a maenad in silk dress. Maenads were mythical figures who went to parties thrown by Bacchus, the god specializing in excess and debauchery. Public domain. A painting of a figure. They appear to be floating on air and is holding a mirror in one hand. They are wearing a flowing, silk dress. A fresco from Pompeii depicting a maenad in silk dress. Maenads were mythical figures who went to parties thrown by Bacchus, the god specializing in excess and debauchery. Public domain. Still, many women in the empire worked within these constraints to exercise political power. There are instances of women who ran the estates of dead husbands. Women could divorce their husbands, though the husband retained custody of their children. Women of lower classes entered public life through work, while wealthy women often acted as influential advisors to their sons and husbands. Decline and fall: sort of In 476 CE, Germanic tribes invaded, and the Roman Empire fell. All done. Finished. Next empire, please. Or at least, that's the story. It's true that the Western Roman Empire was crippled by a poor economy and Germanic invasions, but the Roman Empire didn't really fall in 476. In fact, it lasted another 1,000 years. After 180 CE, things got tough in the Roman Empire. As it expanded, it relied more on non-Romans to fill the ranks of its army. Invasions by Germanic tribes in the north and the Sassanid Persians in the east combined with internal disagreements to weaken the empire. In 284 CE, the emperor Diocletian divided the empire into two administrative halves: east and west. In 324 CE, Emperor Constantine founded a new capital city in his name, Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The city was a better location than Rome, since it was closer to Rome's wealthiest provinces. At first, the split between east and west was purely an administrative change to help the empire run better. The Roman Empire was still a single entity. But increasingly, the two halves were ruled independently. So, by the time the Germanic general Odoacer overthrew the last Western Roman emperor in 476, the western and eastern halves of the empire were governed as two separate empires. But did the Roman Empire fall in 476? Not really. There was division in the west, as Germanic tribes seized territory and the empire crumbled from within. But in the east, there was consolidation and even expansion. The Roman Empire remained a power in the eastern Mediterranean for another 1,000 years, even reconquering the Italian Peninsula in the sixth century. Though historians have rebranded it the "Byzantine Empire," the people living there thought of themselves as Romans. For centuries after the so-called "fall of Rome," these Romans continued to be the most powerful state in the Mediterranean world. A map shows the areas conquered by the Roman Empire, mostly around the perimeter. Many cities were rules under the empire.A map of the Eastern Roman Empire after Justinian reconquered Italy and other lands in the west. By Tatatryn, CC BY-SA 3.0. A map shows the areas conquered by the Roman Empire, mostly around the perimeter. Many cities were rules under the empire. A map of the Eastern Roman Empire after Justinian reconquered Italy and other lands in the west. By Tatatryn, CC BY-SA 3.0. Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East at the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Maine at Augusta. Additionally, he is a research associate at Pitt's World History Center. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What types of state and communal structure existed prior to the formation of the Han Dynasty in China?What types of philosophies did the Han rulers adopt and why was it an advantage to incorporate multiple philosophies instead of just one?What innovations in farming and trade developed during Han rule?Who were the Xiongnu and how did the Han attempt to deal with this group?How are the Wang Interregnum and the Mandate of Heaven interconnected?What issues eventually led to the fall of the Han Dynasty? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How did the Han Dynasty create stability and prosperity in China? How did this new stability affect people inside China? What impacts did it have on people living outside of China, in other communities?What type of factors do you think were most important in making the Han period a golden age for China? Were changes in religious and political communities, changes in trade networks, or changes in Chinese production and distribution more important? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Han Dynasty China A sculpture of a horse. It is standing, balanced on one hoof, on the back of a bird. By Trevor R. Getz For hundreds of years, the Han dynasty was the eastern pillar of the great silk route across Eurasia. This dynasty's achievements provided a lasting legacy for China both as a society and a state. Transformative dynasty The Han dynasty is one of the great dynasties in Chinese history, encompassing nearly 400 years of expansion and consolidation. A dynasty is, essentially, a period of rule of a kingdom or empire by a single family—although, in China, the size and makeup of an imperial "family" can be quite flexible. In Chinese history, there have been nine major dynasties. Most of them were created by royal families who emerged from within China, although two were created by leaders from central Asia—the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) and the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1912). The Han dynasty was created by leaders from Han, one of the regions of China, hence the name of the dynasty. It coincided with the period of the Roman Republic and Empire in western Afro-Eurasia. Politically, it established the imperial system that many later dynasties used, although technically it was not the first Chinese dynasty. Philosophically, it fostered the development of a landscape of communal ideas and beliefs. Together, these changes had the effect of creating a widespread sense of a shared Chinese culture and identity for the first time. The period is usually broken down into three stages: Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE), with its capital at Chang'anWang Mang (9–23 CE), also called Xin dynasty or Wang interregnum (pause between wars)Eastern Han (25–220 CE), with its capital at Luoyang Qin origins of the Han imperial system Prior to the third century, the region of China was broken into many smaller states. At the core were a set of small kingdoms—including Han—that roughly shared their language, values, and form of political organization. Farther away, the states looked a bit different, becoming more pastoral and speaking languages associated more with the people of central Asia. The most significant of these people on the periphery were the Xiongnu, a confederation of pastoral people who saw the growing populations of central China as a threat. In turn, those residing in the Chinese communities or in states to the east also found the Xiongnu to be threatening. Around the middle of the third century, one Chinese state, the northwest kingdom of Qin, managed to briefly dominate the others and create a single administrative structure under a powerful ruler, Qin Shi Huangdi (r. 221– 210 BCE), literally "First Emperor of Qin." He created a military structure of administration and appointed people to govern the different states. The Qin state also adopted and spread philosophies that helped it to rule—especially Legalism, which emphasized obedience to the state. As a result, it was also able to extend Qin's rule beyond the core Chinese states to some neighboring societies, threatening the Xiongnu and other neighbors. Following the death of its founder, the Qin dynasty crumbled. There was just too much outside opposition with people unwilling to be ruled in such an authoritarian manner. Two Qin officials then fought to take control. One, Liu Bang, later known as Emperor Gaozu, was in charge of the state of Han after 206 BCE, making that the date of the start of the Han dynasty. He fought and won a civil war, and four years later was firmly in control of all of the central kingdoms of China, creating a single empire. Consolidation How did this new dynasty eventually come to be so influential in Chinese history? Well, first of all, the Han rulers–beginning with Emperor Gaozu–figured out how to mix the harsh but effective Legalism of the Qin dynasty with the softer ideology of Confucianism. Obedience was still demanded, but the blended philosophy also recognized that rulers and the state had an obligation to provide for their people. Even Daoist ideas crept into this philosophy. For example, the Han emperors generally embraced the idea that humans were part of the natural world and that agriculture and nature could only thrive if they were good rulers. All of this came together in the central idea of Han rule—known as the Mandate of Heaven. It said that the emperors ruled because they had fulfilled their ren, meaning "benevolent duty," to the community. But it also said that if they ruled badly, heaven would let them know it with crop failures or natural disasters. Under the Mandate of Heaven, if these disasters came to be seen as the result of poor governance, then these rulers could be replaced. The Mandate of Heaven philosophy was supported by a government led by Confucian scholars who were literate and effective. They put in place systems to communicate with each other to collect data, and to report on problems. The result was a period of peaceful conditions and relative wealth. Peasants could safely work the land, producing more food. Trade within the state expanded, and the millet-growing regions of the north and rice-growing regions of the south could send food to each other. That was especially important if one crop or the other failed. Han emperors, in many cases, expanded the state, and there is evidence that some people outside of central China welcomed their rule. Populations exploded as a result of this stability and reliable food production. Map of Han Dynasty China shows the vast number of cities ruled.Han Dynasty China at its greatest extent, with its “commanderies and kingdoms”, the administrative units through which its efficient bureaucrats ruled. Map of Han Dynasty China shows the vast number of cities ruled. Han Dynasty China at its greatest extent, with its “commanderies and kingdoms”, the administrative units through which its efficient bureaucrats ruled. Various economic measures were taken to expand state control, including (in 119 BCE) a state monopoly of iron and silk production. Forty-nine foundries (metal factories) produced large numbers of agricultural implements. Experimentation with irons of different carbon contents and the alloys they could make led to the production of steel. Many farms were involved in silk production, a fabric so valuable it could be used to pay taxes and buy horses. The Romans, 7,000 miles away, were such high-volume customers that the Silk Road trade networks were formed. During the Eastern Han, a form of paper made from boiled remnants of fabric, bark, and hemp was produced and came into wide use. The first Chinese dictionary (Shuowen jiezi) was compiled around 100 CE, listing more than 9,000 characters and their meanings. The Xiongnu and the Zhang Qiang mission The main problem facing the Han for much of this period was those nomadic people of the central Asian interior, the Xiongnu. Likewise, the Xiongnu saw the expansion of China into their territory as a problem. At first, the Han emperors tried to be friendly, even sending a princess to marry the Xiongnu leader and calling him an equal to the emperor. Making nice with these dangerous enemies seemed to be smarter than fighting them, and the Xiongnu were important partners in the trading route that was the Silk Road. However, the two states just had interests that were too different, and their leaders argued about territory, trade, and border raids. In 138 BCE, the Emperor Wudi (r. 141–87 BCE) sent a diplomat named Zhang Qiang to the Greek-ruled central Asian state of Bactria to get horses and allies for fighting the Xiongnu. He was captured by the Xiongnu and eventually escaped. Meanwhile, Wudi warred against the Xiongnu effectively enough to capture a lot of territory, then went back to using diplomacy. Wudi also led an expansion of Chinese influence (and to some degree territory) into parts of Korea and Southeast Asia. A painting depicts a man on horseback waving to a group of people. Several others are following behind him. He appears to be walking toward a tapestry, or door, containing text. An image of Zhang Qian departing for Central Asia on his expedition. From a mural in the Chinese city of Dunhuang. A painting depicts a man on horseback waving to a group of people. Several others are following behind him. He appears to be walking toward a tapestry, or door, containing text. An image of Zhang Qian departing for Central Asia on his expedition. From a mural in the Chinese city of Dunhuang. Mang and Eastern Han However, Wudi's expansion basically emptied the treasury of the state. That created a lot of problems for the government, which had to raise taxes. This created problems for many of the people of China, who could not pay those taxes and still feed their families. At the same time, Wudi's reign saw the growing power of court eunuchs over the professional Confucian-trained scholars. The eunuchs were men who were thought to be specifically loyal to the emperor, and they began to control the imperial court, isolating the emperor from the people, who were increasingly unhappy. A Confucian-trained imperial minister named Wang Mang saw that this was the time to play the "Mandate of Heaven" card, and took the throne. Mang mainly wanted to address the suffering of the people when he seized power in 9 CE. He took power partly with the support of large numbers of angry, hungry peasants. Mang tried to reform the state, but without great success. As a result, a Han successor to Wudi named Liu Xiu (the Emperor Guang Wudi) managed to retake the throne in 23 CE. He established his capital in Luoyang, to the east of the old capital. That's why the second period of Han history, about two centuries long, is called the Eastern Han. It was culturally a very rich period, but it suffered from a series of political challenges. In particular, the dynasty faced conflicts within the imperial court. Often, these were fights between the long-standing administrators, the court eunuchs, and the families of empresses. Empresses were usually the daughters of powerful lords who married into the imperial family. They brought their own people with them, who wanted some authority as well, and so they clashed with the eunuchs. Sometimes this led to actual fighting, but more often it fostered scheming and corruption. A painting of four men. Two are conversing, one has his back turned to the others.Four gentlemen in debate, Eastern Han Dynasty period. While this was a culturally rich period, it was also one in which disagreements at court and politics created a lot of problems. A painting of four men. Two are conversing, one has his back turned to the others. Four gentlemen in debate, Eastern Han Dynasty period. While this was a culturally rich period, it was also one in which disagreements at court and politics created a lot of problems. The corruption angered the trained Confucian administrators in the provinces, who were just trying to govern, but who found it impossible to work with imperial court obsessed with in-fighting. It got harder to address local problems, so peasants suffered. Ultimately, the Han dynasty simply could not serve its people effectively. The imperial court's chaos also prevented effective responses to natural disasters such as floods and droughts that came along. And that was a pretty big no-no if your dynasty was trying to hold onto the Mandate of Heaven–and the Han no longer could. Despite its problems–the results of which we'll see in a later era–the Han dynasty had an enormous legacy. It created an economic powerhouse that played a key role in the growth of trade across Afro-Eurasia. It established the larger borders of China and created a shared (if still somewhat limited) sense of Chinese identity for tens of millions of people. Equally, even today, many Chinese refer to themselves as Han rem, or Han people. In terms of legacy, that's not bad for a dynasty that ended 1,800 years ago. Author bio Trevor Getz is Professor of African History at San Francisco State University. He has written eleven books on African and World History, including Abina and the Important Men. He is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. [Sources and attributions]

Recordkeeping & History [[header image]] By David Christian Although many species note the passing of time, only our own species, Homo sapiens, is capable of sharing accounts, or memories, of past events and turning these into stories or “histories.” What is history anyway? As humans discovered ever more precise ways of keeping track of time, so we have also developed more accurate ways of keeping records and recording history. What exactly is history? We could argue forever about that, but let’s just agree that it means “a shared knowledge of the past.” Why is it important to know about the past? How does that help us? Do animals need history? Did our ancestors have a sense of history in the Paleolithic era, and how has that sense changed over time? How do animals and plants "do" history? All living things carry “memories” of the past. Animals need to be able to keep track of the seasons so they know when to hibernate, when to hunt, and when to have children. Many rodents and birds store nuts and other food in special hiding places, and they need to remember where they stashed them so they can find them months later. Wolves leave their marks on the perimeters of their turf, creating a sort of record that says to other wolf packs: “This is owned by the BHP pack. Keep out!” Even plants seem to record the passing of time. If you slice through a tree, particularly in a region with lots of seasonal changes, you’ll see “growth rings.” Every year, a new layer grows just under the bark. There is often a light part formed early in the year and a darker part that forms later, so each ring represents one year of growth. Wet seasons typically produce thicker rings than dry seasons, so dendrochronologists — the scientists who study growth rings — can frequently figure out the exact year in which each layer was formed. They can also see evidence of climatic events such as droughts or forest fires. [[image 1]] But “tracking the past” isn’t the same as having a “memory” of the past. A tree ring might record the date of a major fire, but the tree wouldn’t respond if I asked, “Do you remember the great fire of 1730?” Only humans can share their knowledge of the past because only humans have a communication system powerful enough to share what they know and learn. The first histories We don’t really know when humans first began to share their knowledge of the past. But our understanding of collective learning suggests that they probably did so early on. If we assume, as we have done in this course, that even the earliest members of our species were capable of collective learning, then we must assume that they could share ideas not just about where water holes or lions are, but also about last year’s bush fire, or that fight that took place with the people who live beyond the river, or even of earlier geologic events. All modern foraging societies tell stories about the past, many focused on ancestors, but also on the creation of what’s around us. Indeed, most humans tell “origin stories,” and origin stories count as history because they share ideas about the world. In the beginning the Earth was a bare plain. All was dark. There was no life, no death. The Sun, the Moon, and the stars slept beneath the Earth. All the eternal ancestors slept there, too, until at last they woke themselves out of their own eternity and broke through to the surface. This is the beginning of an Australian Aboriginal origin story from recent times. We don’t know if the people who told this story believed it was literally true, but it provided a way of thinking about how things came to be as they are. Here is the same origin story recounting the creation of humans: With their great stone knives, the Ungambikula carved heads, bodies, legs, and arms out of the bundles. They made the faces and the hands and feet. At last human beings were finished. It’s very tempting to believe that at ancient sites like Blombos Cave in South Africa, where humans lived and worked and made different colored paints more than 70,000 years ago, they were also telling stories about the past, passing them on from generation to generation and tribe to tribe, and perhaps also illustrating and recording them in some way. History based on memory But if there were historians in Blombos Cave, they relied mainly on their memory for the stories of the past, because there were no written records. We know from studies of modern foraging societies that people who cannot write down information rely on such “oral tradition,” and develop powerful ways of remembering. Ancient storytellers could keep telling stories for days, and poets had many techniques to help them recall long epic poems so they could recite them at will. For example, it seems likely that the Greek poet Homer used similar phrases over and over again, such as “the wine-dark sea,” as well as rhymes and regular rhythms, mainly to help him remember his epics. In ancient Greece, Mnemosyne, or the goddess of memory, was regarded as the mother of all nine muses — the various goddesses of literature, art, and science. (The modern word mnemonic, which means “a technique for remembering things,” comes from her name.) And even in societies with writing, memory remained an admired skill. The Roman philosopher Augustine of Hippo had a friend who could recite backward the works of the poet Virgil. In the Muslim world it was commonplace to memorize the entire Qur’an. People continued to develop ways of memorizing, such as walking in your imagination through a large building in which you had placed objects, each of which helped you remember something special. History based on written records Today, though, we expect proper history writing to be based not on the memory of the historian, but on evidence, and mostly on written evidence. I think you’d worry if a history teacher said, “Well, I think World War I began in about 1914 because that’s what my grandmother’s dad told her.” History based on written records appears quite late in human history. The first written records date back a little more than 5,000 years in Egypt and ancient Sumer. The earliest Sumerian records were made using reeds cut at an angle to make wedge-shaped (cuneiform) marks on clay, which was then baked hard. Many of these clay tablets survive today, and scholars can still read them. The earliest records look like accounts: lists of property, cattle, sheep, and wheat. But even that is history of a sort, and it’s pretty important because it provides details of who owned what. Within a few centuries, we begin to find elaborate written chronicles, such as the great Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. We also find stories of floods, of gods, and of the creation of the world, some of which made their way into the Jewish Scriptures, the Christian Bible, and the Qur’an. Wherever writing appeared it was used to write accounts of the past. And despite most people not being able to read or write, those accounts started to become the basis for further historical accounts. Written documents began to be seen as more authoritative than oral stories, because once something was written down it was much harder to keep changing the story. The importance of evidence As societies became more interconnected and people began to compare different accounts of the past, they became more concerned with a crucial question: Which version is truest? Let’s look at a modern portrayal of human origins: “Our hominine ancestors evolved over several million years. But during the last million years, species appeared with very large brains, and our own species, Homo sapiens, probably appeared about 200,000 years ago. We know this because we have fossil remains of individuals that seem identical to modern humans, and we begin to find evidence of technological innovation and symbolic activity.” I wrote that, but it is typical of today’s history writing because it is so concerned with evidence. Where there are competing versions of the past, you have to give evidence for yours if you want to be taken seriously. We can already see this growing concern with evidence 2,000 years ago in the writings of some of the greatest historians of the classical era, such as Herodotus of Greece and China’s Sima Qian. Both lived in worlds where different peoples made different claims about the past, so both understood the need to base their accounts of the past on evidence wherever possible. Herodotus (c. 484 — 425 BCE) traveled widely in the eastern Mediterranean as well as to Olbia, on the northern shores of the Black Sea, where he met some of the Scythian pastoral nomads about whom he wrote so vividly. Modern archaeologists have shown that his somewhat gruesome accounts of Scythian royal burials were very accurate. He also described some Scythian origin stories, and he did so with all the skepticism of a modern anthropologist. About three centuries later, the Chinese historian Sima Qian (c. 145 — 86 BCE) provided lengthy descriptions of the nomadic Xiongnu, who lived north of China, in Mongolia. For example, he wrote that “they move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings, nor do they engage in any kind of agriculture.” His account was not made up; it was based on the writings and memories of many Chinese travelers who had visited Mongolia, including Silk Road adventurer Zhang Qian, who was captured by the Xiongnu in 139 BCE, and lived among them for 10 years. But it was really from the Enlightenment era, in the eighteenth century, that the notion of evidence-based history as the most important form of history writing became more prominent. Today, all professional historians understand that their first task is to get the history right. That means checking all the details against hard evidence, and preferably against written documents. The great nineteenth-century German historian Leopold von Ranke pioneered the modern art of writing history on the basis of detailed archival records. And these days, history based on written documents remains the primary form of historical scholarship. But document-based history has some serious limitations. First of all, history based on written documents often only tells us about the lives of the rich and powerful. That’s because until a century or two ago most other people could not read or write, so they weren’t very well represented in the documents of earlier times. Sometimes, archaeology and anthropology can step in by helping us use material objects — houses, clothes, bits of pottery, or skeletons — left behind by ordinary people, or by using studies of modern societies that give us some hints about how ordinary people lived in the past. Written records have another serious limitation. They only reach back a few thousand years. When H.G. Wells, just after World War I, tried to write a history of the entire Universe, he complained that “chronology only begins to be precise enough to specify the exact year of any event after the establishment of the eras of the First Olympiad [776 BCE] and the building of Rome [753 BCE].” Only in the middle of the twentieth century did we start finding accurate ways of dating events that happened before there were written records. In the 1950s, the American chemist Willard Libby showed how you could use the breakdown of radioactive materials such as carbon 14 to date objects such as bones or food remains that contained carbon. Libby’s work was the beginning of a “chronometric” revolution, as a whole series of new techniques emerged for dating events in the distant past, eventually right back to the Big Bang. Those dates have made it possible for us to write and teach Big History. Have we gotten better at studying the past? Today we have access to better records and more types of evidence about the past than ever before. It is astonishing to think that we can actually say something serious about the origins of the Earth or of the Universe, and we have so much evidence about recent centuries that historians will never be able to use it all. So in some sense it seems that we must be doing history better than our ancestors did. But have there been losses as well as gains in the history of history? Haven’t we lost the vivid, personal sense of engagement with the past that existed in oral cultures where history was always told as a story? Almost 2,500 years ago, in the Phaedrus, Plato described this sense of loss. In this dialogue, Socrates tells how the Egyptian god Thoth, who claimed to have invented writing, bragged that his invention would improve people’s memories. King Thamus (also an Egyptian god) replied that this was nonsense: For this invention will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn to use it, because they will not practice their memory. Their trust in writing, produced by external characters which are not part of themselves, will discourage the use of their own memory within them. You have invented an elixir not of memory but of reminding; and you offer your pupils the appearance of wisdom, not true wisdom, for they will read many things without instruction and will therefore seem to know many things, when they are for the most part ignorant...since they are not wise, but only appear wise.(Plato in Twelve Volumes, sections 275a–275b) Can it be that both arguments have merit? That speech and memory have distinct, perhaps irreplaceable, advantages over writing, but that writing has both broadened and sharpened our collective memory? [Sources and attributions]

We’re Not in Kansas Anymore By Anita Ravi The development of agriculture led to the creation of cities. Once people figured out how to grow large quantities of food, store it for future use, domesticate animals, and irrigate crops, they could stay put and stop roaming. More people settling in a single place led to more complex societies and cultures. But just what does complex mean? How was life in cities different from life on farms? Let’s first look at where these early cities were located. This map tells me that most of the world’s largest cities were established in the Middle East by 2250 BCE. Scientists have been able to estimate the populations of these cities based on a number of features uncovered at archaeological sites in these areas: How many houses were there? How many rooms were in each house? How big were the food storage rooms? And how many kilns or stoves were in each location? In Cynthia Stokes Brown’s essay, Agrarian Civilizations: Introduction, she argues that all early agrarian civilizations shared some important characteristics. They all had monumental architecture: that is, grand buildings that screamed: “Look at us! We are great!” They all developed a social structure in which an elite helped organize and rule society, while others became specialists (merchants, pottery makers, fishermen), and the majority of the population remained farmers. They all developed systems of writing. It is through writing and the things they built that we can learn about what humans did and the things that were important to the inhabitants of Earth’s first cities. So what do artifacts and written documents from these places tell us about life in cities? What we can learn about early cities from archaeological evidence The first artifacts I will look at to figure out what they might tell me about city life are the Olmec heads (image on the following page). Why these? They are actually the earliest artifacts we have from Mesoamerican cities, which, by the way, are not represented in the map on the left. These heads were created around 900 BCE, which is much later than the foundation of the first cities in Afro-Eurasia. In fact, after a bit more research on the Olmec, I learned that their civilization was the first in Mesoamerica, founded around 1400 BCE. Based on my earlier research into early farming sites, I knew I would also be able to find artifacts of more complex societies in Mesoamerica because evidence of corn crops was also found there, and a precondition of early cities is complex agriculture. These heads can tell us a lot about the early Olmec civilization. The first piece of evidence I can uncover is that these heads were made from stone. Based on the facial features, I can conclude that these are statues of Olmec people and not their god or gods. How do I know that? I am drawing this conclusion based on the fact that these heads are not all the same. It also looks like they have some sort of helmet on and the helmets are decorated differently. The second thing we know is that the heads are quite large, as big as 20 feet high and 20 feet wide. Since they are made of stone, this means they are quite heavy. My research also tells me that the stone used to make these heads came from the Tuxtla Mountains, which are about 60 miles away from the closest Olmec city. According to Michael Coe, an archaeologist who worked at one of the most important Olmec cities, these ancient artists chose some of the large boulders from the bottom of these mountains to make these heads. We still have no idea whether the heads were carved near the base of the mountains, or moved back to ceremonial platforms and carved there. And how did they transport these heavy boulders? I know that there were no native beasts of burden in this area of North America. There were no horses or mules, which were brought by the Spanish and Portuguese hundreds of years later, and no llamas. There is a river about 25 miles from the mountains that flows down to one of the Olmec cities, but there is no evidence of carts with wheels on which to haul these boulders. So just getting these boulders across 60 miles took tremendous time and effort. Why does this matter? What can these heads tell us about how complex life had become for the Olmec? First, a large group of people had to travel to the mountain on foot, and then sever boulders from the mountains using tools. These boulders then had to be transported from the mountains to the river and down the river to the city. It is esti-mated by Coe that it would take up to 2,000 people to carry the colossal heads over-land. After the boulders were delivered to the carving site, a group of stone craftsmen had to design and carve the heads, again using tools specifically designed for this purpose by toolmakers. Once the heads were carved, they then had to use some form of technology to lift the heads onto the platforms. The manpower and time dedicated to producing the stone heads tells me that the Olmec were doing well enough that they could spare hundreds of men to do this work, and that there would be enough food for these men on their journey to and from the mountains. The heads were clearly valued by the elite, and possibly the clergy, because they had to organize this whole effort. Stone carvers, toolmakers, laborers, artists, rulers, and religious clergy all had to work together to make this happen. The heads tell us that Olmec society had evolved to create these specialized roles and that in order to function effectively, they had to cooperate and work together. What we can learn about early cities from written texts In addition to monuments like the Olmec heads, we are fortunate to have written texts from many of these early cities. In Agrarian Civilizations: Introduction, Stokes Brown argues that writing probably developed as an early accounting system in order to keep track of trade. Symbols were developed to represent different things and people, and in some cultures, alphabets then replaced those symbols. Early texts were written on stone tablets and sometimes etched on the walls of caves. Some of the earliest texts in existence come from the Middle Eastern civilization of Mesopotamia. Scribes in ancient Sumer, where one of the first cities in the world was located, wrote the passage below. From Mesopotamia: The Sumerian Goddess Inanna Looks After the City Agade (About 2000 BCE) So that the warehouses would be provisioned that dwellings would be founded in the city, that its people would eat splendid food... that acquaintances would dine together, that foreigners would cruise about like unusual birds in the sky... At that time, she filled Agade...with gold, Delivered copper, tin, and blocks of lapis lazuli to its storehouses... Its harbor, where ships docked, was full of excitement... Its king, the shepherd Naram-Sin, rose like the sun on the holy throne of Agade... Its city wall touched heaven, like a mountain... Ships brought the goods of Sumer itself upstream [to Agade], The highland Amorites, people ignorant of agriculture, Came before her there with spirited bulls and spirited bucks, Meluhhans [from the Indus valley, and] people of the black mountains, Brought exotic wares down to her... All the governors, temple administrators, and land registrars of the Gude’ena Regularly supplied monthly and New Year offerings there. (qtd. in Chapman16) This is a remarkable document. Let’s start with the title: The Sumerian Goddess Inanna Looks After the City Agade. The title alone tells me that 1.) A religion had developed among the Mesopotamians; 2.) The goddess mentioned here is interested in protecting the city of Agade and making sure it prospers. The first few lines of the document mention “warehouses,” “dwellings,” and “splendid food.” These words suggest to me that this was a wealthy city, a place of abundance. The fact that warehouses are mentioned tells me that they had lots of things to store, or rather, they had more than they needed. The goddess is credited with filling those warehouses with precious items such as gold, copper, tin, and lapis lazuli (a type of stone). Each of these items had to be mined from the ground and then refined into something usable, which tells me that mining had been developed. The text goes on to mention trade and the presence of “foreigners:” “The highland Amorites” and the “Meluhhans” from the Indus Valley. The harbor, where ships docked, is also mentioned and from the line “full of excitement,” I can gather that it was a busy port. I am thinking that people came to the city of Agade from towns close by and far away for trade and to make offerings to this goddess. The final sentence tells me that all of these people came with “offerings” monthly and for the New Year. Agade must have become a center of religious worship and, it seems, a center of trade and exchange. People from other cities and other places also worshipped this goddess and traveled by sea and land to come to Agade to celebrate and worship there. The second text I am going to look at is a code of law called Hammurabi’s Code and it is also from Mesopotamia. We now refer to this document as the very first code of law developed by man, and it was developed for the city of Babylon. Hammurabi’s Laws Seek To Uphold The Social Order In Babylon (About 1700 BCE) 1. If a man accuses another of murder but cannot prove it, the accuser shall be put to death. 8. If a man steals, he shall repay thirtyfold. If he hasn’t the money, he shall be put to death. 15. If a man helps a slave to escape from the city, he shall be put to death. 117. If a man sells his wife or child to settle a debt, they shall work in the house of the buyer for three years, and regain their freedom in the fourth. My first reaction upon reading this brief excerpt of Hammurabi’s Code is that the law was harsh in Babylon! They had absolutely no problem with the death penalty. Thetitle of this document tells me that these laws are meant to uphold the “social order,” meaning these are laws that help resolve issues among the people of Babylon. If you lived in Babylon then you could be “put to death” for stealing, helping slaves escape, and falsely accusing someone of murder. The first law — false accusation of murder – is interesting because it relies on the use of evidence: if you’re going to accuse someone of murder, you have to have evidence they did the crime. If you didn’t have adequate evidence, you would be “put to death.” The second law listed above tells me that, in Babylon, you could be forgiven for stealing if you could pay back the person you stole from at a rate of 30 times the value of what you stole; however, if you didn’t repay what you stole, you would be “put to death.” It is also interesting that a man could sell his wife or child to settle a debt, which tells me that women and children had monetary value and no real rights of their own. Slavery was clearly a core part of the social structure since a person could be “put to death” for helping a slave escape. Listed below are a few more laws from the Code: 129. If a man’s wife is caught lying with another man, they shall be bound and thrown into the water. If the woman’s husband spares her life, the king shall spare the life of the man. 132. If the finger has been pointed at a wife because of another man, though she has not been caught lying with him she shall throw herself into the sacred river for her husband’s sake. 141. If a wife goes out, plays the fool, ruins her house and belittles her husband, he may divorce her; or, if he prefers, he may marry another and keep the former wife as his maidservant. 142. If a woman hates her husband and says: “You shall not have me,” her past shall be inquired into. If she had been careful and was without past sin; and her husband had been going out and greatly belittling her, she has no blame. She shall take her dowry and go back to her father. 145. If a man’s wife does not give him children, he may take a concubine. These laws all deal with marriage relationships and more specifically, cheating, lying, and bearing children. I guess we could call this the earliest form of divorce law. I find number 142 the most interesting of this set. It says that a woman can leave her husband if she “hates him” and is “without sin,” if he’s been going around badmouthing her. Yet the other laws in the set give her no rights. In fact, if she is even accused of adultery by another man, she has to “throw herself into the sacred river.” It is interesting to me how these very early laws seemed so focused on specific behaviors between women and men. It tells me that the men who wrote these laws were really micromanaging relations between women and men, with an eye toward the hyper-regulation of women’s activities in order to maintain the social order. Listed below are a few more laws dealing with relations among men: 195. If a man strikes his father, they shall cut off his hand. 202. If a man strikes the cheek of his superior, he shall receive sixty strokes with an oxtail whip. 204. If a common man strikes a common man on the cheek, he shall pay ten shekels of silver. 205. If a man’s slave strikes the son of a gentleman on the cheek, they shall cut off his ear. (qtd. in Chapman18) These four laws very clearly maintain a social structure in which people must respect their elders and bosses. Also, there are different consequences for stepping out of line if you are a “gentleman” versus a “common man.” The “gentleman” gets a small fine for hitting someone from a lower class than him. The “slave” gets an ear cut off for hitting the “son of a gentleman.” I imagine if a slave hits the gentleman himself, he’s probably put to death. What does Hammurabi’s Code tell me about the complexity of early cities? The specific details outlined in the excerpts above tell me that a very elaborate legal system evolved by 1700 BCE in Babylon to help regulate relationships among the thousands of people who lived there. The elite who wrote the code were very concerned with maintaining a social order that included “gentlemen,” “common men,” women, slaves, and children. The fact that death was a common punishment in this code of law tells me this was a culture obsessed with making sure no one stepped out of line. Conclusions about complexity and early cities What do the documents from Mesopotamia and the Olmec heads from Mesoamerica tell me about life in the world’s earliest cities? Overall, religion and laws were designed by humans to create order in daily life. Whether it was through giving thanks to the gods for wealth or mediating relationships between men and women, a key component to early cities were these man-made systems of order. These laws were probably written by a small group of elites who rose to rule these cities, and maintaining asocial hierarchy was extremely important to them. They were undoubtedly prosperous and wealthy, and thus naturally interested in staying at the top. So the legal and social systems they created did exactly that. The celebration of life through the arts, literature, and religion were also important components of early cities. As people were freed from the daily grind of farming for existence, they sought ways to express their creativity and to celebrate their success. Art and architecture were expressions of that success. This short journal entry is an example of how historians go about exploring important questions and looking at new information. They use a mixture of historical documents and the writings of other historians to inform their thinking. All sources are listed in the working bibliography. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: Understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Where was Babatha born and who ruled this region for most of her life?Babatha was in court a lot. What was she fighting for?What kind of law did Babatha use to support her arguments, and how did she later change her strategy?To what degree was Babatha successful?How does the artist use art and design to distinguish between Roman law and Jewish law in the balloons in the center panel of the page? Third read: Evaluating and Corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does this biography of Babatha support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about communities and their impact on the people who lived in them during this period? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . Babatha (Graphic Biography) Writer: Lindsay Chrisman Artist: Liz Clarke Babatha was a Jewish woman living in the Roman Empire who disputed custody of her son and ownership of property under Jewish and Roman law. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

East Asia [[header image]] By Craig Benjamin The complex and powerful states, dynasties, and civilizations that emerged in East Asia were strongly influenced by the environments in which they prospered. Floods help shape a worldview [[image 1]] What were the geologic and geographic advantages favoring certain locations that facilitated the establishment of villages and towns — some of which grew into cities — in various regions of East Asia? What role did climate play in enabling powerful states, and eventually agrarian civilizations, to appear in some areas while other locations remained better suited for foraging? Let’s begin to answer these questions with a story about floods in China. China’s two great rivers — the Yangtze and the Yellow — have been susceptible to regular flooding for as long as we can measure in the historical and geological record; nothing, however, can compare to the catastrophic floods of August 19, 1931. In just one day the Yangtze River rose an astonishing 53 feet above its normal level, unleashing some of the most destructive floodwaters ever seen. These floods were a product of a “perfect storm” of conditions — monsoons, heavy snowmelt, and tremendous and unexpected rains that pounded huge areas of southern China. As all this water poured into the Yangtze’s tributaries, the river rose until it burst its banks for hundreds of miles. The results were devastating — 40 million people affected, 24 million forced to relocate, and more than 140,000 people drowned. An area the size of Oklahoma was underwater, and the southern capital city of Nanjing was flooded for six weeks. Such is the power of nature. People throughout history have been forced to acknowledge it, but in China the realization has led to a widely quoted maxim: “Heaven nourishes and Heaven destroys.” Despite the best efforts of emperors to regulate episodes of environmental boom and bust, these natural and uncontrollable cycles have profoundly influenced the core foundations of Chinese and East Asian culture. The behavior of rivers has become a model for the constant flux of natural forces, the balance between nature as creator and nature as destroyer. This is an example of why historical processes rely so heavily on the environmental context in which they take place. Big Historians believe that understanding geography and climate is necessary background to the study of any civilization. In this essay, we look at the physical geography of China, Korea, and Japan to see how it has influenced the cultural and political history of East Asia. China China and the United States share several geographical similarities. They are about the same size, reside in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere, and have lengthy coastlines and diverse topographies. China is located in the eastern part of Asia, along the west coast of the Pacific Ocean, a region that is also home to the Korean Peninsula and the island nation of Japan. With a total land area of more than 3 million square miles, China is the third-largest country in the world after Russia and Canada. China also has extensive seas and numerous islands, and a coastline that extends for more than 11,000 miles. In a country the size of China, it is hardly surprising to find a great variety of topography, climate, and vegetation. The eastern regions are fertile alluvial plains that have been built up by China’s great river systems. This is the region that has been densely settled and farmed for thousands of years, and where all the great dynasties and their capitals were located. Along the edges of the Mongolian Plateau in the north lie extensive grass-lands, the home of the pastoral nomadic peoples who interacted (and competed and clashed) with China’s sedentary populations virtually from the beginning of history. The vast “grass oceans” hosted Saka and Yuezhi, Xiongnu and Hun, Jurchen and Mongol — militarized archer warriors whom segments of the Great Wall were built to keep out. The southern regions of China consist of hill country and low mountain ranges. The south receives extensive rainfall, which is ideal for rice cultivation. The success of rice farmers through the ages — from around 8000 BCE, when the grain was first harvested and domesticated — explains why China has been consistently able to support a very large population. China is also a mountainous country. The highest of these mountain ranges, including the Himalaya, the Karakoram, and the Tien Shan, are all located in the west, where they have long acted as a formidable barrier to communication. To make these topographical barriers even more challenging, the mountain ranges are interspersed with harsh deserts like the Taklimakan and Gobi. There is little arable land for agriculture in the west, so the smallish populations there have been confined to oasis settlements or have lived as pastoral nomads on the steppes. This led to Chinese civilization emerging in the more arable east, north, and south. Isolated by its own “wild west,” China was cut off from the rest of Eurasia and from competing agrarian civilizations. Even today, these formidable topographical barriers, and the vast distances necessary to cross western China, affect China’s relations with its western neighbors. Yet these barriers have their advantages too. Chinese governments from the earliest dynasties have been forced to focus on internal cultural and ethnic integration rather than on external expansion. Although the mountains and deserts of the west limited contact between early imperial dynasties and other Afro-Eurasian civilizations for thousands of years, they were eventually breached by traders moving along the Silk Roads, the first connection between China and the rest of Afro-Eurasia. It was the Silk Roads (land and maritime) that allowed many of the ideas and technological inventions of East Asian civilization — paper, printing, gunpowder — to reach the West, where their impact was profound. China’s two river systems have also greatly influenced its history and culture. The Huang He in the north, called the Yellow River because of huge amounts of silt (yellow loess soil) that it carries from the plains into the ocean, rises in the mountains of Tibet and flows 2,920 miles to the Yellow Sea. During its journey, it crosses the high western plateau, flows through the arid northern deserts, and then spills out onto the broad alluvial plain. About midway along its course, the river takes a series of sharp turns — the so-called “great bend” — before resuming its path. This bend was long perceived as a frontier, the very edge of the civilized world beyond which lay the endless and dangerous steppes where one entered the realm of the “barbarians” — militarized pastoral nomads like the Xiongnu and the Mongols, China’s most formidable enemies. The Huang He is also known as “China’s Sorrow” because of the misery its devastating floods have caused. The earliest cities, states, and civilizations of East Asia all appeared along the Huang He — the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, and Tang dynasties were all centered there. So for millennia some of the largest populations in the world lived within the Yellow River system and faced the potential of regular flood devastation. Emperors and court officials tried numerous schemes to control these floods, but with little success. The other major river of China is the Yangtze, the third longest river in the world after the Nile and the Amazon. It flows from the Tibetan Plateau nearly 4,000 miles through southern China, until it empties into the sea beside Shanghai. The river’s basin area, about one-fifth the size of China, is home to so many people (almost 500 million) that if the Yangtze valley were a country it would be the third most populous in the world! The Yangtze also has its great bend to the north, a bend that perhaps has been of even greater consequence to Chinese civilization than its Yellow River counterpart. In southwestern China, all the mountainous valleys are arranged in a north-south direction, products of the twisting of the land-scape caused by the collision between the Indian and Asian tectonic plates. The great rivers that flow through these Himalayan valleys, like the south-running Brahmaputra and Mekong, all flow from the Tibetan Plateau in the north toward the seas that lap Southeast Asia. The Yangtze would have gone the same way, depriving millions of Chinese people of its life-giving water, were it not for a singular topographical feature called Cloud Mountain. This massive wall of limestone is placed right across the path of the onrushing Yangtze, forcing the river to abruptly interrupt its journey south and turn sharply back to the north. The Chinese attribute the fortuitous placement of Cloud Mountain to the work of legendary emperor Yu the Great, who labored mightily to keep the river in China. Geologists, more accurately, attribute it to a particular quirk in twisting of the plate tectonic collision zone. Either way, without Cloud Mountain, Chinese history would have played out very differently. The societies that emerged in Korea and Japan reflect their participation in an East Asian regional identity that revolved around China. We can talk about the existence of an “Eastern Hemispheric cultural zone” by the beginning of the Era of Agrarian Civilizations, just as we speak about the “East Asian region” as a semi-unified cultural and economic entity today. But Korean and Japanese civilizations never became carbon copies of China. Korea The Korean Peninsula extends from northeastern China and is otherwise surrounded by the Yellow Sea to the west, the Sea of Japan to the east, and the Korea Strait connecting the two seas. The Yellow Sea dividing China and the peninsula is only 120 miles wide at its narrowest point, and if you were to sail from southern Korea to Kyushu in Japan on a clear day, land would never be out of sight. The peninsula is about 85,000 square miles — or about the same size as England or the state of Utah. Most of the land is extremely rugged, mountainous, and heavily forested. This presented the first human migrants to Korea with a host of environmental challenges but also a range of possible settlement sites: a long, sinuous coastline with many microenvironments and marine resources, and many wooded interior environments such as river flats, and mountain valleys with access to forest foods, timber, fresh water, and caves. Geologically, Korea consists mostly of a block of ancient granite that was laid down before the Cambrian era. On top of this are younger rocks — gneiss, more recent granites, and limestone. The limestone has produced large caves that are mostly accessible through fissures and cracks rather than through flat floors and entrances. Although these might have seemed attractive to early human migrants, few of these caves were the right shape or size to become practical dwellings. The ancient granites contain important metals – gold, copper, tin, and iron – all of which were accessed by early Korean states. Korea has been a major gold producer for a very long time. Although Japan is so close, Korea has almost none of the volatile volcanic activity of its eastern neighbor. The only volcano is Mount Baekdu in the far north, which at 9,000 feet is also the highest mountain in Korea. Today the mountain contains an extinct crater filled with Heaven Lake; according to ancient legend, this was home to the gods. From Baekdu in the far north all the way to the southern tip of the peninsula, 70 percent of Korea’s land consists of steep-sided mountains. It is their ruggedness rather than their height that has been so influential: the hills made it very difficult to cross from east to west, allowing cultures and kingdoms to develop in relative geographical isolation from each other. One of these, the Silla Kingdom, grew strong enough in its remote southeastern enclave behind the Sobaek Mountains that it eventually overcame the mountainous terrain to conquer the other kingdoms and establish the first unified Korean state. As with China, rivers have also played a critical role in the emergence of Korean culture. All of Korea’s rivers twist and turn as they cut their way down from the mountains. Six are more than 400 kilometers long, and most of them run west or south. All the great capitals of Korean history have been located along the major rivers of the Taedong (where Pyongyang lies today); the Imjin-Han system (where Seoul is located); and the Kum further south. During the last ice age sea levels were about 400 feet lower than they are today, which meant that much of the Yellow Sea was dry land, and Korea was connected to Japan. Paleolithic migrants were able to walk from China across the Yellow Sea Plain to Korea, and then on to Japan. As temperatures warmed about 11,000 years ago, sea levels rose, sealing off the inhabitants of Japan, and separating Korea from China, except along the northern border. Early Korean people constructed a series of rituals, survival strategies, and ideas about the relationship of families to larger organizations that were products of the geographical context in which they emerged. These influenced their origin stories, such as the legend that Korean history dates to 2333 BCE, when King Tangun (a mythical figure born of the son of Heaven and a woman from a bear-totem tribe) established the first kingdom of Choson, or “Land of the Morning Calm.” The name reflected well the tranquil forest camps, seaside villages, and river terraces of the Choson state. Japan Japanese culture was perhaps even more powerfully influenced by the environment in which it formed. Modern Japan consists of four large islands — Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu — and thousands of smaller ones, with a combined area of roughly 145,000 square miles, which means it is just a little larger than Italy, and a little smaller than California. The 1,500-mile-long chain stretches from cool northern latitudes to warmer southern ones. Because the islands are separated from the mainland by several hundred miles of water (120 miles at the closest point), this has fostered a sense of security that has allowed for the emergence of distinct Japanese culture. This isolation also helps explain why attempts to invade Japan were largely unsuccessful. But Japan has never been completely isolated from the cultural influences coming from sophisticated neighboring states like Korea and China. The geographical chain of islands to which Japan belongs is much more extensive than just the Japanese archipelago; it stretches along the northwest edge of the Pacific from the Aleutian Islands in the north all the way to the Philippines in the south. This chain is the product of, and still heavily influenced by, the tectonic forces that shape the surface of the Earth. Japan sits at the intersection of no fewer than four tectonic plates (part of the Pacific region’s “Ring of Fire”) so has undergone regular violent shaping and upheaval. The devastating earthquake of 2011, which generated a massive tsunami, was just one of about a thousand earthquakes that rattle Japan every year. Another product of Japan’s tectonic location is that most of the country consists of geologically young mountains, driven up by these plate collisions. These mountains are steep and jagged, producing fast-moving streams and regular landslides. The tectonic plate boundaries have also spawned volcanoes, the highest and most famous of which is Mount Fuji at 12,388 feet. These rugged and unstable mountain ranges are unsuitable for farming, limiting to settlement patterns, and difficult to climb or cross, so have been serious barriers for internal transportation and communication from the beginning of Japanese history. This led to the emergence of regionally autonomous states in early Japan, and to an early reliance on water transport. The sediment regularly washed from these young mountains joins with rich volcanic soil to create narrow but very fertile coastal plains. Although the plains make up only 13 percent of Japan’s area, their fertility marked them as where the first rice farmers settled, and where the first towns, cities, and states appeared. One of the most important of these plains is the Tsukushi Plain in northern Kyushu. Influenced by nearby civilizations in Korea and China, it became an early center of emerging Japanese culture. Japan’s location between the great mainland continent of Asia and the wide Pacific also creates a distinctive and challenging weather environment. In winter, cold winds blow out of Asia and dump large quantities of snow on the mountains of Japan. In the summer, warm moist air blows in from the south, bringing high temperatures and often torrential rains and typhoons. These weather systems have strongly influenced settlement patterns, and the formidable hurricane-like storms have had enormous historical consequences. Two attempted invasions of Japan by the Mongols were thwarted by powerful storms and strong winds that the Japanese considered divine, calling them kamikaze. Because of its long north-south stretch and varied terrain, Japan also contains a wide variety of plants and animals. The combination of plentiful fresh water and a long growing season created a paradise for plants, and for the herbivores that feed off them. When foraging humans first crossed the land bridges connecting the Japanese archipelago to the Asian mainland about 35,000 years ago, they found a rich variety of potential foodstuffs awaiting them — forest and sea food, along with plentiful boar, deer, and many smaller animals. Land and climate shape civilization All these naturally occurring geological, geographic, and biological features — the flooding rivers, towering mountains, arid deserts, and rich alluvial plains of China; the narrow coasts, rugged mountains, and fast-flowing rivers of Korea; and the violent storms, earthquakes, volcanoes, and plains of the island nation of Japan — have been as fundamental in shaping East Asian civilization as any products of human ingenuity or will. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: In what ways was farming “uneven?”What is the relationship between living a sedentary life and cultivating or domesticating food?What was central to nomadic pastoralists’ way of life? Why?How did different kinds of food production affect community structures?What networks were pastoralists, nomads, and foragers a part of? How did these networks affect the communities of people involved in trade?What are some advantages that nomadic communities had over settled communities? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: You may remember that the production and distribution frame narrative seems to suggest that people were foragers, and later became farmers. How does this article, and the primary source, cause you to think about that narrative?Looking at the primary source excerpts in this article, what claims do you think are credible? What are the limitations of these sources, and how does the author, audience, or purpose of the source influence your evaluation of this source? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Pastoralists, Nomads, and Foragers Painting of Native dwellings in a golden field against a backdrop of snowy mountains. Two people are on horseback. By Eman M. Elshaikh Farming was a major development, but not all humans began farming immediately. Here, we look at the lives of the pastoralists, nomads, and foragers who did not farm. Historians have long asked whether agriculture was a positive development for humans. It's equally important to ask: did everyone adopt agriculture? Actually, many communities didn't begin farming right away—or at all. Historians agree that agriculture did not take over fully or evenly. While the debate continues about whether or not farming improved humans' way of life, it's worth considering how non-agricultural communities differ from agricultural ones. Photograph of dried wheat berries, rice, and other grainsGrains like wheat and rice form the basis of most diets around the world today, but they weren't always staple components of human diets. By IRRI, CC BY 2.0. Photograph of dried wheat berries, rice, and other grains Grains like wheat and rice form the basis of most diets around the world today, but they weren't always staple components of human diets. By IRRI, CC BY 2.0. What does it mean that farming was not adopted evenly? It's uneven because it spread to some places and not others. Many communities began farming independently, and they did so at very different times. Some began farming over 12,000 years ago, but other groups didn't farm for millennia after that. Today there are still communities who don't rely primarily on farming. Adoption was also uneven in the sense that it wasn't always adopted fully or linearly. Some communities did a bit of farming, domesticated some animals, but remained largely nomadic. Others farmed some of the year and relied on trade at other times. Some communities who had previously farmed, like those occupying the Sahara region in Africa, became nomadic pastoralists as the region became more arid. Non-agricultural societies didn't disappear after the Neolithic Revolution. They still populated much of the world, played important roles in trade networks, and had unique social structures. Different kinds of communities As those who adopted agriculture settled into villages, towns, and cities, how did other communities live? Generally, their lives weren't as sedentary. But that doesn't mean that they didn't cultivate or domesticate anything. In fact, it's a mistake to think of agriculture and domestication as the same thing. Many groups domesticated animals and plants but didn't rely on them entirely or settle down permanently to cultivate land. Others, called pastoralists, domesticated animals but didn't grow plants regularly, and they remained mostly nomadic. Still others mainly foraged, as their ancestors had for millennia. The distinction between these groups is blurry. Most communities during the early agrarian era relied on multiple ways of food production. Even settled farmers continued to hunt and fish. In the Americas, people mostly hunted and gathered and grew some plants. Herd animals like the alpaca and the llama were domesticated. Marine resources were abundant in some areas. In coastal South America, as well as in the Baltic region of northern Europe, fishing sustained large, wealthy settlements. These communities became sedentary about 5,000 years ago. They didn't rely on farming, but they also weren't nomadic. Animals were critical to nomadic pastoralists' way of life. The horse was perhaps the single most important animal for pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe. The dry grasslands made farming difficult. Horses and other livestock provided protein in the form of dairy and sometimes meat. Their dung provided fuel, their hides clothing and shelter, and they were the primary transportation technology. Pastoralist groups like the Scythians were known for their expert command of horses and their military strength. Tools like saddles and stirrups made horses indispensable. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 –425 BCE), who encountered many nomadic groups during his travels in the Eurasian steppe, described Scythians as: "Having neither cities nor forts, and carrying their dwellings with them wherever they go: accustomed, moreover, one and all of them, to shoot from horseback: and living not by husbandry but on their cattle, their wagons the only houses that they possess, how can they fail of being unconquerable, and unassailable even." This passage from Herodotus' Histories gives us some insight into the lifestyles of nomadic pastoralist groups during this period. But as with any source, we have to think about perspective. Many of the sources we have about nomadic groups were written by people from outside groups, like Herodotus. There are barely any first-hand accounts, as most nomadic communities didn't develop strong systems of writing and record-keeping. So, we must rely on outside sources and also study modern-day nomadic groups. Neither of these methods are perfect, but they allow scholars to gain a basic understanding of how some of these groups were organized. It's important to remember that in situations where sources are scarce, historians have to generalize. How were these groups generally organized? We know that family structures were important. Pastoral communities, like foragers, often moved in groups of five to a dozen families. They cooperated to manage labor and defend each other from outside groups. Their families weren't necessarily as defined as those of settled farming families. In many cases, children born to married and unmarried parents who had the same social status. Of course, nomadic groups were diverse and had varying levels of complexity. Some pastoralists formed small confederations, and others, like the Xiongnu, built empires. Gender roles in nomadic groups—whether pastoralists or foragers—were usually relatively freer than in agrarian communities. Men typically cared for cattle, made weapons and other tools, hunted, and defended the communities. Women and children organized households, made food and clothing, and took care of small children. But when men were absent, particularly when they were away on military excursions, women took on almost all of the responsibility. When the group moved, women often took down and set up dwellings. They were also trained in riding and archery, as they sometimes had to defend their communities from outsiders. Women's graves sometimes contained weapons, suggesting they had a role in military life as well. One Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) Chinese historian, in describing a neighboring nomadic group, wrote that, "When drawing the calculations and plans, the males (men) defer to opinion of females (women) and settle on their own only the military affairs." Carpet depicts a man in a dotted scarf on horsebackA felt carpet depicting a horseman from a central Asian nomadic group, c. 300 BCE. Public Domain. Carpet depicts a man in a dotted scarf on horseback A felt carpet depicting a horseman from a central Asian nomadic group, c. 300 BCE. Public Domain. Networks and exchange Both pastoralist and foraging societies had varying economic systems. Many of these systems included trade with settled communities. Pastoralists often traded dairy, meat, and wool for agricultural products, including carbohydrate-rich grains. Much of this trade was well-organized and continued for long periods of time. In fact, successful trade between non-agricultural communities often resulted in the creation of long-term settlements in some trade centers. Pastoralist nomads supplied and handled animals along the Silk Road. Silk Road travelers needed these nomads for transportation and protection. Many settlements began along the Silk Road. Trade between Anatolia and the Red Sea region resulted in the establishment of trade cities in the Middle East. In the Arabian Peninsula, Arab pastoralists supplied camels and led caravans across the sparse desert, in some cases making wheeled vehicles unnecessary. Non-agricultural communities benefitted from and contributed to trade networks. But they also had conflicts with settled farming groups. Many of the sources we have about pastoralist nomads describe them negatively. Sedentary agriculturalists were often part of powerful, affluent societies. But they were also vulnerable to attack. Being settled meant being tied to land and possessions; being nomadic meant having a mobile community with a mobile food supply. This allowed nomads to attack and plunder resources. They could gain access to agricultural products without having to farm or trade. Of course, this angered settled communities. One example of a major conflict was between the Chinese and neighboring pastoralist groups. Many Chinese dynasties launched massive war efforts to subdue these nomadic groups. The Han-dynasty historian Sima Qian (c. 147-87 BCE) wrote about the northern Xiongnu in his Records of the Grand Historian: "As early as the time of Emperors Yao and Shun and before, we hear of these people, known as Mountain Barbarians, Xianyun, or Hunzhu, living in the region of the northern barbarians and wandering from place to place pasturing their animals. The animals they raise consist mainly of horses, cows, and sheep…. They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities or fixed dwellings, nor do they engage in any kind of agriculture. Their lands, however, are divided into regions under the control of various leaders. They have no writing, and even promises and agreements are only verbal. The little boys start out by learning to ride sheep and shoot birds and rats with a bow and arrow, and when they get a little older they shoot foxes and hares, which are used for food. Thus all the young men are able to use a bow and act as armed cavalry in time of war. It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their inborn nature. For long-range weapons they use bows and arrows, and swords and spears at close range. If the battle is going well for them they will advance, but if not, they will retreat, for they do not consider it a disgrace to run away. Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing of propriety or righteousness." As we can see from this passage, Sima Qian considers the Xiongnu to be predatory, violent, and without morals. Many nomadic groups were described this way by sedentary societies. However, it's wise to be critical when reading these accounts from outsiders. Certainly, nomadic groups had their own systems of morality and value. Their conflicts with neighboring groups suggest that they were not always well-understood. In the end, we still learn much from these sources about how diverse non-agricultural communities lived, worked, and interacted with others. Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was the period like in which Confucius developed his ethic and shared it with others?How did Confucius argue that order could be restored?What were the principle ideas of Confucian social order?What does the author mean when she says that it was a belief system that was political? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: The community frame refers to both belief systems and states as communities. What does this reading suggest about the relationship between the two in China during this period? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Confucianism Tapestry painting shows several people sitting cross-legged on the ground, surrounding a pedestal. On the pedestal is another seated person, and he is lecturing the others. By Eman M. Elshaikh The confusing thing about Confucianism is how it required unequal relationships, but also balance and harmony within those relationships – at home, in school, and in government. Introduction For someone who left no writings behind, Confucius sure is quoted a lot. Hundreds of aphorisms (wise sayings or proverbs) and philosophical ideas are attributed to Confucius, but historians aren't exactly sure which ideas were really his. After Confucius' death, his followers compiled his teachings into The Analects, which lay out Confucius' ethical system. Portrait of Confucius. He is portrayed as elderly, and has his hands in clasped together near his heart. He is wearing ornate, long robes.The teaching Confucius. Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758 CE, Tang Dynasty. Public domain. Portrait of Confucius. He is portrayed as elderly, and has his hands in clasped together near his heart. He is wearing ornate, long robes. The teaching Confucius. Portrait by Wu Daozi, 685-758 CE, Tang Dynasty. Public domain. But according to The Analects, Confucius didn't think he was coming up with original ideas. Instead, he claims he is merely a transmitter, promoting what's essentially ancient Chinese wisdom. History is a big part of Confucian beliefs. For Confucius, the key to an ideal society was in the past. Confucius (551-479 BCE) was an educated man born to a wealthy family. But he was very troubled by the political turmoil he observed. Confucius lived during the Eastern Zhou dynasty when different states were fighting to gain more power. It was an unstable time with frequent wars. Motivated to ease these problems, he developed a sophisticated moral framework. His teachings would make a huge impact on Chinese culture and government and, as this philosophy traveled along trade networks, to other societies in East Asia as well. The Confucian solution Confucius believed that to restore order, societies had to encourage certain virtues, such as loyalty, trustworthiness, and respecting your elders. He believed people were capable of attaining these and other virtues through education. By learning history, literature, and philosophy, people could gain insights. They could then apply this knowledge to their private lives and to public political issues. But how do you practice virtues, and how do you enforce them in others? That's where rituals and rules come in. It's one thing to you say you're virtuous, but when the whole community adopts rules and practices rituals meant to encourage specific virtues, people are more able to adjust to this ethical life. By living respectful and ethical lives, his followers believed they could become "superior" people. In order to attain this moral refinement, according to Confucius, people had to constantly reflect upon their behavior. In The Analects, this is described as follows: "Master Zeng said: Each day I examine myself upon three points. In planning for others, have I been loyal? In company with friends, have I been trustworthy? And have I practiced what has been passed on to me?" Three men stand around a small fire bit, where tablets are smoldering. One man is poking at the fire pit with a stickA Confucian ritual ceremony in Autumn in Jeju, South Korea. After the ritual ceremony, they burn ancestral tablets made of paper. By joonghijung, CC BY 2.0. Three men stand around a small fire bit, where tablets are smoldering. One man is poking at the fire pit with a stick A Confucian ritual ceremony in Autumn in Jeju, South Korea. After the ritual ceremony, they burn ancestral tablets made of paper. By joonghijung, CC BY 2.0. Initially, Confucian ideas appealed mostly to everyday folks. But over time, his philosophy gained popularity in the political sphere and became the official belief system of the Chinese state. Confucianism also became a big part of the educational system. So much so that officials had to master Confucian principles in order to pass the civil service exams for government employment. Because of this, Confucian ideas influenced Chinese government for centuries. But though Confucianism was bound up in government, it didn't call for harsh laws or punishments like Legalism1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript, another Chinese philosophy. According to The Analects, "The Master said: Guide them with policies and align them with punishments and the people will evade them and have no shame. Guide them with virtue and align them with li [traditions and virtues of the Zhou] and the people will have a sense of shame and fulfill their roles…" As this passage suggests, Confucianism called for a kind of moral training which strengthened the correct social order. It was less about punishing wrongdoers and more about making people want to be good. Confucianism and social order The Confucian social order was centered on relationships, and in particular "five key relationships". Importantly, these relationships were generally unequal but complementary, which means that they worked in harmony2^22squared . Fathers were above sons, husbands above wives, older siblings above younger ones, and rulers above their subjects. (One relationship—friend to friend—was not unequal). Because, in general, one side had more power, that side had to behave morally, with concern for the other side. This would then help the inferior person in the relationship obey and respect the superior. Though it sounds contradictory, the unequal relationships were meant to create balance and harmony. In this way, the family was an example of political life, and the place where social order was created and maintained. The family was seen as a kind of mini- government. Filial piety, meaning respect and honor for elder family members, was incredibly important. It tied into existing practices, like the veneration (great respect) of ancestors. These principles were clearly expressed in The Analects: "1.6 The Master said: A young man should be filial within his home and respectful of elders when outside, should be careful and trustworthy, broadly caring of people at large, and should cleave to [embrace] those who are ren [virtuous in all things]. If he has energy left over, he may study the refinements of culture (wen)… 1.9 Master Zeng said: Devote care to life's end and pursue respect for the distant dead; in this way, the virtue of the people will return to fullness…" Confucian family structures were also very hierarchical when it came to gender. Though filial piety called for respecting all elders, men came first. Women's roles were primarily to care for the family and manage the household. They typically did not have formal roles outside of the home. This was truer for women of the upper classes than it was for lower class women, who sometimes had to work outside of the home to support their families. In the cosmic balance between yin and yang, women were seen as passive, soft, and inferior. A sculpture of a kneeling person. One hand is raised, and the other is holding a bucket. The sculpture is in a park or garden, surrounded by green grassFourteenth of The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars, a sculpture depicting a figure from a classic text of Confucian filial piety written by Guo Jujing during the Yuan dynasty (1260–1368 CE). By Dingar, public domain. A sculpture of a kneeling person. One hand is raised, and the other is holding a bucket. The sculpture is in a park or garden, surrounded by green grass Fourteenth of The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars, a sculpture depicting a figure from a classic text of Confucian filial piety written by Guo Jujing during the Yuan dynasty (1260–1368 CE). By Dingar, public domain. Even though Confucian ideas resulted in social hierarchies, they placed an emphasis on compassion. The most superior person in society, the emperor, was therefore tasked with ensuring justice and providing for his subjects. According to The Analects, "The Master said: To guide a state great enough to possess a thousand war chariots: be attentive to affairs and trustworthy; regulate expenditures and treat persons as valuable; employ the people according to the proper season." This emphasized the importance of sincerity and care on the part of the state. Similarly, men had to care for their wives and children and treat them with kindness. Despite this hierarchical structure, Confucianism still left room for social mobility. Because it emphasized education and proper behavior, it created opportunities for common people to improve themselves and gain important positions. It created a system which valued merit rather than simply noble birth, though who your parents were still mattered. Confucianism was therefore a belief system that was distinctly political, focused on maintaining order in relationships at many levels. But it was less concerned with the divine and the mystical. Confucius is said to have claimed that because humans have yet to understand this life, they can't really know anything what's beyond it. Little thought was given to concepts like heaven, hell, and reincarnation. Instead, Confucius and his followers focused on practical, worldly affairs, like maintaining harmony in family, government, and the community. [Notes] Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?What does evidence from the Nile River region tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nubia and Ancient Egypt Painting shows several people walking in the same direction, each carrying plates or vessels. One person also carries an animal or animal skin on their arm. By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor The Nile River Valley is home to one of the most ancient societies. Best known for pyramids and mummies, communities in this area, such as Egypt and Nubia, were founded long before the first pyramid. Introduction Most early agrarian (farming) societies developed along river valleys. These valleys provided access to fresh water for humans and animals. They also possessed fertile soil for planting and a water source for both the irrigation of crops and for trade. Early humans had lived in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years as foragers. So why would humans begin to shift from foraging to farming? One reason, especially in this section of Africa, was the impact of naturally occurring climate change. As this area became dryer, fewer resources were available. The regions with the most resources at this time were found along river valleys. The Nile River is the longest river in the world, and this stretch of land provided the necessities required to sustain life. Foraging and pastoral communities lived in this area for centuries before people began planting grains. In fact, the shift from foraging to farming was probably a slow process here. Some communities settled closer to the river and farmed more than those on the outskirts of the river valley. People who stayed in rural areas probably practiced a mix of small-plot farming, foraging, herding, and hunting. Interactions between these communities were common. They also likely shared certain cultural practices such as similar beliefs and languages. A map of Ancient Egypt shows the Nile river running through and features ancient cities that existed along the river.Map of Ancient Egypt, featuring the Nile River up to the fifth cataract, along with ancient cities and sites from the period c. 3150 to 30 BCE, by Jeff Dahl, CC BY-SA 4.0. A map of Ancient Egypt shows the Nile river running through and features ancient cities that existed along the river. Map of Ancient Egypt, featuring the Nile River up to the fifth cataract, along with ancient cities and sites from the period c. 3150 to 30 BCE, by Jeff Dahl, CC BY-SA 4.0. Nubia, a-group culture (c. 3800-2900 BCE) The ancient settlements of Nubia were located in an area south of Upper Egypt in modern-day Sudan. They stretched from the first cataract to the second cataract (shallow areas of the Nile). Some of the earliest farming societies in the Indo-Mediterranean world began in this region of Africa. Archaeologists have called the early inhabitants of Nubia, A-Group culture. Almost 200 sites, mainly cemeteries and some housing sites, have been analyzed. Nubian and early Egyptian artifacts appeared to have many similarities. This indicates that the two societies may have shared many traits like ideas about rulers, written symbols, and artistic features. There is also evidence of established trade networks between Nubia and Egypt. Nubia was located in an area that participated in the flow of goods like ivory from inner Africa to the Mediterranean region. Nubians lived in stone houses. Archaeologists have found evidence of Nubian storage pits, flint deposits, stone tools, grindstones, gold, copper, and pottery. Some of these artifacts came from local sources while others came from Egypt and beyond. Nubians also buried their dead in a similar fashion to the Egyptians. Both societies buried bodies facing west and left offerings to guide the dead to the afterlife. Lapis lazuli, a semi- precious, deep blue stone, has also been found. This rock was used in the creation of the female figure shown on the right. These figures may have been used as fertility symbols or for religious purposes. (Very much like the Venus of Willendorf discussed in Era 2). It is interesting that the nearest quarry (mine) for this rock was in modern-day Afghanistan. These mines are thousands of miles from the Nile River Valley where these artifacts were found. Using this foreign stone in the Nubian-Egyptian region would indicate that the figurine was a special item. These figurines would only have been buried with someone of high social standing. A figure of a woman carved out of bone, with large blue stones for eyes Bone figure of a woman, c. 3700-3500 BCE. By British Museum, Public domain. A figure of a woman carved out of bone, with large blue stones for eyes Bone figure of a woman, c. 3700-3500 BCE. By British Museum, Public domain. Some graves of people with higher social status also included the bodies of cattle. This shows the importance of this animal to a semi-agricultural and pastoral community. These graves also held pottery, beads, gold, ivory, incense burners, sculptures and seals. Maceheads, ornaments placed on maces or staffs, have also been found. These maceheads would have been used by those in powerful positions. These grave items also indicate that the cultures of Nubia and Egypt were connected. Some of the decorations on these artifacts have common themes. Nubian women may have been more highly regarded than women in other early agrarian societies. Archaeologists have uncovered female burials with important grave goods, which provide some insight into the importance of women. Women were viewed as givers of life, and in many cases, experts in agriculture. Nubian women also held an important role in religious rituals. Their role was especially important in rituals related to birth (creation), fertility, death and rebirth. Both Nubian and Ancient Egyptian religion viewed the goddess Isis in a similar way. Ancient Egypt – Predynastic, Protodynastic, and Early Dynastic Periods (c. 6000-2700 BCE) We usually think of pyramids and mummies when we think of Ancient Egyptian culture. The pyramids are huge structures that housed the dead and have been preserved for millennia. But Egyptian history began long before the pyramids were built. It began long before the reign of King Tut and Cleopatra, and even the mummification process. The Ancient Egypt of mummies and pyramids is usually divided into periods ruled by different dynasties—lines of rulers in the same family—who ruled as pharaohs. These dynasties really began to rule Egypt around 3000 BCE. In this article, we are mainly focusing on: the period before dynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt—called the Predynastic Period (about 6000-3200 BCE)the period in which a centralized kingdom began to emerge—called the Protodynastic Period (around 3200-3000 BCE)the earliest pharaohs—known as the Early Dynastic Period (3000-2700 BCE) The early history of Egypt covers the transition to agriculture and the foundation of societies governed by kings. There are still things we do not know about this ancient history. After more than a century of excavations (digs to search for ancient artifacts) in Egypt, we might expect to have more detail. But many of these early sites lie under the current water level and have proven difficult areas in which to dig. We do know that early agrarian communities existed along the Nile River Valley. These communities were located north of the first cataract (Upper Egypt) and the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt). Like many other areas, the shift from foraging to farming was a gradual one. In Egypt, it appears that the domestication of animals came before the founding of complex farming societies. Some evidence also suggests that certain crops grown in Egypt were first farmed around the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia). This process took about 2000-2500 years and may have been helped by climate change. As a result, a drying period occurred, which pushed people closer to the resources of the Nile. Similar to Nubia, Egypt appears to have been connected to other areas of Southwest Asia. We know this from artifacts found in burial sites from these foreign areas. Lower Egypt had fertile soil and access to networks of trade and interaction with the Mediterranean and Southwest Asian. As a result, this section of Egypt grew in the number of settlements, population, and power. Throughout the predynastic period, rulers of different communities began to amass more and more power, and contact between communities grew. However, some rural communities were relatively self-sufficient. They had contact with others on a more local scale than those who lived near the main centers of society along the Nile. As connections between these cultures grew along the Nile, shared beliefs and places for rituals became more common. An example of these shared spiritual places was the city of Abydos. This city housed the dead (necropolis) of Nubia and Naqada. Later Abydos was also chosen as the burial place for Egyptian royalty. Some time around 3200 BCE, a ruler managed to take control of the entirety of Upper Egypt, in the south. He was known as Scorpion I, the first of two Scorpion kings of Upper Egypt. These kings preceded King Narmer, who is thought to be the monarch who unified Lower and Upper Egypt under one ruler. According to later historical sources (c. 1900 BCE), Menes was said to have been the king who united Egypt. However, after archaeologists discovered the Narmer Palette, a stone carving, historians began to revise this timeline. This palette depicts the year and name of King Narmer and shows this king conquering both lands to unite them as one. Some archaeologists have proposed that Narmer and Menes might have been the same person. Others have speculated that Menes was a later king also known as Hor-Aha. Regardless, the unification of Egypt marks a significant point in Egyptian history. This is when kings began consolidating power and the region grew into an ancient superpower. It also begins the Early Dynastic Period in Egyptian history. The unification of Egypt is also when hieroglyphic writing became more common. First used to keep records, this script became the written language of Egypt. Hieratic script was used for recordkeeping and hieroglyphics were reserved for religious purposes. There are also a number of similarities between the ancient scripts of Egypt and Nubia. This may indicate that they shared a common language, although there may have been regional dialects. Two stone slabs with detailed scenes carved into them. The scenes appear to depict a battle or siege. Narmer Palette c. 3000 BCE, by Nicolas Perrault III. Public Domain. Two stone slabs with detailed scenes carved into them. The scenes appear to depict a battle or siege. Narmer Palette c. 3000 BCE, by Nicolas Perrault III. Public Domain. Unification of Egypt The early kings of Egypt maintained a dual role as both god and king. In much the same way, Egyptian society was seen as a society of opposing forces. Egyptians incorporated this concept of duality in all aspects of their lives. This included the land, the rulers, the notion of life and afterlife, and the complimentary nature of men and women. This idea of harmony between male and female helped elevate Egyptian women to a status unknown in other ancient agrarian societies. As in Nubia, women held important roles in religious rituals and agricultural production. Egyptian women also received equal pay for equal work and owned their own businesses and land. This was not true in most areas of the world at this time. In fact, most industrialized areas of the world today still have not achieved equal pay for equal work. Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums. [Sources and attributions]

Uruk [[header image]] By Cynthia Stokes Brown, adapted by Newsela Nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the world’s first major city sprang up in a fertile region of land called Mesopotamia. The first city Between approximately 3600 and 2600 BCE, the people of Uruk created the innovations characteristic of cities ever since: social hierarchies, specialized occupations, coercive political structures, writing, religion, literature, and monumental architecture. By “city” we mean simply a large group of people, tens of thousands, collected into a whole and living in a defined place with structures designated for a range of specific social functions. To support a city, people living on the land around it had to be able to generate stable surpluses of food from the fertility of the soil and the creatures that inhabited it. In addition, people in the city had to devise ingenious ways to distribute those surpluses, ways that would reinforce constructive patterns of conduct and practice. Cities began to emerge about the same time in various places around the world. But most archaeologists agree that it is fair to claim Uruk (pronounced OO-rook) as one of the world’s first cities (its current name, Warka, is Arabic.) Uruk arose about 5,500 years ago, no time at all when measured against the more than 200,000 years of Homo sapiens or the 6 million years of hominine evolution. [[image 1]] Location, location, location Uruk arose in the place now called Iraq. Greek historians called this area Mesopotamia, or “the land between the rivers.” Those rivers were the Euphrates to the west and the Tigris to the east. By roughly 4000 BCE, people living in higher places in what is now Iraq had settled down to care for domestic sheep and goats and to grow wheat, barley, and peas. Yet their climate was changing; less rain was falling, and they needed to move to more stable sources of water. As people migrated into the two river valleys, they found that the soil produced abundant crops due to the fertility of topsoil from repeated flooding of the rivers. They could grow enough to store surplus grain, enough to support other individuals with occupations other than farming. The surplus grain needed to be collected and distributed; probably priests first managed this task. In addition to grains and domestic animals, people had plenty of fish and fowl from the river and marshes. Beer had already been invented, and a goddess of beer, named Ninkasi, was worshipped. Writing, beliefs, and everyday life A great deal is known about Uruk because of excavations of the site beginning in 1850 and because the earliest writing in the world comes from there, dated to about 3500 BCE. People in Uruk wrote on clay tablets with reeds. The writing is called “cuneiform,” named after the wedge-shaped reeds that writers pressed into wet clay. Since clay tablets are more durable than the silk, bark, bamboo, or papyrus used by other people for writing, many of Uruk’s tablets have survived and are now held in museums throughout the world. From inscriptions found in Uruk we know that its people built a temple to a sky god called An and another one to his daughter, Inanna, goddess of love and war (later known as Ishtar). Inanna served as the patron goddess of Uruk; its inhabitants believed that they attracted her there by building a special house for her, staffed with priests and servants. The priests managed the people’s contributions and gradually built up their power, using temples as centers for the redistribution of surplus food. As people learned to farm, they changed their clothing from wild-animal skins to what they could make from their domesticated animals and plants. In Mesopotamia, this meant that most people wore woolen garments made from the fleece of their sheep, even in hot weather. Only the elite could wear linen, a textile made from the fibers of flax plants, because the process of making it took much longer than weaving or knitting wool. Uruk at its height By 5,000 years ago, Uruk held 40,000 to 50,000 people, and after another few hundred years it reached its peak of 50,000 to 80,000 inhabitants. By that time, there were 11 other cities between the rivers, and they engaged in frequent warfare with each other over land, water, and other resources. Priests gradually had to share their power with warrior leaders, a system that eventually evolved into a single king ruling each city. Early clay tablets in Uruk contain a “standard professions list,” which listed a hundred professions from the king down through ambassadors, priests, and supervisors and on through stonecutters, gardeners, weavers, smiths, cooks, jewelers, and potters. The social structure was topped by a small ruling and priestly elite, with a much larger group of commoners who either owned property or did not, and at the bottom a small group of slaves, those who were captured in war, convicted criminals, or people heavily in debt. As a single authoritarian ruler emerged to lead Uruk and its surrounding farms and villages, historians say that the first state emerged almost simultaneously with the first city. The state consisted of powerful elites who could coerce labor and tribute. Why did the majority of people allow a few people so much power? This is difficult to answer, but on the one hand it seems that the elites took power as more resources became available. On the other hand, it seems that citizens gave power in exchange for organization, which permitted large-scale projects like irrigation, and for security and protection. What may have begun as consensual power may have evolved into coercive power as elites accumulated more resources. Writing began in Uruk as a way to keep track of how many sheep, goats, and measures of grain passed through the central warehouses. It began with pictures made in wet clay representing the various goods. After about 400 years, people had figured out how to use symbols and abstract numbers instead of drawing a picture for each item. They used a small wedge to represent one, a small circle to represent 10, a large wedge for 600, and a large circle for 3,600. Their system of numbers was based partly on 10 and partly on 60 for measuring grain. This latter base-60, or “sexagesimal,” system led to viewing a circle as 360 degrees. After about a thousand years, people in Uruk had developed their system of writing sufficiently to compose hymns, funeral songs, and superhero epics. Here are some lines from “The Lady of the Evening,” a hymn to the evening star, which represented Inanna. Sumer refers to the area where people spoke Sumerian, from the vicinity of modern-day Baghdad down to the Persian Gulf: At the end of the day, the Radiant Star, the Great Light that fills the sky, The Lady of the Evening appears in the heavens. The people in all the lands lift their eyes to her... There is great joy in Sumer. The young man makes love with his beloved. My Lady looks in sweet wonder from heaven. The people of Sumer parade before the holy Inanna. Inanna, the Lady of the Evening, is radiant. I sing your praises, holy Inanna. The Lady of the Evening is radiant on the horizon. (Wolkstein and Kramer, 1983) Poets in Uruk also gave us our first superhero story — in fact, our first recorded story of any kind — The Epic of Gilgamesh. The tale imagines Gilgamesh, a king who may have actually ruled Uruk at about 2750 BCE, as two-thirds divine and one-third human. He has a friend, Enkidu, who becomes citified and stops living as a wild hunter. They go on many adventures together, one of which results in Enkidu being condemned to death, and Gilgamesh has to accept the loss of his friend. This beautiful story has several modern versions. Here are a few lines describing the city of Uruk. When at last they arrived, Gilgamesh said to Urshanabi [the boatman], “This is the wall of Uruk, which no city on earth can equal. See how its ramparts gleam like copper in the sun. Climb the stone staircase, more ancient than the mind can imagine, approach the Eanna Temple, sacred to Ishtar, a temple that no king has equaled in size or beauty, walk on the wall of Uruk, follow its course around the city, inspect its mighty foundations, examine its brickwork, how masterfully it is built, observe the land it encloses: the palm trees, the gardens, the orchards, the glorious palaces and temples, the shops and marketplaces, the houses, the public squares. (Mitchell, 2004) The legacy of Uruk and Mesopotamia Despite all the amazing innovations by its people, Uruk faced eventual decline. After Mesopotamia experienced several hundred years of constant warfare, Sargon of Akkad (ruled 2334 — 2279 BCE) conquered most of it. A serious drought occurred in about 2250 BCE. By 1700 BCE, all of southern Mesopotamia had declined into a backwater of other empires. The underlying reasons seem to be environmental. The irrigation that Mesopotamians used to increase their crop yields increased the salinity, or salt content, of the soil. As the sun evaporated the water standing in the fields, it left the mineral salts that had been dissolved in the water. As the salinity of the soil increased, the yields of grain, especially of wheat, decreased gradually. By 1700 BCE, crops were depleted by as much as 65 percent. Mesopotamia had a new time of glory as Babylonia, under Hammurabi (ruled 1792 — 1770 BCE) who had his capital at Babylon, a city about 250 miles northwest of Uruk on the Euphrates River. Other empires warred with Babylonia until it had a final moment under King Nebuchadnezzar, who in 586 BCE conquered Judah and Jerusalem and sent at least 10,000 Jewish people into exile in Babylon. This is thought to be close to their original home. According to the Old Testament, Abraham came from the city of Ur, one of the 12 city-states in southern Mesopotamia, located about 50 miles southeast of Uruk. Apparently Abraham left Ur in about the twentieth century BCE in the midst of drought, warfare, and collapse, to travel southwest with his band of followers, eventually to settle in what is now Israel, carrying with them traditions from Mesopotamia. Traditions from southern Mesopotamia also were adopted by Greek scholars. Especially in mathematics, ideas from Mesopotamia persist. Our day is still divided into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. A circle still consists of 360 degrees. Cuneiform writing was used regionally until the beginning of the Common Era, when it disappeared. By 300 CE people had mostly abandoned Uruk, and it was completely empty by the time of the Arab conquests in 634. People in Uruk put together all the pieces of what we call civilization 5,000 years ago. They combined kings, writing, monumental temples and palaces, specialized occupations, and literature into a culture remarkably similar to what we still know, despite the many changes that have occurred since. [Sources and attributions]

Aksum [[header image]] By David Baker, adapted by Newsela The Aksum Empire was the result of two world hubs sharing their collective learning about agriculture, and rose to become a great power in the ancient world because it formed a crucial link between East and West on the supercontinent of Afro-Eurasia. East Africa East Africa was the cradle of our species. For millions of years, many of our hominine ancestors roamed across the land. It is ultimately the homeland of every human being spread across the planet. Additionally, East Africa was the region that birthed one of the mightiest of African civilizations: the Aksum Empire. At its height in the third century CE, some ancient writers deemed it one of the four great powers of the world, alongside Rome, Persia, and China. Thanks to its position in the web of collective learning in Afro-Eurasia, it rose to become one of the most complex agrarian civilizations of the ancient African world. African agriculture, in general, got a late start. It was invented independently on the other side of the continent in West Africa, around 3000 BCE. This “lags behind” the Fertile Crescent by several millennia. The transition from foraging to agriculture did not happen easily in Africa because, for one reason, humans evolved there and the environment was well suited to that mode of life. Also, because of the “trap of sedentism,” humans were reluctant to transition to a less healthy, more miserable form of life like early agriculture, if they could help it. So agriculture appeared late in West Africa. What is more, agricultural knowledge didn’t spread out from West Africa until about 2,000 years later. However, the peoples of East Africa were the recipients of collective learning from not only West Africa, but from the much earlier centers of agrarian knowledge in Egypt and Southwest Asia. Collective learning from two agrarian hubs The region known as the “Northern Horn” of East Africa kept up with foraging for many thousands of years after the dawn of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent. But as agrarian civilizations in that region grew larger, communications to the distant land of the Northern Horn also continued to grow. Knowledge of farming filtered down from Egypt and Southwest Asia and the peoples of the Northern Horn began to adopt a mixture of foraging, plant domestication, and animal herding. They domesticated ensete, a type of banana, at a very early point, perhaps as early as 3000 BCE or more. The people of the Northern Horn foraged for animal hides, bird feathers, myrrh for use as perfume, and even obsidian rocks to trade with Egypt. By 2000 BCE, the majority of people in the Northern Horn were semi-nomadic, making use of foraging and domesticated plants and animals. They still used stone tools. Copper and bronze were rare in the region, so they did not go through a bronze age, but instead transitioned directly to iron. Some people in the region still foraged without domesticating anything, but the knowledge transmitted from Southwest Asia and Egypt created a mixture of the two lifeways of foraging and agriculture. To the south, the rest of Africa would transition to agriculture much more slowly. But East Africa was jolted by two major hubs into the agrarian era. By 1000 BCE, hunting and gathering was on the decline, and agriculture was becoming increasingly dominant. Southwest Asia had transmitted the knowledge of wheat and barley, and introduced them into the region. East Africans domesticated a local variant, teff, for similar use. These three formed the major East African crops. Meanwhile, the Bantu peoples of West Africa arrived, and two centers of independent agricultural learning converged in East Africa. The Bantu brought with them knowledge of sorghum and millet. It is around this time that the agricultural way of life solidified itself in East Africa, bringing the human history of foraging in the region, which stretches back hundreds of thousands of years, mostly to a close. Early East African states Around the same time, a major agrarian civilization arose in the Northern Horn, popularly known as D’mt. This mysterious kingdom flourished from the tenth to the fifth centuries BCE. They formalized and intensified their trade relations with Egypt. They began developing mass exportation of agricultural goods, along with intricate stone jewelry. When the kingdom of D’mt fell, smaller kingdoms populated the area. These kingdoms adopted iron and began exporting their metal work. Collective learning arrived from Arabia and Egypt, influencing Aksum’s architecture and material culture, increasing the literacy of its people, and introducing the pre-Islamic Arab religion, which worshipped many gods. For many years, Aksum was just a tiny settlement in the Northern Horn, slowly acquiring more land and wealth from trade. Then in 30 BCE, something decisive happened. The Romans under Augustus conquered and annexed Egypt. Aksum was brought into contact with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. Trade routes shifted from the Persian Gulf and overland Asian routes more to the Red Sea. Aksum soon became a hub of overseas trade between the vast Roman Empire and the states of India. It grew as a prosperous connection for the transmission of trade goods and collective learning across the entire supercontinent of Afro-Eurasia. Aksum at the center of Afro-Eurasia Becoming a mercantile power can transform a small state into a powerful kingdom very quickly. Aksum managed trade between India and the Mediterranean in ivory, gold, emeralds, silk, spices, agricultural products, salt, exotic animals, manufactured goods, and much more. In the first century CE, Aksum flourished. They could afford to build a powerful navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes. It was at this time that Aksum was first mentioned by Greco-Roman scholars. Aksumite civilization continued to grow in wealth, power, and complexity. Aksum’s capital showed signs of rapid growth. It was a loose collection of impressive buildings and burial grounds. The town grew so rapidly that there seems to have been no master plan for the city’s layout, or the designation of city walls for where the city would stop growing. Aksum built many grand monuments, and the wealthiest citizens were buried in elaborate tombs marked by huge stone pillars, called stelae, with intricate carvings upon them. Aksum had a division of labor: bureaucrats, priests, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. It had its own coinage, each dynasty etched onto the gold coins, and these have been found by archaeologists across the Old World from Rome to Persia to India. Being a naval power, Aksum was able to transport troops and expand its frontiers. The third century CE marks a period of intense military expansion. At its height, the Aksum Empire controlled North Ethiopia, parts of Sudan, the southern Arabian peninsula, most notably Yemen. With wealth to hire swords and ships, and no comparable power [[image 1]] [[image 2]] in East Africa to oppose them, the Aksum Empire was one of the true powers of the ancient world, and one of the first complex agrarian civilizations in Africa. In the fourth century CE, Aksum formally adopted Christianity as its state religion, linking it culturally to the Roman Empire, which had also officially made Christianity its state religion. As a hub of trade in the ancient world, Aksum was also a frequent witness to the technological developments transmitted across Afro-Eurasia. The fall of Aksum Aksum continued to prosper long after the Western Roman Empire declined and fell in the 400s, but its imperial ambitions were also definitely part of its own downfall. Launching another series of military campaigns to subdue Yemen again in the 500s, they exhausted their treasury. Eventually they were booted out of Yemen, never to return. Meanwhile, the Aksum elite were embroiled with infighting, weakening the state. Another blow fell with the Justinianic Plague around 541 CE, a hugely destructive plague that scholars are fairly certain was the same disease, Yersinia pestis, that caused the Black Death. Aksum still had its revenues from trade between India and Byzantium (transformed from the Eastern Roman Empire) and still did not fall, though its territory had been reduced. In the 600s, however, the Islamic conquests further weakened Aksum. As Arabian armies spread across the Old World, Aksum managed to fight them off. However, the Christian empire suddenly found itself isolated economically and politically. This meant that the main source of Aksum’s strength – trade – was taken away. The gradual drying of the climate in the Northern Horn also reduced the capacity of Aksum agriculture, the number of people they could support, and the revenues they could get from taxing the land. Nevertheless, Aksum limped on for another few centuries, its glory days behind it, but its independence intact. All told, this East African agrarian civilization survived for nearly a millennium. Then around the year 960 CE, Aksum’s royal family was overthrown by an unknown female usurper. Legend has it was a Jewish queen named Gudith, but evidence is sparse for that. We do know that at this point the Aksum dynasty came to an end. Their successors, the Zagwe dynasty (est. 900, r. 1137-1270), similarly lived isolated from the world, no longer the recipients of the Afro-Eurasian network of collective learning. The same goes for the Solomonic dynasty (1270-1529) that followed them were also fairly isolated though they eventually fell under the influence of Portuguese colonists and fought many wars against the surrounding Islamic states. Lessons in collective learning The Aksum Empire is a curious case for Big History. It was the recipient of collective learning from two independent regions that gave birth to agriculture: the Fertile Crescent and West Africa. For many centuries, East Africa bore a strange mixture of agriculture, pastoralism, and foraging. After the full transition to agriculture was achieved around 1000 BCE, East Africa quickly progressed to agrarian states, rather than having a long period of early agriculture like in other regions. This also may be the result of knowledge for social organization transmitted from Southwest Asia. More than that, a millennium later, Aksum arose as a very powerful empire in the ancient world, the recipient of collective learning along trade routes of Afro-Eurasia. The transformation of East Africa, in just 2,000 years, from the cradle of humanity still foraging and using stone tools, to a powerful ancient empire wielding blades of iron and ruling the seas, is testament to the power of collective learning and the networks of the Afro-Eurasian supercontinent. Once the “energy bonanza” gets underway, it can spread rapidly to other regions and quickly increase human complexity. After the Islamic conquests of the 600s, however, Aksum was cut off from that network of collective learning. This stands in sharp contrast to the Ghana Empire of West Africa which continued to grow in strength and wealth by open trade with the Islamic world. A network of collective learning has the power to make or break human civilizations. Once East Africa entered the unified global system of the modern era, it suffered numerous hardships that were shared by other peoples in sub-Saharan Africa. And today, the challenges that face East Africa are some of the most concerning of our age. It is our challenge to help East Africa to fully enjoy the benefits of a global network of collective learning, rather than suffer from the inequalities such a network can sometimes cause. The Aksum Empire teaches us one final thing. For several decades, historians had postulated that Aksum was founded by immigrants from Southwest Asia, who brought “superior civilization” along with them. Today, archaeology shows that complex agrarian civilization in East Africa shows signs of developing many centuries before there were any such migrations. Investigations into East African history and the hunt for empirical evidence have dispelled the myth that the African peoples were “historically incapable” of producing powerful agrarian states. The examples of Aksum in East Africa and Ghana in West Africa disprove such claims. While the entry of sub-Saharan Africa into the agrarian era was later than Southwest Asia and Egypt, once they adopted agriculture, agrarian states arose very quickly. This was no small feat in a region of the world where humans evolved and had adapted to the environment as foragers for hundreds of thousands of years, and millions of years for the ancestral species that came before them. While sub-Saharan Africa suffered greatly during the Modern Revolution, it must not be forgotten that for centuries in the ancient and medieval world, the states of Africa stood at the highest point of complexity that humanity could offer, and also the highest point of complexity in the grand narrative of the Universe to that point. It remains to be seen if all regions of the world can share in the collective learning of a global system, to reach even greater heights of complexity in our common story. [Sources and attributions]

The data exploration article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview – what do we have? This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what this chart is about and the information it contains. Pay attention to: Labels and titles. What is the title? How are the axes labeled? Is anything else on the chart labeled?Data representation. How many variables are there and what are they? What are the scales? What time period does the chart cover? Is the chart interactive?Data source. Where did the data for this chart come from? Do you trust it? Who created the chart? Second read: key ideas – what do we know? In this read, you will pay attention to the information that most helps you understand the chart and the information it is trying to convey. Pay attention to: Claim(s). What can you say about the data? What story does it tell? Can you make any claims about this data? Does it change when you zoom in compared to when you look at the data as a whole?Evidence. What data from the chart supports this story? Does this change if you change the scale or variables?Presentation. How does the way this chart is presented influence how you read it? Has the author selected certain variables or scales that change the conclusions that can be drawn? Is there anything missing from this chart? By the end of the second read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How has urbanization changed in the last 12,000 years?How are Charts 1 and 2 different?What does Chart 3 tell us about the impacts of urbanization on human use of the land?What does Chart 4 suggest about the relationship between urbanization and wealth?Thinking back to the “ice cream and violent crime” chart from “A Guide to Reading Charts,” can you think of any problems with Chart 4? Can you think of any other variables (like weather in the ice cream chart) that might explain both high levels of urbanization and wealth? Third read: making connections – what does this tell us? The third reading is really about why the chart is important and what it can tell us about the past and help us think about the future. Pay attention to: Significance. Why does this matter? Does this impact me, and if so, how? How does it connect what is going on in the world right now? How does it relate to what was happening at the time it was created?Back to the future. How does this data compare to today? Based on what you now know, what are your thoughts on this phenomenon 25 years, 50 years, and 100 years from now? At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: What are the connections between these four charts? Together, what do they tell us about urbanization in the long term of human history? What do they tell us about the more recent past?Using these four charts, make one prediction about how urbanization will change in your lifetime. What evidence from the charts supports your prediction? What evidence challenges it? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Urbanization Data Introduction By Max Roser, adapted by Mike Papritz and Bennett Sherry Most humans live in cities today. Yet for most of our history, this was not the case. The shift to cities is a long story, but it’s one that accelerated quite recently. Introduction Human population began its slow pace of growth many thousands of years ago. As agriculture developed, human populations grew denser—more of us lived closer to each other in less space. Humans started settling in permanent farming villages. Eventually, population density increased even further in some places, leading to the development of a new type of human community: the city. For most of the last 6,000 years, the number of cities and the number of humans living in cities has increased steadily. Over our very long history, a greater and greater percentage of the human population moved to cities, a trend we call urbanization. But still, for most of human history, the majority of people did not live in cities. Before 1600 CE, less than 5 percent of people lived in cities. By 1800, this share reached 7 percent, and by 1900, it had increased to 16 percent. In the past century, this trend has only accelerated. Today, over half of the 7 billion humans on Earth live in cities. What is a city? There's no agreement on what defines a city. Different people define a city in different ways. And for many scholars, what constituted a city in 200 BCE was smaller than the minimum size of a city in 2000 CE. Chart 1 shows the size of urban areas in several different countries and regions since 10,000 BCE. Of course, for most of that time, no one lived in cities. But starting around 3700 BCE, the first cities developed. Zooming in to a smaller scale of time in Chart 2, you can see just how recently urbanization took off. Chart 1: Urban area over the long-term: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-area-long-term By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Chart 2: Urbanization over the past 500 years https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urbanization-last-500-years By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. These charts make it look like cities cover the entire world. But if we look closer at the data, we see that's not true. Cities have always depended on the labor of people outside of cities—farmers and herders. About 71 percent of the Earth's land is habitable (suitable for human life). Today, we use about half of that for agriculture. Chart 3 shows how humans have used land over the last two millennia (note that ha is an abbreviation for hectare; one hectare is about two and a half acres). Our "built environment"—cities, towns, roads, and other infrastructure—has increased substantially in the past century, but it still only accounts for 1 percent of the Earth's habitable land. Despite the relatively small percentage of Earth's surface covered by cities, if you compare the rise in agricultural land use in the last 200 years to urbanization, you can see that cities have an impact that stretches beyond their ZIP codes. Chart 3: Land use over the long-term: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/land-use-over-the-long-term By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Urban consequences What are the consequences of living in more densely populated areas? Are there things people living in cities, even cities small by today's standards, must do to live so close to so many others? For example, do people create new jobs to manage larger populations of strangers? What problems might emerge living in closer proximity to others? What might be the benefits? Are there activities—such as farming—that city dwellers are unlikely to do and must then depend on others from outside the city doing? Some historians argue that when earlier humans transitioned from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to farming, the lives of many became more difficult. But what about cities? Ancient cities were often dirty places that put people at risk of disease. Why did so many people choose to live in crowded, complicated cities? One answer might be that cities provide new opportunities and wealth. Chart 4 shows the relationship between gross domestic product (GDP)—a measurement of a nation's economic production—and the percentage of people who live in cities in that country. Over the past 500 years, there has been a strong correlation between the percentage of people in a country living in cities and how wealthy that country is. It appears that populations urbanize as they get richer, or, perhaps, they get richer as they urbanize. The causes and effects of urbanization are complex, and our data for humanity's long history is incomplete. However, we know that living in cities has historically had lots of advantages. Some advantages include high levels of concentrated economic activity, access to trade, the availability of more human labor, shared infrastructure like walls and granaries, and a division of labor that means not everyone has to farm. For the last 6,000 years, more and more people have built and moved to cities to try and have access to these advantages. Chart 4: Urban population vs. GDP: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urbanization-vs-gdp?time=1500..latest By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Do you think global urban population always grew? What might be the causes of historical changes in urban population? Why did early cities develop where they did? How did urbanization change human societies? How did it change our planet? What parts of the world and what types of people have benefited most from urbanization? Author Bio Max is the founder and director of Our World in Data. He began the project in 2011 and for several years was the sole author, until receiving funding for the formation of a team. Max’s research focuses on poverty, global health, and the distribution of incomes. He is also Programme Director of the Oxford Martin Programme on Global Development at the University of Oxford, and Co-executive Director of Global Change Data Lab, the non-profit organization that publishes and maintains the website and the data tools that make OWID’s work possible. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What is a state, according to this author?How do some anthropologists define a state?What is Yuval Harari’s argument about the state, according to this article?What are some characteristics of most urban states, according to this article?What are two theories put forth in this article about why people form states? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Based on all the evidence you have so far, do you agree more with the “coercion” or “voluntary” theory of state formation?There are lots of different definitions of what makes a state. This article has at least four different definitions. Which do you find most convincing? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. First States A photograph of a line of statues. The statues are guard-like, mostly identical, holding spears By Trevor Getz Countries, also known as states, are everywhere. How and why they formed is a fundamental topic in world history. But does that necessarily make them fundamental to humanity? Introduction Historians talk an awful lot about states and the people who live in them. It's a broad term, since states may be kingdoms or sultanates, republics or confederations, tiny city-states or massive empires. Their people may be citizens with many rights, or subjects with few rights at all. But they all live in states. Of course, this may give us a distorted view of history. Lots of people in the past didn't lived in states—they just lived wherever they were, escaping the notice of most historians. With the territory of today's world almost entirely divided into states, and almost every human a citizen of one, our view of the world's many communities is largely framed by states. So it's useful to look at the emergence of the world's very first states. Individual examples with plenty of detail will come later in the course. For now, let's explore some descriptions of what a state is, as well as theories about how the first states came into being. What is a state? State is the formal term we use to describe a country. The state is usually defined as an organized community living under a unified political system. So states are about government – an organization of people who make decisions, organize society, and enforce rules. And of course there's the land. States usually claim to control a certain territory, with boundaries or borders, although there are some examples in history of mobile states that can move around. The people running a state also claim authority over a group of people. The state makes laws and dispenses justice often using some sort of military or police force. States also collect resources and re-distribute them, often unequally. A photo of a wall or panel inscribed with symbolsIt may not look exciting here, but this image is so significant there’s probably a historian out there with a tattoo of it. Why? It’s part of the Code of Hammurabi, some of the earliest recorded laws that we know about, and comes from the Babylonian state. Public domain. A photo of a wall or panel inscribed with symbols It may not look exciting here, but this image is so significant there’s probably a historian out there with a tattoo of it. Why? It’s part of the Code of Hammurabi, some of the earliest recorded laws that we know about, and comes from the Babylonian state. Public domain. All of these things have to do with governing a society. Of course, people who don't have states still have ways of making decisions. Usually, though, the ways they make decisions are less formal and the decisions themselves less permanent. In fact, some scholars argue that a state is defined by having a formal and complex system of government. Some anthropologists, for example, suggest that we can only call something a state if it has at least four levels of government: 1) the people who run the whole country, 2) people running cities beneath them, 3) people running neighborhoods and towns beneath them, and, 4) people running small villages or extended families beneath them. The historian Yuval Harari is among the scholars who argue that this definition is not enough to describe a state. States are the first communities too big for everyone to know each other. For that reason, Harari says, the people within them need a way to believe in their community's connectedness in the abstract, to imagine it even when they can't see it all at once. Historical groups of people have come to accept that they all belong in or to a single political body. They agree to cooperate together. They believe it when the King or Pharaoh claims a god-like right to rule, or that they share an identity and culture, or that the President and Congress have a right to issue money and to collect taxes. So for Harari, the state is not just laws, soldiers, and tax-collectors. It is also the way that people think of themselves as belonging together. Characteristics of early states Today, most of us think of states as the reason we have rights as citizens to elect and shape our government. Early in human history, however, people imagined themselves belonging to a state where the government had authority over them. Few people believed they had the right to actually participate in government or to select it. Early states were probably quite different. Historians and other scholars have suggested a list of characteristics that most early states shared. They use these to help define when states emerged first in one region or another. Here are six characteristics frequently included in these lists: Urban – Most early states had cities. However, some historians argue that there are exceptions, where states were built by nomadic or rural people, especially in Central Asia.Agricultural – Almost all states seem to have been built on farming societies. However, there are examples of states where pastoralists1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript played a key role, for example in the mountainous areas of East Africa.Occupational specialization – States seem to arise where there are some people in a society who are not farmers, but still need to eat. Some historians even argue that the state emerged largely to make sure food got to people who did important work that wasn't about food. These were artisans like leather-workers, metal- workers, and cloth-makers. (Notice the photo below of a work area from the ancient state of Harappa.)Complex economy – States largely seem to be created when a community's economy becomes large and complicated. They need a way to govern how goods are produced and distributed.Social stratification – Most states, even the early ones, are not egalitarian. Some people rule. Others are ruled. Some are rich. Others are poor by comparison. In fact, some scholars speculate that the state may exist to help a few wealthy, powerful people to govern a larger, poorer group.State authority – In states, the government claims to have the authority, or right, to enforce laws. (Notice the photo above showing the earliest written laws we know about.) Urban – Most early states had cities. However, some historians argue that there are exceptions, where states were built by nomadic or rural people, especially in Central Asia. Agricultural – Almost all states seem to have been built on farming societies. However, there are examples of states where pastoralists1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript played a key role, for example in the mountainous areas of East Africa. Occupational specialization – States seem to arise where there are some people in a society who are not farmers, but still need to eat. Some historians even argue that the state emerged largely to make sure food got to people who did important work that wasn't about food. These were artisans like leather-workers, metal- workers, and cloth-makers. (Notice the photo below of a work area from the ancient state of Harappa.) Complex economy – States largely seem to be created when a community's economy becomes large and complicated. They need a way to govern how goods are produced and distributed. Social stratification – Most states, even the early ones, are not egalitarian. Some people rule. Others are ruled. Some are rich. Others are poor by comparison. In fact, some scholars speculate that the state may exist to help a few wealthy, powerful people to govern a larger, poorer group. State authority – In states, the government claims to have the authority, or right, to enforce laws. (Notice the photo above showing the earliest written laws we know about.) A stone bust of Ptolemy I. The face is lifelike and he is wearing an ornate headdressRare is the human whose image is recreated in stone, preserved for two millennia and put on display at the British Museum. But this guy, Ptolemy I, was a Pharaoh, and the many people under his rule believed in his authority as part of believing in their Egyptian state. By Stella, CC BY-SA 4.0. A stone bust of Ptolemy I. The face is lifelike and he is wearing an ornate headdress Rare is the human whose image is recreated in stone, preserved for two millennia and put on display at the British Museum. But this guy, Ptolemy I, was a Pharaoh, and the many people under his rule believed in his authority as part of believing in their Egyptian state. By Stella, CC BY-SA 4.0. At times, historians and political scientists have proposed other characteristics of states as well. Most states have big buildings and walls, or armies. Most states have written records. They collect taxes. They try to control belief systems and religion. But in world history, there are lots of examples of places that look like states but don't have any of these things. So there is no real agreement that a society must have these characteristics to count as a state. Photo shows circular arrangements of bricks surrounding a round patch of ground. Grasses are growing outside of the brick arrangementsA work area in Harappa, an early state in South Asia. Archaeologists and historians have identified occupational specialization in Harrapan society, but disagree about the level of social stratification. By Amir Islam, CC BY-SA 4.0. Photo shows circular arrangements of bricks surrounding a round patch of ground. Grasses are growing outside of the brick arrangements A work area in Harappa, an early state in South Asia. Archaeologists and historians have identified occupational specialization in Harrapan society, but disagree about the level of social stratification. By Amir Islam, CC BY-SA 4.0. Why did humans create states? States are important now, but as far as we can tell modern humans existed without them for about 245,000 years. So, why did humans, in various places and at various times, create states? In general, there are two broad explanations for the rise of states. Now here's where it gets tricky. These explanations – which are theories that can be applied in both general and specific ways – contradict each other even though they may both be right. The first explanation is called the "coercive theory". Historians like James C. Scott and Ibn Khaldun, argue that states arise because a group of people want to control others and force them to do certain things. In some versions of the coercive theory, a small group wants more wealth, or less work. They create laws and recruit an army to force others around them to do all the farming and any other work. The coercers become the government. Coercive theory also argues that, on a larger scale, different communities compete for resources. In this version, one community conquers the others in order to gain control of those resources. The second explanation, put forward by philosopher Karl Wittfogel and anthropologist Elman Service, among others, suggests that people come together voluntarily to create states. Volunteering is pretty much the opposite of being coerced. This explanation, often called "voluntary theory", also has several versions. One version suggests that humans found they needed to do work that required lots of cooperation, like building huge irrigation projects to grow crops. So they devised the state to get people to work together. Another variant suggests that communities found they needed rules. To make sure trading was done fairly, reduce violence, or enforce agreements, people wanted the kind of law and order only a state could provide. In order to test these theories, historians look at specific examples of states, especially the earliest states in a region, and try to apply the evidence to see whether the models fit. These early states include ones we know well, and some that are less familiar. StateRegionEra - approximatelyUrukMesopotamia4000-3000 BCESumerian statesMesopotamia4000-3000 BCEEgyptNorthern Africa3500 BCEHarrapaSouth Asia’s Indus River Valley2600 BCEErlitouCentral China1800-1600 BCEMonte AlbánSouthern Mexico300 BCETiwanakuSouth America300-500 CENriWest Africa’s forests900 CEHawaiiPacific Ocean1000 CEKitaraEast African highlands1200-1400 CE Table 1 Early states, regions, and eras The state is as important to human history as oxygen is to life, so of course we focus on it. But, just as there are some important organisms that can live without oxygen, not everyone in history lived in states. As historians we have to wonder whether concentrating on the state makes us miss out on the important experiences and contributions of people who did not live in them. Also, are we crediting states as engines of human development without considering the problems that states have caused? Are states even a step forward, or would we have been better off without them? Despite these questions, the state was undoubtedly a key element of human history, and remains so today. Therefore, it is useful to study patterns and differences in how people in various areas created states in the past. [Notes] Author bio Trevor Getz is Professor of African and world History at San Francisco State University. He has written or edited eleven books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and co-produced several prize-winning documentaries. He is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How and why did early agrarian societies form in this region?What does evidence from Nok society tell you about how production and distribution worked in this society?What does evidence from this reading tell you about how people in this society formed and maintained communities (religious, state, and otherwise)?What does the evidence in this reading tell you about how the societies in this region participated in networks that moved ideas, people, and things? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: Compare and contrast this society to other societies in readings from the same set. What seem to be some commonalities of early agrarian societies, when viewed through the three frames of production and distribution, communities, and networks?What is the principal evidence cited in this article? How do you think the availability of different kinds of evidence affects what we know about these societies? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Ancient Agrarian Societies: Nok Society Photograph of a three-headed stone statue By Trevor R. Getz We have few written records to tell us about complex agricultural societies in West Africa. But archaeological evidence proves they existed as at least as far back as 2000 years ago! The Nok society is one of these. Introduction We usually learn of Ghana and Mali as the first complex societies in West Africa. But these states are recorded as existing after the tenth century CE (about a thousand years ago). Agriculture, however, emerged in West Africa possibly as long as 4,000 years ago. Before that time, people lived in the Sahara. Today the Sahara is a desert, but then it was a vast grassland. They herded cattle and ate wild grasses. But as the world began to dry, these people were driven into river valleys. They began to cultivate the wild grasses so that they would have enough food to eat. By 2000 BCE, foods like pearl millet, barley, and cattle were sustaining dense populations. A map shows the area where Nok culture existed, which includes parts of Nigeria and is near the Gulf of Guinea General vicinity of Nok culture, by Locutus Borg. Public domain. A map shows the area where Nok culture existed, which includes parts of Nigeria and is near the Gulf of Guinea General vicinity of Nok culture, by Locutus Borg. Public domain. What if Ghana and Mali were the first complex societies in West Africa? That would mean 3,000 years had passed between the beginning of farming and the growth of any kind of state. This seems unlikely. Unfortunately, we don't have many written records to tell us that there were large and complex societies in this part of Africa before the tenth century. There are many possible reasons for this. First, this region suffered a number of invasions and a great deal of conflict in later years that may have destroyed some records. Second, this is a region where history was often maintained through oral tradition (or spoken words), rather than writing. In fact, part of the reason we know about Ghana and Mali is through writings from Muslims from North Africa. These Muslims had crossed the Sahara Desert to this region by the tenth century and recorded what they found. But even though we don't have written records for earlier societies, we do have a great many archaeological remains. These tell us quite a bit about complex African societies before the tenth century. One of these societies was Nok, in the northern part of today's country of Nigeria. Iron, terracotta, and Nok Archaeologist Bernard Fagg was working around the town of Jos, in Northern Nigeria, when he first found hundreds of terracotta sculptures. These sculptures of brownish-red pottery all exhibited a similar style. There were human figures with long heads, almond-shaped eyes, and elaborate hairstyles. The styles were somewhat similar to those worn by some Nigerians today. Many of the figures showed common human experiences: love, sickness, music, and war. The depictions of love are among the most interesting. For example, there is a sculpture of a man and a woman kneeling in front of each other, with their arms wrapped around each other. There was also quite a lot of jewelry and useful pots. Sculpture of a figure with an elongated face in a seated positionNok terracotta figure. Public domain. Sculpture of a figure with an elongated face in a seated position Nok terracotta figure. Public domain. Then, Bernard Fagg discovered something else. This was a discovery he had not expected—iron furnaces. At that time, it was believed that the technology to create iron had only been invented once, in Eurasia. The common belief was that iron technology did not spread to Africa until much later. But Fagg was able to date charcoal inside these furnaces as far back as 280 BCE. Later archaeologists dated some of it to an even earlier period, perhaps 500 BCE. Also, there were many furnaces, suggesting a dense population. Most interesting, archaeologists have been able to show that stone and iron tools were in use at the same time. They have also demonstrated that the people of Nok may have developed iron smelting technology on their own, rather than learning it from someone else. Nok society Nok society was not built around cities. Instead, they tended to live in lots of settlements, possibly each centered around an extended family. Each settlement probably had its own farm and its own cattle, and most of the work would have been agricultural, as we know from the many grain-grinding stones and other tools found in every house. Women likely did most of the work in transforming crops into food. We don't know this for sure, but archaeologists have found terracotta figures that depict men as the ones working with iron. Both the making of terracotta and iron may have happened in these settlement sites. We think this is true because both metal slag from iron-making and bits of terracotta have been found in some settlements. We don't know if everyone could make these things or if they were made by specialists in the community. More terracotta waste has been found than iron, which may indicate that this was a specialized craft. There is some evidence that there may have been a specialist guild or class for making terracotta, because so much of it is stylistically the same, but not all experts agree. Archaeologists have also uncovered sites that seem to have been used for religious or spiritual rituals. Some sites were located where one large sculpture was intentionally left or buried in the ground. This suggests it may have been a marker or shrine. Sometimes, there are five or six similar sculptures. These sites are almost always far away from settlements, suggesting they were shared locations for worship or ritual. They may have played a role in the governing of this society. People might have met at these sites to make agreements or hear disputes. Certainly, there is no evidence of kingship or palaces or even temples to signify a ruling class. The final kind of site associated with Nok culture are furnaces. These were distinct sites, away from settlements or ritual sites, where iron was made. As we said above, some iron may have been made in households, but most of it was produced and worked in these furnace sites. It is possible that there were expert blacksmiths that may have had a different class status. Conclusions We do not know what happened to the Nok. Their terracotta style seems to have died out somewhere around 100 CE. They may be the ancestors of the modern Yoruba culture of Nigeria. We do believe that the Nok were one of many complex societies that lived in this region before Ghana and Mali. But we know little about them. These societies may have traded with each other, although we don't have a lot of evidence to prove it. However, we are constantly learning more about this era in African history. We are finding out that it had societies similar to other agrarian cultures around the world, but that were also unique. Author bio Trevor Getz is Professor of African History at San Francisco State University. He has written eleven books on African and world history, including Abina and the Important Men. He is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How did the Persians successfully incorporate conquered peoples into their empire?How did the Persian Empire expand regional trade?How would you describe the role of women in Persian society?Where does the Mazda car company get its name? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: You read an article about authority and control in empires. What are some methods of control mentioned in that article that you see reflected in the Persian Empire? Do you see any Persian methods of control that weren’t mentioned in the earlier article?You’ve read some definitions and characteristics of an empire. What aspects of the Persian Empire seem characteristic of all empires? What seems unique to Persia? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Persian Empire Detailed stone carving shows three men, standing before a ruler seated in a throne. One of the men holds his fingertips to his mouth. By Mike Burns About 2,300 years ago, the Persian Empire covered over two million square miles and held nearly half the world's population. Although Alexander the Great may have disagreed, this was the world's first great empire. Background Imagine having your life story written by your enemies. That's how it's been for the Persian Empire for thousands of years. Much of what we know about this great empire (559 BCE-331 BCE) came from the works of the Greek historians Herodotus and Xenophon. We're grateful for their work, but they had some issues. Herodotus is known as both the "Father of History" and the "Father of Lies." And Xenophon was a mercenary soldier on the losing side of a Persian civil war. Between their work and what other conquered peoples wrote about Persia, it's no surprise they were so badly portrayed. For example, Herodotus wrote "they have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly." This was in stark contrast to the Greeks, who worshipped many gods in many different temples. Herodotus continued, "There is no nation which so readily adopts the foreign customs as the Persian." Today, we might think of that as being tolerant and welcoming of new ideas and cultures. But to the Greeks, it was a sign of weakness, and Herodotus was happy to call attention to it. In the last two centuries, archaeologists, linguists, and historians have been able to find, read, and interpret new Persian sources. In some cases, what they learn aligns with other sources. Except when it doesn't. This is a reminder that when reading historical sources, we must ask who wrote them and why. With this in mind, let's investigate the Persian Empire. Photograph of an inscribed and carved wall. The carving shows several men lining up to greet another man, who is much taller. There is text on the wall all around them.The Behistun Inscription in western Iran. This inscription includes three different languages and helped historians and archeologists finally translate ancient Persian scripts. It was the Persian “Rosetta Stone”. By Hara1603, Public domain. Photograph of an inscribed and carved wall. The carving shows several men lining up to greet another man, who is much taller. There is text on the wall all around them. The Behistun Inscription in western Iran. This inscription includes three different languages and helped historians and archeologists finally translate ancient Persian scripts. It was the Persian “Rosetta Stone”. By Hara1603, Public domain. Formation It's no surprise that the first great world empire arose in the same area that witnessed the emergence of increasingly complex societies. The Persian people were originally steppe nomads from the Iranian Plateau who settled in southwestern modern-day Iran. In the mid-sixth century BCE, the collapse of the Assyrian Empire opened the door for the Persian people to rapidly conquer competing empires. In less than a century, they conquered the Medes, Lydians, Neo-Babylonians, and eventually, the Egyptians. At its height in 500 BCE, the population of the Persian Empire was around 50 million. This figure would have made the empire one of the largest in history, at least in terms of its percentage of the world population at the time, which was somewhere between 100 and 160 million. Map shows the Persian Empire covering a vast expanse of land, all the way from Libya to India. *Map of the Persian Empire at its greatest extent c. 500 BCE. By Mossmaps, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map shows the Persian Empire covering a vast expanse of land, all the way from Libya to India. *Map of the Persian Empire at its greatest extent c. 500 BCE. By Mossmaps, CC BY-SA 4.0. Administration "Keep your friends close, keep your enemies closer." The first Persian king, Cyrus the Great, never saw the gangster film that line comes from, but he understood the concept. Highly skilled at incorporating conquered peoples into the Persian Empire, Cyrus used tolerant yet practical methods to legitimize Persian rule. First, he brought conquered kings into his government. This made the transition to Persian rule smoother and helped keep the government and conquered peoples loyal to the emperor. Cyrus and his son, Cambyses II, established the geographic boundaries of the empire. The third king, Darius, ensured that it would endure, by establishing the governing institutions that allowed continued success. The Persians were respectful of local traditions and did not exile (send away) conquered peoples. In the Hebrew and Christian Bible, Cyrus is best known for allowing the Jewish people to return home to Jerusalem from their exile in Babylon. On one hand, this was a generous move, but it was also practical, as it insured a cooperative Jewish kingdom in the western reaches of the empire. However, it did not end well for Cyrus, as he attempted to subdue the horse-rich, nomadic Scythians. "[He] was killed trying to subjugate the Scythians; his head was then carried around in a skin filled with blood, said one writer, so that the thirst for power that had inspired him could now be quenched." Drawing of a Persian king. The king is drawn in profile, depicted with an elaborate headdress and very large wings.A depiction of the first Persian king, Cyrus. By Ernst Wallis et al, Public domain. Drawing of a Persian king. The king is drawn in profile, depicted with an elaborate headdress and very large wings. A depiction of the first Persian king, Cyrus. By Ernst Wallis et al, Public domain. There is a maxim (general truth) in history that an empire's size must be limited by the distance you could travel in two weeks… by horse. Any larger, and the empire becomes simply too big to rule effectively and efficiently. But the Persians incorporated a variety of ideas to do so. First, they utilized cavalry as part of their army and had a steady supply of horses. Second, they rebuilt, and expanded a 1700 mile "Royal Road" to make it easier to communicate, travel, trade, and move their army. So instead of limiting expansion, they made it so two weeks of horse travel was a much greater distance. Third, they used the satrapy system inherited from the Assyrians. Satrapies were regional governments, each ruled by a governor the Persian king appointed. Frequently, these governors rose from the ranks of the conquered peoples. The Persians were well-known for their tolerance of local customs, traditions, and religions and generally ruled with a light touch, all of which helped support the legitimacy of their rule. Trade The horses, roads, and regional governments of the Persian Empire united distant lands both politically and economically. The Persians' administrative innovations also linked Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Central Asian societies into a long-distance trading network. The Persian emperor, Darius, also facilitated trade by standardizing the gold coin that bore his name, the daric. This meant that merchants now had a common measure of value wherever they went in the empire. Women in society In the Persian Empire the roles and experiences of women had much in common with other ancient societies, like the Greeks and Romans. Being a mother, especially to sons, was a priority for most women and an absolute must for royal women. Only males from one of the king's wives were eligible to inherit the throne. However, Persian women weren't as restricted as in the Ancient Greek and Roman world. In fact, Persian women had responsibilities and freedoms that more closely resembled what women in Egypt had. Royal women, in particular, had great power in the Persian Empire because their society used a rigid social hierarchy. The king was always at the top of this pyramid-like structure. Under the king were male and female nobles. That meant the king's mother, wife, sisters, and daughters were one step from the top of the social ladder. The non-aristocratic members of society were ranked by occupation. Women could gain high positions in their professions and many were managers who were paid more than their male workers. Women could also own property and businesses. Some of these women had large estates and they directly managed this property and their workers. These women were also free to move about the empire on their own in order to attend to their estates. By contrast, in the Ancient Greco-Roman world, women often needed a male escort to leave the home and could only own property in limited circumstances1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. This last point is important to consider when reading Greek writers commenting on Persian gender roles. The freedoms enjoyed by Persian women seemed very foreign to the Greeks, and this greatly influenced their often negative portrayal of Persians. Religion/systems of belief Historical sources are also a challenge when studying the emergence of the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism. This religion is named after the sage (wise man) Zardusht to the Persians, but better known as Zoraster by Herodotus, (also known as Zarathsutra.) Zoraster took one god, Ahuramazda, (and yes, this is where the Mazda car company derived its name) from the many the Persian people had worshipped and declared him to be the supreme god. He claimed Ahuramazda created people, and gave them free will, leading to the eternal struggle between truth and lies, good and evil. There was a belief in a judgment day, where the good went to paradise, and the evil went to hell. Although Zoroastrianism eventually became a prominent religion, it never became the "official" religion of the state.2^22squared And contrary to Greek writers (and Hollywood) Persian kings were never considered divine, nor did they demand worship. However, like many rulers around the world throughout history, they attempted to legitimize their rule by claiming divine favor. So they were less "I'm a god" and more "God likes me best." A sculpture of musician Freddie Mercury. He is standing in a powerful position with one arm raised in the air.Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest systems of belief. This statue honors music icon Freddie Mercury (1946-1991), who was of Parsi descent, and whose family followed the Zoroastrian faith. Sculptor: Irena Sedlecká. By Bernd Brägelmann, CC BY-SA 3.0. A sculpture of musician Freddie Mercury. He is standing in a powerful position with one arm raised in the air. Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest systems of belief. This statue honors music icon Freddie Mercury (1946-1991), who was of Parsi descent, and whose family followed the Zoroastrian faith. Sculptor: Irena Sedlecká. By Bernd Brägelmann, CC BY-SA 3.0. Decline and fall Why were the Greeks so critical of the Persians? Many Greeks had migrated from the various Greek city-states and set up colonies in Asia Minor (now Turkey) or settled in cities of earlier empires. As the Persian empire expanded, those Greek cities came under Persian rule. Like many non-Persians, Greeks were respected and served many roles in the Persian empire, including as soldiers and as physicians to Persian kings. But Athens and some Greek city-states persuaded one of these colonies, Ionia, to revolt against the Persians. Understandably, the Persians retaliated with an invasion of Greece. This led to a surprising Greek victory at Marathon (490 BCE), some 25 miles from Athens. The Persians did eventually put down the Ionian Revolt. Then ten years later (480 BCE) Xerxes I, son of Darius, returned to Greece to settle the score. Initial Persian success at the battle of Thermopylae was followed by a naval disaster at Salamis. The Greeks defeated the stranded Persian army at Plataea. Persian attacks on Greece were over. Some one hundred fifty years later (334 BCE), the legendary Macedonian king, Alexander the Great, invaded Persia with his army of Macedonians and Greeks. Alexander smashed the Persians in battle after battle over a ten-year period. Ultimately, the land controlled by the Persians fell under the control of Alexander's generals, setting up a 300-year Hellenistic (Greek influence) period, prior to Roman expansion. [Notes] Author bio Mike Burns holds an M.A. in Global History, and loves teaching World History and Big History. An AP World History Consultant for the College Board, Burns has also served on the Executive Council of the World History Association. As an international educator, he has taught in Qatar, China, and Vietnam, and led workshops in Asia, Europe and Africa. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Where was Du Huan born and how did he end up fighting in the battle of Talas/Talus?What happened to Da Huan and other captives after the battle? Why was his fate different from that of his friends?How does he describe production and distribution in Laobosa (probably Somalia)?How does he describe Molin, the province of Aksum he visited?How does the artist use art and design to give a sense of connection between these different places? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does this biography of Du Huan support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about production and distribution in this era?How does this biography of Du Huan support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about networks and connections between regions in this era? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . Du Huan (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor R. Getz Artist: Liz Clarke Du Huan was a Chinese soldier of the Tang Dynasty who was captured by an Abbasid army. He traveled widely in East Africa and Arabia before returning home. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: When did the Bantu migration begin, and by what time did it extend across the “trunk” of Africa?What technologies spread through the Bantu migration?How does archaeology help us determine the routes and dates of the Bantu migration?How does linguistics (the study of language) help to establish routes and dates of the Bantu migration?How does the study of genetics help to establish routes and dates of the Bantu migration?What are three theories for how language, technology, and people moved through the Bantu migration, according to the author? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: This article presents three theories for how Bantu technologies and society spread so far. What kind of evidence is available to support these theories? Which theory do you think is the most likely? Which one do you think the author wants you to believe?The Bantu migrations transformed communities, networks, and production and distribution across sub-Saharan Africa. Think about the language you speak. How do you think it spread? How do you think its spread reshaped the world? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Spread of Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa: Bantu Migration Painting of a farming village. Villagers do various types of work: some are tending to their crops, and children are playing a game. There are several living structures behind a stone wall. By Tony Maccarella Humans perfected foraging in Africa, but many turned to farming when the right tools, and the right crops, became available. Connections across a wide region One of the most fascinating stories in the history of agriculture involves the Bantu migrations across the sub-Saharan regions of Africa. This is a part of the world whose people passed information down through a rich oral tradition, but left very little in writing until the Middle Ages. Researchers have found ways to trace the movement of Bantu-speaking peoples that began possibly as early as 2000 BCE. Evidence suggests that they moved rapidly across the continent, south and east, sometime between 2000 BCE and 1000 CE. By about 1200 CE, "Bantu-ness" was a cultural and technological network across the vast trunk of Africa. Bantu expansion reached almost all the way to the southern tip of the continent. The result was a great web of trade, cultural exchange, and shared technology across this wide region. A sculpted artwork of the head of a figure, featuring elaborate carvingsThe Lynderburg head, one of several sculptures from early Bantu-speaking peoples in southern Africa. The decorative motifs show a great continuity with Bantu figures and decorations across large areas of Africa. By Rexford Nkansah, African Center, Cape Town, CC BY 3.0. A sculpted artwork of the head of a figure, featuring elaborate carvings The Lynderburg head, one of several sculptures from early Bantu-speaking peoples in southern Africa. The decorative motifs show a great continuity with Bantu figures and decorations across large areas of Africa. By Rexford Nkansah, African Center, Cape Town, CC BY 3.0. One reason the movements of ancient West African peoples are so fascinating is the timing. The agricultural revolution that transformed much of Afro-Eurasia starting at about 8,000 to 10,000 years ago seems to have begun much later in most of sub-Saharan Africa. But why? Cattle herding emerged as an early technology in northern Africa—perhaps earlier than anywhere else in the world—yet farming seems to have come much later. We do have some evidence of farming in the northwestern area of modern-day Cameroon—originally home to Bantu-speaking peoples—as early as 7000 BCE. Foragers, however, seem to have dominated most of the other regions until at least 2000 BCE. Archaeologists have unearthed pottery, iron tools, and settlements—all pretty good evidence of agriculture. These artifacts radiated south and east from the Bantu homeland and date to between 2000 BCE and 1000 CE. These technologies, along with the agricultural and pastoral people that used them, then spread out across most of Africa. (Yes, pottery and iron tools are technologies.) But why and how did these technologies move to create this vast network across the continent? The Bantu language group shown on a map of the African continent. Bantu languages are shown to cover a large part of the African continent. The Bantu language group is made up of about 500 related languages. It stretches across much of central and southern Africa today. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. The Bantu language group shown on a map of the African continent. Bantu languages are shown to cover a large part of the African continent. The Bantu language group is made up of about 500 related languages. It stretches across much of central and southern Africa today. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. Arrows on a map show the ways the Bantu languages spread.The Bantu language group is made up of about 500 related languages. It stretches across much of central and southern Africa today. By WHP, CC BY-NC 4.0. Arrows on a map show the ways the Bantu languages spread. Evidence from different academic disciplines Maps of the Bantu migrations, like the one above, appear frequently in history books and on the Internet. Their bright arrows show a path of Bantu-speaking peoples moving south along the coast and east along the Congo and Zambezi rivers. These routes finally converge on the southeast coast of the continent. But on closer examination, the arrows are often very general, and different maps often show different pathways. It's hard to know what information is reliable. The good news is that there is excellent evidence for the movement of Bantu technologies and culture. It comes from a variety of disciplines and types of sources. Let's look at the northwestern region of modern-day Cameroon among the ancient settlements of Bantu-speaking populations of western Africa. Here, archaeologists have found potsherds (pieces of broken pottery) dating back to 5000 BCE. Since pottery-making is associated with sedentary lifestyles, this evidence supports a theory that sub-Saharan agriculture could have begun in this region. T. N. Huffman, an archaeology professor in South Africa, clarifies that "Ceramic style can be used to recognize and trace the movements of people" (Huffman 108). Archaeologists analyze the age of potsherds found at other dig sites throughout the continent. That creates data that can be used to map the spread of agriculture. We can see where it started in western Africa, and then how it radiated out in two distinct directions, south and east. Meanwhile, researchers in the field of linguistics have gathered their own evidence about the spread of the Bantu language. Linguists analyze modern Bantu-based languages, like Swahili. That is, rather than using ancient pieces of pottery, this discipline looks at how people speak right now to find clues about the past. They work to establish a chronology for the development of various branches along the Bantu language tree. Although culture can spread from one place to another through ideas and technology, language spreads with the physical movement of people speaking it. That's why linguists theorize that the Bantu-speaking peoples of western Africa migrated south and east, between 2000 BCE and 1000 CE. K. Rexova, a linguist in the Czech Republic, has suggested that "A fairly homogenous population of Bantu speaking people had spread from the northwest of the equatorial forest in Cameroon and Nigeria throughout central, eastern and southern Africa" (Rexova 189). More recently, geneticists have used some new techniques to analyze the DNA of modern speakers of Bantu languages, like Swahili in southeastern Africa. Geneticists then determine which populations share genetic code with the original Bantus of western Africa. That data enables them to compare the percentages of shared code among all the modern peoples in the region. Using this information, researchers have been able to develop a chronological family tree. Carlotta De Filippo, an Italian geneticist confirms that, "Our analyses primarily indicate that the dispersal of Bantu languages was coupled with the movement of people, as demonstrated by the lower genetic distances among Bantu populations when compared with those between Bantu and all the other major ethno-linguistic groups" (De Filippo 3262). The evidence has led her and other geneticists to theorize that Bantu-speaking people left western Africa and migrated south and east over a period of a couple thousand years between 2000 BCE and 1000 CE. And in case you forgot what happened in the last paragraph, the linguistic evidence showed the same thing! That means both genetic and linguistic evidence seem to support what archaeologists believe about the spread of agriculture through sub-Saharan Africa. Theories about the Bantu migration All of this evidence, however, raises at least as many questions as it answers. Bantu migration is a puzzle, but to study it opens a terrific discussion about the movement of people, technology and culture in these ancient times. How did the vast Bantu network that we see across the trunk of the continent by 1200 CE actually come into being? Three theories have emerged: migration, adoption and diffusion. They aren't mutually exclusive—they may all be right to a certain extent—but they are quite different. There are still disputes about which of these theories is correct, or how they might all be part of the same story. Genetic evidence, for example, might suggest that migration occurred at a high rate in a particular location. In contrast, archaeological evidence might support the adoption or rejection of Bantu technology in a nearby location. But there are still many more questions to answer. Migration theoryDiffusion theoryAdoption theoryLarge groups of people moved, in waves, from the Bantu homeland in West Africa. They brought with them technologies that allowed them to open up and cultivate land that had been forest, rocky soil, or swamp – iron, crops, pottery, and cattle being chief among them. That allowed them to claim this territory and displace or assimilate with the foragers who lived there beforehand.Bantu-speakers in West Africa moved into new areas in very small groups, usually just families. But they brought with them the Bantu technology and language package—iron, crops, cattle, pottery, and more. These pioneers then shared their more advanced technologies (and, in the process, their languages) with the locals. These locals as a result began speaking their languages as well as living lifestyles that were more like the Bantu-speakers.Bantu language and technology moved while the people largely stayed put. Neighbors of Bantu-speakers adopted some of their technologies such as iron, pottery, cattle, and crops, but rejected others. The next group of people then saw their neighbors had adopted some of these technologies, and they chose the ones that suited them as well. Their languages changed in the process because they adopted the words for these technologies. But the people making the change were generally not migrants, but rather locals! Table 1: Theories about the Bantu migration More questions to answer The story of the agricultural revolution in sub-Saharan Africa is incomplete. Based on evidence from multiple academic disciplines, theorists continue to debate the migration routes of Bantu-speaking farmers from western Africa. Some even question whether they migrated at all. Why, for instance, did Bantu farmers move from their homeland while their foraging ancestors did not? Was it as Leonard Ngcongco of the University of Botswana has suggested, that "people move … for a reason. They move because the population has expanded. They move because the resources which support the population in the settlements have become more or less inadequate. They move because there are changes to the climate and they move for the sake of finding better areas in which to live" (BBC). What seems certain is that farming in the region began near the modern-day border of Cameroon and Nigeria somewhere between 5000 and 2000 BCE. Eventually farming replaced foraging as far away as the Swahili Coast by about 1000 CE. Beyond that, researchers can only debate. Perhaps historians, along with archaeologists, linguists, geneticists and other researchers, will find answers to these questions as new evidence emerges. Once these scholars assemble their conclusions into a single cohesive theory, it may help explain the spread of agriculture and language across the African continent. Author bio Tony Maccarella holds an MA in curriculum and instruction and has been teaching history since 1982. He has served as an AP European History Reader and Table Leader since 2002, and has published several books for improving research and writing skills in AP history classes. Tony currently teaches history at Saddle River Day School where he also serves as the Head of Upper School. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What are some challenges that the Han faced that were outside of their control?How did Han rulers deal with tribal groups from the border regions?How did farmers and land-owning elites contribute to the empire’s wealth? How did they relate to one another?What was the Yellow Turban Revolt? How did it affect the emperor?What are the three main theories Chinese historians had for why the Han Dynasty collapsed?What’s one modern theory for why the Han Dynasty collapsed? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: What does the narrative of Han decline and collapse look like through the filter of the production and distribution frame? Use evidence from this article and the accompanying sources to analyze patterns of production and distribution and present a claim.How does the decline and collapse of the Han Dynasty compare to the collapse of the Roman Empire? Use evidence from this article and other articles and videos in this era to support your claim. Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Fall of the Han Dynasty Photo of partially buried figures, made of terracotta By Dennis RM Campbell Much of China’s identity can be linked to the powerful Han Dynasty two millennia ago, and its eventual collapse has fascinated historians ever since. The Han Dynasty The "golden age" of the Han Dynasty was a period of economic, cultural, and scientific growth, and it led to the creation of a Chinese identity. In this imperial dynasty the emperors all belonged to the Liu family. Their rule spread over two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE) and the Eastern Han (25 CE–220 CE). Sure, there was a brief interruption between these two periods when Wang Mung managed to take over during a period of imperial decline, but his Xin Dynasty only lasted from 9 to 25 CE. So really it was still all about the Han in this era. At its height the Han emperors controlled approximately 2.5 million square miles of territory and ruled over nearly 60 million people. The emperor, or Huangdi, was more than just a secular ruler. He was seen as closely connected to the divine world and respected by his people as a kind of spiritual being. Map shows the extent of the Eastern Han dynasty, which covered a large portion of modern-day China.Map showing the extent of the Eastern Han empire compared to the size of modern China (outlined in orange). By Arab Hafez, public domain Map shows the extent of the Eastern Han dynasty, which covered a large portion of modern-day China. Map showing the extent of the Eastern Han empire compared to the size of modern China (outlined in orange). By Arab Hafez, public domain The collapse of the Han Dynasty The Eastern Han emperors faced a variety of challenges, including natural disasters outside of their control, such as cattle plagues, locusts, droughts, floods, and earthquakes. The empire was strong enough to withstand the issues that it encountered for almost two hundred years, but over time the expenses became too great to bear. The end result is that by 220 CE the empire was torn apart into three kingdoms by warlords. The Han and outsiders Tribal groups living along China's borders had a tense relationship with the Han, who thought that non-Han (Chinese) people were inherently inferior. The Han emperors saw themselves as "enlightened" bringers of peace and order to the tribes, even if it meant fighting them to do so. Problematic tribal groups would be resettled deeper in the empire. But because the Chinese despised these tribal groups, many officials had no problem mistreating and cheating them. Unfortunately for the Han, failing to integrate these tribal peoples meant that they were always a potential source of trouble for the empire. An emperor rides on horseback. Around him, many people, some on camels, appear to be coming to greet him.Handscroll supposedly depicting various individuals, including tribal people bringing tribute to the Han emperor. By Walters Art Gallery, public domain An emperor rides on horseback. Around him, many people, some on camels, appear to be coming to greet him. Handscroll supposedly depicting various individuals, including tribal people bringing tribute to the Han emperor. By Walters Art Gallery, public domain In 89 CE, the Han defeated a large tribal group known as the Xiongnu and drove them away from China (they would become the Huns). What the Han had failed to realize was that the Xiongnu had been serving as a buffer against other dangerous tribes. Removing the Xiongnu opened the flood gates to invasion. Fighting off these tribal threats was a serious drain on Han resources. Problems from within The challenges were not all external. The Han also experienced internal struggles to maintain its rule. Taxation became an increasing problem by 100 CE. While the small farmers were the most stable tax base, local elites, who owned large estates, contributed less of their wealth and energy to the empire. Many small farmers gave up their land to work for local elites on their estates either willingly as tenants, or unwillingly as debt slaves. The wealthy were able to increase their productivity while the smaller farmers were able to avoid paying taxes. The empire, however, had less and less money to deal with new problems. A drawing depicts one person killing another with a spear. Both people are on horseback. Surrounding the drawing is text.Drawing depicting the likely fictional account of general Guan Yu chasing and then killing the Yellow Turban warrior Guan Hai. Guan Yu would go on to play an important role in the battles between the warlords in the last decades of the Han empire. Public domain. A drawing depicts one person killing another with a spear. Both people are on horseback. Surrounding the drawing is text. Drawing depicting the likely fictional account of general Guan Yu chasing and then killing the Yellow Turban warrior Guan Hai. Guan Yu would go on to play an important role in the battles between the warlords in the last decades of the Han empire. Public domain. Throughout the first and second centuries CE, imperial eunuchs became a powerful group. The elites, who had previously benefited from being close to the emperor, felt threatened by this. Because eunuchs, men who have been castrated, had no children or wives, they could give all their loyalty to the empire. The elites were closely tied to their individual families, but the eunuchs' power only came from their connection to the emperor. This powerful resource could be targeted. For example, when Emperor Huan died in 168 CE, a young boy (11 or 12 years old) from the ruling dynasty was made Emperor Ling. With that transition, a small group of elites hatched a plan to kill hundreds of eunuchs. They failed spectacularly—of the 3 leaders, one was thrown in prison and killed there and the other 2 committed suicide after losing to the eunuchs, and their severed heads were put on display. The eunuchs became even more powerful by attaching themselves tighter to the boy Emperor Ling. As for Emperor Ling, he was seen as a weak and corrupt ruler, and his reign was marked by rebellions and protests. One of the most dangerous was the Yellow Turban Revolt of 184 CE. The Yellow Turban Revolt was a peasant rebellion, sparked by numerous outbreaks of a lethal plague throughout the 170s and 180s. As people died, they began to blame the emperor, believing he had the power to stop their suffering. But he was unable to provide a cure for the plague, and to make matters worse he also placed heavy taxes on his people. So instead, peasants believed they might find magical cures by turning to faith healers. One of these faith healers, Zhang Jue, was very successful and gained a huge following. By 184, Zhang Jue turned his movement into a violent uprising and led his followers to revolt against the Han. The army was able to defeat the rebels, but peasant rebellions continued to flare up over the next decade. Map shows how the Han Dynasty was divided into nearly twenty different territories ruled by different warlords. Map showing the breakdown of the Han empire as warlords carved out their own territories. Cao Cao (upper center) would try to reform the Han, but ultimately failed. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. Map shows how the Han Dynasty was divided into nearly twenty different territories ruled by different warlords. Map showing the breakdown of the Han empire as warlords carved out their own territories. Cao Cao (upper center) would try to reform the Han, but ultimately failed. By SY, CC BY-SA 4.0. In 189 CE, Emperor Ling died without an heir. His thirteen-year-old son Liu Bian was proclaimed Emperor Shao by the dowager empress He. The dowager empress was the widowed wife of the dead emperor. Her family would select the next emperor and then the dowager would help rule if the new emperor was just a child. The dowager empress He's brother, He Jin, immediately moved against the eunuchs. However the eunuchs lured He Jin into the palace and assassinated him. In a swift retaliation, some two thousand eunuchs were then killed in the palace by troops. This disruption allowed General Dong Zhou to seize control of the capital city of Luoyang. He overthrew the young emperor (and later forced him to commit suicide by drinking poison) and sat the eight-year-old Liu Xie on the throne as Emperor Xian. The general tried to control the government through this puppet emperor, but Dong Zhou was not well liked, and he was eventually killed in 192 CE by his bodyguard. The Han Empire quickly broke down as a series of warlords fought each other for control. One, Cao Cao, who had possession of the young emperor Xian, tried to unify China, but ultimately failed. After Cao Cao died in 220 CE, the emperor Xian was forced to give up his position, officially ending the Han Dynasty. Theories of collapse Chinese historians have spent well over a thousand years trying to understand why the Han Dynasty collapsed. Over time they developed three main theories: 1) bad rulers; 2) the influence of empresses and court eunuchs over child emperors too young to rule by themselves; and 3) the Yellow Turban Revolt. The first simply proposes that the Han fell because too many individual rulers were poor at their jobs. The second is based off the fact that most of the Eastern Han emperors died young, sometimes without clear heirs. It would be the dowager empresses (and their families) who would select the new emperor. These new emperors were typically young, requiring the dowager empresses to rule for them with the help of the eunuchs. For many Chinese, this went against the belief that power must come from a male. The third idea attributes the collapse to peasant rebellion directed against bad emperors. Panting of four men in a discussion. Two are facing each other, one man has his back turned to the others.This painting on paper shows gentlemen involved in a discussion. Men like these would play an important role in running the empire, public domain Panting of four men in a discussion. Two are facing each other, one man has his back turned to the others. This painting on paper shows gentlemen involved in a discussion. Men like these would play an important role in running the empire, public domain Modern scholars offer many more theories. One argument says that the Han victory over Xiongnu was the beginning of the end. Some believe that only warfare could keep the generals loyal to the empire. When the Han forced the Xiongnu people to abandon the frontier, there were no more strong enemies to fight. The generals, like Dong Zhou, may have felt like lions at a vegetarian barbeque, and so turned their appetites on the empire. Others argue that a split emerged between the emperor and the scholars (literati) who actually ran the administration, and at the same time the peripheral areas of the empire became too strong for the emperor to control. Yet another theory suggests a divide between the empire and the wealthy, land-owning elites. Without the support and money of these elites, the emperors could not continue to respond to crises such as invasion, rebellion, and natural disasters. Author bio Dennis RM Campbell is an associate professor of History at San Francisco State University. He primarily conducts research on esoteric topics in ancient history and writes about ancient language, religions, and societies. [Sources and attributions]

Thank You for Algebra: Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi By Bennett Sherry The Muslim mathematician al-Khwarizmi built on ancient ideas and offered new approaches to mathematics that we still rely on today. Translating the heavens Is math the language of science? If it is, then we should thank Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi for translating it for us. Al-Khwarizmi was a scholar at the House of Wisdom in ninth-century Baghdad (see Figure 1). There, he was part of a community of scholars from across the world who translated and studied ancient manuscripts on science, math, medicine, history, philosophy, and more. But like most scholars, al-Khwarizmi did more than simply translate ancient books. He blended and improved mathematical concepts from ancient Babylonian, Greek, and Hindu scholars, revolutionizing how we do math. Al-Khwarizmi was invited to the House of Wisdom by the Abbasid caliph (ruler), al-Ma’mun. Al-Khwarizmi was a Persian man, probably born somewhere in Central Asia near today’s Uzbekistan. We don’t know a lot about his life. The sands of time have erased many of the details. Yet his teachings live on through his books. He made important contributions in geography, astronomy, geometry, and calendar systems. But his most important contributions were in mathematics. Algebra. Wow. Thanks. You shouldn’t have... Al-Khwarizmi is best known for revolutionizing algebra and arithmetic. He didn’t invent algebra, but he did improve the techniques we use to solve algebraic problems. His book, al-Kitāb al-mukhtasar fīhisāb al-jabr wal-muqābala(Arabic for The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) is where we get the word “algebra” (from “al-jabr” or “balancing”). This book offered detailed instructions for solving linear and quadratic equations1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript, earning him the title “father of algebra.” Now, you might not be too excited about algebra, so you’re forgiven for not rushing to thank al-Khwarizmi. But consider this: algebra sounds complicated, but it can also help you solve some of life’s more complicated problems in a simple way. At its most basic, algebra allows us to use symbols (like x and y) in equations to find unknown numbers. It could be as simple as the linear equation x + 1 = 2 , where we can quickly figure out that x equals 1. Or it can be as complicated as Einstein’s blockbuster: “E = mc2.” Quadratic equations are essential if you want to do things like fly a plane, plot a course to Mars, or pass Algebra II. Unlike Einstein, you probably don’t need to solve problems involving the speed of light. Thankfully, al-Khwarizmi’s book also offered solutions for people who needed to figure out common, everyday problems. For example, his book explained how to use equations to split an inheritance, divide a plot of land, and find measurements for canals and buildings. While al-Khwarizmi was not the first person to understand these equations, he was the first to provide algorithms for solving them. Algorithms are sets of rules to solve a problem. They’re the basis of computing machines, so that means we wouldn’t have computers or phones without algorithms—or al-Khwarizmi. In fact, the English word “algorithm” comes from the Latinized spelling of his name, “Algorismi.” Now doesn’t al-Khwarizmi deserve some thanks? Rather than using numbers and symbols in his book on algebra (algebraic equations tend to look something like this: ax2 + bx + c = 0), al-Khwarizmi explained how to solve equations in words. This is surprising, because his second-most famous book encouraged mathematicians to adopt the Hindu numbering system. Developed in ancient India, these numerals are today called Hindu-Arabic numerals. Al-Khwarizmi popularized the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in the Islamic world, and his book is responsible for their adoption in Europe five centuries later. This numbering system made math a lot easier because it introduced the number zero and the concept of positional notation, which is basically the idea that the position of numbers determines their value. For example, consider the number 503. The five is in the third place to the left, which means it symbolizes units of a hundred. In this number, we know there are five hundreds and three ones. Why did this make math easier? Well, let’s try an experiment. Add up the cost of a video game, a pizza, and a pair of jeans. But here’s the catch: you can’t use the numbers you’re used to, only Roman numerals (I, V, X, L, C)...and you have to show your work. The cost of the game is LIX dollars, the pizza costs XV dollars, and the jeans are XXXIX dollars. Which adds up to “What the !@XV#%?” Now, imagine how much time you would have saved if you were adding 59+15+39. A lot faster, right? That’s thanks to al-Khwarizmi and the ancient Hindu numbering system he introduced to the Islamic world. Adding to human knowledge Al-Khwarizmi’s work in mathematics revolutionized or made possible other fields, including finance, optics, engineering, chemistry, astronomy, geography, and computing. Al-Khwarizmi made some of these innovations himself. He improved on Ptolemy’s famous world map, recording the latitudes and longitudes of thousands of cities. He produced new calendar and calculation systems for tracking the movement of the planets, Sun, and Moon. In 1202 CE—four hundred years after al-Khwarizmi wrote his books—the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the Hindu numbering system to Italy. Within two centuries, these numerals were the standard across Europe. Isaac Newton claimed that he saw far because he stood on the shoulders of giants. But we often forget that he was only able to stand on those shoulders because he could read their words. The great Islamic scholars who lived during the Golden Age of Islam are the people that Newton had to thank for translating and improving the ancient works of Greek, Hindu, Babylonian, and Roman scholars. Their works circulated throughout the Islamic world, emerging from centers of learning like Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba, Fez, and Basra. Carried by scholars from across Afro-Eurasia, these works were passed from student to teacher and translated into new languages. The early Islamic caliphs brought scholars from as far away as China and West Africa to Baghdad, where new ideas swirled together and added to our collective learning. [Notes] Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. He is one of the historians working on the OER Project courses. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: The article mentions that some people describe what comes after collapse as recovery, but others believe reorganization comes after collapse. What’s the difference?What are two different, extreme ways in which historians have sometimes used the term collapse?How does the author describe the histories of Africa and the Americas in this period?What was the strong center that helped growth resume in Afro-Eurasia in the seventh century?In general, what role did religion play in the reorganization of the Afro-Eurasian system in this period, according to the article? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: If we just look at the Paleolithic Era to today, we see bigger communities, more complex networks, and more production and distribution. But the author of this articles suggests that change in these three frames isn’t always happening in that direction. Do you agree with the author? What kind of evidence would support their argument?What evidence in this article suggests that Europe recovered quickly after the collapse of the Roman Empire? What evidence suggests a slow recovery? Which do you find more convincing? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Era 4 Overview: Collapse and Restructuring A photograph from the inside of a rounded, open building without a ceiling. There are arches built out of stone bricks and a layer of square shaped windows on top of the arches. Through the arches we can see a blue sky. Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’Connor In Era 3, we saw the emergence of large states, empires, and networks that connected them to one another and to surrounding peoples. In Era 4, we see that both states and the networks between them can collapse—and frequently did! But were these collapses and recoveries or restructuring? We ask the simple question: Does history teach us that big changes are always progress? Maybe it's not so simple. You already know from the opening of this course that people construct stories about the past in the form of narratives. These narratives have beginnings and ends, and describe change over time. On a global scale, many of these narratives give a sense of progress. Populations generally rise. People make and consume more stuff. Communities become bigger. Networks expand and become richer and deeper. But reality is more complex. If you take only two moments in human history as data points—the Paleolithic and the world in which we live—all of these stories seem to work. But up close, they get a little bit iffier. Sometimes populations decrease. Sometimes communities get smaller, and networks close. Often, there is a restructuring. Things change, but don't necessarily get bigger or smaller. Instead, their overall shape and organization changes. So we ask the question: Does history teach us that big changes are always progress? Maybe it's not so simple. Era 4 (c. 200-1500 CE) was an era of great change that also looks like a straightforward story if we look at just the beginning and the end of the period from a great distance. At the beginning of the era, we see lots of states and complex societies in many regions of the world, and some connections between them that allowed for quite a bit of production and distribution and also the exchange of ideas. In particular, Eurasia in 200 CE featured two very large states—the Roman Empire and China under the Han Dynasty—each on one end of a long-distance trade route. If we were to look much later in the era, in the fourteenth century, we would again see that long-distance trade route across Eurasia. Now it is even thicker, with more people and products moving east and west across this vast land-mass. And it is wider as well, connected to trade routes reaching out from East and West Africa and into more regions of Asia. Another big network also has developed in the Americas. But if we look closer at the trading system in Eurasia, we no longer see one big state on either side. Instead, we see a very big state—the Mongol Empire—dominating much of the system, with smaller states all around. A map shows the vastness of medieval trade networks, which covered a large part of the world.Medieval trade networks, map by Martin Jan Månsson. A map shows the vastness of medieval trade networks, which covered a large part of the world. Medieval trade networks, map by Martin Jan Månsson. This change to the Eurasian system is a clue that something—or things—dramatic happened in between those two dates. Historians and other scholars have hints about what happened. We know that several states—including the Roman Empire and Han Dynasty China—broke up early in this era. We know that the system that connected them similarly broke down, at least for a while, and that the networks we see in the fourteenth century were in fact only rebuilt through great struggle. Many observers think this transformation looks like a collapse, followed by a recovery. To them, it resembles a stop in the middle of the story, and then a long pause before the Eurasian network could re-emerge. To others, it looks more like a reorganization of who is participating and how the system was formed. Certainly, whatever happened, it was something that challenges the description of "progress as normal." Collapse Let's talk about the idea of collapse first. "Collapse" can describe a lot of different situations. It might mean the total destruction of a society and all of its institutions—the burning of cities, the decline of population, the loss of knowledge. It might, in some cases, be used to describe little more than a change of government or ruler. The collapse of the Roman Empire and Han Dynasty China are not alone in this category, either! Even within Eurasia, several other states, including the Gupta Empire in South Asia, experienced collapse as well in this period. Indeed, these incidents seem to have had widespread effect across a broad region. So, for example, while human population overall grew during this era, in large areas of Eurasia, the population sharply declined between 300 and 600 CE. Impressive ruins of a Roman temple. There are tall, stone walls, as well as carved columns Temple of Bel, part of the Roman Ruins in Palmyra, Syria, left behind when the Roman Empire collapsed. By Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0. Impressive ruins of a Roman temple. There are tall, stone walls, as well as carved columns Temple of Bel, part of the Roman Ruins in Palmyra, Syria, left behind when the Roman Empire collapsed. By Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0. But not everyone agrees about what "collapse" means, and not everyone even agrees that the history of Afro-Eurasia in this era was principally a period of collapse. In the centuries that followed the decline of the ancient world system, some regions of Afro-Eurasia moved in different directions. China alternated between times of unity and division. Much of the Eastern Roman Empire held on as the Byzantine Empire. In southwestern Asia and North Africa, Roman rule ended. In its place rose a political infrastructure built around an emerging and easily spread religion known as Islam. In western Europe, by contrast, the empire's infrastructure disappeared. Roads and city walls, its system of authority—including courts of law and soldiers—quite literally vanished. This led many historians to describe the time as "a dark age." Other regions of the world experienced their own patterns of growth and decline in this period. In East Africa, the once-powerful state of Aksum declined rapidly, but Swahili-speaking city-states arose on the coast and came to play a big role in global production and distribution. For a time, they dominated trade between the Indian Ocean and the African interior. In West Africa, large states began to emerge for the first time as well. Mali was one of these new large states, and it was a unique kind of political community but one with a vast reach. In Mesoamerica, however, states and systems also grew and collapsed. This included the network of small states that we know as the Maya. Many of these reached their heights and then seemingly disintegrated in the ninth century. Reorganization Wherever there was a collapse, there was also a recovery. Exactly how long this took varied in different regions. Some scholars argue that recovery began in many cases almost immediately. They argue that maybe some "collapses" weren't really so dramatic. Maybe recoveries were really just reorganizations. In the previous era, the system of collapse and recovery was defined by two strong powers on either end, such as the Roman Empire and Han Dynasty. However in Afro-Eurasia, this reorganization was defined more by a strong center. Islam emerged in the seventh century. It provided trading links, a shared moral compass, and political stability. All of these things allowed for the great east-west commerce of the Silk Road to re-emerge. The Indian Ocean also became, more than ever, an important trading circuit. Rising trade created new possibilities for taxation. Governments strengthened on the back of these commercial opportunities. Sometimes, as in the Crusades, political clashes were provoked and strengthened by conflict between religious communities. Religion also played an important role in the recovery and reorganization of the system. Europeans lacked a strong, central government. But Christianity provided a sense of unity. In Southeast Asia, Buddhism and Hinduism acted as networks to support traders. They also offered ideologies and organizing principles for states. But the relationship between the state and religion was not exact or perfect. In western Europe, the Christian (Catholic) Pope wielded great authority. But he did not generally rule over vast territory. Moreover, the Christian world was divided. The Orthodox Church based in Byzantium was at times friendly to and enemies with Catholic powers. The Muslim world was also frequently divided among large and small states. Moreover, some stateless peoples could survive and thrive as part of a reorganized system. This was true in particular of the Jewish community. Sculpture of a male person wearing a tall, pointed hat and a long red tunic.Tang Dynasty sculpture of a foreign merchant from Central Asia, a sign of recovering trade in the 7th century, public domain. Sculpture of a male person wearing a tall, pointed hat and a long red tunic. Tang Dynasty sculpture of a foreign merchant from Central Asia, a sign of recovering trade in the 7th century, public domain. Conclusion All of the evidence about recovery leads us to ask more questions about the collapse—both as an idea, and as specific historical events. What do historians mean when they say that some societies "collapse" or "fall"? What actually changes? Who is affected by those changes? How do things either change back, or start growing again, if differently? Finding some kinds of answers to these questions about the past might help us to look at our own society in the present, and maybe even to plan for the future. Author bio Trevor Getz is a professor of African and world history at San Francisco State University. He has been the author or editor of 11 books, including the award-winning graphic history Abina and the Important Men, and has coproduced several prize-winning documentaries. Trevor is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How did the growth of imperial power expand trade, according to the author?What were the Pax Sinica and Pax Romana, and how did they impact trade?Why were camels the best way for traders to move their goods on land?What was the role of women in silk production, and why is that role significant?According to the author, what were some things the Silk Road spread without even trying? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: What would you expect to happen along the Silk Road during a period in which the Roman Empire, and then the Han Dynasty, collapsed? What evidence would show whether this was, in fact, happening? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Silk Road Photograph of several people traveling on camelback, outside of a tall stone wall. Behind the wall are impressive, multi-level structures. By Rosie Friedland and David Rheinstrom for Khan Academy. Revised by Eman M. Elshaikh Heavenly horses, see-through clothing, camel-shaped gravestones. The ancient, vast trade network we call the Silk Road connected Eurasia and North Africa. And it was about a lot more than silk. Introduction Silk. Today we know it as a soft, shiny, fabric used for expensive clothes and many other things. Back in the first century CE, during the rule of the Roman Emperor Tiberius, silk was a much, much bigger deal. The luxury fabric, imported at great cost from China, had become a symbol of decadence and excess among Romans. With greater demand than supply, merchants figured out a way to unravel the silk they bought from China and re-weave it into more silk, but now it was much thinner. As in, you could see through it. Since silk was used for clothing, this became a bit of a problem on the streets of Rome. Seneca the Younger, a writer and imperial adviser, complained of people wearing silk, "I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes." At one point, in the year 14 CE, the Imperial Senate made it illegal for men to wear silk. This prohibition on silk did not last. The demand for silk among wealthy members of the Roman community continued to drive trade between the Roman Empire, China, India, and many places in between. To understand what caused this trade in silk, we need to look at how Chinese silk got to Rome. State power and the Silk Road One cause of expanded trade was the growth of imperial power. Near the end of the second century BCE, the Han dynasty, led by Emperor Wu, was in conflict with nomadic communities, called the Xiongnu. Xiongnu horsemen had raided Chinese settlements along the northern border for many years. After mounting many campaigns against the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu decided it was time to find a new source of horses if they were ever going to win this fight. A sculpture of a horse. It is standing, balanced on one hoof, on the back of a bird.“Heavenly Horse” of Ferghana, depicted in a 2nd century CE bronze sculpture from Han China. By G41rn8, CC BY-SA 4.0. A sculpture of a horse. It is standing, balanced on one hoof, on the back of a bird. “Heavenly Horse” of Ferghana, depicted in a 2nd century CE bronze sculpture from Han China. By G41rn8, CC BY-SA 4.0. He sent a representative named Zhang Qian to find allies who could help fight the Xiongnu. Zhang returned to China, eager to discuss the wonders he had seen in Ferghana (modern-day Uzbekistan, in Central Asia). This region produced rice, wheat, and grapes—but it was best known for its legendary, strong, "heavenly" horses. As a tradable item, these "heavenly horses" of Ferghana were as desired in China as silk was in Rome. China imported so many horses that the Dayuan people who controlled the Ferghana valley eventually said "no more!" Han China decided if they couldn't buy the horses, they would take the land, leading to a three-year conflict known as the War of the Heavenly Horses. By 101 BCE, the Ferghana valley belonged to Han China. But here is the interesting side-effect: control of the Ferghana valley also opened a route to the West. With a new supply of horses, Han China had increased its military strength throughout Asia. The expansion of Han control led to the first Pax Sinica—or Chinese Peace. During this time, the standard of living in China rose and cities grew in size. Economic growth and political stability led to increased demand for luxury goods from far-off places. Meanwhile, the Roman Empire was expanding, too. Victory in the Punic Wars gave Rome control over the western Mediterranean Sea. Over the next few centuries, Rome expanded to control all of the Mediterranean shoreline. The first century CE saw the beginning of the Pax Romana—Roman Peace. For about 200 years there were hardly any wars. As with Han China, political stability brought more trade. Rome began to trade regularly on overseas trading routes to India, going through Egypt. Although Rome and Han China expanded greatly, there was still a lot of distance between them. Central Asia is covered with mountains, deserts, and vast grasslands, so it's not like people traveled through it for fun. Traders, who had a good financial reason to take these difficult trips, provided an essential link in creating networks between the Roman and Han empires. Map shows the great extent of the Silk Road trade routes, reaching across the Indian ocean, from Egypt through China.Extent of Silk Roads. Red is land route and blue is sea/water route. Public domain. Map shows the great extent of the Silk Road trade routes, reaching across the Indian ocean, from Egypt through China. Extent of Silk Roads. Red is land route and blue is sea/water route. Public domain. Travel on the Silk Road Traders had to find ways to move their goods efficiently. This is where camels come in, as they were the best way to travel. Nomadic peoples in Central Asia started domesticating camels as early as the second millennium BCE. For example, the Han Chinese used camels captured from the Xiongnu to carry military supplies. Camels were tough. They withstood the harsh desert conditions of Central Asia and could carry up to 500 pounds! Without pack animals—especially camels—transporting goods over land on the Silk Road would not have been worth the trouble. Stone carving of a camel walking behind two travelers.Relief with camel, Persepolis, Iran. By Nick Taylor, CC BY 2.0. Stone carving of a camel walking behind two travelers. Relief with camel, Persepolis, Iran. By Nick Taylor, CC BY 2.0. Land wasn't the only way to travel. Merchants made use of the ocean to transport goods, too. Sailors didn't need camels, but a strong understanding of wind patterns and storm systems was required to successfully navigate the vast, dangerous waters. For example, in the Indian Ocean, monsoon winds blow from the northeast in the winter and from the southwest in the summer. With a southwestern wind pushing them east, merchants were able to travel from the Red Sea between Egypt and Arabia to India in the summer and then back to the Red Sea in the winter. This essential information was exchanged among sailors and made its way beyond the Indian Ocean. The effects of exchange One obvious effect of trade along the Silk Road—and for long-distance trade in any context—was that more goods were available in more places. Silk became so hotly desired that it was used like money in central Asia. What was so special about it? Unlike other fabrics, it was unusually soft and always had an appealing shimmer. This is because silk is a protein fabric made from the cocoons of silkworms (not from plants). The Romans surely would have made their own silk if they could. But how you got from cocoon to fabric was a process the Chinese kept secret all the way until the sixth century CE. The fact that China remained the only producer and distributor of silk meant that trade goods continued to travel across Asia. Women were in charge of silk harvesting and weaving. Their production of silk generated lots of money from both the trade on the Silk Road networks and through the payment of taxes to the government. This means that the roles taken on by women made their jobs important for the benefit of the Han dynasty and its economy. Map shows the Red Sea and the land surrounding it (east Africa, Saudi Arabia, India, southeast Asia). Blue arrows point south and west, showing the winter winds from the northeast. Red arrows point north and east across the Red Sea, showing the summer winds coming from the southA map of the monsoon pattern, made by Khan Academy. Map shows the Red Sea and the land surrounding it (east Africa, Saudi Arabia, India, southeast Asia). Blue arrows point south and west, showing the winter winds from the northeast. Red arrows point north and east across the Red Sea, showing the summer winds coming from the southwest. Map shows the Red Sea and the land surrounding it (east Africa, Saudi Arabia, India, southeast Asia). Blue arrows point south and west, showing the winter winds from the northeast. Red arrows point north and east across the Red Sea, showing the summer winds coming from the south A map of the monsoon pattern, made by Khan Academy. Map shows the Red Sea and the land surrounding it (east Africa, Saudi Arabia, India, southeast Asia). Blue arrows point south and west, showing the winter winds from the northeast. Red arrows point north and east across the Red Sea, showing the summer winds coming from the southwest. Chinese silk was not the only commodity traded along these routes. China also exported ginger and lacquerware (a kind of glazed pottery), spices came from the East Indies, glass beads from Rome, and furs from animals of the Caucasian steppe. Unfortunately, the Silk Road also made it easier for enslaved peoples from many locations to be transported along its routes. This massive movement of goods, people, and ideas had some major effects, including cultural developments. During the rule of the Tang dynasty of China, for example, sculptures of camels from the caravans that frequently traded in China were placed in graves. Clearly the animals made an impression! Then there are those two other things that new trade routes tend to spread without even trying: ideas and diseases. Both would have large effects on the communities along the sea lanes and camel routes of Silk Road networks. Toward the end of the second century, a plague tore through the Roman Empire, killing 10 percent of the population. Historians think this plague first appeared in China before following the trade routes to the Near East, where Roman soldiers were campaigning. As for the exchange of ideas, Buddhism came to China through trade with India. The Sogdians of Central Asia often acted as traders between India and China. Sogdians also translated Sanskrit sutras (short scriptures) into Chinese and spread the Buddhist faith as they traded. Other faiths, like Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Christianity also traveled along the sea and land routes. These religions developed and changed as they were introduced and became accepted in new areas. So now we have a sense of the economic and political conditions that enabled Chinese silk to make its way to Roman markets. Both the Han Chinese and Roman Empires controlled vast territories and kept them relatively peaceful. The Han conquered their way into Central Asia. From there, nomadic traders carried goods farther west or south. Trade brought new belief systems, new ideas, new diseases, and new goods to places that would be forever changed by the Silk Road. A partially destroyed piece of paper with written text Part of a seventh-century purchase contract, exchanging a fifteen-year-old enslaved person for six bolts of silk and five Chinese coins. This contract is from the city of Turfan, an oasis city along the Silk Road. By Discott, CC BY-SA 3.0. A partially destroyed piece of paper with written text Part of a seventh-century purchase contract, exchanging a fifteen-year-old enslaved person for six bolts of silk and five Chinese coins. This contract is from the city of Turfan, an oasis city along the Silk Road. By Discott, CC BY-SA 3.0. Author bios Rosie Friedland is a content contributor at Khan Academy. She has created materials for a variety of Khan Academy's test prep offerings, including free SAT prep in partnership with College Board. She has also worked on course materials for Grammar, World History, U.S. History, and early-grade English Language Arts. David Rheinstrom is a content creator at Khan Academy, and a former Grammar Fellow. Together with Rosie Friedland and Paige Finch, he developed the Grammar section of the website, and has contributed work to the test prep domain, World History, U.S. History, and a collaboration with the National Constitution Center. He lives in Washington, D.C. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What reasons does the author give for the success of Arab armies in conquering surrounding regions under the Rashidun Caliphate?How did the Umayyad Caliphate learn to govern a large and diverse empire?What were attitudes toward non-Muslims under Umayyad rule, according to the author?How did the Abbasids transform who governed the Caliphate?What does the author argue were attitudes toward women in the Caliphate?What are some reasons the Caliphate broke into several parts between the tenth and thirteenth centuries? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: The Caliphate is sometimes called a “successor to the Roman Empire,” along with western Christian (Catholic) and Byzantine communities. What evidence can you find in this article to support or refute this argument?The Caliphate was both a religious community and a political state. Does it seem like this arrangement was effective? What are some ways it might have been an advantage or disadvantage? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The Caliphate A painting of five adults and one small child. Four people are riding on the backs of camels, and they are wearing different colored robes. One person is standing and appears to be greeting them. By Eman M. Elshaikh The Muslim world, whether governed by one or several powerful caliphates, was at the center of Afro-Eurasia. The center of the world Around the turn of the first millennium CE, Baghdad was at the center of the world. Or so its writers would tell you. People like al-Khatib al-Baghdadi and Ibn al-Jawzi, writing from Baghdad, felt they were at the heart of it all, in the pulsing epicenter of the known world. That's not surprising; around the middle of Era 4, Baghdad was one of the greatest cities on the planet, boasting around a million residents—in proportion to today's population that would look like 26 million. It was cosmopolitan and wealthy, with flourishing trade, sciences, and arts. Baghdad was a dazzling city rivaled only by Hangzhou in Song China. An old, drawn map of the city of Baghdad. In the center of the map reads “The Round City” The city of Baghdad between 150 and 300 AH (767 and 912 CE). By William Muir, public domain. An old, drawn map of the city of Baghdad. In the center of the map reads “The Round City” The city of Baghdad between 150 and 300 AH (767 and 912 CE). By William Muir, public domain. The city rose to such heights as the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258] CE), a powerful and massive Muslim empire. From about the eighth century until well into Era 5, Muslim empires spread out across Afro-Eurasia. But it all started in the middle of the seventh century with a new political structure: the caliphate. The institution of the caliphate After the death of the Muslim prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, the Muslim community of Arabia was led by a caliph1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. The caliph was to be a spiritual and political leader, elected by his fellow Muslims. From 632-661, under the Rashidun Caliphate, the Muslim community elected caliphs who were close associates and extended family members of Muhammad. Under the Rashidun, the state expanded rapidly out of Arabia. The neighboring Byzantines and Persians were vulnerable. Weakened by plague, wars, and encroaching Central Asian groups, these empires weren't able to put up much of a fight. The Arab soldiers, mostly nomadic, were more resistant to plague. Many had served in Byzantine and Persian militaries, and knew just how to exploit these weaknesses to conquer a lot of new land really fast. Map shows the expansion of Muslim ruled states, gradually moving outward.A map showing the expansion of Muslim-ruled states from 622-750 CE. Dark red shows expansion under Muhammad, 622-623. Orange shows expansion under the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661. Yellow shows expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750. Public domain. Map shows the expansion of Muslim ruled states, gradually moving outward. A map showing the expansion of Muslim-ruled states from 622-750 CE. Dark red shows expansion under Muhammad, 622-623. Orange shows expansion under the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661. Yellow shows expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750. Public domain. But the state itself was still a confederation of Arab tribes settled in garrison cities2^22squared . It was under the Umayyads (661-750) that the caliphate developed a more sophisticated state structure to rule over its vast territory. With the empire now stretching from Spain to Central Asia, state officials were busy... translating. In particular, Persian sources on statecraft (managing a state) were being translated into Arabic, as were sources from the Byzantine Empire. Partly because of these efforts, Persian and Byzantine political structures influenced the emerging caliphates. One example is the diwan, an administrative system used to register and pay soldiers, collect taxes, and pay for public works like mosques and irrigation systems. Muslim rulers also appointed provincial governors, called emirs, to help manage each region, with indigenous officials supporting the emirs. This was similar to the Byzantine system. The caliph became an absolute, dynastic (hereditary) monarch ruling over subjects, much like a Persian king, and less like an elected deputy leading a community of fellow Muslims. Caliphs used religious ideas to justify their rule, but they were often challenged by devout Muslims and the class of religious scholars, called ulema. From an Arab Empire to a Muslim Empire Soon, the caliphs were focused more on ruling than on safeguarding the religion. We often think of the political expansion of the Islamic state and the spread of the Islamic religion as the same thing. In fact, caliphs usually didn't encourage conquered people to convert to Islam. Non-Muslims could often retain their own religions. They were required to pay a special tax, called a jizya, a source of income for the state. Many of those who did convert were not immediately accepted into the community. As the historian Patricia Crone claims, "the Arabs were not always willing to share their God with gentile converts." Nor were they willing to share their power. Arabs remained the ruling class. Many resented the Umayyads and questioned their authority. After all, they were neither elected nor members of Muhammad's family. To make matters worse, people thought they acted unjustly and violated Islamic ideals, including equality for all Muslims, Arab or not. A painting, faded with age, depicts a ruler seated in a throne surrounded by others looking up at him.Depiction of the first Abbasid caliph As-Saffah as he receives pledges of allegiance in Kufa, the site of Umayyad opposition. From a work by Persian historian Muhammad Bal’ami, public domain. A painting, faded with age, depicts a ruler seated in a throne surrounded by others looking up at him. Depiction of the first Abbasid caliph As-Saffah as he receives pledges of allegiance in Kufa, the site of Umayyad opposition. From a work by Persian historian Muhammad Bal’ami, public domain. One revolution later, and the Umayyads were out. They were replaced by the Abbasids (750-1258), who were related to Muhammad through his uncle. Though the Abbasids were Arab, the empire became a lot less Arab-centered under their rule. They moved the caliphate closer to their support base, quite literally, from Damascus to Baghdad—much closer to Persia. The Abbasids were powerful monarchs, just like the Umayyads, though they sometimes shared control with powerful officials called viziers and high-level bureaucrats. And they weren't fairer or more Islamic, either. They did, however, create more space for non-Arabs, and many Turks and Persians held sway at the Abbasid court. More non-Arabs joined military ranks. Also, there was an influx of Central Asian people, as the Abbasids used enslaved soldiers, called mamluks, to ensure a loyal military. Society under the caliphate With all this talk of caliphates, it's easy to forget that most people living in the empires were not actually Muslims, at least not right away. Conquest didn't mean conversion. Conversion is complicated, but let's just say there weren't many mass conversions. For the most part, people converted individually for different reasons. These included sincere belief, avoiding the jizya tax, or gaining rights and privileges. Forced conversion wasn't really "a thing" in this period. Merchants, missionaries, and wandering holy people were the ones who really spread Islam, and it took centuries—but that's another story. Muslims ruled over many Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Hindus. They were generally considered protected peoples, called dhimmi, and were permitted to practice their religions in exchange for the jizya tax, although they were occasionally subjected to violence and discrimination. Many non-Muslim people moved into the empire as enslaved people, often as prisoners of war or through trade. Enslaved men and woman had many different roles, including as laborers or servants. Enslaved men were often soldiers. Enslaved women were often concubines3^33cubed, a practice that became more common during Abbasid rule and which affected the structure of family and the status of women. Slavery was not passed through generations, and people could gain freedom and eventually gain considerable power—but hold that thought. Women's lives were as diverse as the different societies Islam reached—which is pretty diverse. Islam gave women rights, like property, divorce, inheritance rights, and negotiable marriage contracts. But these rights were put into practice differently depending on region and social class. Over time, Islamic sources were often interpreted with a patriarchal spin, especially as they blended with different cultures. In former Byzantine and Persian areas, many upper-class women were secluded, a common Byzantine practice. Women who could afford to not work outside of the home didn't appear in public. When in public, women covered their bodies in loose outer garments. A painting of a woman, seated in a field next to a large vessel and a tree. She is wearing a long red dress.Rabi´a al-Basri (717–801 CE), a female Sufi saint who was revered for her intense devotion. Public domain. A painting of a woman, seated in a field next to a large vessel and a tree. She is wearing a long red dress. Rabi´a al-Basri (717–801 CE), a female Sufi saint who was revered for her intense devotion. Public domain. But public life wasn't what it is now, and women had their own robust social and economic networks within their private spheres. Women could direct the building of mosques, monasteries, and schools using their own money. And though they didn't attend public schools and universities, they had their own educational communities with other women, especially in Qur'anic and Islamic studies. They also could buy and sell products and services in their homes. Women worked as peddlers, hairstylists, midwives, and nursemaids. And we know women indeed spent time in public places like markets, because there are countless sources condemning them for it. In other places, like coastal East Africa or Southeast Asia, Muslim women were less restricted. From one empire to many Though on paper the Abbasids lasted until the thirteenth century when the Mongols sacked Baghdad, in reality, their power declined around the tenth century—for multiple reasons. For one, while more conversions were good for the religious community, they weren't so good for the empire's piggy banks; there were a lot fewer people paying the jizya. The empire also became so big—over 4,000 miles from end to end—that governors on the margins started doing their own thing, like pocketing taxes and revenues for themselves. It didn't help that the Abbasids spent tons of money they didn't really have on an extravagant court. And remember those mamluks? Yeah, enslaved soldiers aren't all that loyal. They eventually gained the power to influence who became caliph, a situation that repeated itself in later empires, like the Ottoman Empire. Mamluks became "kingmakers" and, eventually, they started their own dynasties in various regions of the caliphate, in particular Egypt. A gold coin carved with text.Gold dinar coin from the Berber Muslim Almoravid dynasty (1040-147), Seville, Spain, 1116, CC BY-SA 3.0. By PHGCOM, CC BY-SA 3.0. A gold coin carved with text. Gold dinar coin from the Berber Muslim Almoravid dynasty (1040-147), Seville, Spain, 1116, CC BY-SA 3.0. By PHGCOM, CC BY-SA 3.0. Over time, much of the Abbasid territory was actually controlled by multiple independent Muslim dynasties, including mamluk-ruled ones. Many of these were devastated by Mongol invasions, while others survived. But the Mongol invasions didn't end the era of Muslim empires. In fact, some Mongols converted to Islam and started their own Muslim dynasty. As Islam spread to other regions, Muslim states popped up all over Afro-Eurasia, from Mali to the Malacca Sultanate. With so many different dynasties, you'd think the era of a unified Muslim community was entirely over, but that wasn't really true. Though ideas about the Muslim community have changed historically, several things united Muslims across fragmented political communities. Trade networks crisscrossed the Muslim world, pulling them into shared systems of production and distribution. Islamic beliefs and institutions spanned dynasties and even continents, making people feel like they were part of a single community of religious practice. Whether in west Africa, north India, or Baghdad, many Muslims in this era lived in wealthy, advanced societies and continued to feel like they were at the center of the world. [Notes] Author bio The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History. [Sources and attributions]

The data exploration article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview – what do we have? This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what this chart is about and the information it contains. Pay attention to: Labels and titles. What is the title? How are the axes labeled? Is anything else on the chart labeled?Data representation. How many variables are there and what are they? What are the scales? What time period does the chart cover? Is the chart interactive?Data source. Where did the data for this chart come from? Do you trust it? Who created the chart? Second read: key ideas – what do we know? In this read, you will pay attention to the information that most helps you understand the chart and the information it is trying to convey. Pay attention to: Claim(s). What can you say about the data? What story does it tell? Can you make any claims about this data? Does it change when you zoom in compared to when you look at the data as a whole?Evidence. What data from the chart supports this story? Does this change if you change the scale or variables?Presentation. How does the way this chart is presented influence how you read it? Has the author selected certain variables or scales that change the conclusions that can be drawn? Is there anything missing from this chart? By the end of the second read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How are Charts 1 and 2 different? How are they similar?What does Chart 1 tell us about war in the last 500 years? Do you think measuring war between the great powers is a good way to understand war in general?What does Chart 2 tell us about how the deadliness of conflict changed during the twentieth century?According to Chart 3, what was the deadliest event in human history?Charts 1 and 2 suggest that the frequency and deadliness of conflict might be declining, especially during the twentieth century. Why does Chart 3 show so many more conflicts in recent centuries than earlier in history? Third read: making connections – what does this tell us? The third reading is really about why the chart is important and what it can tell us about the past and help us think about the future. Pay attention to: Significance. Why does this matter? Does this impact me, and if so, how? How does it connect what is going on in the world right now? How does it relate to what was happening at the time it was created?Back to the future. How does this data compare to today? Based on what you now know, what are your thoughts on this phenomenon 25 years, 50 years, and 100 years from now? At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: These four charts use similar data to tell slightly different stories. Which do you trust the most to tell us something important about deadly conflict? Why?Using these three charts, make one prediction about the future of warfare and deadly conflict in your lifetime. What evidence from the charts supports your prediction? What evidence challenges it? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. War and Peace Data Introduction By Max Roser, adapted by Eman M. Elshaikh The past was not peaceful. Is there more violent conflict today than in the past? Is war becoming deadlier? The data is more complicated than you might think. Introduction The past was not peaceful. Human history has been a story of conquest as much as it has been a story of peace. But many people have the idea that human history only became more violent recently. One reason why some people might have this impression is that people alive today don't remember these conflicts. They are simply forgotten. We also have incomplete information to help remind us. Our data about historical conflicts is not perfectly accurate, but we do have some evidence that helps us estimate the number of fatalities. The visualizations below will give you a sense of these estimates. Chart 1: Percentage varies from 70 percent to 100 percent for two centuries, then begin to drop in the mid 1700s. By 2000, the percentage drops to zero.Explore at: https://ourworldindata.org/uploads/2013/08/ourworldindata_percentage-of-years-in-which-the-great-powers-fought-one- another-1500%E2%80%932000.png By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Percentage varies from 70 percent to 100 percent for two centuries, then begin to drop in the mid 1700s. By 2000, the percentage drops to zero. Explore at: https://ourworldindata.org/uploads/2013/08/ourworldindata_percentage-of-years-in-which-the-great-powers-fought-one- another-1500%E2%80%932000.png By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. We think of recent wars—and especially the world wars of the twentieth century—as the deadliest conflicts in human history. In fact, however, there were many, many wars for land, power, and ideology that occurred long before the twentieth century. Some people argue that war has actually become less common in the last century than in previous centuries. Chart 1 shows the percentage of years the "great powers" fought each other, beginning in 1500 CE. "Great powers" are those states that are (or were) militarily or economically powerful on a global scale. More wars or more peace? Chart 1 seems to indicate that wars have become less common over time. But is that the whole story, or is it more complicated? To understand the role of conflict today relative to wars of the past, we can look at long-term data. Chart 2 shows deaths from global conflicts over the past 600 years or so, beginning around 1400. This helps us better understand whether humanity is trending toward more or fewer conflicts, and more-deadly or less-deadly wars. The x-axis of this chart represents time, from about 1400 CE to the present. The y-axis represents the number of people killed in war per 100,000 people in the world. Chart 2: Complex chart bubbles and lines to show the number of deaths around the world caused by war between the years 1400 and 2000.Explore at: https://slides.ourworldindata.org/war-and-violence/#/6 By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Complex chart bubbles and lines to show the number of deaths around the world caused by war between the years 1400 and 2000. Explore at: https://slides.ourworldindata.org/war-and-violence/#/6 By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. The red circles visualize the conflicts listed in the "Conflict Catalog," by Dr. Peter Brecke. Brecke's data set contains information on 3,708 conflicts. For the more distant past, Brecke lacks an estimate of the number of fatalities for many of the conflicts he catalogs, and we suspect that many conflicts are completely unknown. Since the global population has changed a lot over the last 600 years, Chart 2 also provides data about the percentage of the global population that decreased as a result of these events. This will help you get a sense of how impactful these events were at the time. In addition to the individual conflicts, the chart shows an estimate of the average death rate (deaths in conflict as a percentage of the global population) from all conflict across the globe (the red line). After about 1900, there are two different estimates—one represented by the red line, the other by the blue line. Chart 3 is another visualization, one that depicts deaths from the 100 deadliest wars and other atrocities over the longer timeframe of the past millennia. The size of the circle indicates how many people died in the event, while the line through each circle indicates how long the conflict lasted. The color of each circle shows where each conflict occurred. When and where did the deadliest wars occur? Is the world becoming more peaceful, or more warlike? What factors might cause this trend to continue or to change? Chart 3: Data showing deaths from war and similar conflicts from the year 400 to 2000, including the percentage of the toral world population lost in each conflict.Explore at: https://ourworldindata.org/uploads/2013/08/ The-100-Worst-Atrocities-over-the-last-Millennia-New-York-Times-Data-from-Matthew-White0.png By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Data showing deaths from war and similar conflicts from the year 400 to 2000, including the percentage of the toral world population lost in each conflict. Explore at: https://ourworldindata.org/uploads/2013/08/ The-100-Worst-Atrocities-over-the-last-Millennia-New-York-Times-Data-from-Matthew-White0.png By Our World in Data, CC BY 4.0. Author bio Max is the founder and director of Our World in Data. He began the project in 2011 and for several years was the sole author, until receiving funding for the formation of a team. Max’s research focuses on poverty, global health, and the distribution of incomes. He is also Programme Director of the Oxford Martin Programme on Global Development at the University of Oxford, and Co-executive Director of Global Change Data Lab, the non-profit organization that publishes and maintains the website and the data tools that make OWID’s work possible. [Sources and attributions]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: The Aztecs who found Teotihuacan’s ruins were also the ones who named the ancient city. What does the name mean, and why did they choose it?How were Teotihuacan and the cities of the Maya Classic Period similar?How were Teotihuacan and the cities of the Maya Classic Period different?Why does the absence of a writing system make it hard to determine why an empire falls?Why does the author argue that it’s difficult to pin the “collapse” of a society on one single cause? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: How does evidence from Teotihuacan and Maya societies contribute to your understanding of what “collapse” means, and what might happen after societies collapse? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Cycles of Collapse in Mesoamerica A photo of great stone structures on a green, tree covered hillside By Alejandro Quintana Some of our best fantasy stories are of lost worlds that thrived, then vanished. Mesoamerican societies left us clues large and small, and their stories make a compelling mystery for historians. Introduction The territory we call Mesoamerica includes most of today's Mexico; all of Guatemala, Belize and El Salvador; northern Honduras; and a stretch along the Pacific coast as far south as Costa Rica. Its diverse ecology ranges from the mile-high, arid plateaus of central Mexico down to the swamplands of the south, nearly at sea level. Mesoamerica contained the most complex societies prior to the arrival of Europeans. It reached its highest level of cultural development between 200 and 650 CE. This Classic Period includes Teotihuacan and several Maya city-states among its most significant urban centers. However, between 650 and 900 CE, they lost cultural, political and commercial predominance, as well as the majority of their population. Historians and archaeologists agree that these urban centers collapsed. However, they still debate the causes, and whether the collapse was a sudden failure or a gradual downsizing. Map shows the territory that was Mesoamerica. It is between the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean, connecting parts of Central America and MexicoMap of the territory known as Mesoamerica. Public domain. Map shows the territory that was Mesoamerica. It is between the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean, connecting parts of Central America and Mexico Map of the territory known as Mesoamerica. Public domain. Teotihuacan Teotihuacan—say it with me: TAY-OH-TI-WAH-CAHN—is located about 30 miles north of modern Mexico City. People first settled this area around 400 BCE. The city probably began as a humble center of pilgrimage, where the merchants of Mesoamerica gathered for religious festivities for the blessing of their trade. By 550 CE, with over 150,000 people, it had become a cosmopolitan metropolis. It was the most populous urban center in the Western Hemisphere and among the largest in the world. The city had become the political and commercial engine of Mesoamerica. It had multistory residential buildings with central courtyards organized in neighborhoods according to trade or ethnicity. You could walk the city streets listening to the local language, Nahuatl, along with dozens of other tongues from the wider reaches of Mesoamerica, such as Zapotec, Otomí and Maya. Teotihuacan elites were rich and powerful. The city shows luxurious and roomy palaces located along the avenue and decorated with colorful low reliefs (carvings) in their courtyards and gardens. We do not know if the rulers shared the same ethnicity, but most spoke an earlier form of Nahuatl, the language spoken much later in the Aztec Empire. Throughout the centuries many ruling families (or dynasties) and other political factions fought for control of the city. Panoramic photograph of impressive, pyramid-like structures that made up TeotihuacanPanoramic view from the summit of the Pyramid of the Moon, with the Pyramid of the Sun on the far left. By Rene Trohs, CC BY-SA 4.0. Panoramic photograph of impressive, pyramid-like structures that made up Teotihuacan Panoramic view from the summit of the Pyramid of the Moon, with the Pyramid of the Sun on the far left. By Rene Trohs, CC BY-SA 4.0. Although Teotihuacan is a world-renowned archaeological site (in a city now called San Juan Teotihuacan), we know very little of its history. We do not even know what its inhabitants called it. When the Aztecs found this city's astonishing ruins six centuries after its debatable "collapse," they called it teotihuacán, meaning "the place where the gods were created." Because what else could explain such monumental buildings, signs of an advanced and influential culture, with a mysterious past? Its most distinctive feature is the mile-long avenue lined with dozens of temples and palaces. Called the "Avenue of the Dead," it includes the city's three major pyramids. On the south end, there is the pyramid of the Feathered Serpent (Quetzalcoatl), probably a monument honoring the death of a strong ruler. Further north is the Temple of the Sun, the third-largest pyramid in the world (after Cholula in Mexico and Khufu in Egypt). The pyramid of the Moon closes the north end of the avenue. The Mayas Unlike Teotihuacan, Classic Mayas didn't pour everything into one powerful metropolis. Rather, they were a composition of several strong cities, connected to each other by their shared culture. The cities of the Maya Classic Period were centered in today's Guatemala, stretching across the borders of Mexico, Belize and Honduras. Its cities, such as Tikal, Palenque, Bonampak, Yaxilán and Copán, have some of the most beautifully decorated monuments in pre-Columbian Americas. The function of these urban centers was administrative and ceremonial, rather than residential. They housed only the elite and all the people needed to support their power and dominant culture. This included priests, military leaders, scribes, artisans, architects, sculptors, painters, musicians, dancers and others. Traders were also essential to the elite. They provided the luxury items showing their high status, such as feathers, animal pelts, jade, obsidian and more. Their palaces often featured a bench where the king would dispense justice, receive tribute, entertain ambassadors, and host public rituals and ceremonies. Photo of a field, surrounded by a great stone staircase. Above it are stone buildings.East Court, Copan, Honduras, By Steven dosRemedios, CC BY-ND 2.0. Photo of a field, surrounded by a great stone staircase. Above it are stone buildings. East Court, Copan, Honduras, By Steven dosRemedios, CC BY-ND 2.0. The peasants lived outside the city, in the field. Their lives were much less fancy. Their thatched roof huts were built on top of earth mounds both to be safe from the summer floods and to bury their family members. The work of peasants fed the urban population and also provided labor and military service to the ruling class. Peasants created farmlands by cutting trees and burning the lower vegetation. This slash-and-burn technique is extremely wasteful because it quickly erodes the land and only produces crops for one or two years. Interestingly, this society was able to create a much more sustainable agricultural system. With a massive labor organization, they engineered terraces and chinampas (sometimes called "floating gardens") with irrigation and fertilization systems. The collapse of classic Mesoamerica As you know from Era 4, the word "collapse" is tricky when you're talking about an empire. It's hard to know when, why and if a complex society really collapsed. Certainly, all societies appear to have a beginning, middle and end. But just like stories, there are sequels and spin-offs. Scholars like to look for that single event that destroyed a particular society, like a volcano, a disease or an invasion. It is more plausible, however, that several factors ended the story of a particular society or empire. Indeed, it is probably because we know so little of the collapses of Teotihuacan and the Mayas that they have been the source of many myths and legends. Teotihuacan had no writing system, so there are no surviving stories of heroes fighting tyrants or a king heading a golden era. There are no epics of invading armies, or tales of what angered the gods and what people did to appease them. Without a written record, we can only read the city's ruins, using archaeological interpretations of skeletons and broken pottery. Some scholars say the collapse of Teotihuacan was the result of a war, possibly the conflict with rival cities Xochicalco and Cacaxtla. Certainly, the remains of Teotihuacan show signs of violence. There are smashed images and buildings, scars of fire, and evidence of bodies showing signs of a violent end. Yet, violence itself is not a sign of collapse. About three centuries earlier, for example, the people of Teotihuacan burned and defaced their own Quetzalcoatl Pyramid—the Feathered Serpent one we mentioned earlier. But the city did not decline. Trashing the pyramid probably marked a change of dynasties or the overthrow of a weak ruler. A photo of a broken sculpture. Part of it has fallen over into a body of water, and a deer-like animal is leaping over the water.Broken Idol at Copan from Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan by Frederick Catherwood. public domain. A photo of a broken sculpture. Part of it has fallen over into a body of water, and a deer-like animal is leaping over the water. Broken Idol at Copan from Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan by Frederick Catherwood. public domain. However, around 650 CE it looks like the city experienced new violence. Soon after, Teotihuacan began to lose its dominance in Mesoamerica, so some call this the collapse. But if violence did not cause collapse in the third century, how can we say it was the sole cause this time around? Other factors—overpopulation, droughts and internal political divisions, which may have limited the city's capacity to resist an invasion or internal strife—could easily have played a part. Regardless, the city's cultural legacy continued inspiring other peoples. So much so, that, 600 years later, the Aztecs named it "the place where the gods were created." The end of the Maya society somewhat later is another fascinating story. People are mesmerized by the idea of this majestic society inexplicably collapsing, its beautiful architecture and monuments swallowed by luscious jungle. Unlike Teotihuacan, the Mayas had a written system. So we know the names of their kings, the exact year they came to power, and when they fought wars. These stories are carved in their monuments, but they reveal nothing about their collapse around 900 CE. Books might have offered better clues, and the Maya left many behind. But in 1562, a Spanish friar named Diego de Landa burned every Maya book he could find. The few surviving books say nothing about their latter years, feeding into the narrative of a mysterious collapse. Wait, did we say collapse? Because actually, new Maya city-states continued being built until the Spaniards arrived, and hundreds of Maya communities still exist today. Certainly, these communities never returned to the splendor of the Classic period, but in some ways the story is still being written. Whatever happened in Mesoamerica between 650 and 900 CE, we know that people began to abandon its most significant urban centers. It was the end of an era, certainly, but the society didn't vanish. We can tell the ruling class lost its capacity to rule. People abandoned the magnificent ceremonial centers, temples and pyramids that represented those in power. Yet the people continued to exist, as did their culture and their costumes. To some, it's a crude imitation of past greatness, but to others it is a way to celebrate the human potential to create a society so glorious that it looks like "the place where the gods were created." Author bio Alejandro Quintana is an associate professor of History at St. John’s University in New York City. His research and teaching focus on state formation, nation-building, nationalism, revolutions and social movements in Latin America with a special emphasis on Mexico. [Sources and attrbutions]

The Missing Link? The Maragha Observatory By Eman M. Elshaikh From Ptolemy to Copernicus and Galileo, thinkers have debated what the Universe looked like for centuries. Ultimately, scholars moved from an Earth-centered model to a Sun-centered model. How did we get there? Planetary revolutions Or at least it was big news to people living in the sixteenth century, when this revolutionary idea challenged people’s understanding of the Universe. Ancient astronomers like Ptolemy (100–170 CE) believed that the Earth was at the center of the Universe. They thought the Sun, stars, and planets revolved around Earth. This belief persisted—although some questioned it—for many hundreds of years. By the sixteenth century, however, astronomers like Copernicus (1473–1543 CE) and Galileo (1564–1642 CE), started challenging Ptolemy’s model. They put the Sun at the center. This heliocentric (Sun at the center) model of the Universe shocked people at the time. The Catholic Church even jailed Galileo for claiming it. Like all scholars, Copernicus and Galileo came up with their ideas using the knowledge of those who came before them. What was this earlier knowledge? About 1,400 years separated Copernicus from Ptolemy. But we don’t hear much about the people who came between—who carried on the collective learning conversation between these major figures. For centuries, scholars had been slowly chipping away at the Earth-at-the-center model. The tenth-century Arab astronomer, Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040 CE), for example, questioned Ptolemy’s model. He pointed out several contradictions and claimed that Ptolemy’s idea about how different planets fit together simply didn’t work. An even earlier Arab astronomer, al-Battani (858–929 CE), calculated the movement of the Sun and the planets. His carefully recorded observations were cited by Copernicus many times. So while Copernicus is famous for challenging Ptolemy, there have been missing links in history’s centuries-long chain of thinkers who contributed to this debate. Thanks to the work of many invisible giants like Ibn al-Haytham and al-Battani, it was possible for scholars who came later to construct a serious challenge to such a long-accepted view of the Universe. Many of these invisible giants were astronomers working during the Golden Age of Islam. A golden age during a dark age The scholars between Ptolemy and Copernicus were part of a vibrant tradition of astronomy in the Islamic world. These scholars were supported largely by the wealthy rulers of Islamic empires, and together their work launched a period of scientific and cultural achievement called the Islamic Golden Age. By building on the knowledge of Greek, Indian, Chinese, Babylonian, Persian, and Arab thinkers before them, scholars were able to make new observations and discoveries. Astronomy was a major field for these scholars. For Muslims of this period, astronomy was a practical science that was important for religious practice. By measuring the movement of the Sun, Moon, and stars, Muslim scientists determined the times for daily prayers, set the dates for the lunar calendar, and precisely calculated the direction of Mecca from any location. This knowledge was valuable to Muslim political and religious leaders. As a result, many Muslim rulers built observatories—special buildings for studying astronomy. Among the most famous and important of these was the Maragha Observatory. There, scholars seriously challenged Ptolemy’s Earth-at-the-center system, which had been accepted for many centuries. The Maragha Observatory In the thirteenth century, the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan conquered a big part of the Islamic world. After founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, he destroyed the city of Baghdad, along with the many books in its famed House of Wisdom. Despite the Mongols’ destruction of scientific knowledge in this unfortunate case, they also supported its creation. Like the Arab and Persian rulers who came before them, Mongol rulers supported scholars, especially astronomers. In addition to the practical importance of astronomy to Islam, Mongol rulers believed that studying the stars would help them make decisions and predict the future, so they brought astronomers from across their massive empire to their courts. Once he had finished his wars of conquest, Hulagu Khan worked with the great Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and built the Maragha Observatory in Persia. It was the most advanced observatory in the world at the time. It attracted astronomers from across the Islamic world and from as far away as China. Under Mongol rule, astronomers from across Eurasia shared ideas, which sped up new developments in collective learning. Maragha astronomers recorded their astronomical observations and calculations in the massive library at the observatory. Using these observations, they came up with new ideas about how the planets moved. One of the most important of these new ideas was called the “Tusi couple,” named after Nasir al-Din al-Tusi many centuries later. The Tusi couple may sound like the screen name of a pair of adorable lovebirds on Instagram, but it’s actually a mathematical idea. Astronomers used the Tusi couple to create models of a small circle rotating within a larger one, and then track the motion of the rotation. It helped astronomers understand how different celestial bodies revolve around one another. Ibn al-Shatir, a Syrian astronomer, built on this work. Using the Tusi couple, Ibn al-Shatir corrected Ptolemy’s calculations about distances between planetary bodies. Ibn al-Shatir wanted to create a model of the Solar System that fit with the observations he and others had made. His model was much more accurate than Ptolemy’s. While the models coming out of the Maragha Observatory kept the Earth at the center, they made crucial changes to Ptolemy’s model and moved our collective understanding closer to a Sun-centered model. The missing link? Neither Nasir al-Din al-Tusi nor Ibn al-Shatir understood the Sun was at the center of the Solar System. Still, their work may have provided the foundation for Copernicus’s heliocentric model. OK, words like “may have” are frustrating when you want to know if something is true, but not all historians agree on this. The “conversations” among Copernicus, Ptolemy, and the Maragha scholars were spread out over 14 centuries. It’s hard to prove how these ideas developed, moved, or changed, but it’s still important to look for connections. On the one hand, some historians of science argue that scholars like al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir influenced Copernicus’s heliocentric system. They use this evidence to support their claims: The work of these scholars had been translated and spread around Eurasia for centuries before Copernicus’s time. It’s logical to assume that an educated man like Copernicus would have come across their work.There are similarities between Copernicus’s diagrams and mathematical arguments and those of the Maragha scholars. Some of Copernicus’s models of planetary rotations used mathematical ideas that were nearly identical to the Tusi couple. Some historians even argue that the diagrams are labeled similarly to Ibn al-Shatir’s.Without this link, it’s more difficult to explain how Copernicus made the leaps that led to his conclusion that the Sun is at the center of our Solar System. The work of these scholars had been translated and spread around Eurasia for centuries before Copernicus’s time. It’s logical to assume that an educated man like Copernicus would have come across their work. There are similarities between Copernicus’s diagrams and mathematical arguments and those of the Maragha scholars. Some of Copernicus’s models of planetary rotations used mathematical ideas that were nearly identical to the Tusi couple. Some historians even argue that the diagrams are labeled similarly to Ibn al-Shatir’s. Without this link, it’s more difficult to explain how Copernicus made the leaps that led to his conclusion that the Sun is at the center of our Solar System. On the other hand, other historians disagree. They don’t think the Maragha Observatory scholars influenced Copernicus’s heliocentric system. They use this evidence to support their claims: While Copernicus cited scholars like al-Battani, he never mentioned al-Tusi or Ibn al-Shatir. (Of course, scientists of this era often borrowed freely from one another and reworked each other’s ideas without giving direct credit.)These Islamic scholars didn’t have a heliocentric model. In fact, their models are pretty different from Copernicus’s.There may be similarities in mathematical ideas, but these mathematical ideas are used very differently.Even if there are some similarities, these historians argue that it’s possible to have similarity without direct influence. They could be independent discoveries. While Copernicus cited scholars like al-Battani, he never mentioned al-Tusi or Ibn al-Shatir. (Of course, scientists of this era often borrowed freely from one another and reworked each other’s ideas without giving direct credit.) These Islamic scholars didn’t have a heliocentric model. In fact, their models are pretty different from Copernicus’s. There may be similarities in mathematical ideas, but these mathematical ideas are used very differently. Even if there are some similarities, these historians argue that it’s possible to have similarity without direct influence. They could be independent discoveries. Historians will continue to debate these questions. You might say that historians are still learning about collective learning. Who learns it? Who collects it? How, over thousands of years, is knowledge shared, moved, changed, translated, improved, and challenged? No matter how historians answer these questions, it’s important to keep revealing the influence of invisible giants like Ibn al-Haytham, al-Battani, al-Tusi, Ibn al-Shatir, and many others. Only then can we start to make connections that allow us to tell our Big History more fully. Author bio Eman M. Elshaikh holds an MA in social sciences from and is pursuing a PhD at the University of Chicago, where she also teaches writing. She is a writer and researcher, and has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the US and in the Middle East. Eman was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP world history. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: What was the Xalla statue made of, and where did it come from? How does the artwork tell us something about the people that built the statue, and what significance do you think this has?What did the Xalla sculpture represent to the people of Teotihuacan?According to the biography, why do we think that the sculpture may have been destroyed by a group inside the city What might this tell us about the community of Teotihuacan?What happened to the city and the sculpture after they were destroyed? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does this biography of the Xalla figure, and the history of Teotihuacan, support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about the collapse of societies? How does it support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about what happens after that collapse? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . The Xalla Sculpture of Teotihuacan (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor Getz Artist: Peter Quatch When the city of Teotihuacan was destroyed, so was the Xalla sculpture. Its reconstruction by archeologists provides a window into the belief system of the Teotihuacanos. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Who was Kupe?How is the story of Kupe normally told in Polynesian society How have European historians tried to tell it?How does the author argue that the Māori make this story a usable past? What meanings do they take from it?How did the artist use art and design to demonstrate the theme of connectedness? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does this biography of Kupe support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about networks and connections in this era?In what ways does this biography lead you to think differently about what it means for a history to be “usable”? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . Kupe the Navigator (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor Getz Artist: Liz Clarke Kupe is a founding figure for Polynesian communities in Aotearoa (New Zealand). His story helps orient these communities to the past and present. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The Universe Through a Pinhole: Hasan Ibn al-Haytham By Bennett Sherry Hasan Ibn al-Haytham revolutionized our understanding of how light moves through the Universe and how we see it. He urged people to question ancient knowledge. Standing on the shoulders of giants...and yelling in their ear Isaac Newton said he saw further because he stood on the shoulders of giants, but historians have often ignored just how true this was. Newton’s understanding of his actual ability to see, and to comprehend the things he saw, was thanks in part to one invisible giant: Hasan Ibn al-Haytham. Our understanding of the Universe—of the stars and celestial bodies that travel across the night sky—depends on our ability to see light. Once scientists understood how light moves and how it reaches us, so many new discoveries were possible. For example, one of the most important advances in the study of physics was the invention of the telescope. But the telescope was only made possible by an understanding of the science behind light and how we see it, a science called optics. Ibn al-Haytham’s most important book was Kitab al-Manazir, which is Arabic for The Book of Optics. This book explained how the human eye works and how we see objects, such as stars, that are very far away. After Ibn al-Haytham’s book was translated from Arabic into Latin around 1200 CE, it sparked a revolution in optics in Europe. His knowledge provided the basis for many of the great scientific discoveries of later scholars such as Galileo and Kepler. That’s impressive, but what makes Ibn al-Haytham special was how he approached science. He also stood on the shoulders of giants, but he didn’t just stand there. He learned from the knowledge of Greek scholars like Euclid, Aristotle, and Ptolemy, but he also challenged their ideas. To challenge the ancient ideas of these giants, Ibn al-Haytham used the scientific method—and this was 500 years before the Scientific Revolution. The scientific method is the process of asking a question, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis through rigorous experiments. By using this method, long before it was widely accepted, al-Haytham became one of the giants himself. The Universe through a pinhole Ibn al-Haytham was born in 965 CE in the city of Basra (in present-day Iraq). This part of the world was a center of science and learning at the time. In Basra, Ibn al-Haytham became famous for his mathematical ability. But the young man was perhaps too confident. He claimed that he could build a dam to control the flooding of the great Nile River. When the ruler of Egypt heard of Ibn al-Haytham’s claim, he was very interested in bringing it to life, and invited Ibn al-Haytham to Cairo. Yet, once Ibn al-Haytham stood on the banks of the Nile, he realized his mistake. There was no way he could build a dam large enough. The ruler of Egypt was angered, and Ibn al-Haytham spent the next years either in hiding or imprisoned in his house. But all was not lost. Ibn al-Haytham’s time in isolation helped him see the world in a different light—literally. One night, sitting in a dark room, he noticed moonlight passing through a tiny hole in the wall. Where the light hit the wall on the other side of the room, an image of the Moon was projected. But it was upside down! Why? This question led Ibn al-Haytham to launch a series of experiments to verify a theory he had formed, based on his observation. He reproduced the effect he had seen in the moonlight by building a camera obscura (see Figure 1) and documenting his observations. These observations seemed to have certain patterns, and Ibn al-Haytham developed mathematical explanations for these patterns. Some ancient philosophers believed that human eyes could shoot rays of light outward in a cone, and that when these rays hit objects, we could see them. Ibn al-Haytham was suspicious of this idea and challenged it. This challenge was a big deal—people respected ancient ideas, and many assumed them to be true. Although Ibn al-Haytham might have respected these ancient thinkers too, he wasn’t willing to accept their theories without testing them first. He took the theories of scholars like Euclid, Ptolemy, Galen, and Aristotle and combined them with newer ideas from Arab thinkers. By challenging and improving on these ideas, he developed new theories of light and sight. He backed up his theories with repeated testing and verification, an aspect of the scientific method that scientists still practice today. Changing how we see the way we see Ibn al-Haytham’s big claim was that humans see things because rays of light reflect off of objects in straight lines that then travel to our eyes. That’s probably something you’ve already learned, but without the work of Ibn al-Haytham, you might have been taught that we’re able to see because our eyes shoot beams of light! Fun to think about, but 100 percent mistaken! At the time, and for centuries to come, Ibn al-Haytham’s ideas were revolutionary. His observations in that dark room also allowed him to mathematically prove that the Moon appears bright because of sunlight reflecting off of it. These observations led him to understand that our eyes are connected to our brain by optical nerves (see Figure 2). His work on optics allowed later scientists to stand on his shoulders as they developed innovations like telescopes, microscopes, cameras, and eyeglasses. His dozens of books and his experiments helped other scientists better understand how we perceive objects in the night sky. There’s even a crater on the Moon named after him! Some historians consider Ibn al-Haytham the first scientist because of his rigorous processes for proposing and then testing theories. He used this method in his own work and encouraged others to do so in his books. He wrote: "The seeker after truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients...and puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them... Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side." In this quote, Ibn al-Haytham is urging other scientists to use the scientific method. In other words, we shouldn’t trust old ideas. We should make ourselves “an enemy” of everything we read: always questioning, always testing. Thanks to the work done by Ibn al-Haytham in the tenth and eleventh centuries, later scholars in the Islamic world and Europe—including Isaac Newton—were able to develop new theories about gravity and the movement of stars and planets. Author bio Bennett Sherry holds a PhD in history from the University of Pittsburgh and has undergraduate teaching experience in world history, human rights, and the Middle East. Bennett writes about refugees and international organizations in the twentieth century. He is one of the historians working on the OER Project courses. [Sources and attributions]

The Graphic Biography below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: skimming for gist This will be your quickest read. It should help you get the general idea of what the graphic biography will be about. Pay attention to the title, headings, images, and layout. Ask yourself: what is this graphic biography going to be about? Second read: understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. You should also spend some time looking at the images and the way in which the page is designed. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How was Khanzada Begum related to the first Mughal Emperors, Babur and Humayun?Why did Khanzada Begum marry Muhammad Shaybani Khan, and why were they divorced?How did Khanzada Begum help her brother in his conflict with the Uzbeks after her divorce?How did Khanzada Begum help her nephew rule?How does the artist use art and design to demonstrate the power and authority of Khanzada Begum? Third read: evaluating and corroborating In this read, you should use the graphic biography as evidence to support, extend, or challenge claims made in the course. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: How does this biography of Khanzada Begum support, extend, or challenge what you have learned about the “gunpowder empires,” and government generally, in this era? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading . Khanzada Begum (Graphic Biography) Writer: Trevor Getz Artist: Liz Clarke Khanzada Begum was a Timurid noblewoman who played an important political role in the Mughal Dynasty, demonstrating how the household and the state often overlapped. Download the Graphic Biography PDF here or click on the image above.

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist. Second read: key ideas and understanding content Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: How do historians believe that humans ended up settling the islands of Oceania? What debate surrounds this question?What were the most important innovations that allowed migrations across Oceania?In general, how did communities in this region organize themselves?How does the article describe gender relations in societies in Oceania?What evidence do the authors use to argue that Oceania was not separated from the rest of the world? Third read: evaluating and corroborating Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied. At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions: The production and distribution frame narrative asserts that humans have grown more sophisticated in the way we make and use the things we need over time. Does the evidence presented in this article support, extend, or challenge this narrative? How? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. Oceania, c. 1200–1450 CE By Trevor Getz and Bridgette Byrd O’Connor By 1200 CE, the population of Oceania had become a web of far-flung communities. Despite long distances and great diversity, they used sophisticated maritime technology to stay connected. Acknowledging Pacific history The Pacific Ocean is a really big place. In this article, we’re only talking about one part of the Pacific. Oceania lies within the vastness of the world’s greatest ocean, but it‘s a huge region in its own right! We’re not going to deal much with the peoples on the Pacific Coast of East Asia or Siberia. Nor will we discuss the indigenous societies that settled the Pacific coast of North and South America. We’ll focus on Oceania—which includes island groups known as Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, and some parts of Australasia, including New Zealand, New Guinea, and the east coast of Australia. Much of this region was populated by humans as many as 40,000 years ago! You may have seen a representation of this process in Disney’s Moana. The film depicts the historical movement of Polynesian peoples through the song “Know the Way.” It also shows Moana herself navigating by the stars via technologies Pacific peoples pioneered over thousands of years of seafaring. Ha’amonga ‘a Maui, a gateway put up in the thirteenth century by a King of Tonga, probably partly to honor the ancestor Maui, who is locally believed to have constructed it himself. By Tau´olunga, CC BY-SA 3.0. But here’s a weird fact. Oceania, and the peoples of the Pacific, were often left out of world history textbooks (at least those written in the US) until about 1999. That was when two historians, both teaching at the University of Hawaii, wrote Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past.1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript They were, after all, living in Hawaii, the long-standing Pacific society established by the Polynesian people. They knew that Hawaiians historically were part of a Pacific community that played a significant role in the human past. So, in their textbook, they made sure to acknowledge that history. It became a bestseller, changing the way this region has been studied ever since. Human geography of the Pacific, c. 1200 Scholars also continue to debate whether this first wave of migrations from southeast Asia was intentional or unintentional. Oceania was settled by humans over a long period beginning 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, though scientists still argue about these numbers. Scholars also continue to debate whether this first wave of migrations was intentional or unintentional. New studies have shown that unintentional crossings—journeys where ships went off course or had no intended destination in the first place but still managed to settle somewhere—were unlikely. Therefore, it’s possible that early humans intentionally island-hopped from southeast Asia to the coast of New Guinea using early boat-building and sailing technologies. Once there, people developed sophisticated agricultural techniques and built densely-populated communities. Some of these people then also crossed the straits that separate New Guinea from Australia. Those who settled in Australia encountered a difficult new set of environments, including widespread arid (dry) zones. Few plant or animal species in Australia could be domesticated, but the continent did have some large animals that could be hunted. That’s how most of the communities of Australia became expert foragers (hunters and gatherers). Meanwhile, the societies of Southeast Asia and Taiwan, and the early settlers of the south Pacific, were together developing a whole range of technological innovations that slowly— as in, over thousands of years—allowed them to travel deeper and deeper into the Pacific Ocean. The most important of these innovations allowed them to read wind and ocean currents to situate themselves, and to construct vast, sail-driven canoes that could go very long distances. With these technologies, these peoples gradually populated the outermost islands of Oceania. Eventually, these communities formed three large groups. Each was made up of peoples who were geographically spread out, but still related to each other by culture and language. These three groups each covered areas of the planet larger than most continents. The first was the Melanesian group, which made up the densely-populated region of New Guinea and also a large number of pretty closelypacked islands from New Guinea to Fiji. North of Melanesia were the Micronesian group, who were more spread out, based on islands including the Mariana and Majōl (Marshall) chains. Finally, to the east, the long-voyaging Polynesian people gradually populated very far-flung islands. At the geographic center of Polynesian society were the islands of Kūki ‘Āirani (Cook Islands) and Tōtaiete mā (Society Islands). Larger communities were formed in the Hawaiian chain and in Aotearoa (New Zealand), where the Maori people spoke (and still speak) a Polynesian language. The furthest extent of Polynesian society was Rapa Nui (Easter Island), settled about 700 CE. Some cultural communities of the Pacific. Public domain. Organizing communities and states From 1200 to 1450 CE, Oceania was inhabited by a series of interconnected, culturally linked communities. The vast distances between many Polynesian islands meant that numerous societies were somewhat isolated, but there is evidence of ongoing trade between all of them. Other regions, like those in Australia, Aotearoa (New Zealand) and New Guinea, built up large communities that needed political and social organizations to manage a large population. To make decisions, people in most communities in this region belonged to family groups, where a lot of the decisions were made. But in a number of societies, families were organized into bigger units such as clans and states. Australian Aboriginal peoples developed an elaborate system of kinship, which helped to determine marriage and family relations but also to establish societal rules for behavior. For the most part, Aboriginal society was egalitarian in terms of leadership potential, but only if you were male. There were few established political hierarchies such as chiefs or kings. Hierarchies seemed to be mostly contained to religious or spiritual matters, or those that related to the Dreaming. The Dreaming is the spiritual philosophy of the Aboriginal peoples, and encompasses their history of the universe, the Earth, the present, and the future. The Maori society of Aotearoa (New Zealand) migrated from neighboring islands. By the mid- to late-thirteenth century CE, they began dividing the land amongst several states, also called iwis. These were composed of a number of whanau, meaning families. Each state had several important chiefs, called rangatira and ariki, who came together in a collective decision-making group. Each iwi had its own power, but they all worked together. Still, as everywhere in the world, there was conflict both within and between the different Maori states. The Hawaiian islands were also settled by Polynesian migrants, with the first arrivals often dated to about 300 CE. Continued migrations from the Tahitian islands took place from the ninth century CE. Hawaiian society resembled that of Aotearoa in many ways. Organized into a series of small, rival kingdoms, the extended family, the village, and the clan were usually the most important political institutions. Both Hawaiian and Maori societies lacked written languages. Still, each had rich oral histories that were similar in nature given that both were settled by Polynesians migrating from Tahiti. Their oral tradition told of the legendary founding of the islands. These histories were passed down through many generations. Polynesians also brought with them farming knowledge as well as their shipbuilding and navigation techniques. Gender relations also varied widely among these communities. Women in Polynesian societies may have been closer to full equality with men than any other part of the world. They could certainly be very independent, and women whose families held royal or chiefly positions could often inherit authority. This was less true in other societies of the Pacific. But the most important aspect of gender roles in this region was the complementary relationship of men and women. In general, people in this part of the world believed that men and women each had their own spheres of influence and their own roles, and that both were needed for a family or community to be successful. This meant that men and women both exercised power, but in different ways, and they weren’t really supposed to step outside of their roles. Also, as in many parts of the world, some Pacific societies had (and continue to have) their own fundamental conceptions of gender. For example, Samoan society saw more than two genders. The third gender, known as fa’afafine, are biologically male but fulfill roles that are historically seen as being more feminine, such as caring for elders and children. Ideas about culture and politics were broadly shared, despite the diversity of these many societies, because the impressive technology developed by the people of Oceania allowed them to continue to trade with each other across vast distances. An archaeological study set in the Cook Islands, for example, uncovered trade goods such as stone tools that came from islands as far as Samoa, 1,000 miles away, and the Marquesas, 1,500 miles away. Trading connections like these helped communities on various islands to keep up to date with new technology. They could also disperse rare goods like obsidian, a useful type of stone just as desired in the Oceanic sphere as it was in the Americas. Maori waka (canoe) at the Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand. Public domain. A world apart? Generally, Oceania is treated as an area that was entirely separated from other parts of the world before the modern era. Not true. After all, many of the people who settled Pacific regions remained in contact with the societies of South and Southeast Asia from which many of them originated. But there is also intriguing evidence of links to further regions. For example, the language of the people of the large island of Madagascar, off the coast of East Africa, is about half African in origin, and half Southeast Asian with strong relationships to Polynesian languages. This may not be proof of sustained interaction, however, but rather a common origin in Southeast Asia. In another example, DNA evidence from the Marquesas and other islands suggests that migrants from South America may have joined Polynesians to create mixed communities in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries CE. This evidence, which emerged only very recently, is forcing us to re-imagine a lot of what we thought we knew about the history of this region. Map showing the possible joining of Polynesian and South American people in the Pacific, twelfth to fourteenth centuries. The word “admixture” in this context is about genetics, meaning the coming together of different peoples whose DNA becomes shared over several generations. By Jonathan Corum, Nature. Instead of a vast area of ocean dotted with isolated islands, should we now think of the Pacific—even as early as 1200—as a great zone of interaction and exchange? It’s probably still too early for a final analysis, but it’s clear we can no longer rest on our older narratives that dismissed, or worse, ignored, this global zone. [Notes] Author bios Trevor Getz is Professor of African History at San Francisco State University. He has written eleven books on African and world history, including Abina and the Important Men. He is also the author of A Primer for Teaching African History, which explores questions about how we should teach the history of Africa in high school and university classes. Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught the Big History Project and World History Project courses and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. She currently writes articles and activities for WHP and BHP. In addition, she has been a freelance writer and editor for the Crash Course World History and US History curricula. [Sources and attribution]

The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here. First read: preview and skimming for gist Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process! Second read: key ideas and understanding content For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions: Who first described Europe after the fall of Rome as being “dark” or backward?What was Edward Gibbon’s contribution to the idea of a “dark age?”How might English Heritage’s description of Tintagel Castle provide evidence against the idea of a “dark age?”What does Alban Gautier think of the term “Dark Ages?” What two limits does he think it has?How were the views of eighteenth-century authors, like Edward Gibbon, shaped by the times they lived in? How did this compare to nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first century views? Third read: evaluating and corroborating At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions: This article references ways that scholars have used the idea of a European dark age to suit their own views and goals. Can you think of any ways that people today might use the idea of a dark age (or golden age) to suit their own agendas? Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading. The “Dark Ages” Debate An eerie, paneled painting. In the center, a human skeleton rides on a horse skeleton, and below them, several lay dead. In the corners, people crowd around a fountain and look over the dead. By Bridgette Byrd O'Connor Images in popular culture often refer to Europe during the Middle Ages as a "dark" time period. The idea of the European "Dark Ages" is over 500 years old. More recently, historians have challenged the idea. The debate Take a look at the images below and put them in chronological order based on the technique, level of realism, and skill of the artist. Which one is the oldest? Painting shows several men, seated at a long table, conversing and feasting.Leonardo da Vinci’s “Last Supper”. Public domain. Painting shows several men, seated at a long table, conversing and feasting. Leonardo da Vinci’s “Last Supper”. Public domain. A painting of a woman, holding a tablet that looks similar to a notebook or book. She holds a pen-like stylus to her lips.“Woman with wax tablets and stylus (Sappho)”. By Naples National Archaeological Museum, public domain. A painting of a woman, holding a tablet that looks similar to a notebook or book. She holds a pen-like stylus to her lips. “Woman with wax tablets and stylus (Sappho)”. By Naples National Archaeological Museum, public domain. “Augustine of Hippo Refuting a Heretic.” By home.wlu.edu, CC BY 2.5. I'm guessing many of you said that "Augustine of Hippo" is the oldest. However, the oldest one (by 12 centuries) is "Woman with wax tablets and stylus." It's a painting from the Roman town of Pompeii that dates to the first century CE. "Augustine of Hippo," on the other hand, is from the thirteenth century CE. The top image is the "Last Supper," a painting by Leonardo da Vinci from the late fifteenth century CE. Do these three paintings tell us anything about the European Middle Ages?1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript Do they show us that the Middle Ages were "Dark Ages"? Obviously, these are only three paintings, and I might have chosen only these three to make you believe the Middle Ages were backwards. But historians do this all the time, choosing evidence that supports their claim or worldview. Over the last five hundred years, historians have debated whether Europe entered a dark age after the fall of Rome and how long it lasted. Let's look at some examples of this debate from the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the modern period. The Renaissance and Enlightenment view of the Middle Ages You probably don't enjoy everything your parents or teachers do. You might roll your eyes at their music or laugh at their outfits in old photos. Surely, they came from a strange, backwards time. This generational eye-rolling is pretty common, and scholars of new generations often try to separate themselves from those who came before. As European learning and art flourished during the Renaissance, scholars looked back at the funny pictures and bad music of the Middle Ages and thought, "I'm better than that." The Renaissance—which means "rebirth"—was a period of European history after the Middle Ages. During this period, scholars sought to revitalize science and the arts. Francesco Petrarca, usually known as "Petrarch", was a fourteenth-century humanist2^22squared. He wrote about the accomplishments of ancient Greece and Rome. Petrarch believed that his society was moving backwards from the achievements of the Greeks and Romans. Petrarch was the first to describe Europe after the fall of Rome as "dark". Portrait of a young-looking person standing amongst tall branches with golden leaves hanging off of them.Portrait of Petrarch shown with laurel leaves symbolizing ancient Rome, c. 1480 CE. By Bartolomeo Sanvito, public domain. Portrait of a young-looking person standing amongst tall branches with golden leaves hanging off of them. Portrait of Petrarch shown with laurel leaves symbolizing ancient Rome, c. 1480 CE. By Bartolomeo Sanvito, public domain. Petrarch and other scholars argued that the Greeks and Romans of the classical era might have lacked the "light" of Christianity, but their intellectual achievements were still brilliant. However, he was less complimentary of the Middle Ages. In 1343 he wrote, "for you, if you should long outlive me…there is perhaps a better age in store; this slumber of forgetfulness will not last for ever. After the darkness has been dispelled, our grandsons will be able to walk back into the pure radiance of the past" (Petrarch 453-7). Petrarch believed that the "darkness" of the Middle Ages was coming to an end—Europeans would soon progress into the future by learning from the past greatness of Greece and Rome. Many later scholars shared Petrarch's views. One of the most well-known Enlightenment3^33cubed historians was British author Edward Gibbon. Gibbon agreed with Petrarch, believing that Europe declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. He wrote a multi-volume work titled The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published between 1776 and 1789. In it, Gibbon blamed the rise of Christianity for the fall of Rome. He claimed that "the triumph of barbarism [lack of culture] and religion" were to blame. Like Petrarch, Gibbon argued that it was not Germanic tribes who toppled the mighty Roman Empire. Rather, "the reproach [blame] may be transferred to the Catholics of Rome." He believed that, in their efforts to erase the "pagan" history of Rome, they also lost the greatness of the Roman Empire. Modern views of the Middle Ages During the nineteenth century, historians still clung to this idea of the "Dark Ages". But by the twentieth century, some historians began to argue that the Dark Ages weren't really that dark for too long. By the mid-twentieth century, more and more historians, scholars, and journalists argued that there were no Dark Ages at all. Yet, the term has not disappeared. English Heritage is an organization the British government established in the 1980s to manage historic properties in the UK. In 2016 they published a history of Tintagel Castle, an English ruin from the Middle Ages. In their history, the authors repeatedly referenced the "Dark Ages of Britain." They defined the time period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the year of the Norman Conquest (c. 400-1066 CE). The use of "Dark Age" to describe Tintagel fanned the flames of the debate. Some writers and historians criticized the use of "Dark Ages" as outdated and wrong. But others came to the defense of English Heritage. The historian Alban Gautier wrote that "Dark Ages" can be a useful term. He argued that, despite the debate about the term, historians should continue to use it, but only under two conditions: "The first is to limit the use of 'Dark Ages' to those two centuries only [c. 410-610 CE]…The other condition is not to understand the phrase in a negative way. If we talk of 'Dark Ages', we must be clear that it is a purely descriptive label, by which we refer to a very poorly documented period. For historians who work primarily from texts, those centuries are indeed, and are most likely to remain, 'lost centuries.'" In other words, the Dark Ages weren't dark because they were bad, but because our knowledge of them is limited. The debate continues So why does this debate still rage? Scholars in every era have different motives. Renaissance scholars wanted to periodize history and shape how future generations would remember them. They hoped to be remembered as the people who brought forth a "rebirth" of the classical world. They wrote about Greco-Roman society as the bright light of art, literature, and culture. By combining the knowledge of the Greco-Roman world with Christianity, they believed they could create a brighter future. By contrast, Enlightenment scholars tended to be anti-Catholic. The Enlightenment celebrated reason and science, and many authors were skeptical of organized religion. Edward Gibbon blamed the fall of Rome on the Catholic church. Photo of remains of a stone castle on a green hillside. A long, winding staircase leads up to the castle. Ruins of Tintagel Castle, Cornwall, England. By Robert Linsdell, CC BY 2.0. Photo of remains of a stone castle on a green hillside. A long, winding staircase leads up to the castle. Ruins of Tintagel Castle, Cornwall, England. By Robert Linsdell, CC BY 2.0. Renaissance and Enlightenment scholars like Petrarch and Gibbon were influential. Because of this, later nineteenth and twentieth-century scholars often accepted their arguments and continued to romanticize the Romans and Greeks. Many modern scholars continued to portray the Middle Ages as unrefined and violent, without any cultural achievements. Today, the debate continues, but more and more scholars are starting to argue that the past wasn't so simple. They argue that, if there was a period that deserves the "Dark Ages" label, it was pretty short, and it was not truly "dark"—we just don't have enough historical sources to light the way. What do you think? Was there ever a "dark age" of medieval history? Or do you think that the older Roman networks and communities were simply changing into something new during the Middle Ages? [Notes] Author bio Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, world history, and AP US government and politics for the past 10 years at the high school level. In addition, Bridgette has been a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course world history and US history curricula. [Sources and attributions]