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[ " = North @-@ Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) = \n \n North @-@ Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II .", "For most of its existence it covered central and northern Queensland , and Papua New Guinea .", "It was formed in January 1942 from the eastern part of the former Northern Area Command , which had covered the whole of northern Australia and Papua .", "Headquartered at Townsville , Queensland , North @-@ Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries .", "Aircraft under its control took part in the battles of Rabaul , Port Moresby and Milne Bay in 1942 , and the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in 1944 .", "The command continued to operate following the end of the war , before its responsibilities were subsumed in 1954 by the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system ; the headquarters was disbanded two years later .", "= = History = = \n \n \n = = = World War II = = = \n \n North @-@ Eastern Area Command was formed at Townsville , Queensland , on 15 January 1942 , taking over the eastern portion of what was previously Northern Area Command .", "Northern Area had been established on 8 May 1941 as one of the RAAF 's geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones , and covered northern New South Wales , Queensland , the Northern Territory , and Papua .", "The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance .", "Each area was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary .", "The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 was the catalyst for Northern Area being split into North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) and North @-@ Eastern Area ( NEA ) , to counter distinct threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively .", "Air Commodore Frank Lukis , formerly in charge of Northern Area , was NEA 's inaugural AOC , taking responsibility for RAAF operations against the Japanese in New Guinea , New Britain and surrounding islands .", "His headquarters staff numbered <unk> .", "On 20 January 1942 , a force of over 100 Japanese aircraft attacked Rabaul , destroying or badly damaging six CAC Wirraways and killing or wounding eleven crewmen of No.", "24 Squadron under Wing Commander John Lerew .", "The following day , NEA headquarters sent a signal to Lerew ordering him to keep his airfield open , to which Lerew , with only two Wirraways left , replied using the legendary ancient <unk> phrase to honour an Emperor : \" <unk> <unk> <unk> \" ( \" We who are about to die salute you \" ) .", "<unk> a further message from headquarters to abandon his squadron and escape in a Lockheed Hudson bomber , on 22 January Lerew began evacuating staff to Port Moresby , New Guinea .", "No.", "33 Squadron , operating ex @-@ <unk> Short Empire flying boats and several smaller transports , was raised in NEA on 19 February 1942 .", "Earlier that month , Lukis warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby , due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons .", "On 25 February , Nos.", "3 and 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters were established to coordinate fighter operations ; they were based at Townsville and Port Moresby respectively .", "Seventeen P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No.", "75 Squadron , recently formed at Townsville , were deployed to Port Moresby in mid @-@ March .", "<unk> by Squadron Leader John Jackson , the squadron suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle .", "At one point NEA headquarters gave Jackson permission to withdraw but he refused , and the squadron was eventually credited with destroying thirty @-@ five Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground , securing Port Moresby until relieved by the 35th and 36th Squadrons of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , operating P @-@ 39 <unk> .", "Several USAAF bomber formations operated under NEA 's control in early 1942 , including A @-@ 24 <unk> of the 8th Squadron from Port Moresby , and B @-@ 17 Flying <unk> of the <unk> Squadron ( initially known as the \" <unk> Squadron \" ) from Townsville .", "As of 20 April , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( <unk> ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) .", "One result of this was the integration of USAAF and RAAF staff at area headquarters .", "According to the official history of the RAAF , though \" more a diplomatic gesture than a practical method of war organisation \" , it gave personnel from the two services the opportunity to quickly become <unk> to each other and \" in North @-@ Eastern Area , as an example , the atmosphere was happy and the staff extremely cooperative \" .", "Following the Battle of the Coral Sea in May , USAAF units no longer operated under RAAF control in the NEA but were commanded directly by senior American officers of the <unk> .", "NEA 's operational headquarters , a reinforced concrete bunker known as Building 81 , was completed in May 1942 .", "Located on Green Street , Townsville , at the base of Castle Hill , it was topped with a suburban house to mislead enemy aircraft .", "The same month , Eastern Area Command was formed , taking control of units in New South Wales and southern Queensland from Southern Area and NEA .", "This left NEA in command of Nos.", "24 , 33 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No.", "3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Townsville ; No.", "100 Squadron at Cairns ; No.", "32 Squadron at Horn Island ; and Nos.", "11 , 20 and 75 Squadrons , as well as No.", "4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Port Moresby .", "NEA 's boundaries were <unk> on 19 August : a portion of Queensland within the <unk> <unk> and the <unk> and <unk> districts was assigned to the control of North @-@ Western Area .", "Lukis handed over command of NEA to Group Captain ( later Air Commodore ) Harry Cobby on 25 August .", "By the end of the month , the headquarters staff numbered 684 .", "No.", "75 Squadron , <unk> after its defence of Port Moresby , and No.", "76 Squadron , deployed north from Townsville and also flying Kittyhawks , played what senior Australian Army commanders described as the \" decisive \" role in the Battle of Milne Bay in New Guinea during August and September 1942 .", "During the battle , Cobby exercised overall command of the RAAF units from NEA headquarters , while their efforts were coordinated on the ground by Group Captain Bill <unk> , NEA 's senior air staff officer .", "On 1 September 1942 , No.", "9 ( Operational ) Group was formed at Port Moresby as a mobile strike force to move forward with Allied advances in the Pacific , in contrast to the static , defensive nature of the area commands .", "It took over all units in New Guinea previously operating under NEA Command .", "NEA initially retained administrative control of No.", "9 Group but , on 1 January 1943 , the group was made independent of the area command and its administration became the responsibility of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne .", "September 1942 also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA .", "Bostock exercised control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority over all Australian units .", "He personally coordinated operations when they involved more than one area command , for instance when the fighter squadrons of both NWA and NEA were required to repulse a major attack .", "No.", "42 ( Radar ) Wing was formed at Townsville in February 1943 , and the following month took control of all radar stations in NEA .", "As of April 1943 , the area command directly controlled four squadrons tasked primarily with anti @-@ submarine warfare : No.", "7 Squadron , flying Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance @-@ bombers out of Ross River ; No.", "9 Squadron , a fleet co @-@ operation unit flying <unk> <unk> from Bowen ; and Nos.", "11 and 20 Squadrons , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with <unk> Catalinas from Cairns .", "In early 1943 , Japan was still believed to be capable of invading , or at least bombing , the Torres Strait islands , and NEA had only No.", "7 Squadron , now operating from Horn Island , to counter the threat .", "It was reinforced in April by No.", "84 Squadron , flying CAC Boomerang fighters .", "The same month , No.", "72 Wing was formed at Townsville , before deploying to <unk> , New Guinea .", "<unk> No.", "84 Squadron , No.", "86 Squadron ( flying Kittyhawks ) , and No.", "12 Squadron ( <unk> <unk> dive bombers ) , the wing was responsible for Torres Strait 's air defence , as well as offensive operations against infrastructure and shipping in Dutch New Guinea .", "In October , No.", "84 Squadron converted to Kittyhawks and transferred to the newly formed No.", "75 Wing , which was given responsibility for units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula .", "In February 1944 , No.", "75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by other units under its control , Nos.", "7 and 23 Squadrons ; the latter operated <unk> until being declared non @-@ operational in June , prior to re @-@ <unk> with B @-@ 24 Liberators for duty in North @-@ Western Area .", "By May , NEA 's order of battle on the Australian mainland consisted of Nos.", "7 , 9 , 13 ( operating Lockheed <unk> from <unk> ) , 20 and 23 Squadrons .", "Cobby served as AOC NEA until November 1943 , handing over to Air Commodore John <unk> , who held command for the remainder of the war .", "By the end of November , NEA headquarters staff numbered 499 , including ninety @-@ seven officers .", "NEA 's Catalinas joined aircraft of No.", "9 Group in support of the US invasion of New Britain in December 1943 and January 1944 .", "The Catalinas also conducted mine @-@ laying operations around the Timor Sea in the lead @-@ up to the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in April 1944 .", "In August , No.", "76 Wing headquarters , formed at Townsville in January and subsequently based at Cairns , was transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory .", "There it came under the control of NWA headquarters and oversaw operations by three <unk> squadrons , including No.", "20 .", "The same month , No.", "75 Wing was disbanded and its units became the direct responsibility of NEA headquarters .", "No.", "42 Wing disbanded in October 1944 , following a decision to assign control of RAAF radar stations to mobile fighter control units or similar formations .", "By the end of February 1945 , NEA headquarters staff numbered 743 , including 127 officers .", "No.", "72 Wing headquarters transferred to Townsville in May that year , and disbanded the following month .", "= = = Post @-@ war activity and disbandment = = = \n \n Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands .", "By the end of the month , NEA headquarters staff numbered 526 , including ninety @-@ eight officers .", "The Air Force shrank dramatically as personnel were <unk> and units disbanded ; most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations after the war were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland .", "In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania .", "The Australian Government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place .", "By 1949 , NEA headquarters was located in Sturt Street , Townsville .", "No.", "10 Squadron was based at Townsville from March that year , operating Avro <unk> over the Pacific and Australia 's northern approaches in the maritime reconnaissance and search @-@ and @-@ rescue roles .", "Air Commodore Ian <unk> was appointed AOC NEA in September 1951 and served two years in the post before handing over to acting Air Commodore Patrick <unk> .", "<unk> in October 1953 , the RAAF was reorganised from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system into one based on function .", "In February 1954 , the newly constituted functional organisations — Home , Training , and Maintenance <unk> — assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from North @-@ Eastern Area Command .", "NEA headquarters remained in existence , but only as one of Home Command 's \" remote control points \" .", "It was finally disbanded on 3 December 1956 , and was succeeded by Headquarters RAAF Townsville .", "As of 2009 , the former NEA headquarters in Building 81 , Green Street , housed Townsville 's State Emergency Service group .", "= = Order of battle = = \n \n As at 30 April 1942 , NEA 's order of battle comprised : \n RAAF Station Townsville \n No.", "24 ( General Purpose ) Squadron \n No.", "33 ( Transport ) Squadron \n No.", "76 ( Fighter ) Squadron \n RAAF Station <unk> \n No.", "23 ( General Purpose ) Squadron \n RAAF Station Port Moresby \n No.", "11 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron \n No.", "20 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron \n No.", "32 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron \n No.", "75 ( Fighter ) Squadron \n No.", "3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Townsville \n No.", "4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Port Moresby" ]

[ " = Cape lobster = \n \n The Cape lobster , Homarinus capensis , is a species of small lobster that lives off the coast of South Africa , from Dassen Island to Haga Haga .", "Only a few dozen specimens are known , mostly regurgitated by reef @-@ dwelling fish .", "It lives in rocky reefs , and is thought to lay large eggs that have a short <unk> phase , or that hatch directly as a juvenile .", "The species grows to a total length of 10 cm ( 3 @.", "@ 9 in ) , and resembles a small European or American lobster ; it was previously included in the same genus , Homarus , although it is not very closely related to those species , and is now considered to form a separate , monotypic genus – Homarinus .", "Its closest relatives are the genera <unk> and <unk> .", "= = Distribution and ecology = = \n \n The Cape lobster is endemic to South Africa .", "It occurs from Dassen Island , Western Cape in the west to Haga Haga , Eastern Cape in the east , a range of 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) .", "Most of the known specimens were regurgitated by fish caught on reefs at depths of 20 – 40 metres ( 66 – 131 ft ) .", "This suggests that the Cape lobster inhabits rocky substrates , and may explain its apparent rarity , since such areas are not amenable to dredging or trawling , and the species may be too small to be retained by lobster traps .", "= = Description = = \n \n Homarinus capensis is considerably smaller than the large northern lobsters of the Atlantic Ocean , Homarus gammarus ( the European lobster ) and Homarus americanus ( the American lobster ) , at 8 – 10 centimetres ( 3 @.", "@ 1 – 3 @.", "@ 9 in ) total length , or 4 – 5 cm ( 1 @.", "@ 6 – 2 @.", "@ 0 in ) carapace length .", "Accounts of the colouration of H. capensis are very variable , from tawny , red or yellow to \" a rather dark olive \" , similar to Homarus gammarus .", "Homarinus and Homarus are considered to be the most <unk> genera in the family <unk> .", "Nonetheless , the Cape lobster differs from Homarus in a number of characters .", "The <unk> of the Cape lobster is flattened , while that of Homarus is rounded in section , and curves upwards at the tip .", "The three pairs of claws are covered with hairs in Homarinus , while those of Homarus are <unk> .", "The <unk> tapers along its length in Homarus , but has sides which are nearly parallel in Homarinus .", "Although no egg @-@ bearing females have been collected , the <unk> ( openings of the <unk> ) of female Cape lobsters are much larger than those of Homarus gammarus and Homarus americanus .", "This is thought to indicate that Homarinus bears fewer , larger eggs than Homarus , and that either the larvae develop quickly into juveniles after hatching , or that the eggs hatch directly into juveniles .", "= = Taxonomy and evolution = = \n \n Cape lobsters are elusive and rare , with only fourteen specimens having been collected between 1792 ( the date of its first description ) and 1992 .", "These include five males in the collections of the South African Museum ( Cape Town ) , two in the Natural History Museum ( London ) , one in each of the East London Museum , the <unk> van <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) and the Albany Museum ( <unk> ) , and one male and one female in the <unk> national d <unk> <unk> ( Paris ) .", "In 1992 , a Cape lobster was discovered at Dassen Island , and the publicity the find generated resulted in more than 20 additional specimens being reported .", "The Cape lobster was first described by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm <unk> in 1792 as Cancer ( <unk> ) capensis .", "It was independently described in 1793 by Johan Christian <unk> as <unk> <unk> , possibly based on the same type specimen .", "When Friedrich Weber erected the genus Homarus in 1795 , he included <unk> ' species in it , but this placement was not followed by later authors .", "The species reached its current classification in 1995 , when the monotypic genus Homarinus was erected by Irv <unk> , Austin B. Williams and Robert S. <unk> .", "While analyses of morphology suggest a close relationship between Homarinus and Homarus , molecular analyses using mitochondrial DNA reveal that they are not sister taxa .", "Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and <unk> , but are thought to have reached that state independently , through <unk> evolution .", "The closest living relative of Homarus is <unk> <unk> , while the closest relatives of Homarinus are <unk> and <unk> ." ]

[ " = A4232 road = \n \n The A4232 , which is also known either as the <unk> <unk> Road ( PDR ) ( Welsh : Ffordd <unk> <unk> ) or the Cardiff Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> ) , is a distributor road in Cardiff , the capital of Wales .", "The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road in 1978 and the last section was the Butetown Link Road in 1995 .", "Construction of the first phase of the final link road , the Eastern Bay Link Road , started on 17 March 2016 and is due to be completed by April 2017 .", "When fully completed , the road will form part of the Cardiff ring road system .", "The PDR runs west , south and east of Cardiff , with the M4 between junction 30 and junction 33 completing the northern section .", "The PDR is dual carriageway for its entire length except for the East Moors Viaduct , which is a single carriageway .", "The PDR has been constructed in separate link roads of between 1 @.", "@ 61 km ( 1 @.", "@ 00 mi ) and 5 @.", "@ 47 km ( 3 @.", "@ 40 mi ) around Cardiff and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs have been opened to traffic , with plans for a further 5 @.", "@ 53 km ( 3 @.", "@ 44 mi ) .", "It has 4 large <unk> ( Ely Viaduct , Grangetown Viaduct , Taff Viaduct and the East Moors Viaduct ) , 1 tunnel ( Queen 's Gate Tunnel ) and 2 spur roads ( Cogan Spur and Central Link Road ) .", "The road also has many smaller bridges over or under most of the interchanges on the road .", "The entire length of the road has <unk> restrictions on it .", "= = History = = \n \n The road was conceived in the early 1970s and planning began in the late 1970s , by South Glamorgan County Council .", "The road at that stage was planned to be completed by 1995 and would relieve Ely , Grangetown , Butetown and East Moors of through traffic and as a fast link to the national motorway network via the M4 and A48 ( M ) .", "The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road between Newport Road ( <unk> road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 and the last section of the PDR , the Butetown Link Road , was opened to the public in 1995 .", "The former chairman of the South Glamorgan County Council environment committee , Councillor Paddy <unk> , called the road a \" necklace of opportunity \" due to its shape and also the opportunities for regeneration .", "By 1 April 1996 the responsibility for the road was transferred from South Glamorgan County Council to the unitary authority of Cardiff Council .", "Much of the funding for the road had been grant aided from the European Community and the UK Government on the basis that it would improve the economic viability of the area and bring in new jobs and industry .", "However , since the completion of the Butetown Link Road , funding for further developments have been at a stand still , and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs are open to traffic with plans for a further 5 @.", "@ 53 km ( 3 @.", "@ 44 mi ) .", "The \" missing link \" , the Eastern Bay Link Road , is still to be built .", "= = Route description = = \n \n The PDR has 3 separate sections ; the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 <unk> ) to Queen 's Gate roundabout , the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( A48 ) and the Pontprennau Interchange ( A48 ) to the Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 <unk> ) .", "The section from the Capel Llanilltern Interchange on the M4 ( junction 33 ) to the Queen 's Gate roundabout is sometimes referred to as the Western Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> ) , is 15 @.", "@ 77 kilometers ( 9 @.", "@ 80 mi ) in length and includes the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road , Ely Link Road , Grangetown Link Road and Butetown Link Road .", "For the majority of this section it is the boundary between the City of Cardiff to the east and the Vale of Glamorgan to the west .", "This section partly opened in 1978 , from the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange on the A48 is oldest section of the PDR .", "It includes only the Southern Way Link Road , known locally as Southern Way , and is 2 @.", "@ 25 km ( 1 @.", "@ 40 mi ) in length .", "The Pentwyn Link Road section from the Pontprennau Interchange on the A48 to the Pentwyn Interchange on the M4 ( junction 30 ) is one of the newer sections of the PDR , having been opened in 1984 , it is 1 @.", "@ 61 km ( 1 @.", "@ 00 mi ) in length .", "The road between the Llanedeyrn Interchange to the Pontprennau Interchange is the A48 ( Eastern Avenue ) , it too is a dual carriageway and is a concurrent road with the PDR , there are no plans to <unk> this section of the A48 .", "= = Link roads = = \n \n A map of all the link roads and spur roads can be seen by clicking Map of all coordinates opposite \n Each section of the road was completed in separate link roads .", "= = = Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road = = = \n \n The GB £ 14 @.", "@ 5 million Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Capel Llanilltern – <unk> <unk> ) , also known as the A4232 Trunk Road ( as it is the only section of the PDR which is a trunk road ) , between the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 <unk> ) ) ) and the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) was opened in 1985 .", "It was designed to provide a by @-@ pass for traffic from the M4 to the Vale of Glamorgan .", "It is 5 @.", "@ 47 km ( 3 @.", "@ 40 mi ) in length and includes the Ely Viaduct close to <unk> @-@ super @-@ Ely .", "The trunk road is maintained by the South Wales Trunk Road Agency ( <unk> ) on behalf of the Welsh Assembly Government ( WAG ) .", "The remainder of the PDR is a primary route , which is maintained by Cardiff Council .", "In 2006 variable message signs were installed on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road by <unk> Systems to display messages giving motorists warning of road and weather conditions , accidents , congestion and major events held in the area .", "= = = = Ely Viaduct = = = = \n \n The Ely Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont <unk> ) crosses over the River Ely and also the main South Wales railway line .", "The viaduct is a 538 ft ( 164 m ) twin @-@ box girder and has central span of 230 ft ( 70 m ) and 150 ft ( 46 m ) side spans , constructed by the balanced <unk> method .", "It was constructed in segments each weighing between 54 tons for plain segments to 93 tons for the main segments .", "= = = Ely Link Road = = = \n \n The Ely Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> ) between the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) and the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) , sometimes referred to as the Leckwith Road Interchange .", "It is 4 @.", "@ 83 km ( 3 @.", "@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened in 1982 and built by Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd ( <unk> ) .", "It was designed to relieve Ely of through traffic and partly cuts into Leckwith Hill .", "= = = Grangetown Link Road = = = \n \n The 2 @.", "@ 89 km ( 1 @.", "@ 80 mi ) Grangetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> ) between the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) and the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) was opened on 3 May , 1988 .", "It includes the Grangetown Viaduct .", "= = = = Grangetown Viaduct = = = = \n \n The Grangetown Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont <unk> ) is approximately 1 km ( 0 @.", "@ 62 mi ) in length and is said to be the longest glued segmental bridge in the United Kingdom .", "It has 13 spans of 71 meters ( 233 ft ) with 2 end spans of 38 m ( 125 ft ) and 46 m ( 151 ft ) .", "The viaduct was designed by South Glamorgan County Council .", "Robert Benaim and Associates , now called Benaim UK Ltd designed the initial launching system for the glued segmental structure .", "= = = Butetown Link Road = = = \n \n The 2 @.", "@ 57 km ( 1 @.", "@ 60 mi ) Butetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Butetown ) between the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) and the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) was opened on 27 March , 1995 by Neil <unk> at the time the European Commissioner for Transport .", "Construction of the link road commenced on 15 October 1993 and it was the last link road to be built .", "It includes the Taff Viaduct , also known as the Butetown Link Road Bridge , and the Queen 's Gate Tunnel , which is also known simply as the Butetown Tunnel .", "In 1987 South Glamorgan County Council had intended to build a viaduct cross the River Taff and then go onto an elevated section through Butetown \" on <unk> \" .", "But the newly formed Cardiff Bay Development Corporation along with local residents objected to the scheme that they said would cut through Butetown and split the community , creating an unnecessary physical barrier between the two areas to the north and south of the link road .", "By 1988 South Glamorgan County Council had agreed to change the design of the link road , despite having already spent 6 years of design work on the link road meant that a tunnel had to be built instead .", "The cost of the Butetown Link Road was estimated to cost £ 35 million , but this had risen to £ <unk> in 1988 , before the design change .", "The contract to build the Butetown Link Road was eventually won by a local company Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd in a joint venture with an Italian contractor , <unk> @-@ <unk> UK Ltd .", "The bid of £ 60 million undercut all other bids by £ 10 million , Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd have subsequently gone into administrative receivership .", "= = = = Queen 's Gate Tunnel = = = = \n \n The Queen 's Gate Tunnel ( Welsh : <unk> <unk> y <unk> ) , also known as the Butetown Tunnel , is underneath southern Butetown and follows a line underneath the Wales Millennium Centre .", "The 715 m ( 2 @,@ 346 ft ) twin tunnel was constructed using the cut and cover method of construction , which involves digging a trench for the tunnel and then roofing it over .", "The tunnel was constructed using reinforced concrete and a central wall separates the two sets of traffic .", "South Glamorgan County Council originally awarded the contract for the management , installation , testing and commissioning of all electrical and mechanical services for the tunnel , and the water pumping stations to <unk> · <unk> Ltd .", "They still maintain the tunnel on behalf of Cardiff Council .", "= = = = Taff Viaduct = = = = \n \n Construction of the 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) Taff Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont <unk> ) includes a dual @-@ carriageway roadway plus a foot and cycle path .", "South Glamorgan County Council was the local authority in charge of the project at the time and construction of the viaduct began in March , 1991 .", "The Taff Viaduct crosses the River Taff at Cardiff Bay .", "The viaduct was constructed using <unk> concrete segments , which is widely used in the construction industry for medium to long span <unk> .", "<unk> were made in a casting yard near the site and then transported for final assembly of the viaduct .", "= = = Eastern Bay Link Road = = = \n \n Construction began on 17 March 2016 on the 5 @.", "@ 25 km ( 3 @.", "@ 26 mi ) Eastern Bay Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> y <unk> ) which will run from the Queen 's Gate Roundabout to the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout on the Southern Way Link Road , although at present only the first phase between Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and Ocean Way Interchange .", "( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Ocean Way Interchange ) ) The link road will be a two lane dual carriageway with a 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) speed limit .", "For many years this link road has been <unk> due to the costs involved .", "The link road had previously been known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 1 and 3 , but it also included the East Moors Viaduct , which was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 .", "Later it became known as the Cardiff Bay Link Road , then renamed the Eastern Bay Link Road .", "The Eastern Bay Link Road , along with other schemes have been subject to many planning proposals since the last link road ( the Butetown Link Road ) was finished in 1995 , namely a local transport plan ( Local Transport Plan 2000 – 2016 ) in August 2000 , a green paper ( A Change of <unk> ) in December 2002 and a white paper ( Keeping Cardiff Moving ) in May 2003 .", "The cost of the link road was estimated to cost GB £ 162 million in 2001 and this increased to GB £ 180 million by August 2002 .", "It could be paid for by congestion charging , although a public @-@ private partnership is also possible .", "The original route of the link road had been challenged by both Friends of the Earth Cymru , and also the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) , who had both lodged formal objections against the link road .", "However , the current proposal from Cardiff Council of 31 October 2006 is to complete the first phase of the road , approximately 1 km ( 0 @.", "@ 62 mi ) in length , from the Butetown Link Road to Ocean Way roundabout .", "The new route would be a different route from the earlier proposal and would avoid any encroachment into the nature conservation area , which Friends of the Earth and the RSPB had objected to .", "Therefore , the new route of the link road should ensure that there are no objections .", "It was revealed on 14 June 2013 that Edwina Hart , Minister for Economy , Science and Transport in the WAG supported the completion the Eastern Bay Link Road .", "She said that the link road would ; improve access to Cardiff Bay , improve access to the Cardiff Central Enterprise Zone and enhance connections within the Cardiff City Region .", "The overall objectives of the road would be to : \n Increase accessibility from east Cardiff to major employment sites in the East Moors area , Cardiff Bay and the Central Cardiff Enterprise Zone \n Provide a more direct route between the Butetown Tunnel and Rover Way \n <unk> congestion at the junctions on Tyndall Street by removing traffic currently using the Ocean <unk> East Tyndall Street – Central Link route \n <unk> journey times for private and commercial road users \n Help economic regeneration \n <unk> road safety and reduce casualties \n <unk> <unk> on the strategic road network around Cardiff \n Provide more opportunities for cycling and walking \n On 2 May 2014 , Edwina Hart approved the <unk> of the design – build contractor , advance service diversion works and communications arrangements for the Eastern Bay Link Road .", "Construction of this first phase of the Eastern Bay Link Road is due to begin in 2015 and will take 18 months to complete .", "In April 2015 , it was announced by the Welsh Government that the 1 @.", "@ 2 km £ <unk> Eastern Bay Link Road from the incomplete flyover at the Queens Gate roundabout to the Ocean Way roundabout at <unk> known as the \" roundabout to nowhere \" , would be designed by <unk> Property and Infrastructure and constructed by <unk> Construction Holdings and <unk> <unk> UK in a joint venture .", "Construction began on the link road on 17 March 2016 .", "= = = Southern Way Link Road = = = \n \n The Southern Way Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt y Ffordd <unk> ) , generally known simply as Southern Way , was built in two parts ; the first section of Southern Way to be completed was between Newport Road ( <unk> road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 .", "The final section of the link road was built between Newport Road and the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout and was opened in 1984 at a cost of £ 9 million and includes the East Moors Viaduct , which is also known as the Southern Way <unk> .", "In 1987 it was envisaged that the present single @-@ carriage would be \" twinned \" as a dual @-@ carriageway , the same as the rest of the PDR .", "The 2 @.", "@ 25 km ( 1 @.", "@ 40 mi ) link road now runs from the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ) ) to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Llanedeyrn Interchange ) ) on the A48 .", "= = = = East Moors Viaduct = = = = \n \n The 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) East Moors Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont <unk> y <unk> ) , which is also known as the Southern Way <unk> , was also designed by Robert Benaim and Associates who won the <unk> ( Institution of Civil Engineers ) Project Award and also a Concrete Society Commendation , both in 1985 for work on the viaduct .", "The viaduct was constructed by concrete box girder deck of segmental construction .", "The East Moors Viaduct was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 , but now forms part of the Southern Way Link Road .", "= = = Pentwyn Link Road = = = \n \n The Pentwyn Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Pentwyn ) , which is also known as the North Pentwyn Link Road , runs from the Pontprennau Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( <unk> Interchange ) ) on the A48 and the Pentwyn Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 <unk> ) ) ) on the M4 ( junction 30 ) .", "It is 1 @.", "@ 61 km ( 1 @.", "@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened by John <unk> MP , the Secretary of State for Wales on 20 June , 1994 .", "It provides a link between the Eastern Avenue ( A48 ) and the M4 so that westbound traffic from the east of the city can get onto the M4 without having to go through the city , via the A48 and <unk> .", "In addition it also provides access to the community of Pontprennau to the national road network .", "This link was financed by private developers as part of a large scale housing development at Pontprennau .", "= = Public Art & <unk> Stones = = \n \n \n = = Spur roads = = \n \n \n = = = Cogan Spur ( <unk> ) = = = \n \n The Cogan Spur , which is also known as the Cogan Link ( Welsh : Gyswllt Cogan ) , from the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) to Barons Court Junction ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Barons Court Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened in 1988 .", "It is only 0 @.", "@ 8 km ( 0 @.", "@ 50 mi ) , but it is an important link to provide access to the PDR from Penarth and the southern part of the Vale of Glamorgan .", "It also bypasses Penarth Road ( A4160 ) for traffic going in and out of Cardiff city centre .", "The most recent development , which began at the end of 2006 and into 2007 was the widening of the road between the Cogan Viaduct and the Ferry Road Interchange to a 3 @-@ lane dual @-@ carriageway .", "A new junction was also built for the Cardiff International Sports Village directly from Cogan Spur ; also the Barons Court roundabout was replaced by a signal controlled <unk> .", "The main contractor for this project was <unk> O 'Rourke Civil Engineering .", "= = = = Cogan Viaduct = = = = \n \n The Cogan Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Cogan ) is the most important element of the Cogan Spur as it crosses the River Ely with a central span of 95 metres ( 312 ft ) .", "In total it has 6 spans ; 40 m ( 130 ft ) , 60 m ( 200 ft ) , 60 m , <unk> , 95 m and 60 m .", "It is made from a multi @-@ span glued segmental structure of rectangular box sections .", "In all over 300 sections were used to construct the viaduct , each weighing from 43 to 117 tonnes .", "The Cogan Viaduct was again designed by South Glamorgan County Council , who won a Concrete Society Commendation in 1989 for the design .", "= = = Central Link Road ( <unk> ) = = = \n \n The £ 8 @.", "@ 5 million Central Link ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> ) between the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and the junction on Adam Street ( 51 @.", "@ <unk> ° N 3 @.", "@ <unk> ° W  / 51 @.", "@ <unk> ; <unk>  ( Adam Street Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened on 16 February 1989 .", "When it was first opened it only linked Cardiff city centre with Cardiff Bay .", "It was not until the Butetown Link was opened on 27 March 1995 that this road started to be used as a link to the motorway network , Penarth and the Vale of Glamorgan .", "It will not be until the Eastern Bay Link is built , when traffic from the city centre will use it to travel east , that it will be fully used .", "The length of the <unk> is just 1 @.", "@ 45 km ( 0 @.", "@ 90 mi ) and is entirely a two lane dual carriageway with <unk> restrictions .", "= = <unk> spur roads = = \n \n \n = = = Ely Spur = = = \n \n The Ely Spur was planned to run from a new interchange on the Ely Link Road to the Ely Bridge Roundabout on the A48 .", "It was only 1 @.", "@ 2 km ( 0 @.", "@ 75 mi ) in length , but it would have reduced through traffic in the residential area of Ely , namely on <unk> Road West traveling to and from the A48 .", "But it has now been announced that this proposal has now been officially abandoned .", "= = = Cardiff Airport Link Road = = = \n \n The Cardiff Airport Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt <unk> <unk> <unk> ) was a proposed spur road off of the A4232 through to Cardiff Airport , when plans for the road were scrapped by the WAG in June 2009 .", "The current single carriageway <unk> road , from Cardiff to Cardiff Airport is also the main road from Barry to Cardiff and is the main commuter route .", "One of the 4 proposed schemes involved a new major highway route linking the Ely Link Road ( PDR ) , south of the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , through to the <unk> north of Barry .", "The estimated cost of this scheme would have been £ <unk> , including the widening of the A4232 .", "= = Services = = \n \n The PDR has two service stations for motorists , one at Cardiff West on the Capel Llanilltern Interchange and the other at Cardiff Gate on the Pentwyn Interchange .", "The services at Cardiff West includes <unk> petrol , a <unk> , Burger King , Costa Coffee and W H Smith , while the services at Cardiff Gate includes petrol , Burger King , W H Smith and also Coffee <unk> .", "Traffic Wales is the Welsh Government 's traffic information service , it is a partnership between the Welsh Government , the two Trunk Road Agents ( South Wales <unk> / <unk> & Mid Wales <unk> ) and the <unk> consultancy <unk> .", "In South Wales the service is managed from the South Wales Traffic Management Centre , also home to <unk> Media 's studio , providing live travel information for the media .", "The Traffic Wales website has five live traffic <unk> on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Trunk Road ) and the images are updated every 5 minutes .", "Traffic Wales also operates a Traffic Information <unk> , motorists can use this telephone service by <unk> an <unk> number , which gives up to date traffic information and travel advice .", "= = Traffic congestion = = \n \n Since the western link roads were built , a number of major developments have been built , such as the Cardiff Bay Retail Park , <unk> , Celtic Gateway , Cardiff International Sports Village that includes the Cardiff International Pool , Cardiff International White Water and Cardiff Arena , which have all generated additional traffic at the Ferry Road Interchange .", "In addition , the Leckwith development , which includes Cardiff City Stadium , Cardiff International Sports Stadium and the Capital Retail Park with a new <unk> supermarket , have also significantly increased traffic on the Leckwith Interchange .", "At the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , older developments such as the <unk> Retail Park , <unk> Retail Park and <unk> Retail Park , including <unk> and Marks & Spencer have also significantly increased congestion along with commuter traffic from the Vale of Glamorgan .", "From 1989 to 1997 there had been an increase in traffic of 78 % and a further increase of 35 % by 2016 is predicted by the Assembly .", "The Vale of Glamorgan Council also expressed reservations about the new developments of the Cardiff International Sports Village and the Cardiff City Stadium , which includes the Capital Retail Park .", "On 18 October , 2006 , the council requested that the WAG assess the existing traffic conditions and future growth in traffic on the network .", "= = Popular culture = = \n \n The Queen 's Gate Tunnel was featured in the first ever episode of Torchwood , called \" Everything Changes \" and was first broadcast by BBC Three on 22 October 2006 .", "The Grangetown Link was featured in the 2006 Christmas episode of Doctor Who called \" The Runaway Bride \" .", "It was first broadcast by BBC One on 25 December 2006 ." ]

[ " = Development of Fez = \n \n The high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development of Fez led to its status as an \" underdog darling of the indie game scene \" .", "The 2012 puzzle platform game built around rotating between four 2D views of a 3D space was developed by indie developer Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios .", "Over the course of the game 's development , Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish received celebrity for his outspoken public persona and prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which followed the game 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues .", "The game was released to critical acclaim as an Xbox Live Arcade timed exclusive , and was later ported to other platforms .", "It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 .", "Fish and Shawn McGrath collaborated on a puzzle game that became Fez .", "When McGrath left the project due to creative differences , Fish , the game 's artist , pursued a platform game direction with <unk> Bédard , the game 's programmer , who wrote the game 's level editor and game engine from scratch .", "Levels were built in 3D by <unk> surfaces with <unk> @-@ created textures .", "Bédard and Fish were joined by three different animators and other collaborators .", "The game was first announced in June 2007 and won an award at the 2008 Independent Games Festival and entered the public spotlight .", "Fish created a studio , Polytron Corporation , and was later aided by nearby developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor when Polytron ran out of money .", "Fez won several more <unk> awards , including the 2012 <unk> <unk> Grand Prize .", "= = History = = \n \n Fez 's development cycle developed a reputation for its protracted five @-@ year length and public exposure .", "Nathan Grayson of <unk> likened the game 's rocky development process to \" an indie Duke <unk> Forever \" .", "<unk> reviewer Arthur <unk> wrote that the game was an \" underdog darling of the indie game scene \" for four years prior to its release .", "The game 's designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in Indie Game : The Movie , which released in 2012 .", "While the game was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and <unk> public persona .", "The game that became Fez began in a collaboration between Montreal @-@ based Phil Fish and Toronto @-@ based Shawn McGrath on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game : a four @-@ sided 3D space with each side in 2D , similar to Fish 's 3D <unk> ( <unk> ) as incorporated into Fez .", "The entirety of Fez 's design , lore , and art descends from this game mechanic .", "Fish provided the project 's art and credited his influence to Shigeru Miyamoto and <unk> Miyazaki .", "Fish and McGrath 's partnership <unk> due to creative differences , as Fish wanted to create a platform game .", "Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time and announced his search for a programmer on <unk> , and the first person to reply , <unk> Bédard , became lead programmer .", "They were both the same age and living in Montreal .", "Though Bédard had some <unk> experience in 3D graphics and was studying computer science , Fez was his first professional game development project .", "His first task was to write the level editor and game engine .", "Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source .", "A trailer released in October 2007 convinced Jason DeGroot to join the development team as a producer .", "DeGroot , also known as \" <unk> \" , first met Fish at a 2006 E3 party , and started work on the game 's soundtrack and sound effects .", "The soundtrack was ultimately composed by Rich \" <unk> \" <unk> and the sound effects by Brandon <unk> .", "The game was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Independent Games Festival ( <unk> ) at the Game Developers Conference ( <unk> ) : Excellence in Visual Art and the Design Innovation Award .", "As Fez was a side project , Fish was employed full @-@ time at Artificial Mind and Movement in Montreal , where he worked on a tie @-@ in game for a film .", "He was not permitted time off to attend the event and thus decided to quit his job in January 2008 — a moment he later marked as \" when I became indie \" .", "The game won \" Excellence in Visual Art \" , and created a surge of public interest in the game concurrent to a similar swell of interest in indie game developers .", "Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez .", "In July 2009 , Polytron announced a release for Xbox Live Arcade in early 2010 .", "Polytron and Microsoft agreed to release Fez as an Xbox exclusive , a deal Fish later recalled as sensible .", "Fish designed the game as \" a console game , not a PC game \" , and felt that the way he intended the game to be experienced — with a controller on a <unk> — was \" part of the medium \" .", "Polytron ruled out a <unk> release due to problems Fish had with their platform and developer options .", "Development continued with a more experimental ethos until the company began to run out of capital .", "The Canadian government loan that had funded Polytron 's <unk> phase was not renewed for their production phase .", "They also lost funding from the organization that preceded the Indie Fund as Polytron 's producer left the company .", "Fish borrowed money from friends and family for three months to keep the company open .", "In dire <unk> , he considered <unk> the project .", "In March 2011 , the nearby <unk> developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help Polytron , having just signed a deal with Electronic Arts to publish their own game , <unk> .", "Trapdoor assisted with Polytron 's finances and operations and offered to treat them as part of their company and let them keep their intellectual property rights in exchange for a portion of Fez 's earnings .", "Fish felt that partnership rescued the game .", "Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's March 2011 <unk> East booth in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie , which chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games ' development cycles .", "As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that <unk> the game 's future .", "The partner , believed to be Jason DeGroot , is portrayed negatively and does not participate <unk> .", "The film 's end credits were later corrected to reflect that Fish 's business partner was not asked for input .", "Game Informer called Fish the film 's \" most memorable developer \" , and Rock , Paper , <unk> wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic , theatrical , and neurotic , in a way that <unk> his outspoken public perception .", "Eurogamer said that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is \" the film 's most startling moment \" .", "Fez won the <unk> Choice Award at the September 2011 Fantastic Arcade , Best in Show and Best Story / World Design at the October 2011 <unk> , and the <unk> <unk> Grand Prize at the 2012 <unk> Independent Games Festival .", "It was also a 2011 Penny Arcade Expo \" <unk> 10 \" selection .", "Fez was displayed in its entirety in a secluded lounge room at the October 2011 <unk> festival in Nottingham , England .", "Fish considered the demo their most fruitful yet .", "Fish told a <unk> reporter that he had received positive feedback from Independent Games Festival Chairman Brandon Boyer and <unk> designer Jonathan Blow .", "Near the end of development , Fish felt \" burnt out \" and that his personal health had suffered .", "The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development .", "After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .", "= = = Release = = = \n \n Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in its <unk> exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform .", "Several months later , Polytron became embroiled in a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of <unk> the game .", "Polytron had released a fix that resolved many of the game 's technical issues but introduced another that corrupted the saved games for about one percent of users .", "They withdrew the patch , but found Microsoft 's fee for subsequent patch releases <unk> , and chose to reinstate the withdrawn patch as their most <unk> option .", "Polytron drew ire for the decision , which raised awareness for the business needs of indie developers .", "In July 2013 , a year later , Microsoft announced that they no longer charged for patches , and Fish tweeted that Polytron 's patch would take \" a couple of months \" .", "Speaking in <unk> of the release , Fish \" fiercely criticized \" Fez co @-@ publisher Microsoft Games Studios for <unk> the game 's release .", "Fish cited a lack of promotion and publicity , and poor advertising of the game on Microsoft 's digital market .", "In March 2013 , Fish announced a May 1 , 2013 release for the game 's PC port , and opened <unk> on <unk> and Steam .", "The game 's OS X and Linux ports debuted in the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want Humble Indie <unk> 9 on September 11 , 2013 .", "Polytron announced ports for PlayStation 4 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita in August 2013 as in development through <unk> , which were released on March 25 , 2014 .", "The PlayStation releases include cross @-@ console support for \" cross @-@ buy \" ( where one digital purchase allows access across multiple consoles ) and \" cross @-@ save \" ( game save sharing between consoles ) , as well as support for 3D <unk> , the <unk> 4 controller 's decorative <unk> , and graphical upgrades due to the full port into the C + + programming language .", "Ports for <unk> and iOS were also announced .", "Fish announced eventual ports for \" ' pretty much ' every platform \" but the Nintendo 3DS .", "Bédard planned to leave Polytron after finishing Fez to experience work with a full development team , but stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's <unk> Games .", "He credited the game 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's <unk> .", "Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after the game 's release .", "Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final \" <unk> \" puzzle by brute force .", "Ars Technica described the apparent end to the game 's harder puzzles as \" <unk> \" , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .", "More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 .", "The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil <unk> .", "= = Design = = \n \n When Bédard joined the project , the game focused on the 2D – 3D mechanic and did not yet have open world ambitions .", "He coded the game in Microsoft Visual C # Express and <unk> Game Studio Express .", "His first task , the level editor <unk> , was coded from scratch in <unk> and inspired by <unk> .", "Bédard also wrote the game engine , <unk> Technology , which turns 2D tiles ( \" <unk> \" ) into sides of a 3D <unk> pixel .", "The engine tracks player @-@ character Gomez in 3D space even though the game behaves as a 2D platformer .", "Bédard also built the game to resolve collisions when converting between 3D and 2D space .", "Fish created pixel art in <unk> for each <unk> side ( \" <unk> \" ) of the 3D <unk> that Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets , which Fish would <unk> as surfaces in <unk> to build levels .", "Fish found the level design process \" overwhelming \" , and Bédard has said he was relieved that it was not his job .", "Fish compared his design process to playing with <unk> blocks , and planned the more involved levels in graph paper to first visualize the 2D views before building the levels in the 3D software .", "The levels and puzzles were not <unk> in a design document , and many of the drafts levels scrapped in 2008 resurfaced to be used later in the production process .", "So as to fit the rotation mechanic , the levels were made tall instead of wide , and the first part of the game was designed to <unk> the player to 2D controls before introducing the 3D element .", "As they worked , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement .", "The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .", "Fish describes the game 's changes during development as \" organic \" — they tested different kinds of levels and replicated the types of in @-@ game exploration that the team appreciated most .", "It came to adopt <unk> mechanics , with \" secret passages , <unk> gates , and <unk> codes \" .", "Fish cited <unk> as another <unk> and compared its open world , <unk> narrative , and \" <unk> <unk> \" to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an \" almost <unk> hard to get \" \" second set of <unk> \" .", "Fish originally fought against having an in @-@ game map because he wanted players to draft their own .", "After attempting to do so himself , he changed his mind .", "Fish later called the in @-@ game map \" probably one of the weakest aspects of the game \" .", "Fish also fought against including the navigational assistant , Dot , but later felt that the addition was successful and a positive contribution to the game 's mythology .", "The <unk> itself , Fish described as an \" ancient symbol of understanding the third dimension \" .", "Fez had three different animators through its development : Paul Robertson of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World : The Game , who did the game 's animals and some of Gomez 's animations , Adam <unk> of <unk> , and Graham <unk> , who did some character animations .", "The game 's mechanics were inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games Fish played in his youth , particularly Super Mario and The Legend of <unk> .", "Fish cited <unk> <unk> 's Ico as the game 's third inspiration , and he sought to emulate its feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness .", "Fish also sought to emulate <unk> 's \" design by <unk> \" philosophy , where the Ico development team would periodically remove parts of the game so as to leave only what was essential to their vision .", "In this way , ideas like player health and object weight puzzles were gradually struck from Fez .", "Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on \" established mechanics \" .", "As such , Fez was always a peaceful game and there was never an enemy coded into the game .", "So as to better emulate <unk> Miyazaki 's signature \" open blue sky \" , \" feel @-@ good \" atmosphere , Fish watched all of the director 's films one weekend early in the development cycle ." ]

[ " = Hugh Walpole = \n \n Sir Hugh Seymour Walpole , CBE ( 13 March 1884 – 1 June 1941 ) was an English novelist .", "He was the son of an Anglican clergyman , intended for a career in the church but drawn instead to writing .", "Among those who encouraged him were the authors Henry James and Arnold Bennett .", "His skill at scene @-@ setting and vivid plots , as well as his high profile as a lecturer , brought him a large readership in the United Kingdom and North America .", "He was a best @-@ selling author in the 1920s and 1930s but has been largely neglected since his death .", "After his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 , Walpole wrote <unk> , producing at least one book every year .", "He was a spontaneous story @-@ teller , writing quickly to get all his ideas on paper , seldom revising .", "His first novel to achieve major success was his third , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , a <unk> story of a fatal clash between two <unk> .", "During the First World War he served in the Red Cross on the Russian @-@ Austrian front , and worked in British propaganda in Petrograd and London .", "In the 1920s and 1930s Walpole was much in demand not only as a novelist but also as a lecturer on literature , making four exceptionally well @-@ paid tours of North America .", "As a gay man at a time when homosexual practices were illegal in Britain , Walpole conducted a succession of intense but discreet relationships with other men , and was for much of his life in search of what he saw as \" the perfect friend \" .", "He eventually found one , a married policeman , with whom he settled in the English Lake District .", "Having as a young man eagerly sought the support of established authors , he was in his later years a generous sponsor of many younger writers .", "He was a patron of the visual arts and bequeathed a substantial legacy of paintings to the Tate Gallery and other British institutions .", "Walpole 's output was large and varied .", "Between 1909 and 1941 he wrote thirty @-@ six novels , five volumes of short stories , two original plays and three volumes of memoirs .", "His range included disturbing studies of the <unk> , children 's stories and historical fiction , most notably his Herries Chronicle series , set in the Lake District .", "He worked in Hollywood writing scenarios for two Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer films in the 1930s , and played a cameo in the 1935 version of David Copperfield .", "= = Biography = = \n \n \n = = = Early years = = = \n \n Walpole was born in Auckland , New Zealand , the eldest of three children of the <unk> Somerset Walpole and his wife , Mildred Helen , née <unk> ( 1854 – 1925 ) .", "Somerset Walpole had been an assistant to the Bishop of Truro , Edward Benson , from 1877 until 1882 , when he was offered the <unk> of St Mary 's Pro @-@ Cathedral , Auckland ; on Benson 's advice he accepted .", "Mildred Walpole found it hard to settle in New Zealand , and something of her restlessness and insecurity affected the character of her eldest child .", "In 1889 , two years after the birth of the couple 's daughter , <unk> ( \" Dorothy \" ) , Somerset Walpole accepted a prominent and well @-@ paid academic post at the General <unk> <unk> , New York .", "Robert ( \" Robin \" ) , the third of the couple 's children , was born in New York in 1892 .", "Hugh and Dorothy were taught by a governess until the middle of 1893 , when the parents decided that he needed an English education .", "Walpole was sent to England , where according to his biographer Rupert Hart @-@ Davis the next ten years were the <unk> time of Walpole 's life .", "He first attended a preparatory school in Truro .", "Though he missed his family and felt lonely he was reasonably happy , but he moved to Sir William <unk> 's Grammar School in Marlow in 1895 , where he was bullied , frightened and <unk> .", "He later said , \" The food was inadequate , the morality was ' twisted ' , and Terror – sheer , stark <unk> Terror – <unk> down every one of its passages ...", "The excessive desire to be loved that has always played so enormous a part in my life was bred largely , I think , from the neglect I suffered there \" .", "In 1896 Somerset Walpole discovered his son 's horror of the Marlow school and he moved him to the King 's School , Canterbury .", "For two years he was a fairly content , though undistinguished , pupil there .", "In 1897 Walpole senior was appointed principal of Bede College , Durham , and Hugh was moved again , to be a day boy for four years at Durham School .", "He found that day boys were looked down on by <unk> , and that Bede College was the subject of <unk> within the university .", "His sense of isolation increased .", "He continually took refuge in the local library , where he read all the novels of Jane Austen , Henry Fielding , Scott and Dickens and many of the works of Trollope , <unk> Collins and Henry Kingsley .", "Walpole wrote in 1924 : \n I grew up ... <unk> , ugly , abnormally sensitive , and excessively <unk> .", "No one liked me – not masters , boys , friends of the family , nor relations who came to stay ; and I do not in the least wonder at it .", "I was untidy , <unk> , excessively <unk> .", "I believed that I was profoundly misunderstood , that people took my pale and <unk> countenance for the mirror of my soul , that I had marvellous things of interest in me that would one day be discovered .", "Though Walpole was no admirer of the schools he had attended there , the cathedral cities of Truro , Canterbury and Durham made a strong impression on him .", "He drew on aspects of them for his fictional cathedral city of <unk> in <unk> , the setting of many of his later books .", "Walpole 's memories of his time at Canterbury grew <unk> over the years ; it was the only school he mentioned in his Who 's Who entry , \n \n = = = Cambridge , Liverpool and teaching = = = \n \n From 1903 to 1906 Walpole studied history at Emmanuel College , Cambridge .", "While there he had his first work published , the critical essay \" Two <unk> Heroes \" , which was printed in the college magazine in autumn 1905 .", "As an undergraduate he met and fell under the spell of A C Benson , formerly a greatly loved master at Eton , and by this time a don at Magdalene College .", "Walpole 's religious beliefs , hitherto an <unk> part of his life , were fading , and Benson helped him through that personal crisis .", "Walpole was also attempting to cope with his homosexual feelings , which for a while focused on Benson , who recorded in his diary in 1906 an unexpected outburst by his young admirer : \" [ H ] e broke out rather eagerly into <unk> – He cared for me more than anyone in the world .", "I could not believe it ...", "It is extraordinarily touching .", "...", "It is quite right that he should believe all this <unk> ; it is quite right that I should know that it will not last ...", "I tried to say this as <unk> as I could ... \" \n Benson gently declined Walpole 's advances .", "They remained friends , but Walpole , rebuffed in his \" excessive desire to be loved \" , turned the full force of his <unk> elsewhere , and the relationship with Benson became less important to him .", "Less than two years later Benson 's diary entry on Walpole 's subsequent social career reveals his thoughts on his protégé 's progress : \n He seems to have conquered <unk> completely .", "He spends his Sundays in long walks with H G Wells .", "He <unk> every week with Max Beerbohm and R Ross ... and this has <unk> a not very clever young man of 23 .", "Am I a little jealous ?", "– no , I don 't think so .", "But I am a little <unk> ...", "I do not see any sign of intellectual power or perception or grasp or <unk> in his work or himself .", "...", "I should call him <unk> <unk> .", "He does not , for instance , see what may <unk> or hurt or annoy people .", "I think he is rather <unk> – though he is himself very sensitive .", "The strong points about him are his curiosity , his vitality , his <unk> , and the emotional fervour of his affections .", "But he seems to me in no way likely to be great as an artist .", "With Benson 's help , Walpole had come to terms with the loss of his faith .", "Somerset Walpole , himself the son of an Anglican priest , hoped that his eldest son would follow him into the ministry .", "Walpole was too concerned for his father 's feelings to tell him he was no longer a believer , and on graduation from Cambridge in 1906 he took a post as a lay <unk> at the <unk> Mission to Seamen in Liverpool .", "He described that as one of the \" greatest failures of my life ...", "The Mission to Seamen was , and is , a splendid institution ... but it needs men of a certain type to carry it through and I was not of that type . \"", "The head of the mission reprimanded him for lack of commitment to his work , and Walpole resigned after six months .", "From April to July 1907 Walpole was in Germany , <unk> the children of the popular author Elizabeth von <unk> .", "In 1908 he taught French at Epsom College .", "His brief experience of teaching is reflected in his third novel , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill .", "As well as the clerical forebears , Walpole had notable authors in his family tree : on his father 's side , Horace Walpole the novelist and letter writer , and on his mother 's Richard Harris <unk> , author of The <unk> Legends .", "It was as an author that Walpole felt <unk> to make his career .", "He moved to London and found work as a book reviewer for The Standard , writing fiction in his spare time .", "He had by this time recognised <unk> that he was homosexual .", "His encounters were necessarily discreet , as such activities were illegal in Britain , and remained so throughout his lifetime .", "He was constantly searching for \" the perfect friend \" ; an early candidate was the stage designer Percy Anderson , to whom he was intimately attached for some time from 1910 onwards .", "= = = Early literary career = = = \n \n A C Benson was a friend of Henry James , to whom Walpole wrote a fan letter late in 1908 , with Benson 's encouragement .", "A correspondence ensued and in February 1909 James invited Walpole to lunch at the Reform Club in London .", "They developed a close friendship , described by James 's biographer Leon <unk> as resembling a father and son relationship in some , but not all , respects .", "James was greatly taken with the young Walpole , though clear @-@ eyed about the deficiencies in the <unk> and craftsmanship of his protégé 's early efforts .", "According to Somerset Maugham , Walpole made a sexual proposition to James , who was too <unk> to respond .", "Nevertheless , in their correspondence the older man 's devotion was <unk> in extravagant terms .", "Walpole published his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 .", "It told of a <unk> and <unk> English family shaken up by the return of one of its members from a less <unk> life in New Zealand .", "The book received good reviews but barely repaid the cost of having it <unk> .", "His first commercial success was Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , published in 1911 .", "The novelist and biographer Michael Sadleir writes that though some of the six novels Walpole wrote between 1909 and 1914 are of interest as examples of the author 's developing style , it is Mr Perrin and Mr Traill that deserves to be remembered for its own sake .", "The book , <unk> \" a <unk> @-@ comedy \" , is a psychological study of a deadly clash between two <unk> , one an ageing failure and the other a young , attractive idealist .", "In the view of Hart @-@ Davis , Walpole only once recaptured \" the fresh , clear cut realism \" of this book , and Walpole himself , looking back on his work in the 1930s , felt that of all his books to date , it was the <unk> .", "The Observer gave the book a favourable review : \" The slow growth of the poison within [ Perrin ] is traced with wonderful skill and sympathy ... one feels throughout these pages a sense of intolerable tension , of impending disaster \" ; The Manchester Guardian was less enthusiastic , praising the scene @-@ setting but calling the story \" an <unk> melodrama \" .", "The San Francisco Chronicle praised its \" technical excellence , imagination and beauty – Walpole at his best . \"", "Arnold Bennett , a well @-@ established novelist seventeen years Walpole 's senior , admired the book , and befriended the young author , regularly <unk> , encouraging , sometimes mocking him into improving his prose , characters and narratives .", "The Guardian reviewer observed that the setting of Mr Perrin and Mr Traill – a second @-@ rate public school – was clearly drawn from life , as indeed it was .", "The boys of Epsom College were delighted with the thinly disguised version of their school , but the college authorities were not , and Walpole was persona non <unk> at Epsom for many years .", "This was of no practical consequence , as he had no intention of returning to the teaching profession , but it was an early illustration of his capacity , noted by Benson , for <unk> giving offence , though being <unk> to criticism himself .", "In early 1914 James wrote an article for The Times Literary Supplement surveying the younger generation of British novelists and comparing them with their eminent elder contemporaries .", "In the latter category James put Bennett , Joseph Conrad , John <unk> , Maurice <unk> and H G Wells .", "The four new authors on whom he focused were Walpole , Gilbert Cannan , Compton Mackenzie and D H Lawrence .", "It was a very lengthy article , to the extent that it had to be spread across two issues of the Supplement in March and April 1914 .", "James said that agreeing to write it had been \" an <unk> step \" , but from Walpole 's point of view it was highly satisfactory : one of the greatest living authors had publicly ranked him among the finest young British novelists .", "= = = First World War = = = \n \n As war approached , Walpole realised that his poor eyesight would <unk> him from serving in the armed forces .", "He volunteered to join the police , but was turned down ; he then accepted a <unk> appointment based in Moscow , reporting for The Saturday Review and The Daily Mail .", "He was allowed to visit the front in Poland , but his dispatches from Moscow ( and later from Petrograd , which he preferred ) were not enough to stop hostile comments at home that he was not doing his bit for the war effort .", "Henry James was so incensed at one such remark by a prominent London hostess that he stormed out of her house and wrote to Walpole suggesting that he should return to England .", "Walpole replied in great excitement that he had just been appointed as a Russian officer , in the Sanitar : \n The \" Sanitar \" is the part of the Red Cross that does the rough work at the front , carrying men out of the trenches , helping at the base hospitals in every sort of way , doing every kind of rough job .", "They are an absolutely official body and I shall be one of the few ( half @-@ dozen ) Englishmen in the world wearing Russian uniform .", "While in training for the Sanitar , Walpole devoted his leisure hours to gaining a reasonable fluency in the Russian language , and to his first full @-@ length work of non @-@ fiction , a literary biography of Joseph Conrad .", "In the summer of 1915 he worked on the Austrian @-@ Russian front , assisting at operations in field hospitals and <unk> the dead and wounded from the battlefield .", "Occasionally he found time to write brief letters home ; he told Bennett , \" A battle is an amazing mixture of hell and a family picnic – not as frightening as the dentist , but absorbing , sometimes thrilling like football , sometimes dull like church , and sometimes simply physically <unk> like bad fish .", "<unk> dead afterwards is worst of all . \"", "When <unk> he comforted himself with the thought , \" This is not so bad as it was at Marlow \" .", "During an engagement early in June 1915 Walpole single @-@ <unk> rescued a wounded soldier ; his Russian comrades refused to help and Walpole carried one end of a stretcher and dragged the man to safety .", "For this he was awarded the Cross of Saint George ; General <unk> presented him with the medal in August .", "After his tour of duty Walpole returned to Petrograd .", "Among the city 's attractions for him was the presence of <unk> <unk> , a painter with whom he had formed a close relationship .", "He remained there until October 1915 , when he returned to England .", "He visited his family , stayed with Percy Anderson in London , telephoned Henry James in Rye , and retreated to a cottage he had bought in Cornwall .", "In January 1916 he was asked by the Foreign Office to return to Petrograd .", "Russians were being subjected to highly effective German propaganda .", "The writer Arthur Ransome , Petrograd correspondent of The Daily News , had successfully lobbied for the establishment of a bureau to counter the German efforts , and the British ambassador , Sir George Buchanan , wanted Walpole to take charge .", "Before he left for Petrograd , Walpole 's novel The Dark Forest was published .", "It drew on his experiences in Russia , and was more <unk> than much of his earlier fiction .", "Reviews were highly favourable ; The Daily Telegraph commented on \" a high level of imaginative vision ... reveals capacity and powers in the author which we had hardly suspected before . \"", "Walpole returned to Petrograd in February 1916 .", "He moved into <unk> 's flat , and his Anglo @-@ Russian Propaganda Bureau began work .", "The following month he suffered a personal blow : he recorded in his diary for 13 March 1916 , \" Thirty two to @-@ day !", "Should have been a happy day but was completely <unk> for me by reading in the papers of Henry James ' death .", "This was a terrible shock to me . \"", "Walpole remained at the bureau for the rest of 1916 and most of 1917 , witnessing the February Revolution .", "He wrote an official report on events for the Foreign Office , and also absorbed ideas for his fiction .", "In addition to the first of his popular \" Jeremy \" novels , written in his spare time from the bureau , he began work on the second of his Russian @-@ themed books , The Secret City .", "Sadleir writes that this novel and The Dark Forest \" take a high place among his works , on account of their intuitive understanding of an alien mentality and the <unk> of their narrative power . \"", "The book won the inaugural James <unk> Black Memorial Prize for fiction .", "By late 1917 it was clear to Walpole and to the British authorities that there was little advantage in keeping him in Russia .", "On 7 November he left , missing the <unk> Revolution , which began on that day .", "He was appointed to a post at the Foreign Office in its Department of Information , headed by John Buchan .", "Soon after returning he volunteered for the British army , but , as expected , failed the necessary medical examination because of his poor sight .", "He continued to work in British propaganda when the department was reconstituted under Lord <unk> in April 1918 , and remained there for the rest of the war and beyond , resigning in February 1919 .", "Little is known about what he wrote for the department , as most of its records were destroyed after the war , but he noted in his diary that he had written the department 's official report to the War Cabinet : \" a <unk> job – the worst I 've ever attempted \" .", "For his wartime work he was awarded the CBE in 1918 .", "= = = Post @-@ war and 1920s = = = \n \n Walpole remained prolific in the post @-@ war years , and began a parallel and highly <unk> career as a lecturer in literature .", "At the instigation of his American publisher , George Doran , he made his first lecture tour of the US in 1919 , receiving an enthusiastic welcome wherever he went .", "What Sadleir describes as Walpole 's \" <unk> and attractive appearance , his complete lack of <unk> , his exciting fluency as a speaker [ and ] his obvious and genuine liking for his hosts \" combined to win him a large American following .", "The success of his talks led to increases in his lecturing fees , greatly enhanced sales of his books , and large sums from American publishers anxious to print his latest fiction .", "He was a <unk> quick writer who seldom revised , but pressed on , keen to get his ideas down on paper .", "His main British publishers , Macmillan , found it <unk> to appoint a senior member of staff to edit his manuscripts , <unk> spelling , punctuation , inconsistencies and errors of historical fact .", "His fluency enabled him to fulfil between tours a contract from The <unk> Review for ten short stories at the remarkable sum of $ 1 @,@ 350 apiece .", "One of Walpole 's major novels of the early post @-@ war period was The Cathedral , which unlike much of his fiction was not <unk> off but worked on across four years , beginning in 1918 .", "The story of an arrogant 19th @-@ century archdeacon in conflict with other clergy and laity was certain to bring comparisons with Trollope 's <unk> Towers ( The Manchester Guardian 's review was headed \" <unk> Towers \" ) , but unlike the earlier work , The Cathedral is wholly <unk> .", "The <unk> Archdeacon Brandon is driven to domestic despair , professional defeat and sudden death .", "The reviewer Ivor Brown commented that Walpole had earlier charmed many with his cheerful tales of Mayfair , but that in this novel he showed a greater side to his art : \" This is a book with little happiness about it , but its stark strength is undeniable .", "The Cathedral is realism , profound in its philosophy and delicate in its thread . \"", "The Illustrated London News said , \" No former novelist has seized quite so powerfully upon the cathedral fabric and made it a living character in the drama , an <unk> individuality at once benign and <unk> .", "...", "The Cathedral is a great book . \"", "Walpole was a keen music lover and when in 1920 he heard a new tenor at the <unk> he was much impressed and sought him out .", "<unk> Melchior became one of the most important friendships of his life , and Walpole did much to foster the singer 's budding career .", "Wagner 's son Siegfried engaged Melchior for the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 and succeeding years .", "Walpole attended , and met Adolf Hitler , then recently released from prison after an attempted putsch .", "Hitler was a protégé of Siegfried 's wife <unk> , and was known in Bayreuth as \" one of <unk> 's lame ducks . \"", "Walpole later admitted that he had both despised and liked him – \" both emotions that time has proved I was wrong to indulge \" .", "This and future visits to Bayreuth were complicated by the fact that <unk> Wagner fell in love with Walpole , and attached herself so firmly to him that rumours began to spread .", "In 1924 Walpole moved into a house near Keswick in the Lake District .", "His large income enabled him to maintain his London flat in Piccadilly , but Brackenburn , on the slopes of <unk> overlooking <unk> , was his main home for the rest of his life .", "He was quickly made welcome by local residents , and the scenery and atmosphere of the Lake District often found their way into his fiction .", "The critic James Agate commented that one might think from some of Walpole 's stories that their author had created the English Lakes , but that he was probably only consulted about them .", "At the end of 1924 Walpole met Harold Cheevers , who soon became his friend and companion and remained so for the rest of Walpole 's life .", "In Hart @-@ Davis 's words , he came nearer than any other human being to Walpole 's long @-@ sought conception of a perfect friend .", "Cheevers , a policeman , with a wife and two children , left the police force and entered Walpole 's service as his <unk> .", "Walpole trusted him completely , and gave him extensive control over his affairs .", "Whether Walpole was at Brackenburn or Piccadilly , Cheevers was almost always with him , and often accompanied him on overseas trips .", "Walpole provided a house in Hampstead for Cheevers and his family .", "During the mid @-@ twenties Walpole produced two of his best @-@ known novels in the <unk> vein that he drew on from time to time , exploring the fascination of fear and cruelty .", "The Old Ladies ( 1924 ) is a study of a timid elderly spinster exploited and eventually frightened to death by a predatory widow .", "Portrait of a Man with Red Hair ( 1925 ) depicts the <unk> influence of a <unk> , insane father on his family and others .", "Walpole described it to his fellow author Frank <unk> as \" a simple <unk> which it has <unk> me like anything to write , and won 't bore you to read . \"", "In contrast he continued a series of stories for children , begun in 1919 with Jeremy , taking the young hero 's story forward with Jeremy and Hamlet ( the latter being the boy 's dog ) in 1923 , and Jeremy at <unk> in 1927 .", "Sadleir , writing in the 1950s , suggests that \" the most real Walpole of all – because the most <unk> , kindly , and understanding friend – is the Walpole of the Jeremy trilogy . \"", "Of his other novels of the 1920s <unk> ( 1928 ) , his first attempt at a full @-@ length love story , portrays a clash between <unk> and <unk> : his own sympathies , though not spelled out , were clearly with the <unk> .", "= = = 1930 – 41 = = = \n \n By the 1930s , though his public success remained considerable , many literary critics saw Walpole as outdated .", "His reputation in literary circles took a blow from a malicious caricature in Somerset Maugham 's 1930 novel <unk> and <unk> : the character <unk> <unk> , a superficial novelist of more <unk> ambition than literary talent , was widely taken to be based on Walpole .", "In the same year Walpole wrote possibly his best @-@ known work , Rogue Herries , a historical novel set in the Lake District .", "It was well @-@ received : The Daily Mail considered it \" not only a profound study of human character , but a subtle and intimate biography of a place . \"", "He followed it with three sequels ; all four novels were published in a single volume as The Herries Chronicle .", "In 1934 Walpole accepted an invitation from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studios to go to Hollywood to write the scenario for a film adaptation of David Copperfield .", "He enjoyed many aspects of life in Hollywood , but as one who rarely revised any of his own work he found it tedious to produce sixth and seventh drafts at the behest of the studio .", "He enjoyed his brief change of role from writer to bit @-@ part player : in the film he played the <unk> of <unk> delivering a boring sermon that sends David to sleep .", "Agate was doubtful of the wisdom of this : \" Does not Hugh see that to bring a well @-@ known character from real life into an imaginary sequence of events is to destroy the reality of that imaginary sequence ? \"", "Nevertheless , Walpole 's performance was a success .", "He improvised the sermon ; the producer , David O <unk> , <unk> called for retake after retake to try to make him dry up , but Walpole <unk> delivered a different <unk> address each time .", "The critical and commercial success of the film of David Copperfield led to an invitation to return to Hollywood in 1936 .", "When he got there he found that the studio executives had no idea which films they wanted him to work on , and he had eight weeks of highly paid leisure , during which he wrote a short story and worked on a novel .", "He was eventually asked to write the scenario for Little Lord <unk> , which he enjoyed doing .", "He spent most of his fees on paintings , forgetting to keep enough money to pay US tax on his earnings .", "He <unk> his American funds with a lecture tour – his last – in late 1936 .", "In 1937 Walpole was offered a knighthood .", "He accepted , though <unk> to his diary that he could not think of a good novelist since Walter Scott who had done so . \"", "Kipling , Hardy , <unk> all refused .", "But I 'm not of their class , and range with Doyle , Anthony Hope and such .", "...", "Besides I shall like being a knight . \"", "Walpole 's taste for adventure did not <unk> in his last years .", "In 1939 he was commissioned to report for William Randolph <unk> 's newspapers on the funeral in Rome of Pope Pius XI , the conclave to elect his successor , and the subsequent coronation .", "A fellow correspondent was Tom <unk> , whose memoirs tell of a lunch à <unk> at which Walpole arrived flushed with excitement from a sexual encounter that morning with an attendant in the <unk> Palace .", "In the weeks between the funeral and Pius XII 's election Walpole , with his customary fluency , wrote much of his book Roman Fountain , a mixture of fact and fiction about the city .", "This was his last overseas visit .", "After the outbreak of the Second World War Walpole remained in England , dividing his time between London and Keswick , and continuing to write with his usual <unk> .", "He completed a fifth novel in the Herries series and began work on a sixth .", "His health was undermined by diabetes .", "He <unk> himself at the opening of Keswick 's fund @-@ raising \" War Weapons Week \" in May 1941 , making a speech after taking part in a lengthy march , and died of a heart attack at Brackenburn , aged 57 .", "He is buried in St John 's churchyard in Keswick .", "= = = Legacy = = = \n \n Walpole was a keen and discerning collector of art .", "Sir Kenneth Clark called him \" one of the three or four real patrons of art in this country , and of that small body he was perhaps the most generous and the most <unk> . \"", "He left fourteen works to the Tate Gallery and <unk> Museum , including paintings by <unk> , <unk> , Augustus John , <unk> and <unk> .", "Other artists represented in Walpole 's collection were Epstein , Picasso , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> .", "After his death the finest works in his collection , other than those bequeathed , were exhibited in London during April and May 1945 ; the exhibition also included works by Constable , Turner and <unk> .", "Sadleir notes how Walpole 's considerable income enabled him to indulge not only his love of art and of old books and manuscripts , but also <unk> , particularly towards younger writers .", "Although Walpole enjoyed the <unk> , he was secretive about his many acts of generosity to younger writers , with both encouragement and financial help .", "After his death some idea of the scale of his generosity was discovered .", "<unk> <unk> commented , \" I don 't think there was any younger writer of any worth who has not at one time or another received kindness of an active kind , and at a crucial moment , from Hugh \" .", "Hart @-@ Davis lists thirty @-@ eight authors from whom letters of gratitude were found among Walpole 's correspondence ; Sadleir writes of Walpole 's \" generous kindness to literary <unk> and to writers fallen on evil days ... by immediate financial assistance , by <unk> freely supplied or by collaboration volunteered , by introductions and recommendations to likely publishers , Walpole relieved the <unk> of authorship to a degree which will never be fully known . \"", "Agate , though himself the recipient of Walpole 's generosity on occasion , thought it sometimes went too far : \" Mr Walpole 's large @-@ <unk> gets him into all kinds of trouble .", "He is an <unk> patter .", "He <unk> on the back young men whom <unk> critics would knock down , because even in fantastic incompetence he perceives the good intention .", "No art or artist is safe from Mr Walpole 's <unk> \" .", "In his adopted home of Keswick a section of the town museum was dedicated to Walpole 's memory in 1949 , with manuscripts , correspondence , paintings and sculpture from Brackenburn , donated by his sister and brother .", "= = Works = = \n \n Walpole 's books cover a wide range .", "His fiction includes short stories , <unk> ( Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , 1911 , and the Jeremy trilogy ) that <unk> into the psychology of <unk> ; gothic horror novels ( Portrait of a Man with Red Hair , 1925 , and The Killer and The <unk> , 1942 ) ; a period family saga ( the Herries chronicle ) and even detective fiction ( Behind the Screen ) .", "He wrote literary biographies ( Conrad , 1916 ; James Branch <unk> , 1920 ; and Trollope , 1928 ) ; plays ; and screenplays including David Copperfield , 1935 .", "= = = Influences = = = \n \n Walpole 's debt to Henry James is discernible in The Duchess of <unk> ( 1914 ) and The Green Mirror ( 1917 ) , but in the view of J B Priestley the two most potent influences on Walpole were the highly contrasting ones of Trollope and <unk> .", "Other critics noted the <unk> influence ; in 1923 Arthur St John <unk> commented : \n The <unk> [ in The Green Mirror ] are a kind of family Trollope might have created had he been living now ; The Cathedral is a kind of story he might have told , with its realistic melodrama and its clerical atmosphere , but Walpole tells it with a <unk> art in the writing and the construction , with a <unk> and charm of style that are outside the range of the earlier novelist .", "Walpole , though he was devoted to the works of Trollope , and published a study of him , thought that there was no real comparison between the two of them : \" I am far too twisted and fantastic a novelist ever to succeed in catching Trollope 's marvellous <unk> . \"", "Priestley was less impressed by the supposed <unk> side of Walpole 's work , finding some of it formulaic .", "He was more taken with a darker , <unk> , side that he found in the writing : \" suddenly it will transform the pleasant easy scene he is giving us into transparency behind which are bright stars and red <unk> ... No matter how <unk> and <unk> he may appear to be , the fact remains that he possesses an unusually sharp sense of evil . \"", "<unk> the most pervasive influence on Walpole was Walter Scott , whose <unk> is reflected in much of the later writer 's fiction .", "Such was Walpole 's love of Scott that he liked to think of himself as the latter 's reincarnation .", "He amassed the largest collection in Britain of Scott manuscripts and early editions , and constantly <unk> the novels .", "With the Herries stories Walpole restored the popularity of the historical novel , a form for which Scott was famous but which had been out of fashion for decades .", "The Herries series begins in the 18th century and follows a <unk> family through the generations up to modern times .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Walpole sought critical as well as financial success , and <unk> to write works that equalled those of Trollope , Thomas Hardy and Henry James .", "In his early days , he received frequent and generally <unk> scrutiny from major literary figures .", "He was a good friend of Virginia Woolf , and rated her as an influence ; she praised his gift for seizing on telling detail : \" it is no <unk> to a writer to say that his gift is for the small things rather than for the large ...", "If you are faithful with the details the large effects will grow inevitably out of those very details \" .", "Joseph Conrad said of him , \" We see Mr. Walpole grappling with the truth of things spiritual and material with his characteristic earnestness , and we can <unk> the characteristics of this acute and sympathetic explorer of human nature . \"", "In 1928 Priestley observed , \n When I first remember seeing Hugh Walpole 's name he had no public at all , but the ferocious young reviewers – the \" <unk> \" as we have since learned to call them – delighted in him .", "Now he has an enormous public , both in England and America , and the young \" <unk> \" – who are <unk> by the thought of a large public – are not particularly fond of him .", "Priestley contended that Walpole had fulfilled his early potential , unlike Compton Mackenzie , Gilbert Cannan and other promising young novelists of his generation .", "This view was not universal among critics : Walpole sometimes divided opinion .", "Writing of Walpole 's Russian novels the contemporary critic and novelist Douglas <unk> commented , \" Russia has been the grave of many <unk> ; and our Napoleon of the drawing @-@ room novel has fared no better than other would @-@ be <unk> of that disconcerting land . \"", "<unk> 's complaint was that Walpole 's Russian ( and English ) characters were clichéd stereotypes .", "The reviewer in Punch , by contrast , wrote , \" I consulted a Russian , who is very much alive , and received the opinion that , if Mr. Walpole has not succeeded in drawing the real average Russian , he has given us a type whose faults and virtues sound the <unk> of the situation as it is to @-@ day . \"", "The Observer rated The Dark Forest as \" one of the finest novels of our generation \" .", "In 1924 Ernest <unk> wrote into a short story a comparison of G K <unk> and Walpole , concluding that the former was the better man , the latter a better writer and both were classics .", "Walpole could be sensitive about his literary reputation and often took adverse criticism badly .", "When <unk> <unk> praised P G Wodehouse as the best English writer of their day , Walpole took it <unk> , to the amusement of Wodehouse who regarded <unk> 's <unk> as \" a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked \" .", "Wodehouse was not a great admirer of Walpole ; his own <unk> craftsmanship , with drafts polished over and over again , was the opposite of Walpole 's hastily written and seldom @-@ revised prose .", "He also viewed Walpole 's sensitivity to criticism as absurd .", "Walpole was not always as <unk> as Wodehouse supposed .", "The critic James Agate was a friend despite his regular rude remarks about Walpole 's prose , and when Walpole discovered that Agate had written a spoof of the Herries \" <unk> \" style , he made him promise to print it in the next published volume of his diaries .", "During his career contemporaries saw both negative and positive sides to Walpole 's outgoing nature and desire to be in the public eye .", "Wodehouse commented , \" I always think Hugh Walpole 's reputation was two thirds publicity .", "He was always <unk> books and speaking at <unk> and so on . \"", "On the other hand , Walpole stood out as one of the few literary figures willing to go into court and give evidence for the defence at the <unk> trial after the novel The Well of <unk> was published .", "By the time of his death The Times 's <unk> of Walpole was no higher than , \" he had a versatile imagination ; he could tell a <unk> story in good <unk> English ; and he was a man of immense industry , conscientious and <unk> \" .", "The <unk> tone of the obituary brought forth strong <unk> from T S Eliot , Kenneth Clark and Priestley , among others .", "Within a few years of his death , Walpole was seen as old @-@ fashioned , and his works were largely neglected .", "In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Elizabeth Steele summed up : \" His psychology was not deep enough for the <unk> , his diction not free enough for those returning from war , and his <unk> disastrous to a public wary of personal commitment \" .", "In 2011 , Peter <unk> , an admirer of Walpole , though not an <unk> one , wrote : \n Henry James and John Buchan praised him .", "Joseph Conrad , T S Eliot and Virginia Woolf were kind about him .", "What 's more , his books sold enormously well on both sides of the Atlantic , he was knighted , and he became very rich ...", "Yet now he has vanished completely , his books not even to be found on the back shelves of most second hand shops , dismissed as \" <unk> \" .", "Walpole 's works have not been completely neglected in recent years .", "The Herries stories have seldom been out of print , and in 2014 <unk> listed a dozen recent <unk> of Walpole 's works , including The Wooden Horse , The Dark Forest , The Secret City , Jeremy , and The Cathedral .", "In 2011 the BBC broadcast a <unk> of Walpole , The Walpole Chronicle , presented by Eric Robson .", "In 2013 a new stage version of Rogue Herries was presented by the Theatre by the Lake company in Walpole 's adopted home of Keswick .", "The BBC speculated that this could mark a revival in interest in his works .", "= = = Biographies = = = \n \n Two full @-@ length studies of Walpole were published after his death .", "The first , in 1952 , was written by Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , who had known Walpole personally .", "It was regarded at the time as \" among the half dozen best biographies of the century \" and has been reissued several times since its first publication .", "Writing when homosexuality was still outlawed in England , Hart @-@ Davis avoided direct mention of his subject 's sexuality , so <unk> Walpole 's <unk> discretion and the wishes of his brother and sister .", "He left readers to read between the lines if they wished , in , for example , references to Turkish <unk> \" providing informal opportunities of meeting interesting strangers \" .", "Hart @-@ Davis dedicated the book to \" Dorothy , Robin and Harold \" , Walpole 's sister , brother , and long @-@ term companion .", "In 1972 Elizabeth Steele 's study of Walpole was published .", "Much shorter than Hart @-@ Davis 's biography , at 178 pages to his <unk> , it dealt mainly with the novels , and aimed \" to show the sources of Hugh Walpole 's success as a writer during the thirty @-@ five years and fifty books of his busy career \" .", "Steele concentrated on half a dozen of Walpole 's best books , each illustrating aspects of his writing , under the <unk> \" <unk> \" , \" Artist \" , \" Witness \" , \" Evangelist \" , \" Critic \" and \" <unk> \" .", "Steele also wrote a study of Walpole 's North American lecture tours ( 2006 ) and the article on Walpole in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( 2004 ) , which treats his private life briefly but <unk> ." ]

[ " = Domnall mac Murchada = \n \n Domnall mac Murchada ( died 1075 ) , also known as Domnall mac Murchada meic Diarmata , was a leading late eleventh @-@ century claimant to the Kingdom of Leinster , and a King of Dublin .", "As a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles , Domnall was a grandson of Diarmait mac <unk> na mBó , King of Leinster , and thus a member of the Uí Chennselaig .", "Domnall was also the first of the <unk> Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father .", "In <unk> , the year before his grandfather 's death , Domnall and an Uí Chennselaig kinsman , Donnchad mac <unk> <unk> , battled for control of Leinster .", "Although Domnall is accorded the title King of Leinster in one mediaeval king @-@ list , Donnchad was evidently a more powerful claimant , and Domnall appears to have held the Leinster kingship in name only .", "Domnall 's rise to power in the Kingdom of Dublin took place in 1075 , after the expulsion of the reigning Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill , King of Dublin by the latter 's overlord , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster .", "The circumstances surrounding Domnall 's accession are uncertain .", "He may have collaborated with Gofraid to <unk> the kingdom from the grip of the Uí Briain , or he may have been installed in the kingship by Toirdelbach himself , and ruled under the latter 's <unk> .", "Whatever the case , Domnall died within the year , and Toirdelbach placed his own son , <unk> , upon the throne .", "= = Background = = \n \n Domnall was a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1070 ) , who was himself a son of Diarmait mac <unk> na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) .", "Domnall was , therefore , a member of the Uí Chennselaig ; as well as the first of the <unk> Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father .", "Domnall had two brothers : Donnchad ( died 1115 ) , a later King of Leinster , and <unk> .", "In 1052 , Domnall 's aforesaid grandfather conquered the Kingdom of Dublin from Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , and soon after appointed Murchad as King of Dublin .", "About a decade later , Murchad appears to have driven Echmarcach from Mann , after which he gained the kingship of the Isles .", "Diarmait 's deep @-@ rooted authority in Norse @-@ Gaelic Dublin lasted for two decades , and was a remarkable achievement that no other Irish king had ever accomplished .", "Unfortunately for the Uí Chennselaig , two of Diarmait 's sons — Murchad and <unk> <unk> — unexpectedly <unk> their father in 1070 , and Diarmait himself fell in battle two years later .", "= = <unk> of Leinster = = \n \n Even before Diarmait 's demise , the Uí Chennselaig began to fight amongst themselves in a struggle that was almost certainly an after @-@ effect of Diarmait 's sons ' untimely deaths .", "Specifically , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that Domnall battled against the forces of his own first cousin once removed , Donnchad mac <unk> <unk> ( died <unk> ) , before Diarmait 's ally , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster ( died 1086 ) , was able to intervene and restore order in the Kingdom of Leinster .", "Up until about the time of his death , Diarmait had been the most powerful king in southern Ireland .", "In consequence of the void left by his demise , Diarmait 's <unk> ally Toirdelbach seized the initiative , and moved to enforce his own claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland .", "He immediately imposed his <unk> on Leinster — a task almost certainly expedited by the aforesaid infighting amongst the Uí Chennselaig — and took control of Dublin .", "Whilst the imposition of authority upon rival provincial kingdoms was a fundamental part in gaining the high @-@ kingship , Toirdelbach 's decision to march @-@ on Dublin reveals that the acquisition of this coastal kingdom had also become an essential part of the process .", "Toirdelbach 's subsequent capture of Donnchad in Dublin suggests that the latter was not only the leading Uí Chennselaig <unk> , but was also in the process of using the town as the capital of Leinster .", "Although the list of Leinster kings in the Book of Leinster declares that Domnall had succeeded his grandfather as King of Leinster , it is apparent that Donnchad was indeed the more powerful claimant .", "In fact , the king @-@ list of Uí Chennselaig in the same source makes no notice of Domnall , and states that it was Donnchad who succeeded Diarmait as King of Uí Chennselaig .", "Domnall , therefore , may not have reigned in Leinster , and could well have been King of Leinster in name only .", "If the Annals of Inisfallen is to be believed , Toirdelbach acquired possession of Dublin when the Dubliners themselves offered him its kingship .", "Although this record may be mere Uí Briain propaganda , it could instead reveal that the Dubliners preferred a distant overlord from Munster rather than one from neighbouring Leinster .", "Within the year , the kingship was held by Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill ( died 1075 ) .", "The latter appears to have been a kinsman of Echmarcach , and may well have been handed the kinship by Toirdelbach , perhaps on account of the considerable distance between the kingdoms .", "= = <unk> of Dublin = = \n \n In 1075 , Toirdelbach drove Gofraid from the kingship and Ireland itself .", "There is uncertainty concerning the circumstances of Gofraid 's expulsion , and of Domnall 's accession .", "On one hand , it is possible that Gofraid was involved in lending assistance to Anglo @-@ Danish resistance against the Norman regime in the recently conquered Kingdom of England .", "If correct , Gofraid would appear to have been at odds with Toirdelbach , a monarch who appears to have cultivated close links with the Norman regime .", "Domnall , therefore , may have had Toirdelbach 's consent to rule in Dublin as Gofraid 's replacement .", "In fact , Toirdelbach 's placement of Domnall in Dublin , and his allowance of the latter 's aforesaid cousin in Leinster , may have been a way in which the Uí Briain exploited the fractured Uí Chennselaig .", "Certainly , Domnall 's cooperation would have been a valuable asset to Toirdelbach , considering the prominence of his father amongst the Dubliners , and the likelihood that Domnall himself may have lived most of his life there .", "On the other hand , it is possible that Gofraid was driven from the kingship because he had aligned himself with the <unk> against the Uí Briain .", "If such a sequence of events is correct it could mean that , even though Gofraid was unable continue on with the revolt , it was his Uí Chennselaig <unk> who succeeded in securing Dublin from the Uí Briain .", "Whatever the circumstances of Domnall 's accession , the Uí Chennselaig regime in Dublin was short @-@ lived .", "The Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Ulster , all reveal that , within the year , Domnall died after a brief illness , with the latter two sources <unk> that he succumbed after three nights of sickness .", "The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of Ulster accord him the title King of Dublin , and make no mention of any connection with the Leinster kingship .", "Upon Domnall 's demise , Toirdelbach had his own son , <unk> ( died 1119 ) , appointed King of Dublin .", "In so doing , Toirdelbach reinforced his authority in Dublin , and followed a precedent started by Domnall 's grandfather , in which a claimant to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland installed his own heir to the kingship of Dublin .", "= = Ancestry = =" ]

[ " = Irresistible ( The X @-@ Files ) = \n \n \" Irresistible \" is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files .", "It premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 .", "The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by David Nutter , and featured the first of two guest appearances by Nick Chinlund as the death fetishist killer Donnie Pfaster .", "The episode is a \" Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week \" story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology .", "The episode was viewed by 8 @.", "@ 8 million people upon its first broadcast , and received positive reviews , with much praise to Chinlund 's performance as the antagonist .", "The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files .", "In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a death fetishist who begins kidnapping and killing women to satisfy his obsession .", "Scully , still recovering from her earlier abduction , is soon overcome with <unk> stress disorder . \n \"", "Irresistible \" is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it .", "Initially , the script called for Donnie Pfaster to be a necrophiliac , but the idea was soon rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being \" unacceptable for broadcast standards \" .", "Pfaster was eventually brought back in the season seven episode \" <unk> \" .", "= = Plot = = \n \n In Minneapolis , a funeral is held for a young girl ( Megan <unk> ) .", "The ceremony is observed by Donnie Pfaster , the eerie assistant director for the funeral home .", "Later that night , as the girl 's body is being stored for burial the following day , Pfaster 's boss finds him cutting off the corpse 's hair .", "Pfaster is promptly fired .", "Some time later , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are summoned to Minneapolis by Moe Bocks , an FBI field agent who is investigating the <unk> and <unk> of a body in a local cemetery .", "Mulder <unk> Bocks ' theory that this act is a variation of extraterrestrial cattle mutilation , and suggests they search for a human <unk> .", "Scully is disturbed at the sight of the <unk> corpse .", "Two more bodies are found exhumed , with their hair cut and <unk> removed .", "Mulder develops a psychological profile of the criminal , believing him to be an escalating \" death fetishist \" who may resort to murder to satisfy his desires .", "Scully keeps her discomfort with the case to herself , and writes up a field report on necrophilia .", "Pfaster , who was behind the <unk> , proves Mulder 's prediction correct when he brings a prostitute to his apartment .", "When the prostitute discovers a collection of funerary <unk> in Pfaster 's bedroom , he kills her and removes her fingers .", "Later , Pfaster — having been hired as a frozen food delivery man through charming the female interviewer — delivers to a low @-@ security house of a woman with teenage daughters .", "He requests the bathroom to wash his hands , and whilst there steals some discarded hair from a brush he found in the <unk> .", "Pfaster attends a night class at a community college , where a female classmate defends herself after he makes threatening advances .", "He is arrested and is placed in a jail cell across from a suspect being interrogated for Pfaster 's crimes by Mulder , Scully , and Bocks .", "Pfaster shows interest in Scully , and learns her name from the interrogated suspect .", "Pfaster is later released as his charges were dropped .", "Scully is deeply troubled by Pfaster 's crimes , and has unsettling dreams and hallucinations about the case .", "In Washington , she has a counseling session with a social worker , during which she shares her anxiety about the investigation .", "After the session , Scully learns that someone from Minnesota had called for her .", "When she contacts Mulder , she learns that neither he nor Bocks made the call .", "<unk> a <unk> to Pfaster from his arrest , Bocks and Mulder raid his apartment , finding one of the prostitute 's fingers in his <unk> .", "Meanwhile , after Scully arrives in Minneapolis , Pfaster forces her car off the road .", "He kidnaps Scully and takes her to his late mother 's abandoned house .", "He ties and gags Scully , and keeps her in a dark <unk> .", "Mulder and Bocks discover that Pfaster 's mother had owned a car which matches paint found on Scully 's abandoned car , tracking down her former residence .", "Meanwhile , Scully escapes from Pfaster as he prepares a cold bath for her , resulting in a pursuit through the house .", "Scully and Pfaster have a struggle that sends them falling down a staircase onto the <unk> , where a task force led by Mulder and Bocks breaks in moments later and apprehends Pfaster .", "Scully initially insists that she is okay , but then breaks down and cries in Mulder 's arms .", "In a voice @-@ over narration , Mulder traces Pfaster 's pathology to his childhood , when he was raised in a family of four older sisters .", "Mulder also reflects on Pfaster 's nature and the nature of evil in general .", "= = Production = = \n \n The episode 's initial script where Pfaster was a necrophiliac was rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being \" unacceptable for broadcast standards \" .", "As series creator Chris Carter described it , \" When I handed the script in , it was really for a necrophiliac episode , and that just didn 't fly .", "You cannot do the combination of sex and death on network television . \"", "Carter was forced to tone down the script by changing Pfaster from a necrophiliac to a death fetishist and diminishing Pfaster 's sexual obsession .", "He considered that the sexual content was \" implied and understood by audiences \" , and that Pfaster still resulted in a creepy character , particularly his \" creepy arrogance \" in using <unk> on the hair of his victims .", "The episode 's original title was \" <unk> \" .", "The episode is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it .", "Carter said of the episode 's conception , \" My first chance to work with David Nutter in a long time , and I wanted to give him something he could sink his teeth into .", "It 's a little bit different for us .", "It doesn 't really have a paranormal aspect , except for Scully 's perceptions of her deepest fears .", "I felt that I had to figure out what she is most afraid of , and she is most afraid of those things that most of us are afraid of .", "The idea of dying at the hands of someone — creature or not — and she is helpless to do anything about it .", "I thought it was a very good way to explore Scully 's character . \"", "The scene where Dana Scully imagines Pfaster appearing as a devil was influenced by real @-@ life accounts , as described by Carter : \" There are reports of people who had been under the spell of Jeffrey <unk> , who actually claimed that he shape @-@ shifted during those hours when they were held hostage ; that his image actually changed . \"", "Nutter said \" In many ways , Chris wanted to sell the idea that , as established in Mulder 's closing dialogue in the show , not all terror comes from the paranormal .", "It could come from the person next door . \"", "Carter said of the casting of Nick Chinlund as Pfaster , \" I thought it was a wonderfully creepy villain .", "The casting of that show was very difficult .", "We saw many actors , but there was a quality I was looking for and I couldn 't put a name on that quality .", "I finally figured out what it was when Nick came in and he had a kind of <unk> quality that worked .", "I thought he looked like Joe College , but he could scare the hell out of you . \"", "Producer Glen Morgan said Chinlund 's performance was outstanding .", "Nutter stated \" Nick Chinlund was wonderful to work with .", "The guy was like <unk> in my hands .", "He was great .", "If you 're looking for someone to underline the <unk> and <unk> of the character , he did that . \"", "Nutter said of the episode \" I really worked hard to make it a special show , because I thought it was special .", "It was Gillian 's post @-@ traumatic stress episode , because she had not really had the opportunity to vent her feelings about the whole <unk> Barry situation .", "This was an opportunity to sit back and let all that happen . \"", "Carter particularly liked the scene where a clearly disturbed Scully hugs Mulder , claiming it was a \" tender moment \" between two characters that had not shown that much affection for each other .", "= = Reception = = \n \n \n = = = Ratings = = = \n \n \" Irresistible \" premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 .", "This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.", "@ 2 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.", "@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode .", "It was viewed by 8 @.", "@ 8 million households .", "= = = Reviews = = = \n \n \" Irresistible \" received largely positive reviews from critics .", "Entertainment Weekly rated \" Irresistible \" a B + , saying it was based on \" an unsettling concept to begin with \" that was reinforced by \" Chinlund 's skin @-@ <unk> one @-@ man show \" .", "Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V.", "Club rated the episode A , praising the acting , particularly of Chinlund as Pfaster , and describing it as \" legitimately scary , a sign of a show that was pushing itself in new and interesting directions \" .", "The only criticism was for the scenes where Scully <unk> Pfaster <unk> as \" pretty silly , almost feeling like an attempt to make sure something vaguely paranormal is in the episode so the fans don 't get bored with what is ultimately a very good episode \" .", "Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + grade .", "Writing for Den of Geek , Nina <unk> ranked \" Irresistible \" the sixth best X @-@ Files episode , saying that \" excluding <unk> and his <unk> , Pfaster has got to be the most disturbing villain that our favorite agents have encountered \" .", "Den of Geek writer <unk> <unk> named it the \" finest \" stand @-@ alone episode of the second season , describing it as \" a genuinely creepy 45 @-@ minute horror movie \" .", "Connie <unk> of <unk> listed Pfaster among the best monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters of the series , and IGN 's Christine <unk> ranked Chinlund the seventh best guest star in the history of the show , considering that \" what makes him all the more frightening is how downright passive and polite he is up until the moment he 's going to kill ; the perfect camouflage for a modern @-@ day monster . \"", "TV Guide listed Pfaster among the <unk> X @-@ Files monsters describing him as \" evil <unk> \" .", "Chris Carter said \" Irresistible \" was effective for \" being really scary \" , and that not only it was one of his favorites but inspired him to create the television series Millennium later ." ]

[ " = Thunderbirds ( TV series ) = \n \n Thunderbirds is a British science @-@ fiction television series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , filmed by their production company AP Films ( APF ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment .", "It was produced between 1964 and 1966 using a form of electronic <unk> <unk> ( dubbed \" Supermarionation \" ) combined with scale model special effects sequences .", "Two series were filmed , comprising a total of 32 episodes .", "Production ceased after Lew Grade , the Andersons ' financial <unk> , failed in his efforts to sell the programme to American network television .", "Set in the mid @-@ <unk> , Thunderbirds is a follow @-@ up to the earlier Supermarionation productions Four Feather Falls , Supercar , <unk> <unk> and Stingray .", "It follows the exploits of International Rescue ( IR ) , a life @-@ saving organisation equipped with technologically @-@ advanced land , sea , air and space rescue craft ; these are headed by a fleet of five vehicles named the Thunderbirds and launched from IR 's secret base in the Pacific Ocean .", "The main characters are ex @-@ astronaut Jeff Tracy , the founder of IR , and his five adult sons , who pilot the Thunderbird machines .", "Thunderbirds began its first run in the United Kingdom on the ITV network in 1965 and has since been broadcast in at least 66 other countries .", "<unk> repeated , it was adapted for radio in the early 1990s and has influenced many TV programmes and other media .", "As well as inspiring various merchandising campaigns , the series has been followed by two feature @-@ length film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation and a <unk> stage show tribute .", "The second of two TV remakes , the computer @-@ animated Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered in 2015 .", "Widely considered to be the Andersons ' most popular and commercially successful series , Thunderbirds has received particular praise for its effects ( directed by Derek Meddings ) and musical score ( composed by Barry Gray ) .", "It is also well remembered for its title sequence , which opens with an often @-@ quoted countdown by actor Peter Dyneley ( who voiced the character of Jeff ) : \" 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! \"", "A real @-@ life rescue service , the International Rescue Corps , is named after the organisation featured in the series .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n Set between <unk> and <unk> , Thunderbirds follows the exploits of the Tracy family , headed by American ex @-@ astronaut turned multi @-@ millionaire philanthropist Jeff Tracy .", "He is a widower with five adult sons : Scott , John , Virgil , Gordon and Alan .", "The Tracys form International Rescue ( IR ) , a secret organisation dedicated to saving human life .", "They are aided in this mission by technologically advanced land , sea , air and space vehicles , which are called into service when conventional rescue techniques prove ineffective .", "The most important of these are five machines named the \" Thunderbirds \" , each assigned to one of the five Tracy brothers : \n Thunderbird 1 : a <unk> rocket plane used for fast response and accident zone reconnaissance .", "Piloted by primary rescue co @-@ <unk> Scott Tracy .", "Thunderbird 2 : a <unk> carrier aircraft that transports rescue vehicles and equipment to accident zones in <unk> capsules known as \" <unk> \" .", "Piloted by Virgil .", "Thunderbird 3 : a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spacecraft .", "Piloted alternately by Alan and John , with Scott as co @-@ pilot .", "Thunderbird 4 : a utility <unk> .", "Piloted by Gordon and normally launched from Thunderbird 2 .", "Thunderbird 5 : a space station that relays distress calls from around the world .", "<unk> alternately by \" Space <unk> \" John and Alan .", "With the engineer Brains and Jeff 's elderly mother , as well as the Malaysian <unk> Kyrano and his daughter Tin @-@ Tin , the family reside in a luxurious villa on Tracy Island , their hidden base in the South Pacific Ocean .", "In this location , IR is safe from criminals and <unk> who envy the organisation 's technology and seek to acquire the secrets of its machines .", "Despite its humanitarian principles , some of IR 's operations are necessitated not by <unk> but deliberate sabotage motivated by <unk> for power and wealth .", "For missions that require criminal investigation , the organisation incorporates a network of undercover agents headed by English <unk> Lady Penelope Creighton @-@ Ward and her butler <unk> Parker .", "Based at Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion in Kent , Penelope and Parker 's primary mode of transport is FAB 1 , a specially @-@ modified Rolls @-@ Royce .", "The most persistent of IR 's adversaries is the criminal known only as the \" Hood \" .", "Operating from a temple in the Malaysian jungle , and possessing abilities of hypnosis and dark magic , he <unk> a powerful <unk> control over Kyrano , his estranged half @-@ brother , and manipulates the Tracys into missions that unfold according to his <unk> designs .", "This allows him to spy on the Thunderbird machines and , by selling their secrets , make himself rich .", "= = Production = = \n \n Thunderbirds was the fourth Supermarionation puppet TV series to be produced by APF , which was founded by the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson with their business partners Reg Hill and John Read .", "<unk> in late 1963 , the series was commissioned by Lew Grade of ITC , APF 's parent company , on the back of the positive audience response to Stingray .", "Gerry Anderson drew inspiration for the series ' underlying concept from the West German mining disaster known as the <unk> von Lengede ( \" Miracle of Lengede \" ) .", "In October 1963 , the collapse of a nearby dam flooded an iron mine in the municipality of Lengede , killing 29 miners and trapping 21 others underground .", "Lacking the means to drill an escape shaft , the authorities were forced to <unk> a heavy @-@ duty bore from <unk> ; the considerable time necessary to ship this device by rail had significantly reduced the chances of a successful rescue .", "<unk> the advantages of <unk> crisis response , Anderson conceived the idea of an \" international rescue \" organisation that could use <unk> aircraft to transport specialised rescue equipment quickly over long distances .", "<unk> to distinguish his 26 @-@ episode proposal from APF 's earlier productions , Anderson attempted to pitch stories at a level that would appeal to both adults and children .", "Whereas previous series had been shown during the late afternoon , Anderson wanted Thunderbirds to be broadcast in a family @-@ friendly <unk> slot .", "Sylvia remembers that \" our market had grown and a ' <unk> ' show ... was the next step . \"", "The Andersons retired to their holiday villa in Portugal to expand the premise , script the pilot episode and compose a <unk> ' guide .", "According to Sylvia , the writing process depended on a \" division of labour \" , whereby Gerry created the action sequences while she managed characterisation .", "The decision to make a father and his sons the main characters was influenced by the premise of <unk> , as well as Sylvia 's belief that the use of more than one heroic character would <unk> the series ' appeal .", "The Tracy brothers were named after Mercury Seven astronauts : Scott Carpenter , John Glenn , Virgil \" Gus \" <unk> , Gordon Cooper and Alan Shepard .", "The series ' title was derived from a letter written by Gerry 's brother , Lionel , while he had been serving overseas as an RAF flight sergeant during World War II .", "While stationed in Arizona , Lionel had made reference to Thunderbird Field , a nearby United States Army Air Forces base .", "Drawn to the \" <unk> \" of \" Thunderbirds \" , Anderson dropped his working title of \" International Rescue \" and renamed both the series and IR 's rescue vehicles , which had previously been designated <unk> 1 to 5 .", "His inspiration for the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 originated from contemporary United States Air Force launch procedure : Anderson had learnt how the Strategic Air Command would keep its pilots on permanent standby , seated in the <unk> of their aircraft and ready for take @-@ off at a moment 's notice .", "In the DVD documentary The Thunderbirds Companion , Anderson explained how a rise in filming costs had made overseas distribution revenue even more important and essentially caused Thunderbirds to be made \" as an American show \" .", "During the character development and voice casting process , the Andersons ' main priority was to ensure that the series had transatlantic appeal , thus increasing the chances of winning an American network deal and the higher audience figures that this market had to offer .", "<unk> were <unk> in American English and printed on US @-@ style <unk> @-@ size paper .", "= = = Filming = = = \n \n Thunderbirds was filmed at APF 's studios on the <unk> Trading Estate between 1964 and 1966 .", "In preparation , the number of full @-@ time crew was expanded to 100 .", "<unk> began in September 1964 after five months of pre @-@ production .", "Due to the new series ' technical complexity , this was a period longer than for any of APF 's earlier productions .", "To speed up the filming , episodes were shot in pairs , at a rate of one per month , on separate soundstages and by separate crews ( designated \" A \" and \" B \" ) .", "By 1964 , APF was the UK 's largest commercial user of colour film , consuming more than three million feet ( 570 miles or 910 kilometres ) of stock per year .", "Alan Pattillo , a veteran <unk> and director for APF , was appointed the company 's first official script editor in late 1964 .", "This move was aimed to reduce the burden on Gerry Anderson who , while reserving his producer 's right to overall creative control , had grown weary of revising scripts himself .", "Direction of episodes was assigned in pairs : Pattillo and David Elliott alternated with the less experienced Desmond Saunders and newcomer David Lane for each month 's filming .", "Due to the difficulties of setting up takes , progress was slow : even on a productive day , it was rare for the crew to complete more than two minutes of puppet footage In a contemporary interview , Hill noted that Thunderbirds contained several times as many shots as a typical live @-@ action series .", "He explained that rapid editing was necessary on account of the characters ' lack of facial expression , which made it difficult to sustain the viewer 's interest for more than a few seconds per shot .", "After viewing the completed 25 @-@ minute pilot , \" <unk> in the Sky \" , Lew Grade was so impressed by APF 's work that he instructed Anderson to double the episode length and increased the series ' budget per episode from £ 25 @,@ 000 to £ 38 @,@ 000 .", "As a result , Thunderbirds became not only the company 's longest and highest @-@ budgeted production , but also among the most expensive TV series to have been made up to that point .", "The crew , who had been filming at a rate of two 25 @-@ minute episodes per fortnight , faced significant challenges during the transition to the new format : eight episodes had already been completed , scripts for up to ten more had been written , and substantial <unk> would be necessary to satisfy the longer running time .", "Anderson lamented : \" Our time @-@ scale was far too drawn out .", "ITC 's New York office insisted that they should have one show a fortnight ... Everything had to move at twice the speed . \"", "APF spent over seven months extending the existing episodes .", "Tony <unk> , who had impressed Pattillo and the Andersons with an <unk> script that he had written for Danger Man , was recruited to assist in the writing of subplots and <unk> material .", "He found that the longer format created opportunities to strengthen the characterisation .", "Science @-@ fiction writer John Peel suggests that \" small character touches \" make the puppet cast of Thunderbirds \" much more rounded \" than those of earlier APF series .", "He compares the writing favourably to that of live @-@ action drama .", "The new footage proved useful during the development of the first series finale , \" Security <unk> \" : since the previous two episodes had <unk> their budgets , Pattillo devised a flashback @-@ dominated clip show containing only 17 minutes of new material to reduce costs .", "Filming of Series One was completed in December 1965 .", "A second series was also commissioned late that year and entered production in March 1966 .", "<unk> became a full @-@ time member of the writing staff and took over the role of script editor from the outgoing Pattillo .", "The main puppet cast and vehicles were rebuilt ; in addition , the art department expanded some of the standing sets , including the Tracy Villa lounge and the Thunderbird 5 control room .", "To accommodate the simultaneous filming of the TV series and Thunderbirds Are Go , APF purchased two more buildings on the <unk> Trading Estate and converted them into new stages .", "As crew and studio space were divided between the two productions , filming of the TV series progressed at half the previous speed , as APF 's B crew produced one episode per month .", "Filming on Thunderbirds Are Go was completed by June , allowing A crew to resume work on the series to shoot what would prove to be its penultimate episode , \" <unk> \" .", "Production of Thunderbirds ended in August 1966 with the completion of the sixth episode of Series Two .", "In February that year , it had been reported that Grade had been unable to sell the series in the United States due to disagreements over <unk> .", "In July , he cancelled Thunderbirds after failing in his second attempt to secure an American buyer .", "The three major US networks of the time – NBC , CBS and ABC – had all bid for the series , with Grade repeatedly increasing the price .", "When NBC withdrew its offer , the other two immediately followed .", "By the time of its cancellation , Thunderbirds had become widely popular in the UK and was being distributed extensively overseas .", "Grade , however , believed that without the financial boost of an American network sale , a full second series would fail to recover its production costs .", "He therefore asked Anderson to <unk> a new concept that he hoped would stand a greater chance of winning over the profitable US market .", "This became Captain Scarlet and the <unk> .", "= = = Casting and characters = = = \n \n Voice @-@ recording sessions were supervised by Pattillo and the Andersons , with Sylvia Anderson in charge of casting .", "<unk> was recorded once per month at a rate of two scripts per session .", "Supporting parts were not pre @-@ assigned , but negotiated by the cast among themselves .", "Two recordings would be made at each session : one to be converted into electronic pulses for the puppet filming , the other to be added to the soundtrack during post @-@ production .", "The tapes were edited at Gate Recording Theatre in Birmingham .", "In the interest of transatlantic appeal , it was decided that the main characters would be mostly American and therefore actors capable of producing an appropriate accent were used .", "British , Canadian and Australian actors formed most of the voice cast ; the only American involved was stage actor David Holliday , who was noticed in London 's West End and given the part of Virgil Tracy .", "Following the completion of the first series , Holliday returned to the US .", "The character was voiced by English @-@ Canadian actor Jeremy <unk> for Series Two .", "British actor David Graham was among the first to be cast .", "He had previously voiced characters in Four Feather Falls , Supercar , <unk> <unk> and Stingray .", "Beyond the APF productions , he had supplied one of the original <unk> voices on Doctor Who .", "Cast alongside Graham was Australian actor Ray Barrett .", "Like Graham , he had worked for the Andersons before , having voiced Titan and Commander Shore in Stingray .", "A veteran of radio drama , Barrett was skilled at performing a range of voices and accents in quick succession .", "<unk> of the week would typically be voiced by either Barrett or Graham .", "Aware of the sensitive political climate of the Cold War and not wishing to \" <unk> the idea that Russia was the enemy with a whole generation of children watching \" , Gerry Anderson decided the Hood ( voiced by Barrett ) should be Oriental and placed his temple hideout in Malaysia to defy the viewer 's expectations .", "Although Lady Penelope and Parker ( the latter voiced by Graham ) were among the first characters developed , neither was conceived as a major role .", "Parker 's Cockney manner was based on a <unk> at a pub in <unk> that was sometimes visited by the crew .", "On Gerry Anderson 's recommendation , Graham <unk> there regularly to study the accent .", "Anderson 's first choice for the role of Penelope had been <unk> Fielding , but Sylvia insisted she take the part herself .", "Her Penelope voice was intended to emulate Fielding and Joan Greenwood .", "On Penelope and Parker 's secondary role as comic relief , Gerry explained , \" We British can laugh at ourselves , so therefore we had Penelope and Parker as this comedy team .", "And in America they love the British aristocracy too . '", "\" \n As well as Jeff Tracy , English @-@ Canadian actor Peter Dyneley voiced the recurring character of Commander Norman , chief of air traffic control at London International Airport .", "His supporting character voices were typically those of upper @-@ class Englishmen .", "Shane Rimmer , the voice of Scott , was cast on the strength of his performance on the BBC soap opera Compact .", "Meanwhile , fellow Canadian Matt Zimmerman was selected at a late stage in the process .", "The expatriate West End actor was given the role of Alan on the recommendation of his friend , Holliday : \" They were having great difficulty casting the part of Alan as they wanted a certain sound for him , being the youngest brother .", "David , who [ was ] a bit older than I am , told them that he had this friend , me , who would be great . \"", "Christine Finn , known for her role in the TV serial <unk> and the Pit , provided the voices of Tin @-@ Tin Kyrano and <unk> Tracy .", "With Sylvia Anderson , she was also responsible for voicing most of the female and child supporting characters .", "Other minor parts were voiced by Charles <unk> , Paul Maxwell and John Tate ( the father of Nick Tate ) , who were not credited for their contributions .", "= = = Design and effects = = = \n \n The puppet stages used for the filming of Thunderbirds were only one @-@ fifth the size of those used for a standard live @-@ action production , typically measuring 12 by 14 by 3 metres ( 39 @.", "@ 4 by 45 @.", "@ 9 by 9 @.", "@ 8 ft ) in length , width and height .", "Bob Bell , assisted by Keith Wilson and Grenville <unk> , headed the art department for Series One .", "During the simultaneous filming of Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go in 1966 , Bell attended mainly to the film , <unk> set design for the TV series to Wilson .", "Since it was necessary for the art department 's interior sets to conform to the effects department 's exterior plans , each team closely monitored the other 's work .", "According to Sylvia Anderson , Bell 's challenge was to produce complex interiors on a limited budget while resisting the effects department 's push for \" more extravagant \" design .", "This task was complicated by the unnatural proportions of the puppets : Bell struggled to decide whether the sets should be built to a scale proportionate to their bodies or their oversized heads and hands .", "He used the example of FAB 1 to illustrate the problem : \" As soon as we positioned [ the puppets ] standing alongside [ the model ] , they looked ridiculous , as the car <unk> over them . \"", "He ultimately adopted a \" mix @-@ and @-@ match \" approach , in which smaller items , such as <unk> , were scaled to their hands and furniture to their bodies .", "While designing the Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion sets , Bell and his staff strove for authenticity , ordering miniature Tudor paintings , 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ scale <unk> and Regency @-@ style furniture and <unk> in the shape of a polar bear skin .", "This realism was enhanced by adding scrap items acquired from household waste and electronics shops .", "For example , a vacuum cleaner pipe serves as Virgil Tracy 's launch <unk> .", "= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n The head puppet sculptor was Christine Glanville , who also served as the lead puppeteer .", "Glanville 's four @-@ person team built the 13 members of the main cast in six months at a cost of between £ 250 and £ 300 per puppet ( approximately £ 4 @,@ <unk> and £ 5 @,@ 483 today ) .", "Since pairs of episodes were being filmed simultaneously on separate stages , the characters needed to be sculpted in duplicate .", "<unk> expressions were diversified by means of <unk> heads : as well as a head with a neutral expression , each main character was given a \" <unk> \" , a \" <unk> \" and a \" <unk> \" .", "The finished puppets were approximately 22 inches ( 56 cm ) tall , or 1 ⁄ 3 adult human height .", "The puppets were made up of more than 30 individual components , the most important of which was the solenoid that <unk> lip movements with the characters ' pre @-@ recorded dialogue .", "This device was positioned inside the head unit ; consequently , torsos and limbs appeared relatively small .", "The puppets ' likenesses and mechanics are remembered favourably by puppeteer Wanda Brown , who preferred the Thunderbirds <unk> over the accurately @-@ <unk> ones that first appeared in Captain Scarlet : \" The puppets were easier to operate and more enjoyable because they had more character to them ...", "Even some of the more normal @-@ looking faces , such as Scott and Jeff , for me had more character than the puppets in the series that came afterwards . \"", "Rimmer speaks positively of the puppets ' still being \" very much caricatures \" , since it made them \" more <unk> and appealing ...", "There was a naive quality about them and nothing too complex . \"", "The appearances of the main characters were inspired by those of actors and other <unk> , who were typically selected from the show business <unk> Spotlight .", "According to Glanville , as part of a trend away from the strong caricature of previous series , APF was seeking \" more natural faces \" for the puppets .", "The face of Jeff Tracy was based on that of Lorne Greene , Scott on Sean Connery , Alan on Robert Reed , John on Adam Faith and Charlton Heston , Brains on Anthony Perkins and Parker on Ben <unk> .", "Sylvia Anderson brought the character of Penelope to life in likeness as well as voice : after her test moulds were rejected , sculptor Mary Turner decided to use Anderson herself as a template .", "Terry Curtis was also an original sculpture of Supermarionation puppets .", "Main character heads were initially sculpted in either <unk> or clay .", "Once the general aspect had been finalised , this served as the template for a <unk> rubber mould .", "This was coated with <unk> ( fibreglass mixed with resin ) and enhanced with <unk> , a <unk> @-@ like substance , to <unk> <unk> .", "The <unk> shell was then fitted with a solenoid , leather mouth parts and plastic eyes , as well as <unk> teeth – a first for a Supermarionation production .", "<unk> known as \" <unk> \" , which had plastic heads , portrayed the supporting characters .", "These <unk> started their working lives with only a mouth and eyes ; their faces were <unk> from one episode to the next .", "Particularly striking revamp moulds were retained and , as their numbers increased , photographed to compile an internal casting <unk> .", "<unk> were made of <unk> or , in the case of the Penelope puppet , human hair .", "Puppet bodies were built in three sizes : \" large male \" ( specifically for the Tracys and the Hood ) , \" small male \" and \" small female \" .", "Sylvia Anderson , the head costume designer , devised the main characters ' attire .", "To give the puppets increased mobility , the costume department generally avoided stiff synthetic materials , instead working with cotton , silk and wool .", "Between 1964 and 1966 , the department 's stock numbered more than 700 costumes .", "Each puppet 's head was fitted with about 10 thin tungsten steel wires .", "During the filming , dialogue was played into the studio using modified tape recorders that converted the feed into electronic pulses .", "Two of the wires relayed these pulses to the internal solenoid , completing the Supermarionation process .", "The wires , which were <unk> black to reduce their visibility , were made even less noticeable through the application of powder paint that matched the background colours of the set .", "Glanville explained the time @-@ consuming nature of this process : \" [ The puppeteers ] used to spend over half an hour on each shot getting rid of these wires , looking through the camera , <unk> a bit more [ paint ] here , anti @-@ flare there ; and , I mean , it 's very depressing when somebody will say to us , ' Of course the wires showed . '", "\" <unk> on an overhead gantry with a hand @-@ held cruciform , the puppeteers co @-@ ordinated movements with the help of a <unk> @-@ powered CCTV feedback system .", "As filming progressed , the crew started to <unk> with wires and instead manipulate the puppets from the studio floor using rods .", "Due to their low weight and the fact that they had only one control wire per leg , the puppets were unable to walk convincingly .", "Therefore , scenes involving movement were filmed from the waist up , with a puppeteer holding the legs below the level of the camera and using a \" <unk> \" action to simulate motion .", "Alternatively , dynamic shots were eliminated altogether : in an interview with New <unk> , director of photography John Read spoke of the advantages of <unk> the lack of agility so that the puppets \" appear , for example , to walk through doors ( although the control wires make this impossible ) or pick up a coffee cup ( although their fingers are not in fact <unk> ) . \"", "Live @-@ action shots of human hands were inserted whenever scripts called for more <unk> actions to be performed .", "= = = = Special effects = = = = \n \n The effects for all the APF series from Supercar to UFO were directed by Derek Meddings , who later worked on the James Bond and Superman films .", "Knowing that Thunderbirds would be the \" biggest project [ APF ] had worked on \" , Meddings found himself struggling to manage his workload with the single filming unit that had produced all the effects for Stingray .", "He therefore established a second unit under <unk> Brian <unk> , and a third exclusively for filming airborne sequences .", "This expansion increased the number of APF crews and stages to five each .", "A typical episode contained around 100 effects shots ; Meddings ' team completed up to 18 per day .", "An addition to the effects department was Mike <unk> , who served as Meddings ' assistant in designing vehicles and buildings .", "Meddings and <unk> jointly pioneered an \" organic \" design technique in which the exteriors of models and sets were <unk> with parts from model kits and children 's toys .", "Models and sets were also \" <unk> down \" with powder paint or pencil lead to create a used look .", "Toy cars and <unk> were used in long shot , while scale vehicles were equipped with basic steering and suspension for added realism .", "<unk> fans and <unk> <unk> , which are capable of issuing air jets or chemical exhaust , were attached to the <unk> to simulate dust trails .", "Another of Meddings ' inventions was a closed , cyclical effects stage nicknamed the \" rolling road \" : consisting of two or more loops of canvas running at different speeds , this device allowed shots of moving vehicles to be filmed on a static set to make more efficient use of the limited studio space .", "Airborne aircraft sequences were mounted against a \" rolling sky \" , with smoke fanned across to simulate passing clouds .", "One of Meddings ' first tasks was to shoot stock footage of the Thunderbird machines and the series ' main locations , Tracy Island and Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion .", "The finished island model was a composite of more than a dozen smaller sets that could be detached from the whole and filmed separately .", "The architecture of the mansion was based on that of <unk> House , located on the <unk> Estate in Wiltshire .", "In the absence of head designer Reg Hill , who was serving as associate producer , Meddings was further tasked with designing the Thunderbird fleet and FAB 1 .", "Scale models for the six main vehicles were built by a contractor , Master Models of Middlesex .", "Models and puppet sets combined , more than 200 versions of the Thunderbird machines were created for the series .", "During the designing and filming process , Meddings ' first priorities were realism and credibility .", "With the exception of Thunderbird 5 , each vehicle was built in three or four scales .", "Meddings ' swing @-@ wing concept for Thunderbird 1 was inspired by his wish to create something \" more dynamic \" than a fixed @-@ wing aircraft .", "He remained unsatisfied with the prototype of Thunderbird 2 until he inverted the wings , later commenting , \" ... at the time , all aircraft had swept @-@ back wings .", "I only did it to be different . \"", "This decision was made out of personal preference and was not informed by any expert knowledge on Meddings ' part .", "He described the Thunderbird 2 launch as \" probably the most memorable \" sequence that his team devised for an APF production .", "The largest model of Thunderbird 3 , whose design was based on the Soviet Soyuz rocket , was six feet ( 1 @.", "@ 8 m ) tall .", "Thunderbird 4 was particularly difficult to film : as the scale of the model did not correspond to the water inside the shooting tank , creative camera angles and rapid editing were used to produce a sense of realistic perspective .", "Thunderbird 5 , the most difficult vehicle for Meddings to <unk> , was based on the Tracy Island Round House .", "Since most of the space station 's appearances were provided by stock footage , the model was rarely filmed .", "Pod <unk> were designed on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis and built from <unk> wood , <unk> wood or fibreglass .", "To save time and costs , other minor vehicles were built in @-@ house from radio @-@ controlled model kits .", "As the puppets of Lady Penelope and Parker needed to fit inside , the largest of all the models was the seven @-@ foot FAB 1 , which cost £ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 46 @,@ 000 today ) to build .", "The Rolls @-@ Royce 's name and colour were both chosen by Sylvia Anderson .", "Rolls @-@ Royce Ltd. supervised the construction of the <unk> model and supplied APF with an authentic <unk> grille for close @-@ up shots of the front of the car .", "In exchange for its cooperation , the company requested that a Spirit of <unk> be fixed to the chassis and that the characters avoid referring to the brand with abbreviations such as \" Rolls \" .", "Scale explosions were created using substances such as fuller 's earth , petrol gel , magnesium strips and <unk> explosive .", "Originally filmed at up to 120 frames per second ( <unk> ) , they were slowed down to 24 <unk> during post @-@ production to increase their apparent magnitude and length .", "Gunpowder <unk> were <unk> to create rocket jets .", "The wires that electronically fired the rockets also allowed a member of the crew , holding a cruciform and positioned on an overhead gantry , to \" fly \" the model over the set .", "By far the most unwieldy model was Thunderbird 2 , which Meddings remembered as being \" awful \" to fly .", "A combination of unreliable rockets and weak <unk> frequently caused problems : should the former be slow to ignite , the current quickly caused the latter to <unk> and snap , potentially damaging the model and even setting fire to the set .", "Conditions above the studio floor were often dangerous due to the heat and smoke .", "Although many of the exhaust sound effects used in the series were drawn from an audio library , some were specially recorded during a Red Arrows display at RAF Little <unk> in Gloucestershire .", "By 1966 , Meddings ' commitments were split between Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go .", "While Meddings worked on the film , camera operator Jimmy Elliott assumed the responsibility of directing the TV effects .", "By this stage , the basic frame of Thunderbird 2 had been damaged so many times that the model had needed to be rebuilt from scratch .", "Meddings was <unk> with the result , reflecting that the replacement was \" not only the wrong colour , it was a completely different shape ...", "I never felt our model @-@ makers managed to recapture the look of the original . \"", "Critic David Garland suggests that the challenge facing the Thunderbirds effects department was to strike a balance between the \" conventional science @-@ fiction <unk> of the ' futuristic ' \" and the \" seeping hyper @-@ realist concerns mandated by the Andersons ' approach to the puppets \" .", "Thunderbirds has been praised for the quality of its effects .", "Jim <unk> and Paul <unk> , writers of Collins <unk> Guide , consider the model work \" uniformly impressive \" .", "To Paul Cornell , Martin Day and Keith Topping , writers of The Guinness Book of Classic British TV , the effects are \" way beyond anything seen on TV previously \" .", "Impressed by their work on Thunderbirds , film director Stanley Kubrick hired several members of Meddings ' staff to supervise the effects shooting for 2001 : A Space Odyssey .", "= = = = Title sequence = = = = \n \n The series ' title sequence , <unk> by Gerry Anderson , is made up of two parts .", "It opens with a countdown of \" 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! \"", ", provided by Dyneley in character as Jeff Tracy .", "In a departure from the style of Stingray , the Thunderbirds title sequence varies with each episode : the first part consists of an action montage that serves as a preview of the plot .", "Simon Archer and Marcus <unk> , biographers of Gerry Anderson , compare this device favourably to a film trailer .", "The second part , accompanied by composer Barry Gray 's \" The Thunderbirds March \" , features portraits of the main puppet cast superimposed on various vehicles and settings .", "Peel describes this as \" ostensibly a return to the ' series stars ' concept long known in TV \" , while Garland considers such imagery <unk> of Anderson 's commitment to \" incremental realism \" through a convergence of human and puppet characteristics .", "<unk> Jonathan Bignell suggests that the use of portraits conveys Anderson 's <unk> to \" visual revelation of machines and physical action \" .", "According to Daniel O 'Brien , writer of SF : UK : How British Science Fiction Changed the World , the Thunderbirds title sequence encapsulates the reasons for the series ' enduring popularity .", "Dyneley 's countdown is particularly well remembered and has been widely quoted .", "Dean Newman of the Syfy channel website ranks Thunderbirds eighth in a list of \" Top 10 TV title sequences \" , while Den of Geek 's Martin Anderson considers the sequence the best of any TV series .", "= = = Music = = = \n \n The score was composed by Gray , who served as musical director for all of the Anderson productions up to the first series of Space : 1999 .", "In response to Gerry Anderson 's request that the main theme have a \" military feel \" , Gray produced a brass @-@ dominated piece titled \" The Thunderbirds March \" , which was recorded in December 1964 at Olympic Studios in London .", "The end titles were originally to have been accompanied by \" Flying High \" , a lyrical track sung by Gary Miller with backing by Ken <unk> .", "Ultimately , a variation of the march was used instead .", "<unk> music was recorded over nine months between March and December 1965 .", "As most of the music budget was spent on the series ' earlier episodes , later instalments drew heavily on APF 's ever @-@ expanding music library .", "Peel considers \" The Thunderbirds March \" to be \" one of the best TV themes ever written – perfect for the show and catchy when heard alone \" .", "Morag <unk> of BBC Online argues that the piece is \" up there ... in the quintessential soundtrack of the <unk> \" with the James Bond films and the songs of Frank Sinatra , Elvis and The Beatles .", "More generally , he praises the series ' \" catchy , pulse @-@ <unk> tunes \" , as well as Gray 's aptitude for \" musical nuance \" and the mixing of genres .", "Heather <unk> of Allmusic considers \" Thunderbirds Are Go ! \"", "– the track accompanying the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 – to be a reflection of the mod aspect of 1960s British spy fiction .", "She also highlights Gray 's homage to – and divergence from – musical norms , commenting that his score \" sends up the spy and action / adventure conventions of the ' 60s very <unk> and subtly \" .", "David <unk> identifies <unk> homage in both the theme music and the series ' premise .", "<unk> that the theme 's opening string <unk> is similar in effect to a recurring motif in Ride of the <unk> , he also <unk> the Thunderbird machines to <unk> themselves : \" Their function is more benevolent than those warrior <unk> , but they do <unk> over danger , death and destruction . \"", "Kevin J. Donnelly of the University of Southampton acknowledges the series ' \" big @-@ sounding orchestral score \" , which he compares to that of a live @-@ action film .", "He also suggests that the music serves partly to draw attention away from the physical imperfections of the puppets .", "To celebrate the shows anniversary , \" Thunderbirds Are Go - 50 Years On \" at <unk> Hall , Bristol was celebrated as the theme music is brought to life , led by Charles <unk> and his All Star <unk> .", "= = Broadcast = = \n \n Thunderbirds premiered on British television on 30 September 1965 on the ITV franchises ATV Midlands , <unk> and Channel .", "Other broadcasters , including ATV London and Granada , started transmissions the following month .", "The Christmas @-@ themed series finale , \" Give or Take a Million \" , was first broadcast on 25 December 1966 .", "Despite Grade 's decision to extend the running time , Midlands and Granada broadcast each episode in two parts .", "In these areas , both 25 @-@ minute instalments aired on the same day , separated by the <unk> Evening News .", "The conclusion opened with a narration by Shane Rimmer <unk> the first part 's action .", "Granada transmitted Thunderbirds in its original , 50 @-@ minute format for the first time with the start of repeats in 1966 .", "In 1968 , the franchise briefly aired episodes in three parts due to timeslot restrictions .", "The availability of repeats during the 1960s and 1970s varied among regions .", "ATV Midlands screened the series regularly into the early 1970s ; by contrast , Thunderbirds was entirely absent from Yorkshire Television between 1968 and 1976 .", "The series was last transmitted on the ITV franchises in 1981 .", "In 1990 , 8 of the 19 audio episodes released by APF Records were converted into radio dramas , which were transmitted on BBC Radio 5 .", "The success of the radio series encouraged the BBC to acquire the rights to the TV episodes , which it broadcast simultaneously in all regions from September 1991 on BBC 2 .", "Since the end of the first network run , which achieved average viewing figures of more than six million , the BBC has repeated the series six times : between 1992 and 1993 ( Series One only ) , 1994 and 1995 ( nine episodes only ) , and 2000 and 2001 ( in remastered form ) , as well as in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 .", "Other channels that have shown repeats include UK Gold ( 1994 – 95 ) , Bravo ( 1996 – 97 ) , <unk> Network ( 2001 – 02 ) , Boomerang ( 2001 – 03 ) and Syfy ( 2009 ) .", "In Scotland , the BBC screened a Gaelic dub , <unk> Tar As ( \" Thunderbirds Are Go \" ) in the early 1990s .", "Before its UK debut , Thunderbirds was distributed to 30 other countries including the US , Canada , Australia and Japan .", "Pre @-@ sales revenue totalled £ 350 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 6 million today ) .", "In the year following the series ' first appearance , the number of countries increased to 66 .", "In Japan , where it was first broadcast by <unk> , Thunderbirds attracted a sizeable fan following and influenced series such as <unk> , Mighty Jack , <unk> <unk> <unk> and Super Rescue <unk> .", "In the US , the two @-@ part format entered first @-@ run syndication , to modest success , in 1968 .", "Other overseas broadcasters have included <unk> and Family Room HD ( US ) , BBC Kids and <unk> ( Canada ) , Nine Network and <unk> ( Australia ) , <unk> ( New Zealand ) , <unk> <unk> Kids Central ( Singapore ) and <unk> Two ( Republic of Ireland ) .", "= = Reception = = \n \n Thunderbirds is generally considered the Andersons ' most popular series and their greatest critical and commercial success .", "In 1966 , the show received a Royal Television Society Silver Medal for Outstanding Artistic Achievement and Gerry Anderson received an honorary <unk> of the British <unk> , Sound and Television Society .", "In 2007 , Thunderbirds achieved 19th place in a Radio Times magazine reader poll to determine the best science @-@ fiction TV programme of all time .", "It is ranked fourth by the 2013 Channel 5 list show 50 Greatest Kids ' TV <unk> .", "For Peel , Thunderbirds is \" without a doubt the peak of the Supermarionation achievement \" .", "Suggesting that the series is pitched at a \" more adult \" level than its predecessors , he adds that its sense of adventure , effective humour and \" gripping and convincing \" episodes ensured that \" everyone in the audience found something to love about it . \"", "Simon <unk> , a fan of Thunderbirds in childhood , commented positively on the series for The Daily Telegraph in 2011 : \" All the elements we children discerned in whatever grown @-@ up television we had been allowed to watch were present in Thunderbirds : dramatic theme and incidental music ; well @-@ developed plots ; <unk> and <unk> ; <unk> Americans , at a time when the whole of Britain was in a cultural <unk> to them ; and , of course , glamorous locations ... Then , of course , there was the nail @-@ biting tension of the rescues themselves ... \" Film critic Kim Newman describes the series as a \" television perennial \" .", "In his <unk> to John Marriott 's book , Thunderbirds Are Go !", ", Anderson put forward several explanations for the series ' enduring popularity : it \" contains elements that appeal to most children – danger , jeopardy and destruction .", "But because International Rescue 's mission is to save life , there is no <unk> violence . \"", "According to Anderson , Thunderbirds incorporates a \" strong family atmosphere , where Dad <unk> supreme \" .", "Both O 'Brien and script editor Alan Pattillo have praised the series ' positive \" family values \" .", "In addition , <unk> and others have written of its cross @-@ <unk> appeal .", "In 2000 , shortly before the series ' BBC revival , Brian <unk> remarked in Radio Times that Thunderbirds was on the point of \" captivating yet another generation of viewers \" .", "Stuart Hood , writing for The Spectator in 1965 , praised Thunderbirds as a \" modern fairy tale \" ; adding that it \" can sometimes be frightening \" , he recommended that children watch it accompanied by their parents .", "Writing for <unk> in 1994 , Andrew Thomas described Thunderbirds as only \" nominally \" a children 's programme : \" Its themes are universal and speak as much to the adult in the child as the child in the adult . \"", "Jeff Evans , author of The Penguin TV Companion , argues that the series ' 50 @-@ minute format allows for stronger character development and \" tension @-@ building \" .", "O 'Brien is less positive in his appraisal of the writing , asserting that the plots are often \" formulaic \" and are sometimes \" stretched to snapping point \" by the extended running time .", "Cornell , Day and Topping are critical : they consider the writing at times \" <unk> poor \" and argue that Thunderbirds as a whole is \" often as clichéd as previous Anderson series \" .", "Peel , despite praising the storylines and characterisation , suggests that the \" tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek \" humour of Stingray is less evident .", "Where Thunderbirds improves on its predecessor , Peel believes , is in its rejection of fantasy plot devices , child and animal characters , comical and stereotyped villains and what he terms the \" standard Anderson <unk> \" : female characters , marginalised in earlier series , are more commonly seen to play active and sometimes heroic roles .", "<unk> the attention to detail of the series ' launch sequences , Jonathan Bignell argues that part of the motivation for dedicating large amounts of screen time to the Thunderbird craft is the need to compensate for the limited mobility of the puppet cast .", "The focus on futuristic machines has also been explored by cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull , who comments that of all the Andersons ' series , Thunderbirds is the most evocative of a recurring theme : the \" necessity of the human component of the machine \" , whereby the failures of new technology are overcome by \" brave human beings and technology working together \" .", "This makes the series ' vision of the <unk> \" wonderfully humanistic and <unk> \" .", "O 'Brien similarly praises this optimism , comparing the Tracy family to guardian <unk> .", "Writing for Wired UK magazine , Warren Ellis asserts that the series ' scientific vision could inspire the next generation of \" mad and frightening engineers \" , adding that Thunderbirds \" trades in vast , <unk> concepts ... immense and very beautiful ideas as solutions to problems . \"", "Thomas argues that the world of Thunderbirds is similar to the 1960s to the extent that contemporary capitalism and class structures appear to have survived mostly intact .", "He also observes , however , that wealth and high social status are often depicted as character flaws rather than strengths .", "According to Thomas , a contributing factor to the series ' lasting popularity is the realism of IR 's machines .", "Newman , for his part , suggests that \" the point isn 't realism .", "The 21st century of Thunderbirds is detailed ... but also de @-@ populated , a high @-@ tech <unk> \" .", "He is more negative in his comparisons of contemporary and future values , noting the \" square , almost 50s \" attitudes to race , gender and class .", "With regard to stereotyping , Hood comments that he \" would be <unk> if [ villains ] didn 't seem to be recognisable by their <unk> \" .", "Cull , by contrast , considers the series largely progressive on the subject of race , arguing that it rejects negative stereotyping through the use of \" positive non @-@ white characters \" such as Kyrano and Tin @-@ Tin .", "However , he deems many of the one @-@ off villains derivative , commenting that these characters are typically presented as \" corrupt businessmen , <unk> and gangsters familiar from crime films \" .", "Various commentators – including Bignell , Cull and O 'Brien – have also discussed Thunderbirds as a product of the Cold War era .", "Bignell comments that the Hood 's Oriental appearance and mysterious powers draw parallels with James Bond villains and fears of China operating as \" a ' third force ' antagonistic to the West \" .", "Cull observes that , despite the series ' focus on the dangers of nuclear technology , the Thunderbird machines contradict this particular theme : in their case , \" an image of technology associated with the threat of Cold War mass destruction – the rocket emerging from the hidden <unk> – was appropriated and deployed to save life rather than to take it . \"", "He argues that the series <unk> more closely to cultural norms by drawing on the \" Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown \" , noting Lady Penelope 's role as a spy in addition to two episodes ( \" 30 Minutes After Noon \" and \" The Man from <unk> \" ) that are heavily influenced by the James Bond novels and film adaptations .", "The presentation of smoking in Thunderbirds was the subject of a study published in the medical journal Tobacco Control in 2002 .", "Despite identifying examples in 26 episodes , Kate Hunt of the University of Glasgow concluded that Thunderbirds does not actively promote smoking – a view opposed by the Roy Castle <unk> Cancer Foundation ( <unk> ) at the time of the series ' relaunch on BBC 2 .", "<unk> the <unk> 's proposal that the remastered episodes be edited to digitally erase all visible cigarettes and cigars , the BBC stated that the series \" does not glorify or encourage smoking \" and described the activity as \" incidental to the plot \" .", "= = Merchandise = = \n \n More than 3 @,@ 000 Thunderbirds @-@ themed products have been marketed since the series ' debut .", "To accommodate the high demand for tie @-@ ins , APF established three dedicated <unk> : AP Films Merchandising , AP Films Music and AP Films Toys .", "Some British commentators dubbed the 1966 end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season \" Thunderbirds Christmas \" due to the series ' popularity .", "In the early 1990s , <unk> launched a new toy range to coincide with the BBC 2 repeats .", "Sales figures for Christmas 1992 exceeded those achieved by the Star Wars merchandising campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s .", "<unk> for <unk> 's Tracy Island <unk> overwhelmed supply , resulting in shop fights and a substantial black market for the toy .", "A comic strip featuring the characters of Lady Penelope and Parker debuted in the early issues of APF Publishing 's children 's title TV Century 21 in 1965 .", "A full @-@ length Thunderbirds strip appeared a year later , at which point the Lady Penelope adventures were given their own comic .", "Thunderbirds , Lady Penelope and Captain Scarlet and Thunderbirds <unk> were published in the late 1960s ; during the same period , eight original novels were written .", "In 2008 , <unk> Publications of Minnesota launched a new series of tie @-@ in novels .", "Between 1965 and 1967 , APF Records released 19 audio episodes in the form of vinyl EPs .", "Three are original stories ; the rest are adapted from TV episode soundtracks , with additional narration provided by a member of the voice cast .", "The series ' first video game tie @-@ in , developed for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers , was released by <unk> Software in 1985 .", "Other titles have since been released for the Game Boy Color , Game Boy Advance and PlayStation 2 .", "During the late 1980s , the series was issued on home video for the first time by <unk> and its subsidiary Channel 5 .", "Following its acquisition by Carlton International Media in 1999 , Thunderbirds was digitally remastered for the release of the first DVD versions in 2000 .", "Blu @-@ ray Disc editions followed in 2008 .", "= = Later productions = = \n \n Thunderbirds has been followed by two film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation , two animated TV remakes and several re @-@ edited presentations for TV broadcast and home video .", "The second of the remakes , Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered on ITV in 2015 , the 50th anniversary year of the original .", "= = = Film = = = \n \n The feature @-@ length film sequels Thunderbirds Are Go and Thunderbird 6 were released in 1966 and 1968 .", "The first was <unk> by Lew Grade before the TV series had started its broadcast run .", "Written and produced by the Andersons and directed by David Lane , both films were distributed by United Artists .", "Neither was a critical or commercial success , and Century 21 Cinema 's plans for further sequels were abandoned .", "In the early 1980s , episodes of Thunderbirds and other Supermarionation series were re @-@ edited by ITC 's New York offices to create a series of compilation films .", "<unk> \" Super Space Theater \" , this format was mostly intended for family viewing on American cable and syndicated TV .", "Three Thunderbirds features were produced : Thunderbirds to the Rescue , Thunderbirds In Outer Space and <unk> to Disaster .", "Plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation were first announced in 1993 .", "These eventually culminated in the 2004 film Thunderbirds , directed by Jonathan Frakes and produced by <unk> and Working Title Films .", "It was a critical and commercial failure and was poorly received by fans of the TV series .", "= = = TV = = = \n \n The Andersons sold their intellectual and profit participation rights to Thunderbirds and their other productions in the 1970s .", "As a result , they had no developmental control over subsequent adaptations of their works .", "Thunderbirds was first remade for TV in the early 1980s as Thunderbirds <unk> .", "In this anime re @-@ imagining , set 20 years after the original , the vastly expanded IR is based within an <unk> and operates 17 Thunderbird machines .", "It was inspired by <unk> , an updated story concept by Gerry Anderson and Reg Hill that later served as the basis for Anderson 's <unk> series <unk> .", "Two re @-@ edited series , based on <unk> versions of 13 of the original episodes , aired in the US in 1994 .", "The first , Thunderbirds USA , was broadcast as part of the Fox Kids programming block ; the second , <unk> Thunderbirds , was syndicated by UPN .", "Developed as a comedy , <unk> Thunderbirds moved the action to the planet \" Thunder @-@ World \" and combined the original puppet footage with new live @-@ action scenes featuring a pair of human teenagers .", "As well as <unk> , Anderson developed other ideas for a remake .", "A 1976 concept , Inter @-@ <unk> Rescue 4 , was to have featured a variable @-@ configuration craft capable of performing rescues on land and sea , in air and in space ; Anderson pitched the idea to NBC , who rejected it .", "This was followed in 1984 by another proposed updating , T @-@ Force , which at first could not be pursued owing to a lack of funding .", "Development resumed in 1993 , when it was decided to produce the series , now titled <unk> , using cel animation .", "But Anderson was disappointed with the results and the production was abandoned .", "In 2005 , Anderson re @-@ affirmed his wish to remake Thunderbirds but stated that he had been unable to secure the necessary rights from Granada <unk> .", "His negotiations with the company and its successor , ITV <unk> , continued for the next few years .", "In 2008 , he expressed his commitment to creating an \" updated \" version , ideally using CGI ; three years later , he announced that work on the series had commenced .", "Following Anderson 's death in December 2012 , it was confirmed that a deal had been struck between ITV Studios and <unk> Pictures to remake Thunderbirds using a combination of CGI and live @-@ action model sets .", "The new version , Thunderbirds Are Go , has been commissioned for two series of 26 episodes each .", "The first 13 episodes of Series One were broadcast on ITV HD and <unk> between April and June 2015 .", "In July 2015 , to celebrate the series ' 50th anniversary , Filmed in Supermarionation documentary director Stephen La Rivière launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise the funds necessary to produce three new puppet episodes based on the Thunderbirds mini @-@ albums of the 1960s .", "The project , titled \" Thunderbirds 1965 \" , is supported by ITV , Sylvia Anderson and the estate of Gerry Anderson .", "= = Influence = = \n \n Thunderbirds has influenced TV programmes , films and various other media .", "The puppet comedy of the film Team America : World Police was directly inspired by the idiosyncrasies of Thunderbirds @-@ era Supermarionation techniques .", "<unk> and homage are also evident in Wallace and <unk> : A Close <unk> , Austin Powers : The Spy Who <unk> Me and <unk> , as well as the character design of Star Wars : The <unk> Wars .", "The BBC sketch comedy Not Only ...", "But Also included a segment titled \" <unk> \" – a parody of Thunderbirds , Supercar and Stingray .", "IR 's life @-@ saving mission inspired the founding of the volunteer International Rescue Corps , originally made up of a group of British <unk> who contributed to the humanitarian effort following the 1980 <unk> earthquake .", "Virgin Group has used the series in branding its services : Virgin Atlantic operates a Boeing <unk> @-@ 400 airliner named Lady Penelope , while Virgin Trains owns a fleet of <unk> that are all named after main characters and vehicles and used specifically to \" rescue \" broken @-@ down trains .", "A <unk> stage show , Thunderbirds : <unk> , has toured internationally and popularised a staccato style of movement known colloquially as the \" Thunderbirds walk \" .", "The production has periodically been revived as Thunderbirds : <unk> – The Next Generation .", "Cover versions of \" The Thunderbirds March \" have been released by musicians and bands such as Billy Cotton , Joe Loss , Frank <unk> , The <unk> and The Shadows .", "Groups who have written songs inspired by the series include <unk> ( with \" International Rescue \" ) , <unk> ( with \" Thunderbirds Are Coming Out \" ) , <unk> ( with \" Thunderbirds / <unk> \" ) and <unk> ( with \" Thunderbirds – Your Voice \" ) .", "In 1991 , Anderson filmed the music video for the Dire Straits single \" Calling Elvis \" with a collection of Thunderbirds @-@ style puppets .", "During the 1960s , APF produced themed TV advertisements for Lyons Maid and <unk> 's .", "Aspects of Thunderbirds have since been used in advertising for <unk> Insurance , <unk> Kit <unk> , <unk> and the UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency ." ]

[ " = T. Arthur Cottam = \n \n T. Arthur Cottam is a screenwriter , actor , producer and film director .", "A graduate of the Film and Television Production program at the <unk> School of the Arts of New York University , Cottam resides in Los Angeles , California .", "He acted in theatre , and received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello as a cast member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group .", "Cottam directed short films along a topical series called \" Dirty Little Shorts \" .", "His <unk> work Pornographic Apathetic deals with four people recounting pornographic film dialog in a state of apathy .", "Pornographic Apathetic was featured in numerous movie festivals , and received eight film awards as well as critical acclaim .", "Cottam 's film Carbuncle was featured in 2006 at the Milano Film Festival in Italy , and was recognized with a nomination in the category of \" Best Feature Film \" .", "His 2006 film Filthy Food received the award for \" Best Experimental Short Film \" at the festival <unk> NYC .", "Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the 2010 International Short Film Festival in <unk> , Italy , and was featured in <unk> <unk> in the same year .", "= = Education = = \n \n Cottam graduated from the Film and Television Production program at the <unk> School of the Arts of New York University .", "Cottam 's thesis work at <unk> was titled Beer <unk> , the film received the Best Editing award at the First Run Film Festival and was featured at the Chicago and New York Underground Film Festivals .", "He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from <unk> in 1998 .", "= = Career = = \n \n T. Arthur Cottam is an actor , and film @-@ maker , based in Los Angeles , California .", "Cottam was a member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group , and performed along with actors Denise Devin and <unk> Larsen in 2000 in a series of productions titled \" <unk> 7 : Bury the <unk> \" , directed by Zombie Joe and Josh T. Ryan .", "He continued performing in theatre in Los Angeles in 2001 .", "In 2002 , Cottam received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello put on by the Zombie Joe group .", "Cottam 's short films were produced along a topical series titled , \" Dirty Little Shorts \" .", "His film Pornographic Apathetic debuted in 2002 .", "The <unk> plot features four individuals ( two women and two men ) who recreate dialog from pornographic film while in a state of apathy .", "Pornographic Apathetic garnered eight film awards , and was featured at more than 50 film festivals .", "Pornographic Apathetic received positive reception from journalist Gary <unk> of The Dallas Morning News , who described it as \" Especially notable ... an experimental work that strips the <unk> from <unk> \" .", "Pornographic Apathetic was selected for inclusion in the <unk> International Fantastic Festival ( <unk> ) in South Korea ; the festival \" aims to identify the important elements of fantastic films , such as creativity and popularity \" .", "The movie was shown at the Paris <unk> Film <unk> at the Le Brady cinema , in Paris , France .", "The film was featured in an exhibit in Vienna , examining the nature of pornography .", "Writing for San Antonio Express @-@ News , Mike Greenberg observed , \" T. Arthur Cottam 's Pornographic Apathetic is just about the funniest thing I 've ever seen .", "( The excellent actors are mostly clothed , never touch each other and are nearly motionless , but the dialogue is not suitable for children or <unk> . )", "\" The film was given a favorable review by reporter Robert W. Butler of The Kansas City Star who covered the piece during its presentation at the Kansas City <unk> Jubilee .", "Butler wrote , \" Your ears will burn while watching T. Arthur Cottam 's <unk> <unk> essay on the <unk> effects of pornography , but you 'll also be laughing .", "...", "It 's lurid .", "It 's <unk> .", "It 's <unk> .", "But all this nasty <unk> is delivered deadpan , a device that <unk> the whole intention of <unk> . \"", "Marc Mohan reviewed the film during its feature at the Portland International Short Short Film Festival , and wrote that it \" makes the most of its one @-@ joke premise \" .", "In 2007 , The Orlando Sentinel characterized Cottam as a favorite film @-@ maker at the Florida Film Festival .", "Los Angeles Times journalist <unk> <unk> cited the film as an example of problems with the adult film industry in an article about a sexual art exhibit ; he commented , \" The piece makes you laugh while illustrating one of the <unk> of <unk> : At its core , it 's rather <unk> and boring . \"", "In 2006 , Cottam 's film Carbuncle competed at the Milano Film Festival , alongside another U.S. film titled The Blood of my Brother by <unk> <unk> .", "Carbuncle received a nomination in the category of \" Best Feature Film \" at the Milan Film Festival .", "Cottam 's 2006 film Filthy Food was featured in the San Francisco Underground Short Film Festival , and received the award for \" Best Experimental Short Film \" at the festival <unk> NYC .", "In 2010 , Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the International Short Film Festival in <unk> , Italy .", "It was featured in a section of the International Short Film Festival which included selections of films that were considered \" visionary \" and contributed a \" visual impact \" to cinema .", "52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was featured in <unk> <unk> 2010 , where Lane <unk> associate director of programming called it \" the most outrageously ' out there ' film that we have scheduled \" .", "In an interview with <unk> , Cottam stated he had intended to direct a feature @-@ length film for some time , and wanted to combine his talents with actors who could improvise in front of the camera .", "Cottam said he had a great experience working with the actors on the film Carbuncle , and stated he let improvisation be the tool by which the actors could show emotions and create their characters .", "In September 2010 , 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was shown at the Black Rock City Film Festival located at the Burning Man site in the Nevada desert .", "= = Filmography = = \n \n \n = = = Film = = = \n \n \n = = = Theatre = = = \n \n \n = = Awards and nominations = =" ]

[ " = Partington = \n \n Partington is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester , England , about ten miles ( 16 km ) to the south @-@ west of Manchester city centre .", "Historically part of Cheshire , it lies on the southern bank of the Manchester Ship Canal , opposite <unk> on the northern bank .", "It has a population of 7 @,@ <unk> .", "A paper mill built in Partington more than 250 years ago was the first factory in Trafford .", "The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port and attracted a range of other industries .", "Until 2007 Shell Chemicals UK operated a major <unk> manufacturing complex in Carrington , Partington 's closest neighbour , to the east .", "The gas storage facility in the north @-@ eastern corner of the town was once a <unk> and another significant employer .", "Shortly after the Second World War , local authorities made an effort to <unk> people away from Victorian slums in inner @-@ city Manchester .", "An area of Partington extended as an <unk> estate is now one of the most deprived parts of the Greater Manchester conurbation .", "The Cheshire Lines Committee opened a railway line through the town in 1873 , but it closed in 1964 .", "Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership was established to provide the town 's youth with activities and the town has seen investment in a new youth centre .", "Broadoak School , the only secondary school in the town , is used by Trafford College to provide further education .", "= = History = = \n \n Partington , first recorded in 1260 , was in the medieval and post @-@ medieval parish of <unk> .", "The name derives from Old English : the first element may be a personal name such as <unk> or <unk> , or part \" land divided up into <unk> \" followed by <unk> , meaning \" people of \" ; the <unk> <unk> means \" <unk> \" .", "The village consisted of dispersed <unk> , with no nucleated centre .", "It was surrounded by wetlands on all sides , reducing the amount of land available for agriculture .", "According to the hearth tax returns of 1664 , Partington had a population of 99 .", "In 1755 a paper mill on the River <unk> was opened in Partington , the first factory to be established in present @-@ day Trafford .", "<unk> Farmhouse dates from the late 18th century and is a Grade II listed building .", "Also protected as a Grade II listed building are the stocks on the village green .", "Its stone pillars are from the 18th century , although the wooden restraints were replaced in the 20th century .", "The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port .", "The canal was widened to 250 feet ( 76 m ) for three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.", "@ 2 km ) to allow for the construction of a coaling basin , equipped with four hydraulic coal hoists .", "Partington was the nearest port to the Lancashire <unk> , and brought the south Yorkshire collieries 30 miles ( 48 km ) closer to the sea .", "Between 1898 – 1911 , exports of coal accounted for 53 @.", "@ 4 per cent of the total export tonnage carried by the ship canal .", "The coal trade in turn resulted in Partington becoming a major railway depot , and attracted a range of other industries , including the Partington Steel & Iron Company , which was encouraged by the availability of coal to construct a <unk> .", "The works became a part of the Lancashire Steel Corporation in 1930 , and dominated the economy of nearby <unk> until their closure in 1976 .", "After the Second World War , Partington was extended as an <unk> estate .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n The civil parish of Partington was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 and has its own town council .", "Partington became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in <unk> Rural District .", "The town is part of the <unk> St Martin electoral ward ; Partington Parish Council is made up of local residents and ward councillors .", "Partington also belongs to the <unk> and <unk> constituency and is part of the North West England constituency of the European Parliament .", "Since its creation in 1997 the constituency 's Member of Parliament has been a member of the Labour Party , Kate Green being the present incumbent .", "= = Geography = = \n \n At 53 ° 25 ′ 12 ″ N 2 ° 25 ′ 48 ″ W ( 53 @.", "@ 42 , − 2 @.", "@ 43 ) , Partington lies west of Sale , north @-@ east of the civil parish of Warburton , and is on Trafford 's northern border with the City of Salford .", "It is nine miles ( 14 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester city centre .", "<unk> Brook runs east – west through the area , and the town is about 20 m ( 66 ft ) above sea level on generally flat ground .", "Partington 's local drift geology is a mixture of alluvial deposits , <unk> @-@ glacial gravel , and peat deposited about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age .", "The bedrock is <unk> sandstone in the south and <unk> sandstone in the north .", "The town 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester .", "The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.", "@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.", "@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.", "@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.", "@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( <unk> @.", "@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.", "@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( <unk> @.", "@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Partington had a population of 7 @,@ <unk> .", "The 2001 population density was 5 @,@ 348 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ <unk> / km2 ) , with a 100 to 93 @.", "@ 1 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio .", "Of those over 16 years old , 34 @.", "@ 7 % were single ( never married ) , 34 @.", "@ 9 % married , and 10 @.", "@ 5 % divorced .", "Partington 's 3 @,@ 354 households included 33 @.", "@ 5 % one @-@ person , 28 @.", "@ 7 % married couples living together , 8 @.", "@ 8 % were co @-@ <unk> couples , and 16 @.", "@ 3 % single parents with their children .", "Of those aged 16 – 74 , 38 @.", "@ 9 % had no academic qualifications , significantly higher than the averages of Trafford ( 24 @.", "@ 7 % ) and England ( 28 @.", "@ 9 % ) .", "It has been described as one of the most deprived places in the Greater Manchester conurbation .", "As of the 2001 UK census , 76 @.", "@ 8 % of Partington 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 0 @.", "@ 8 % Muslim , 0 @.", "@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.", "@ 2 % Jewish , and 0 @.", "@ 1 % Sikh .", "The census recorded 14 @.", "@ 7 % as having no religion , 0 @.", "@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.", "@ 1 % did not state their religion .", "= = Economy = = \n \n The main shopping area of Partington is on Central Road , in the centre of town .", "Partington also has a traditional market on Smithy Lane .", "Spanish company , <unk> , bought a lease on a disused <unk> site by the Manchester Ship Canal in 2009 to <unk> paper into packaging .", "The plant is the most \" advanced , fully integrated facility in the UK \" .", "It uses water recycled from the ship canal and its heat and power plant supplies surplus power to the national grid .", "The plant cost £ 300 million and production started in January 2012 .", "According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 19 @.", "@ 3 % retail and wholesale , 15 @.", "@ 0 % manufacturing , 14 @.", "@ 7 % property and business services , 10 @.", "@ 8 % health and social work , 9 @.", "@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.", "@ 2 % construction , 5 @.", "@ 2 % education , 4 @.", "@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.", "@ 8 % finance , 3 @.", "@ 1 % public administration , 1 @.", "@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.", "@ 7 % energy and water supply , 0 @.", "@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.", "@ 9 % other .", "Compared with national figures , Partington had a relatively high percentage of residents working in transport and communications , and a relatively low percentage working in public administration .", "The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 1 @.", "@ 8 % students were with jobs , 3 @.", "@ 4 % students without jobs , 7 @.", "@ 7 % looking after home or family , 10 @.", "@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.", "@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons .", "The proportion of those who were permanently sick or disabled in Partington was above the Trafford and England average ( 5 @.", "@ 4 % and 6 @.", "@ 5 % respectively ) .", "= = Education = = \n \n Trafford maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam .", "There are three primary schools and one secondary school in Partington .", "The oldest school still standing in the town was opened in 1958 and used to be called Partington County Primary School .", "There is one other state primary schools at Forest Gate with Academy status .", "There is also a Roman Catholic school – Our Lady of Lourdes Primary School on Lock Lane .", "Broadoak School is a secondary school with academy status for pupils aged 11 to 16 .", "= = Transport = = \n \n Partington 's main road is the <unk> between <unk> and the <unk> area of Sale .", "The Manchester Ship Canal also carries some industrial traffic .", "The nearest road crossing over the canal is at Warburton Bridge , one of the few remaining pre @-@ motorway toll bridges in the UK , and the only one in Greater Manchester .", "The Department for Transport describes Partington as \" geographically isolated with road access restricted by the proximity of the Manchester Ship Canal and the nearby petrochemical works [ in Carrington ] \" and notes that there are low levels of car ownership .", "The 255 operates every 30 minutes during the day , and <unk> after 1955 into Manchester Piccadilly 7 days a week \n The town was served by a railway station to the north of the town , the Cheshire Lines Committee <unk> to <unk> <unk> Dale Line .", "The station was opened in 1873 , eight years after the line opened , and was in use until 30 November 1964 .", "A grant of £ 312 @,@ 000 was made by the government to set up Partington Cooperative Transport ( <unk> ) with the purpose of improving public transport in the town .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n Founded in 2003 as part of a government project for <unk> to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership ( <unk> ) has since expanded its scope and provides facilities for youths up to the age of 25 .", "It runs a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football league and <unk> ' <unk> <unk> Park .", "In 2009 it was announced that a £ 5 million youth centre would be built in the town .", "Based on designs by pupils from Broadoak Secondary School , the centre will provide facilities for workshops in dance , film @-@ making , and art .", "<unk> of the school , Andy Griffin , said \" It 's a massive thing for Partington as this will help kick @-@ start regeneration of the town .", "I think it will also help bring people to Partington rather than leaving \" .", "<unk> opportunities for sport , a £ 2 million sports complex was opened next to Broadoak Secondary School in 2008 .", "It features a pool , a sports hall , outdoor pitches and grass courts , and facilities for other activities .", "The town is served by an Anglican church , St Mary 's , a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Our Lady of Lourdes , a Methodist chapel , and a Baptist church called the People 's Church .", "St Mary 's Church is a Grade II listed building , and Our Lady of Lourdes ' <unk> Church and parish was founded in 1957 .", "Partington is in the Catholic <unk> of Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury and the Anglican Diocese of Chester ." ]

[ " = Key ( basketball ) = \n \n The key , officially referred to as the free throw lane by the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , the restricted area by the international governing body FIBA , and colloquially as the lane or the paint , is an area on a basketball court underneath the basket bounded by the <unk> , the foul line and other lines which are known as <unk> lines , that are usually painted ( although <unk> on some courts with painted <unk> ) .", "It is a critical area on the court where much of the action takes place in a game .", "The key , in all games , starting with FIBA 's amendments to its rules in 2010 ( to be first implemented after the 2010 FIBA World Championship ) , is rectangular .", "Prior to 2006 , the key in FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments ( mostly basketball played outside the United States , and almost all international tournaments including the World Championships and the Olympics ) was trapezoidal in shape .", "Both NBA and FIBA keys are 16 feet ( 4 @.", "@ 9 m ) wide , while NCAA keys are narrower at 12 feet ( 3 @.", "@ 7 m ) .", "The most @-@ commonly enforced rule on the key is the \" three seconds rule \" in which a player from the offensive team is prohibited from staying on the key for more than three seconds , or else the player 's team will lose possession of the ball .", "Another rule enforced is the lane violation in which players from both teams are prohibited to enter the lane until after the free throw shooter releases the ball from his hands ( the shooter is prohibited to enter the key until after the ball hits the rim ) .", "An innovation is the introduction of the restricted area arc directly underneath the basket where the defending player cannot force an offensive foul on the opposing player .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n Each level of play has different specifications for the size and shape of the key : in American leagues , where the basketball court is measured in imperial units , the shape is rectangular , while in FIBA @-@ sanctioned events , which use the metric system , the shape was trapezoidal , before being changed to a <unk> as well .", "In addition to the <unk> <unk> , the key includes a free @-@ throw circle at its \" head \" or \" top \" .", "The width of the key in the NBA is 16 feet ( 4 @.", "@ 9 m ) , including the 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.", "@ 6 m ) wide foul lanes ; in U.S. college ( NCAA ) and high @-@ school play , it is 12 feet ( 3 @.", "@ 7 m ) .", "Beginning after the 2010 FIBA World Championship , all FIBA @-@ administered tournaments use a rectangular key 4 @.", "@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) wide .", "From 1956 until 2010 , FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments used a trapezoidal key .", "The narrower end was on the free @-@ throw line , where it was 3 @.", "@ 6 meters ( 12 ft ) , while the wider end , at the end line , measured 6 meters ( 20 ft ) .", "The free throw circle has a six @-@ foot ( 1 @.", "@ 8 m ) radius and is centered at the midpoint of the free throw line ; the half of those circle on the mid @-@ court side of the free throw line is painted in solid lines .", "In the NBA and <unk> , the boundaries of the half closer to the basket is traced in a broken line in order to space players properly for jump balls .", "NBA Rule 1 ( g ) requires the key to contain two 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long <unk> marks , 3 feet ( 0 @.", "@ 91 m ) from the free throw line ; the marks indicate the so @-@ called lower defensive box .", "The free @-@ throw line is 15 feet ( 4 @.", "@ 6 m ) from the perpendicular projection of the face of the <unk> onto the court ; this projection is 4 feet ( 1 @.", "@ 2 m ) from the end @-@ line for NBA and NCAA .", "The projection of the center of the basket onto the court is a perpendicular distance of 1 @.", "@ 575 meters ( 5 @.", "@ 17 ft ) from the end line in FIBA tournaments , but 4 @.", "@ 75 feet ( 1 @.", "@ 45 m ) in NBA and NCAA tournaments .", "= = History = = \n \n Originally , the key was narrower than it is today and had the shape of a skeleton / basic lever lock <unk> , measuring six feet ( 1 @.", "@ 8 m ) wide , hence \" the key \" , with the free throw circle as the head , and the <unk> lane as the body .", "Due to the <unk> of the key , imposing centers , such as George <unk> , dominated the paint , scoring at will .", "To counter this , the key was widened into 12 feet ( 3 @.", "@ 7 m ) from 6 feet ( 1 @.", "@ 8 m ) at the onset of the 1951 – 52 NBA season .", "Men 's professional basketball in the United States ( notably the National Basketball Association ) widened it further to 16 feet ( 4 @.", "@ 9 m ) in the 1964 – 65 NBA season to lessen the effectiveness of centers , especially Wilt Chamberlain .", "The NCAA retains the 12 feet key to this day .", "On April 25 , 2008 , the FIBA Central Board approved rule changes that included the changes in the shape of the key ; the key is now rectangular and has virtually the same dimensions as the key used in the NBA .", "In addition , the no @-@ charge <unk> formally called the restricted area arc was also created .", "= = Rules = = \n \n \n = = = Three @-@ second violation = = = \n \n The lane is a restricted area in which players can stay for only a limited amount of time .", "On all levels , a team on the offensive ( in possession of the ball ) is prohibited to stay inside the lane for more than three seconds ; after three seconds the player will be called with a three @-@ second violation which will result in a turnover .", "In American professional basketball , the defending team is also prohibited from staying in the key for more than three seconds , unless a player is directly guarding an offensive player .", "If a player surpasses that time , his / her team will be charged with a defensive three @-@ second violation , which will result in a technical foul where the team with the ball shoots one free throw plus ball possession and a reset of the shot clock .", "In FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments , on the other hand , the defending team is allowed to stay on the key for an unlimited amount of time .", "In all cases , the count <unk> if the shot hits the rim or if the player steps out of the lane .", "= = = Lane violation = = = \n \n When a player is shooting free throws , there are a certain number of players at the boundaries of the key , each occupying a slot traced at the boundaries of the key .", "In most cases , the free throw shooter is behind the free throw line , while three of his opponents are along the sides of the key , one side with two players , the other with one .", "Two of his opponents are situated nearest to the basket on both sides , while his two teammates are beside the two opponents closest to the basket , with the other player from the opposing team situated farthest from the basket .", "In the U.S. NCAA , there are as many as six players along the key , with the opposing team allowed to have as many as four players , with the same arrangement as in the NBA and FIBA but with another player facing his teammate farthest to the basket .", "( See photographs to the right . )", "No player along the lane may enter the key until the shot is released ; the player shooting the free throw , and anyone on top of the key , should not pass the free throw line until the ball hits the rim .", "If any of the offensive players violate the rule , no points are awarded for the shot and , if there are no more shots remaining , the ball is given to the defending team .", "If a defending player is in the lane too soon , an extra shot will be awarded regardless of whether the shot was made or missed .", "Note that in FIBA play , if the shooter commits the violation , it is an automatic turnover .", "If the shot is successful and the shooter does not commit a violation , but other players do commit a violation , all violations are discarded .", "If players from the opposing teams enter the key prior to the release of the ball , a jump ball would be done to determine who gets the possession of the ball ( NBA ) or the possession arrow rule ( for all other levels ) ; in FIBA play , that only applies if the shooter misses , since a successful attempt <unk> all other penalties .", "In all situations , lane violation penalties cannot occur if there are further free throws to be awarded .", "= = = <unk> area arc = = = \n \n In the NBA , <unk> , and starting in 2010 , in FIBA and NCAA play , the key has an additional area , measured as an arc three feet from the basket ( collegiate ) , four feet from the basket ( NBA ) , or 1 @.", "@ 25 meters ( approximately 4 @.", "@ 1 feet ) ( FIBA ) .", "The area is officially known as the \" restricted area \" ( RA ) in the NBA , the \" restricted area arc \" in the NCAA and the \" no @-@ charge <unk> \" in FIBA .", "Its purpose is to stop secondary defenders from taking a position under the basket in an attempt to draw the offensive foul when a player is driving to the basket .", "If an offensive player drives past his primary defender on the way to the basket and a secondary defender comes over , he must establish a legal position outside the RA to draw an offensive foul .", "If the drive starts inside the Lower Defensive Box ( <unk> – this is the area from the bottom tip of the free throw circle to the end line between the two 3 ’ posted @-@ up marks ) , the secondary defender is legally allowed to be positioned inside the RA .", "The restricted area also does not apply if the secondary defender jumps in attempting to block the shot , the offensive player leads with his leg or knee in an unnatural motion or uses his off arm to prevent the defender from blocking his shot .", "The RA does not extend from below the <unk> to the baseline .", "Therefore , if a player drives the baseline and is not attempting to go directly to the rim , the RA does not apply .", "The restricted area arc rule was implemented in NCAA men 's basketball for the 2010 – 2011 season .", "The NCAA approved adding a visible restricted @-@ area arc three feet from the center of the basket in Division I men ’ s and women ’ s games for 2011 – 2012 season .", "The panel delayed implementation of the arc until the 2012 @-@ 13 season for Divisions II and III to allow those schools time to plan and place the restricted @-@ area arc in their home arenas .", "Starting with the 2015 @-@ 2016 season , the NCAA raised the RA arc to four feet from the center of the basket .", "= = Terms = = \n \n Points made on the key are termed as points in the paint or inside points .", "Historically , the area of the key where offensive players are prohibited from remaining longer than three seconds has been painted to distinguish the area from the rest of the court ; hence the phrase \" points in the paint . \"", "The area around the free throw circle 's farthest point from the basket is called the \" top of the key \" , and several plays revolve around this area , such as screens and pick and rolls .", "In American women 's collegiate basketball ( and for men until 2008 ) , the three @-@ point arc intersects at the top of the key , which could translate plays conducted in this area into three @-@ point field goal <unk> .", "The intersection of the free throw line and the free throw lane is referred to as the elbow of the key ." ]

[ " = The General in His Labyrinth = \n \n The General in His Labyrinth ( original Spanish title : El general en su laberinto ) is a novel by the Colombian writer and Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez .", "It is a fictionalized account of the last days of Simón Bolívar , liberator and leader of Gran Colombia .", "First published in 1989 , the book traces Bolívar 's final journey from Bogotá to the Caribbean coastline of Colombia in his attempt to leave South America for exile in Europe .", "In this dictator novel about a continental hero , \" despair , sickness , and death inevitably win out over love , health , and life \" .", "Breaking with the traditional heroic portrayal of Bolívar El <unk> , García Márquez depicts a pathetic protagonist , a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted .", "The story explores the labyrinth of Bolívar 's life through the narrative of his memories .", "Following the success of others of his works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude and Love in the Time of Cholera , García Márquez decided to write about the \" Great Liberator \" after reading an unfinished novel about Bolívar by his friend Álvaro Mutis .", "He borrowed the setting — Bolívar 's voyage down the Magdalena River in 1830 — from Mutis .", "After two years of research that encompassed the extensive memoirs of Bolívar 's Irish aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Daniel Florencio O 'Leary , as well as numerous other historical documents and <unk> with academics , García Márquez published his novel about the last seven months of Bolívar 's life .", "Its mixture of genres makes The General in His Labyrinth difficult to classify , and commentators disagree over where it lies on the scale between novel and historical account .", "García Márquez 's insertion of interpretive and fictionalized elements — some dealing with Bolívar 's most intimate moments — caused outrage in parts of Latin America when the book was released .", "Many prominent Latin American figures believed that the novel damaged the reputation of one of the region 's most important historic figures and portrayed a negative image to the outside world .", "Others saw The General in His Labyrinth as a tonic for Latin American culture and a challenge to the region to deal with its problems .", "= = Background = = \n \n The initial idea to write a book about Simón Bolívar came to García Márquez through his friend and fellow Colombian writer Álvaro Mutis , to whom the book is dedicated .", "Mutis had started writing a book called El Último <unk> about Bolívar 's final voyage along the Magdalena River , but never finished it .", "At the time , García Márquez was interested in writing about the Magdalena River because he knew the area intimately from his childhood .", "Two years after reading El Último <unk> , García Márquez asked Mutis for his permission to write a book on Bolívar 's last voyage .", "García Márquez believed that most of the information available on Bolívar was one @-@ dimensional : \" No one ever said in Bolívar 's biographies that he sang or that he was <unk> ... but historians don 't say these things because they think they are not important . \"", "In the <unk> to the novel , García Márquez writes that he researched the book for two years ; the task was difficult , both because of his lack of experience in conducting historical research , and the lack of documentary evidence for the events of the final period of Bolívar 's life .", "García Márquez researched a wide variety of historical documents , including Bolívar 's letters , 19th @-@ century newspapers , and Daniel Florencio O 'Leary 's 34 volumes of memoirs .", "He engaged the help of various experts , among them geographer Gladstone <unk> ; historian and fellow Colombian <unk> Gutiérrez <unk> , who had co @-@ written a book called Bolívar Día a Día with historian <unk> <unk> ; and astronomer Jorge <unk> — García Márquez used an inventory drawn up by <unk> to describe which nights Bolívar spent under a full moon .", "García Márquez also worked closely with Antonio Bolívar <unk> , a distant relative of Bolívar , during the extensive editing of the book .", "= = = Historical context = = = \n \n The novel is set in 1830 , at the tail end of the initial campaign to secure Latin America 's independence from Spain .", "Most of Spanish America had gained independence by this date ; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule .", "Within a few decades of Christopher Columbus 's landing on the coast of what is now Venezuela in <unk> , South America had been effectively conquered by Spain and Portugal .", "By the beginning of the 19th century , several factors affected Spain 's control over its colonies : Napoleon 's invasion of Spain in 1808 , the abdication of Charles IV , Ferdinand VII 's <unk> of his right to succeed , and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne .", "The colonies were virtually cut off from Spain , and the American and French <unk> inspired many <unk> — American @-@ born descendants of Spanish settlers — to take advantage of Spanish weakness .", "As a result , Latin America was run by independent <unk> and colonial self @-@ governments .", "The early 19th century saw the first attempts at securing liberation from Spain , which were led in northern South America by Bolívar .", "He and the independence movements won numerous battles in Venezuela , New Granada and present @-@ day Ecuador and Peru .", "His dream of uniting the Spanish American nations under one central government was almost achieved .", "However , shortly after the South American colonies became independent of Spain , problems developed in the capitals , and civil wars were sparked in some provinces ; Bolívar lost many of his supporters and fell ill .", "Opposition to his presidency continued to increase , and in 1830 , after 11 years of rule , he resigned as president of Gran Colombia .", "= = Plot summary = = \n \n The novel is written in the third @-@ person with flashbacks to specific events in the life of Simón Bolívar , \" the General \" .", "It begins on May 8 , 1830 in Santa Fe de Bogotá .", "The General is preparing for his journey towards the port of Cartagena de <unk> , intending to leave Colombia for Europe .", "Following his resignation as President of Gran Colombia , the people of the lands he liberated have now turned against him , <unk> anti @-@ Bolívar graffiti and throwing waste at him .", "The General is anxious to move on , but has to remind the Vice @-@ President @-@ elect , General Domingo <unk> , that he has yet to receive a valid passport to leave the country .", "The General leaves Bogotá with the few officials still faithful to him , including his <unk> and aide @-@ de @-@ camp , José Palacios .", "At the end of the first chapter , the General is referred to by his full title , General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , for the only time in the novel .", "On the first night of the voyage , the General stays at <unk> with his entourage , which consists of José Palacios , five aides @-@ de @-@ camp , his clerks , and his dogs .", "Here , as throughout the journey that follows , the General 's loss of prestige is evident ; the downturn in his fortunes surprises even the General himself .", "His unidentified illness has led to his physical deterioration , which makes him <unk> , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp is constantly mistaken for the Liberator .", "After many delays , the General and his party arrive in Honda , where the Governor , <unk> Gutiérrez , has arranged for three days of fiestas .", "On his last night in Honda , the General returns late to camp and finds one of his old friends , Miranda <unk> , waiting for him .", "The General recalls that fifteen years ago , she had learned of a plot against his life and had saved him .", "The following morning , the General begins the voyage down the Magdalena River .", "Both his physical <unk> and pride are evident as he <unk> the slope to the dock : he is in need of a <unk> chair but refuses to use it .", "The group stays a night in Puerto Real , where the General claims he sees a woman singing during the night .", "His aides @-@ de @-@ camp and the <unk> conduct a search , but they fail to uncover any sign of a woman having been in the vicinity .", "The General and his entourage arrive at the port of <unk> .", "Here they are stopped by police , who fail to recognize the General .", "They ask for his passport , but he is unable to produce one .", "Eventually , the police discover his identity and escort him into the port .", "The people still believe him to be the President of Gran Colombia and prepare banquets in his honor ; but these festivities are wasted on him due to his lack of strength and appetite .", "After several days , the General and his entourage set off for Turbaco .", "The group spend a <unk> night in <unk> <unk> before they arrive in Turbaco .", "Their original plan was to continue to Cartagena the following day , but the General is informed that there is no available ship bound for Europe from the port and that his passport still has not arrived .", "While staying in the town , he receives a visit from General Mariano <unk> and a few other friends .", "The deterioration of his health becomes increasingly evident — one of his visitors describes his face as that of a dead man .", "In Turbaco , the General is joined by General Daniel Florencio O 'Leary and receives news of ongoing political machinations : Joaquín <unk> , appointed successor as President of Gran Colombia , has assumed power but his legitimacy is still contested by General Rafael <unk> .", "The General recalls that his \" dream began to fall apart on the very day it was realized \" .", "The General finally receives his passport , and two days later he sets off with his entourage for Cartagena and the coast , where more receptions are held in his honor .", "Throughout this time , he is surrounded by women but is too weak to engage in sexual relations .", "The General is deeply affected when he hears that his good friend and preferred successor for the presidency , Field Marshal Sucre , has been ambushed and assassinated .", "The General is now told by one of his aides @-@ de @-@ camp that General Rafael <unk> has taken over the government in Bogotá , and there are reports of demonstrations and riots in support of a return to power by Bolívar .", "The General 's group travel to the town of Soledad , where he stays for more than a month , his health declining further .", "In Soledad , the General agrees to see a physician for the first time .", "The General never leaves South America .", "He finishes his journey in Santa Marta , too weak to continue and with only his doctor and his closest aides by his side .", "He dies in poverty , a shadow of the man who liberated much of the continent .", "= = Characters = = \n \n \n = = = The General = = = \n \n The leading character in the novel is \" the General \" , also called \" the Liberator \" .", "García Márquez only once names his protagonist as Simón Bolívar , the famous historical figure , whose full title was General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , on whom the General 's character is based .", "The novel 's portrait of a national and Latin American hero , which challenges the historical record , provoked outrage in some quarters on its publication .", "At the beginning of the novel , the General is 46 years old and slowly dying on his last journey to the port of Cartagena de <unk> , where he plans to set sail for Europe .", "As Palencia @-@ Roth notes , \" Bolívar is cast here not only as a victim but as an agent of Latin America 's tragic political flaws \" .", "The fortunes of the historical Simón Bolívar began to decline in 1824 after the victory of his general Antonio José de Sucre at <unk> .", "The novel draws on the fact that the historical Bolívar never remarried after the death of his wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y <unk> .", "García Márquez uses other documented facts as starting points for his fictional portrait of Bolívar – for example , his dedication to the army above all else , his premature aging , and his bad temper .", "Of the latter , Bolívar 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp O 'Leary once remarked that \" his <unk> and impatient temperament would never tolerate the smallest delay in the execution of an order \" .", "In an interview with María Elvira <unk> , García Márquez has admitted that his portrayal of Bolívar is partly a self @-@ portrait .", "He identifies with Bolívar in many ways , since their method of controlling their anger is the same and their philosophical views are similar : neither \" pays much attention to death , because that <unk> one from the most important thing : what one does in life \" .", "= = = José Palacios = = = \n \n The novel begins with the name of José Palacios , who , here as with the historical figure of the same name , is Bolívar 's \" long @-@ serving <unk> \" .", "As literary critic Seymour <unk> observes , Palacios 's \" total identification with Bolívar constitutes the novel 's frame \" .", "Palacios constantly <unk> on the General , and at certain times he alone is allowed in the General 's room .", "He has learned to live with his master 's unpredictability and does not <unk> to read his thoughts .", "Born a slave , the character is six years younger than the General , and has spent his entire life in his service .", "Throughout the novel , Palacios provides the General with <unk> or <unk> of dates and events during the General 's time of <unk> .", "According to one critic , Palacios 's ability to recall past events in Bolívar 's life is essential for García Márquez 's recreation of the character , as it allows the Bolívar of official history to be placed within the context of everyday life .", "= = = Manuela Sáenz = = = \n \n Manuela Sáenz is the General 's long @-@ time lover , his last since the death of his wife , 27 years earlier .", "Her character is based on Simón Bolívar 's historical mistress Doña Manuela Sáenz de Thorne , whom Bolívar dubbed \" the liberator of the liberator \" after she helped save him from an assassination attempt on the night of September 25 , 1828 .", "García Márquez 's fictional portrait stimulated a <unk> of this historical figure , who is increasingly seen , according to Venezuelan historian <unk> Romero , \" not just as a mistress but as the intelligent , independent , forceful woman she was \" .", "In the novel , she is described as \" the bold <unk> who loved him but was not going to follow him to his death \" .", "The General leaves Manuela Sáenz behind , but throughout the novel he writes to her on his journey .", "She also attempts to write letters to him with news of the political situation , but the mail carriers have been instructed not to accept her letters .", "Like the historical figure on whom she is based , the fictional Manuela Sáenz is married to Dr. James Thorne , an English physician twice her age .", "The historical Manuela Sáenz left Thorne after Bolívar wrote declaring his <unk> love for her .", "In the novel she is characterized as astute and <unk> , with \" irresistible grace , a sense of power , and <unk> tenacity \" .", "= = = General Francisco de Paula Santander = = = \n \n As he reflects on the past , the General often thinks and dreams about his former friend Francisco de Paula Santander .", "The historical Francisco de Paula Santander was a friend of Simón Bolívar , but was later accused of <unk> in a plot to assassinate him and sent into exile .", "In the novel , the General remembers that he had once appointed Santander to govern Colombia because he believed him to be an effective and brave soldier .", "He formerly regarded Santander as \" his other self , and perhaps his better self \" , but by the time of the events in The General in His Labyrinth Santander has become the General 's enemy and has been banished to Paris after his involvement in the assassination attempt .", "The General is depicted as tormented by the idea that Santander will return from his exile in France ; he dreams , for example , that Santander is eating the pages of a book , that he is covered in cockroaches , and that he is <unk> out his own <unk> .", "= = = Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre = = = \n \n Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre is portrayed as an intimate friend of the General .", "The historical Antonio José de Sucre , the Field Marshal of <unk> , had been the most trusted general of Simón Bolívar .", "García Márquez describes him as \" intelligent , methodical , shy , and superstitious \" .", "The Field Marshal is married to and has a daughter with Doña Mariana <unk> .", "In the first chapter of the novel , the General asks Sucre to succeed him as President of the Republic , but he rejects the idea .", "One of the reasons Sucre gives is that he wishes only to live his life for his family .", "Also at the beginning of the novel , Sucre 's death is foreshadowed .", "Sucre tells the General that he plans on celebrating the Feast of Saint Anthony in Quito with his family .", "When the General hears that Sucre has been assassinated in <unk> on his way back to Quito , he <unk> blood .", "= = = Minor characters = = = \n \n The novel revolves around the fictionalized figure of Bolívar and includes many minor characters who are part of the General 's travelling party , whom he meets on his journey or who come to him in his memories and dreams of his past .", "Sometimes they are identified by particular <unk> or tied to small but significant events .", "They include , for instance , General José María <unk> , a member of the entourage , whose right arm was amputated after a combat wound , and who once revealed a military secret by talking in his sleep .", "At other times , they are <unk> for the General 's now failing powers : Fernando , for example , the General 's nephew , is \" the most willing and patient of the General 's many clerks \" , and the General wakes him \" at any hour to have him read aloud from a dull book or take notes on urgent <unk> \" .", "One of the least developed of the minor characters is the General 's wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y <unk> , who had died , readers are told , in mysterious circumstances shortly after their marriage .", "The General has \" buried her at the bottom of a water @-@ tight oblivion as a brutal means of living without her \" ; she only <unk> enters his memories in the book 's last chapter .", "According to <unk> , she is \" upstaged \" by Manuela Sáenz , whose later history García Márquez recounts as if she instead were the General 's widow .", "María Teresa 's death , however , marked the General 's \" birth into history \" , and he has never tried to replace her .", "= = Major themes = = \n \n \n = = = Politics = = = \n \n In The General in His Labyrinth , García Márquez voices his political views through the character of the General .", "For example , Alvarez Borland points out that in the scene where the General responds to the French diplomat , his words closely reflect García Márquez 's 1982 Nobel Address .", "The diplomat is critical of the <unk> in Latin America and the brutal means used in attempting to achieve independence .", "Bolívar replies by pointing out that Europe had centuries to progress to its current state , and that South America should be left to experience its \" Middle Ages in peace \" .", "Similarly García Márquez remarks in his Nobel Speech that \" venerable Europe would perhaps be more <unk> if it tried to see Latin America in its own past .", "If only it recalled that London took three hundred years to build its first city wall ... \" .", "The novel was published in 1989 , when the Soviet Union was disintegrating and the political map was being radically redrawn .", "Reviewing The General in His Labyrinth in 1990 , the novelist Margaret Atwood pointed to another instance of García Márquez raising political issues through the character of the General .", "He has him tell his aide that the United States is \" omnipotent and terrible , and that its tale of liberty will end in a plague of <unk> for us all \" .", "Atwood noted the contemporary relevance of this sentiment , since \" the patterns of Latin American politics , and of United States intervention in them , have not changed much in 160 years . \"", "She suggested that García Márquez 's <unk> of Bolívar is a lesson \" for our own turbulent age ... <unk> have a long history of eating their <unk> . \"", "The central character is a man at the end of his life , who has seen his revolution and dream of a united Latin America fail .", "= = = <unk> labyrinth = = = \n \n According to literary critic David <unk> , the labyrinth of the novel 's title refers to \" a series of <unk> that are contingent upon matters of history , geography , and biography ... that consistently and conclusively result in a dead end \" — in this case , the General 's own death .", "His final voyage along the Magdalena River involves a doubling back and forth from one location to another that leads him and his followers nowhere .", "The labyrinth does not lead to happiness ; instead , it results in madness from constant <unk> on the past and an impossible future .", "At the end of his life , the General is reduced to a <unk> of his former self .", "The labyrinth also recalls the labyrinth built to imprison the <unk> in Greek mythology , and the endless travelling and searching of ancient Greek heroes .", "In <unk> 's view , \" The Labyrinth mirrors the <unk> and <unk> of the hero in search for meaning and resolution to the <unk> of life \" .", "García Márquez depicts the General 's body itself as a labyrinth .", "His doctor observes that \" everything that enters the body , adds weight , and everything that leaves it is <unk> . \"", "The General 's body is described as a \" labyrinth coming to a literal dead end \" .", "The labyrinth is also expressed in geographical and architectural imagery .", "The country 's destiny is imagined as a break @-@ up , a folding of north into south .", "The seas offer the hope of a new life and a new world , but the closer the General is to Colombia , the less chance he has of moving on .", "García Márquez describes buildings as \" daunting , <unk> ( if not exactly reiterating ) with the echoes of a bloody past \" .", "The portrayal of the General 's world as a labyrinth is <unk> by his constant return to cities and towns he has visited before : each location belongs to the past as well as to the present .", "The General in his Labyrinth <unk> the lines between <unk> in a man @-@ made world and wandering in the natural world .", "= = = Fate and love = = = \n \n Bolívar 's fate is known from the beginning , and García Márquez constantly uses images which <unk> this ending .", "For instance , a clock stuck at seven minutes past one , the exact time of the General 's death , appears repeatedly in the novel .", "This sense of fate is introduced in the <unk> , which comes from a letter written by the historical Bolívar to General Santander on August 4 , 1823 : \" It seems that the devil controls the business of my life . \"", "As Palencia @-@ Roth points out , the word used for devil here is <unk> rather than the more familiar <unk> .", "<unk> derives from the Greek word <unk> , which can equally mean divine power , fate , or destiny .", "Accordingly , the General <unk> to his fate and accepts his death as destiny .", "The theme of love is central to the novel .", "Bolívar had a reputation as a <unk> , and books have been written on his <unk> ; but as depicted in this novel , during the last seven months of his life , the General could no longer engage in the activities that had fueled that reputation .", "García Márquez mentions a woman every few pages , many of whom are his own invention , exploring love through the General 's memories .", "Palencia @-@ Roth notes that the presence of these women \" allows a <unk> exploration of his life before his final journey \" and suggests that García Márquez uses love as a barometer of the General 's heart and health .", "Although Bolívar is usually thought to have died from tuberculosis , Palencia @-@ Roth believes that for the author , the General dies from the lack of love . \"", "<unk> by many of his countrymen , abandoned by all but a few aides and associates , left — during the final seven months of his life — without even the companionship of his longtime mistress Manuela <unk> , Bolívar had no choice but to die of a broken heart . \"", "= = = Numbers and religious symbols = = = \n \n Numbers are an important symbolic aspect of the novel .", "The book is divided into eight chapters , almost all of equal length , which represent the eight @-@ year love affair between the General and Manuela Sáenz .", "The General 's last hours are marked by an octagonal clock .", "<unk> to the number three are even more common in the novel .", "As García Márquez scholar Isabel Rodríguez Vergara notes , the number three — the Trinity which occupies a vital place in the <unk> of the Catholic Mass — is repeated 21 times throughout the book .", "She quotes <unk> <unk> : \" In the novel it represents a symbolic sacrifice aimed at redeeming humankind — that of Bolívar , a misunderstood <unk> sacrificed by his own people . \"", "Rodríguez Vergara observes that the General is like a supernatural being , simultaneously dying and being surrounded by symbolic circumstances such as rain , fiestas , and the plague .", "The novel begins with Bolívar immersed in purifying waters , in a state of ecstasy and meditation that suggests a priestly ritual .", "One of the women with whom the General sleeps , Queen Marie Louise , is described as a virgin with the profile of an idol — an allusion to the Virgin Mary .", "The General rides a mule into the last towns on his journey towards death , echoing Christ 's entry into Jerusalem .", "He dies of mysterious and unknown causes , and the people burn his belongings in fear of catching his illness .", "In Rodríguez Vergara 's view , \" Bolívar was sacrificed as a <unk> to purge the guilt of the community . \"", "René <unk> has interpreted the recurrence of rain in the novel as one of the purifying rituals the community must undergo in order to wash away the <unk> of violence .", "The fiestas may represent another ritual of purification and also symbolize war .", "<unk> are held to honour the General when he arrives at a town , but at other times , political demonstrations against the General are mistaken for a fiesta .", "According to Rodríguez Vergara , this shows how \" information is manipulated \" and \" depicts an atmosphere where fiesta and war are synonymous \" .", "= = = Melancholy and mourning = = = \n \n Latin American cultural theorist Carlos J. Alonso , drawing on <unk> theory , argues that the novel is essentially a therapeutic device , designed to help move Latin America past its problematic experience of modernity .", "He compares this to the way the healing state of mourning replaces grief in the process of recovering from a death .", "Both activities are mechanisms for dealing with loss .", "Alonso believes that The General in his Labyrinth , by almost entirely centering the novel on the General 's death , forces the reader to confront the horror of this process .", "In Alonso 's view , the reader is meant to pass from \" a melancholy relationship vis @-@ a @-@ vis the figure of Bolívar to a relationship that has the therapeutic qualities of mourning instead \" .", "Latin America 's history and culture , Alonso suggests , began with the loss of Bolívar 's dream of a united continent and as a result has developed under a melancholy shadow ever since .", "Thus , by forcing the reader to return to the origin of modernity in Latin America and confront its death in the most horrific way , García Márquez <unk> the reader to move from melancholy to mourning , \" so that the <unk> of the lost object of modernity may cease to rule the <unk> economy of Spanish American cultural discourse and historical life \" .", "= = = <unk> history = = = \n \n García Márquez comments on the nature of historical fact by drawing attention to the way history is written .", "The novel <unk> a time in Bolívar 's life that has no historical precedent , as there is no record of the last 14 days of his life .", "In García Márquez 's account readers observe Bolívar intimately , seeing his human qualities .", "In the view of critic Isabel Alvarez Borland , by choosing to <unk> a national hero in this way , García Márquez is challenging the claim of official history to represent the truth .", "In the \" My <unk> \" section of the novel , García Márquez asserts ironically that what he is writing is more historical than fictional , and he discusses his own historical methodology in detail .", "By posing in the role of a historian , he challenges the reliability of written history from within the writing process .", "According to Alvarez Borland , this serves to \" remind us that a claim to truth is not the property of any text ; rather it is the result of how a historian ( as a reader ) interprets the facts \" .", "The General in His Labyrinth also confronts the methods of official historians by using an oral style of narration .", "The narration can be considered an oral account in that it is woven from the verbal interactions of everyday people .", "Alvarez Borland explains that the advantage of this technique , as discussed by Walter <unk> , is that \" the <unk> of any given culture , residing in the unwritten tales of its peoples , possesses a spontaneity and <unk> which is lost once this culture commits its tales to writing . \"", "The oral style of narration therefore provides a <unk> which official history lacks .", "Alvarez Borland concludes that The General in His Labyrinth suggests new ways of writing the past ; it takes account of voices that were never written down as part of official history .", "The historian Ben Hughes commented on the novel : \" The Liberator 's British <unk> , including Daniel O 'Leary , were amongst the closest figures to the general in this period .", "Nevertheless , they are ignored in the novel .", "Instead , Márquez uses the character of a fictional Colombian servant , José Palacios , as The Liberator 's final sounding board , thereby <unk> <unk> the more complex reality . \"", "In Hughes 's view modern South American literature has played a role in cleansing the national memory of British soldiers ' assistance to The Liberator .", "= = Comparisons with other García Márquez novels = = \n \n In an interview published in the Colombian weekly <unk> <unk> on March 20 , 1989 , García Márquez told María Elvira <unk> , \" At bottom , I have written only one book , the same one that circles round and round , and continues on . \"", "Palencia @-@ Roth suggests that this novel is a \" <unk> <unk> ... of García Márquez 's long @-@ standing <unk> and ever @-@ present topics : love , death , solitude , power , fate \" .", "Like the Patriarch in García Márquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch , Bolívar was an absolute dictator .", "The Patriarch is never identified by name ; Bolívar , too , is identified chiefly by his title .", "Bolívar also invites comparison with Colonel <unk> <unk> in One Hundred Years of Solitude : both characters believe the wars they have <unk> have been fruitless and overwhelming , and both face numerous attempts on their lives , but eventually die of natural causes .", "In his belief that life is controlled by fate , the General resembles <unk> in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Santiago <unk> in Chronicle of a Death <unk> .", "Palencia @-@ Roth notes that critics have been struck by the <unk> elegiac style of The General in His Labyrinth ; its dark mood and somber message is similar to that of The Autumn of the Patriarch .", "Love is a theme common to both Love in the Time of Cholera and The General in His Labyrinth , but the latter is considered a tragedy .", "These two novels have been used to demonstrate the range of García Márquez 's work .", "Isabel Alvarez Borland , in her essay \" The Task of the Historian in El general en su laberinto \" , claims that \" ... while El general en su laberinto is in many ways a continuation of García Márquez 's criticism of Latin America 's official history seen in his earlier works , the novel contrasts sharply with his previous <unk> \" .", "In Chronicle of a Death <unk> , according to Alvarez Borland , the narrator challenges the truth of official language .", "However , The General in His Labyrinth \" differs from these earlier works in employing narrative strategies which seek to answer in a much more overt and <unk> fashion questions that the novel poses about history \" .", "In a summary of Edward Hood 's book La <unk> de Gabriel García Márquez : <unk> e <unk> , García Márquez is characterized as an author who uses repetition and <unk> ( <unk> between the works of a single author ) extensively in his fiction , including in The General in His Labyrinth .", "Hood points out some obvious examples of repetition in García Márquez 's works : the themes of solitude in One Hundred Years of Solitude , <unk> in Autumn of the Patriarch , and the desire for a unified continent expressed by Bolívar in The General in His Labyrinth .", "An example of <unk> can be seen in the repetition of patterns between books .", "For example , both Jose <unk> <unk> in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Bolívar in The General in his Labyrinth experience <unk> dreams .", "= = Genre = = \n \n Critics consider García Márquez 's book in terms of the historical novel , but differ over whether the label is appropriate .", "In his review of The General in his Labyrinth , <unk> Rodman hesitated to call it a novel , since it was so heavily researched , giving Bolívar 's views \" on everything from life and love to his chronic <unk> and dislike of tobacco smoke \" .", "On the other hand , reviewer Robert Adams suggested that García Márquez had \" improved on history \" .", "According to critic Donald L. Shaw , The General in His Labyrinth is a \" New Historical Novel \" , a genre that he argues crosses between Boom , Post @-@ Boom , and <unk> fiction in Latin American literature : \" New Historical Novels tend either to <unk> historical events from an unconventional perspective , but one which preserves their <unk> , or to question the very possibility of making sense of the past at all . \"", "Shaw believes that this novel belongs to the first category .", "García Márquez is presenting both a historical account and his own interpretation of events .", "David Bushnell , writing in The Hispanic American Historical Review , points out that the work is less a pure historical account than others suggest .", "García Márquez 's Bolívar is a man \" who wanders naked through the house , suffers <unk> , uses foul language , and much more besides . \"", "He argues that documentation does not support many of these details .", "Bushnell suggests , however , that the fact that the novel is not entirely historically accurate does not necessarily distinguish it from the work of professional historians .", "The main difference , Bushnell believes , is that García Márquez 's work \" is far more readable \" than a pure history .", "= = Reception = = \n \n The General in His Labyrinth was relatively poorly received by the general public in the United States , despite the praise of critics .", "Critic Ilan Stavans , who himself praised the book as \" one of the writer 's most sophisticated and accomplished \" , attributes this to the novel 's time period and to its <unk> of historical information , neither of which proved attractive to English @-@ speaking readers .", "Isabel Alvarez Borland notes that , like Stavans , \" critics in the United States have largely celebrated García Márquez 's portrait of this national hero and considered it a tour de force \" ; but she also observes that in Latin America the book received more mixed reviews , ranging from \" outrage to <unk> praise \" .", "The novel generated huge controversy in Latin America : some Venezuelan and Colombian politicians described its depiction of Bolívar as \" <unk> \" .", "According to Stavans , they accused García Márquez of \" <unk> the larger @-@ than @-@ life reputation of a historical figure who , during the nineteenth century , struggled to unite the vast Hispanic world \" .", "The novel 's publication provoked outrage from many Latin American politicians and intellectuals because its portrayal of the General is not the <unk> image long cherished by many .", "Mexico 's ambassador to Austria , Francisco <unk> <unk> , wrote a <unk> letter , which was widely publicized in Mexico City , <unk> to the portrayal of Bolívar .", "He stated : \" The novel is plagued with errors of fact , conception , fairness , understanding of the historical moment and ignorance of its consequences ...", "It has served the enemies of Latin America , who care only that they can now <unk> Bolívar , and with him all of us . \"", "Even the novel 's admirers , such as the leading Venezuelan diplomat and writer <unk> <unk> <unk> , worried that some facts were stretched .", "García Márquez believes , however , that Latin America has to discover the General 's labyrinth to recognize and deal with its own maze of problems .", "More positively , Nelson <unk> , a Venezuelan TV commentator , considers the novel to be a tonic for Latin American culture : \" people here saw a Bolívar who is a man of flesh and bones just like themselves \" .", "Mexican author Carlos <unk> agrees with <unk> saying : \" What comes across beautifully and <unk> in this book is a man dealing with the unknown world of democratic ideas \" .", "García Márquez realistically portrays a ridiculous figure trapped in a labyrinth , <unk> the General 's defects , and presenting an image of Bolívar contrary to that instilled in classrooms .", "However , the novel also depicts Bolívar as an idealist and political theorist who predicted many problems that would obstruct Latin American advancement in the future .", "García Márquez depicts a figure who was aware of the racial and social friction in Latin American society , feared debt , and warned against economic <unk> .", "He has the General warn his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Agustín de <unk> , against the future interference of the United States in the internal affairs of Latin America .", "<unk> and critic Barbara <unk> comments that the book 's English translator , Edith Grossman , fully captures the multiple levels of meaning of the text , as well as García Márquez 's <unk> in tone .", "García Márquez himself has admitted that he prefers his novels in their English translations .", "= = Publication history = = \n \n The original Spanish version of The General in His Labyrinth was published simultaneously in Argentina , Colombia , Mexico , and Spain in 1989 .", "The first American edition was listed as a best seller in The New York Times the following year .", "The novel has been translated into many languages since its first publication in Spanish , as detailed by <unk> de González in 2003 ." ]

[ " = Copia ( museum ) = \n \n Copia : The American Center for Wine , Food & the Arts was a non @-@ profit museum and educational center in downtown Napa , California , dedicated to wine , food and the arts of American culture .", "The center , planned and largely funded by vintners Robert and <unk> Mondavi , was open from 2001 to 2008 .", "The museum had galleries , two theaters , classrooms , a demonstration kitchen , a restaurant , a rare book library , and a 3 @.", "@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.", "@ 4 ha ) vegetable and herb garden ; there it hosted wine and food tasting programs , exhibitions , films , and concerts .", "The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , \" Forks in the Road \" , explained the origins of cooking through to modern advances .", "The museum 's establishment benefited the city of Napa and the development and <unk> of its downtown .", "Copia hosted its opening celebration on November 18 , 2001 .", "Among other notable people , Julia Child helped fund the venture , which established a restaurant named Julia 's Kitchen .", "Copia struggled to achieve its anticipated admissions , and had difficulty in <unk> its debts .", "<unk> from ticket sales , membership and donations attempted to support Copia 's payoff of debt , educational programs and exhibitions , but eventually were not sufficient .", "After numerous changes to the museum to increase revenue , Copia closed on November 21 , 2008 .", "Its library was donated to Napa Valley College and its Julia Child <unk> was sent to the National Museum of American History .", "The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.", "@ 9 ha ) property had been for sale since its closure ; the Culinary Institute of America purchased the northern portion of the property in October 2015 .", "The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School .", "= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Name = = = \n \n The museum was named after Copia , the Roman goddess of wealth and plenty .", "According to Joseph Spence in <unk> ( 1755 ) , Copia is a name used to describe the goddess <unk> in poetry , and was referred to as <unk> Copia in <unk> 's <unk> .", "= = = Background = = = \n \n The city of Napa has historically not received as many wine country tourists as the cities north of it .", "A $ 300 million flood management project around the turn of the 21st century to widen the Napa River and raise bridges prompted building developments .", "In the early 2000s , a large development was completed in the downtown area , as well as several hotels .", "Copia and the nearby Oxbow Public Market were two large developments also constructed around that time to increase tourist and media focus on the city of Napa .", "The museum opened in 2001 , two months after the September 11 attacks .", "The museum 's visitor attendance was much lower than what was projected ; the museum partially attributed that to the depressed tourist economy stemming from the attacks .", "= = = Conception and construction = = = \n \n In 1988 , vintner Robert Mondavi , his wife <unk> Mondavi , and other members of the wine industry began to look into establishing an institution in Napa County to educate , promote , and celebrate American excellence and achievements in the culinary arts , visual arts , and winemaking .", "Three organizations supported the museum : the University of California at Davis , the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration , and the American Institute of Wine & Food .", "In 1993 , Robert Mondavi bought and donated the land for Copia for $ 1 @.", "@ 2 million ( $ 1 @.", "@ 97 million today ) , followed by a lead gift of $ 20 million ( $ 32 @.", "@ 8 million today ) .", "Mondavi chose the downtown Napa location with urging from his wife , who raised her children there .", "James <unk> was hired by the foundation as the architect for the building in October 1994 .", "Subsequently , the \" <unk> Seventy \" , supporters from Napa Valley and the surrounding Bay Area , made substantial donations .", "Initial financing for Copia was $ 55 million ( $ 66 @.", "@ 8 million today ) , along with a $ 78 million ( $ 104 million today ) bond prior to opening in 2001 .", "When the organization purchased the property , it was an empty lot next to a tire store .", "Steve <unk> , founder of the Oxbow Public Market , believed that Copia 's establishment helped expand Napa , its downtown area , and the Oxbow District .", "Construction of the facility triggered a significant growth in development of a <unk> marketplace , hotels and restaurants in downtown Napa .", "The museum began construction in 1999 and hosted opening celebrations on November 18 , 2001 .", "In 2005 , Copia sold 3 @.", "@ 5 acres ( 1 @.", "@ 4 ha ) to <unk> for construction of a <unk> hotel .", "= = = Decline and bankruptcy = = = \n \n Although the facility did attract visitors , local residents ' support failed to reach the numbers expected by the founders .", "Original projections of 300 @,@ 000 admissions per year were never met .", "In October 2006 , the museum announced plans to turn galleries into conference rooms , remove most of the museum 's focus on art , and lay off 28 of its 85 employees ( most of whom were security guards for the art gallery ) .", "At the time , Copia had $ 68 million ( $ 74 @.", "@ 7 million today ) in debt .", "That year the museum also lowered its original adult admission fee of $ 12 @.", "@ 50 to $ 5 .", "For three months in 2006 , the museum admitted guests free of charge , and attendance and revenue increased .", "The museum also began hosting weddings and renting its space more frequently in order to raise revenue .", "In 2007 , the museum altered its theme significantly by removing its focus on food and art , and instead focusing solely on wine .", "It replaced some of its gardens with vineyards , changed its displays to focus more on the history and aspects of wine and <unk> , and decreased the restaurant 's and programs ' focus on food .", "In September 2008 , Garry McGuire announced that 24 of 80 employees were being laid off and the days of operation would be reduced from 7 to 3 per week .", "<unk> figures had never reached either original or updated projections , causing the facility to operate annually in the red since its opening .", "In November , he announced that the property would be sold due to <unk> debt .", "The museum closed on Friday , November 21 , 2008 .", "The closure was without warning ; visitors who had arrived for scheduled events found a paper notice at the entrance that the center was temporarily closed .", "The next days ' events involving chef Andrew <unk> and singer Joni Morris were also abruptly cancelled ; the museum later stated that it would reopen on December 1 .", "On that day , the organization ( with $ 80 million ( $ 87 @.", "@ 9 million today ) in debt ) filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection .", "The federal bankruptcy court blocked a $ 2 million ( $ 2 @.", "@ 2 million today ) emergency loan with priority in security , leaving Copia with no funds to resume operations .", "Writing about the failure of the project , The New York Times and other newspapers suggested that Copia had failed to clearly define its focus .", "Potential tourists were left feeling unsure whether they were visiting a museum , a cooking school , or a promotional center for wine .", "= = = Aftermath = = = \n \n Following the 2008 closing of Copia , a group of investors , developers , advocates , and vintners named the Coalition to Preserve Copia was formed to explore a plan to preserve the building and grounds .", "Part of the group 's plan included forming a <unk> @-@ <unk> district with participation of local hotel properties to finance bonds to purchase the property , but their effort failed .", "In May 2009 local developer George <unk> spoke about his interest in purchasing the property .", "Other developers including the Culinary Institute of America also expressed an interest in acquiring the property .", "Copia 's bond holder , <unk> Financial <unk> Corporation , listed the property for sale in October 2009 .", "Napa Valley College 's upper valley campus became the home of the center 's library of around 1 @,@ 000 cookbooks .", "By late 2010 , local chefs had revived the center 's garden and the parking lot had become the location of a weekly farmer 's market .", "In 2011 , the museum was reported to still maintain its original <unk> , with the gift store fully stocked and the restaurant still furnished .", "In an April 2012 auction , most of the center 's fixtures , furniture , equipment , wine collection ( around 3 @,@ 500 bottles ) , <unk> , displays , artistic items , and antiquities were sold .", "Since Copia 's closure , the building has been used for a few meetings and events , including the Napa Valley Film Festival and <unk> Napa Valley .", "<unk> Development arranged to buy the entire site in 2015 and planned mixed use with housing and retail .", "The company planned to build up to 187 housing units , 30 @,@ 000 square feet of retail space , and underground parking for 500 cars .", "The plan had later altered to only include purchase of the southern portion of the property .", "In 2015 , the Culinary Institute of America ( CIA ) put in motion plans to purchase a separate portion of Copia .", "The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School .", "The school , which was <unk> its St. Helena campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.", "@ 5 million in October 2015 ( it was assessed for $ 21 @.", "@ 3 million around 2013 ) .", "Among the CIA 's first events there was 2016 's <unk> !", "Napa Valley , a food and wine festival sponsored by local organizations .", "The campus is expected to open in late 2016 , with its Chuck Williams Culinary Arts Museum opening in 2017 .", "The museum will house about 4 @,@ 000 items of Chuck Williams , including cookbooks , <unk> , and appliances .", "= = Facilities = = \n \n Copia is located on First Street in downtown Napa , adjacent to the Oxbow Public Market .", "The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.", "@ 9 ha ) property is surrounded by an <unk> of the Napa River .", "The two @-@ story building is 78 @,@ <unk> square feet ( 7 @,@ 305 @.", "@ 2 m2 ) in size , and is primarily built from polished concrete , metal , and glass .", "The city 's farmers ' market has been located in Copia 's parking lot since 2004 .", "It had a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) gallery for art , history , and science exhibits .", "It also had a 280 @-@ seat indoor theater , a 500 @-@ seat outdoor theater , classrooms , an 80 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen , a rare book library , a wine @-@ tasting area , a café ( named American Market Cafe ) , gift shop ( named <unk> ) , and 3 @.", "@ 5 acres ( 1 @.", "@ 4 ha ) of <unk> edible gardens .", "The building 's architect was <unk> Partnership Architects .", "Julia 's Kitchen was a restaurant inside the Copia building that focused on seasonal dishes and was named for honorary trustee Julia Child , who loaned part of her kitchen to the restaurant , a wall of 49 pans , pots , fish molds , and other tools and objects .", "Within a year of the center 's closing , the items were sent to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History , where they are included in the Julia Child 's kitchen exhibit , which up until that point was only missing that portion .", "The restaurant had a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 160 m2 ) dining room ( for 180 seats ) , an outdoor seating area ( 4 @,@ 300 square feet ( 400 m2 ) ) and a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) kitchen .", "The gardens had fruit orchards , a pavilion with a kitchen and large dining table , and a small <unk> with 60 vines and 30 different grape varieties .", "The restaurant and café were both operated by local <unk> <unk> Elements , and later <unk> Restaurant Group .", "The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , called \" Forks in the Road : Food , Wine and the American Table \" , had displays explaining the origins of cooking through to modern advances , and included a significant portion about the history of American winemaking .", "The museum 's opening art exhibition was called \" Active <unk> \" , and had new works related to food by eight notable artists .", "Copia also had an annual exhibit and event called \" <unk> \" , which began in 2005 .", "The event involved teams of architects , students , and designers creating sculptures from cans of food , which would later be donated to the Napa Valley Food Bank .", "The first year 's donation consisted of 42 @,@ 000 pounds of canned food .", "= = <unk> and visitor admissions = = \n \n The founding director , Peggy <unk> , left Copia in March 2005 , and was replaced by Arthur <unk> that July ; in 2008 <unk> was replaced by Chairman Garry McGuire Jr .", ", who resigned on December 5 , 2008 .", "The wine curator , Peter Marks , left around 2008 and was replaced with dean of wine studies Andrea Robinson .", "Around 2008 , McGuire hired celebrity chef Tyler Florence as dean of culinary studies .", "Florence oversaw the museum 's food programs and Julia 's Kitchen .", "Museum attendance was initially forecast at 300 @,@ 000 ; to compare , the county had 4 @.", "@ 5 million tourists in 2001 .", "205 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2001 , 220 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2002 , and 160 @,@ 000 attended in 2003 .", "150 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2007 ." ]

[ " = Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm = \n \n Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm ( also known as Fair Laughs the <unk> and Youth and Pleasure ) is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1832 and currently in Tate Britain .", "Etty had been planning the painting since 1818 – 19 , and an early version was exhibited in 1822 .", "The piece was inspired by a metaphor in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard in which the apparently bright start to the notorious <unk> of Richard II of England was compared to a gilded ship whose occupants are unaware of an approaching storm .", "Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's lines literally , depicting a golden boat filled with and surrounded by nude and near @-@ nude figures .", "Etty felt that his approach to the work illustrated a moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , but his approach was not entirely successful .", "The Bard was about a supposed curse on the House of Plantagenet placed by a Welsh bard following Edward I of England 's attempts to eradicate Welsh culture , and critics felt that Etty had somewhat misunderstood the point of Gray 's poem .", "Some reviewers greatly praised the piece , and in particular Etty 's technical abilities , but audiences of the time found it hard to understand the purpose of Etty 's painting , and his use of nude figures led some critics to consider the work <unk> and offensive .", "The painting was bought in 1832 by Robert Vernon to form part of his collection of British art .", "Vernon donated his collection , including Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , to the National Gallery in 1847 , which , in turn , transferred it to the Tate Gallery in 1949 .", "It remains one of Etty 's best @-@ known works , and formed part of major exhibitions at Tate Britain in 2001 – 02 and at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .", "= = Background = = \n \n William Etty , the seventh son of a York baker and <unk> , had been an apprentice <unk> in Hull .", "On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship at the age of 18 he moved to London \" with a few pieces of chalk <unk> \" , and the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters .", "He enrolled in the Schools of the Royal Academy of Arts , studying under renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence .", "He submitted numerous paintings to the Royal Academy over the following decade , all of which were either rejected or received little attention when exhibited .", "In 1821 Etty 's The <unk> of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) was a critical success .", "The painting featured nude figures , and over the following years Etty painted further nudes in biblical , literary and mythological settings .", "All but one of the 15 paintings Etty exhibited in the 1820s included at least one nude figure .", "While some nudes existed in private collections , England had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 <unk> for the <unk> of Vice .", "Etty was the first British artist to <unk> in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century .", "Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent .", "= = Composition = = \n \n Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was inspired by a passage in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard .", "The theme of The Bard was the English king Edward I 's conquest of Wales , and a curse placed by a Welsh bard upon Edward 's descendants after he ordered the execution of all bards and the eradication of Welsh culture .", "Etty used a passage Gray intended to symbolise the seemingly bright start to the disastrous reign of Edward 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson Richard II .", "Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's words literally , creating what has been described as \" a poetic romance \" .", "Youth and Pleasure depicts a small gilded boat .", "Above the boat , a nude figure representing <unk> blows on the sails .", "Another nude representing Pleasure lies on a large bouquet of flowers , loosely holding the helm of the boat and allowing <unk> 's breeze to guide it .", "A nude child blows bubbles , which another nude on the prow of the ship , representing Youth , reaches to catch .", "<unk> , again nude , swim around and <unk> on the boat .", "Although the seas are calm , a \" sweeping <unk> \" is forming on the horizon , with a demonic figure within the storm clouds .", "( <unk> and restoration means this demonic figure is now barely visible . )", "The intertwined limbs of the participants were intended to evoke the sensation of transient and passing pleasure , and to express the themes of female sexual <unk> <unk> innocent youth , and the sexual power women hold over men .", "Etty said of his approach to the text that he was hoping to create \" a general allegory of Human Life , its empty vain pleasures — if not founded on the laws of Him who is the Rock of Ages . \"", "While Etty felt that the work conveyed a clear moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , this lesson was largely lost upon its audiences .", "When Etty exhibited the completed painting at the Royal Academy Summer <unk> in 1832 , it was shown untitled , with the relevant six lines from The Bard attached ; writers at the time sometimes referred to it by its <unk> of Fair Laughs the <unk> .", "By the time of Etty 's death in 1849 , it had acquired its present title of Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n The final version of Youth and Pleasure was painted between 1830 and 1832 , but Etty had been contemplating a painting on the theme since 1818 – 19 .", "In 1822 he had exhibited an early version at the British Institution titled A <unk> from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) ; in this version the group of figures on the prow is reversed , and the swimmers around the boat are absent .", "Another rough version of the painting also survives , similar to the 1832 version but again with the figures on the prow reversed .", "This version was exhibited at a retrospective of Etty 's work at the Society of Arts in 1849 ; it is dated 1848 but this is likely to be a <unk> of 1828 , making it a preliminary study for the 1832 painting .", "Although it received little notice when first exhibited , the 1822 version provoked a strong reaction from The Times : \n We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting \" Cleopatra 's <unk> \" , not to be <unk> into a style which can <unk> only the most vicious taste .", "Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's <unk> is mere dirty flesh .", "Mr. Howard , whose poetical subjects sometimes require naked figures , never <unk> the eye or mind .", "Let Mr. Etty strive to acquire a taste equally pure : he should know , that just delicate taste and pure moral sense are synonymous terms .", "An oil sketch attributed to Etty , given to York Art Gallery in 1952 by Judith <unk> , Countess of <unk> and entitled Three Female <unk> , is possibly a preliminary study by Etty for Youth and Pleasure , or a copy by a student of the three central figures .", "Art historian Sarah <unk> considers both possibilities unlikely , as neither the arrangement of figures , the subject matter or the sea serpent approaching the group appear to relate to the completed Youth and Pleasure , and considers it more likely to be a preliminary sketch for a now @-@ unknown work .", "= = Reception = = \n \n Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm met with a mixed reception on exhibition , and while critics generally praised Etty 's technical ability , there was a certain confusion as to what the painting was actually intended to represent and a general feeling that he had seriously misunderstood what The Bard was actually about .", "The Library of the Fine Arts felt \" in classical design , anatomical drawing , <unk> of attitude , <unk> of form , and <unk> of grouping , no doubt Mr. Etty has no superior \" , and while \" the representation of the ideas in the lines quoted [ from The Bard ] are beautifully and accurately expressed upon the canvas \" they considered \" the <unk> reference of the poet [ to the destruction of Welsh culture and the decline of the House of Plantagenet ] was entirely lost sight of , and that , if this be the nearest that Art can approach in conveying to the eye the happy <unk> of the subject which Gray intended , we fear we must give up the contest upon the merits of poetry and painting . \"", "Similar concerns were raised in The Times , which observed that it was \" Full of beauty , rich in colouring , boldly and accurately drawn , and composed with a most graceful fancy ; but the meaning of it , if it has any meaning , no man can tell \" , pointing out that although it was intended to illustrate Gray it \" would represent almost as well any other poet 's <unk> . \"", "The <unk> , meanwhile , took issue with the cramped and <unk> boat , pointing out that the characters \" if not exactly jammed together like <unk> in a basket , are sadly constrained for want of room \" , and also complained that the boat would not in reality \" float half the weight which is made to press upon it . \"", "Other reviewers were <unk> ; The Gentleman 's Magazine praised Etty 's ability to capture \" the beauty of the proportion of the antique \" , noting that in the central figures \" there is far more of <unk> than is to be seen in almost any modern picture \" , and considered the overall composition \" a most fortunate combination of the <unk> of Poetry and the reality of Nature \" .", "The <unk> considered it \" a poetic picture from a very poetic passage \" , praising Etty for \" telling a story which is very difficult to tell with the pencil \" .", "The greatest criticism of Youth and Pleasure came from The Morning Chronicle , a newspaper which had long disliked Etty 's female nudes .", "It complained \" no decent family can hang such sights against their wall \" , and condemned the painting as an \" indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a <unk> mind \" , commenting \" the course of [ Etty 's ] studies should run in a <unk> channel , and that he should not persist , with an <unk> fancy , to pursue Nature to her holy <unk> .", "He is a laborious <unk> , and a beautiful colourist ; but he has not taste or chastity of mind enough to venture on the naked truth . \"", "The reviewer added \" we fear that Mr. E will never turn from his wicked ways , and make himself fit for decent company . \"", "= = Legacy = = \n \n Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was purchased at the time of its exhibition by Robert Vernon for his important collection of British art .", "( The price Vernon paid for Youth and Pleasure is not recorded , although Etty 's <unk> records a partial payment of £ 250 — about £ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms — so it is likely to have been a substantial sum . )", "Vernon later purchased John Constable 's The Valley Farm , planning to hang it in the place then occupied by Youth and Pleasure .", "This decision caused Constable to comment \" My picture is to go into the place — where Etty 's \" <unk> \" is at present — his picture with its precious freight is to be brought down nearer to the nose . \"", "Vernon presented his collection to the nation in 1847 , and his 157 paintings , including Youth and Pleasure , entered the National Gallery .", "When Samuel Carter Hall was choosing works to illustrate his newly launched The Art Journal , he considered it important to promote new British artists , even if it meant illustrations which some readers considered pornographic or offensive .", "In 1849 Hall secured reproduction rights to the paintings Vernon had given to the nation and soon published and widely distributed an engraving of the painting under the title Youth and Pleasure , describing it as \" of the very highest class \" .", "<unk> by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency , poor taste and lack of creativity , Etty changed his approach after the response to Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm .", "He exhibited over 80 further paintings at the Royal Academy alone , and remained a prominent painter of nudes , but from this time made conscious efforts to reflect moral lessons .", "He died in November 1849 and , while his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity , interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century all of his paintings had fallen below their original prices .", "In 1949 the painting was transferred from the National Gallery to the Tate Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains .", "Although Youth and Pleasure is one of Etty 's best @-@ known paintings , it remains controversial , and Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty describes it as \" <unk> inept \" .", "It was one of four works by Etty chosen for Tate Britain 's landmark <unk> : The Victorian <unk> exhibition in 2001 – 02 , and also formed part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 ." ]

[ " = Mozambican War of Independence = \n \n The Mozambican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( <unk> de <unk> de Moçambique ) , and Portugal .", "The war officially started on September 25 , 1964 , and ended with a ceasefire on September 8 , 1974 , resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975 .", "Portugal 's wars against independence guerrilla fighters in its 400 @-@ year @-@ old African territories began in 1961 with Angola .", "In Mozambique , the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations , who perceived foreign rule to be a form of exploitation and mistreatment , which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region .", "Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal 's policies towards indigenous people , which resulted in discrimination , traditional lifestyle turning difficult for many Africans , and limited access to Portuguese @-@ style education and skilled employment .", "As successful self @-@ determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II , many Mozambicans became progressively nationalistic in outlook , and increasingly frustrated by the nation 's continued subservience to foreign rule .", "For the other side , many <unk> indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the Portugal @-@ ruled social organization of Portuguese Mozambique , in particular those from the urban centres , reacted to the <unk> claims with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion .", "The ethnic Portuguese of the territory , which included most of the ruling authorities , responded with increased military presence and fast @-@ paced development projects .", "A mass exile of Mozambique 's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided <unk> from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland .", "The formation of the Mozambican guerrilla organisation FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union , China , Cuba , Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Tanzania , Zambia , Egypt , Algeria and <unk> regime in Libya through arms and advisers , led to the outbreak of violence that was to last over a decade .", "From a military standpoint , the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against the <unk> guerrilla forces .", "Nonetheless , Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25 , 1975 , after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrow the military dictatorship sponsored by US , thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region .", "According to historians of the Revolution , the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some local Mozambican populace .", "The role of the growing communist influence over the group of Portuguese military insurgents who led the Lisbon 's military coup , and , on the other hand , the pressure of the international community over the direction of the Portuguese Colonial War in general , were main causes for the final outcome .", "= = Background = = \n \n \n = = = Portuguese colonial rule = = = \n \n San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the <unk> peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by <unk> @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the <unk> River .", "In <unk> , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline .", "Portugal 's influence in East Africa grew throughout the 16th century ; she established several colonies known collectively as Portuguese East Africa .", "<unk> and gold became profitable for the Europeans ; influence was largely exercised through individual settlers and there was no centralised administration and , in the meantime , Portugal had turned her attention to India and Brazil .", "By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height .", "Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts .", "This brought them into direct conflict with the British .", "Since David <unk> had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes , British interest in Mozambique had risen , <unk> the Portuguese government .", "During the 19th century , much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control , and in order to facilitate this , Britain required several concessions from the Portuguese colony .", "As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 .", "Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the <unk> Company and the Niassa Company which were financed and provided with cheap labour by the British Empire to work mines and construct railways .", "These companies penetrated inland from the coastline , setting up plantations and taxing the local populace who had until then resisted encroachment by the colonists .", "The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço <unk> as the capital .", "In 1926 , political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic ( later to become the <unk> Novo ) , and a revival of interest in the African colonies .", "<unk> for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II , in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation .", "= = = Rise of FRELIMO = = = \n \n Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy .", "It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( <unk> <unk> de Moçambique ) .", "Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province .", "The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II , coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population , encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiments within Mozambique .", "Mozambique was marked by large <unk> between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population .", "<unk> whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed .", "In the rural areas , Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted .", "Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life , skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations , leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life .", "Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal .", "A small educated African class did emerge , but faced substantial discrimination .", "Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile .", "From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the <unk> Novo period ( 1933 @-@ 1974 ) .", "The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export , providing little return with which the farmers could support themselves .", "Many other workers — over 250 @,@ 000 by 1960 — were pressured to work on coal and gold mines , in neighbouring territories , mainly in South Africa , where they comprised over 30 % of black underground miners .", "By 1950 , only 4 @,@ 353 Mozambicans out of 5 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government .", "The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ( <unk> ) , numbering only 31 @,@ <unk> in a population of 8 – 10 million in 1960 according to that year 's census .", "The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( <unk> de <unk> de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ <unk> as of 1977 but <unk> to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 .", "It was created during a conference , by political figures who had been forced into exile , by the merging of various existing nationalist groups , including the Mozambican African National Union , National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier .", "It was only in exile that such political movements could develop , due to the strength of Portugal 's grip on <unk> activity within Mozambique itself .", "A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from <unk> two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1964 a campaign of guerrilla warfare in an attempt to achieve independence for Mozambique .", "The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation .", "Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc .", "= = = Support from the Soviet Union = = = \n \n During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of <unk> of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies .", "Nikita <unk> , in particular , viewed the ' <unk> third of mankind ' as a means to weaken the West .", "For the Soviets , Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets , and create pro @-@ communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations .", "Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion .", "There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed .", "The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , received training and equipment from the Soviet Union .", "Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and <unk> , describing them as \" the only ones who will really help us .", "...", "They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . \"", "<unk> received tuition in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid , specifically shipments of 122 mm artillery rockets in 1972 , with 1600 advisors from Russia , Cuba and East Germany .", "FRELIMO adopted <unk> @-@ <unk> at an early stage .", "The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against <unk> in the years after 1975 .", "By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country .", "Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti @-@ <unk> ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies .", "Cuba provided support to liberation movements and leftist governments in numerous African countries , including Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea @-@ <unk> and Congo @-@ <unk> .", "= = Conflict = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = = \n \n At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force .", "Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon .", "Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare , and a large military force was sent by the Portuguese government to quell the unrest , with troop numbers rising from 8 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 between 1964 and 1967 .", "The number of local soldiers recruited for the Portuguese cause rose to 23 @,@ 000 in the same period .", "860 Special Forces operatives were also being trained in Commando <unk> <unk> by 1969 .", "The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by <unk> Samuel <unk> , whose forces received training from Algeria .", "The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China .", "Common weapons included the <unk> – <unk> bolt @-@ action rifle , <unk> and AK @-@ 47 automatic rifles and the Soviet <unk> @-@ 41 .", "Machine guns such as the <unk> light machine gun were widely used , along with the <unk> and the SG @-@ 43 <unk> .", "FRELIMO were supported by mortars , recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ <unk> and RPG @-@ <unk> , Anti @-@ aircraft weapons such as the <unk> @-@ 4 and from 1974 the <unk> 2 .", "In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few <unk> @-@ 7 <unk> shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane .", "Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's <unk> @-@ 4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance .", "The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories .", "Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict .", "Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up @-@ to @-@ date equipment for the <unk> while shipping obsolete equipment to the colonies , the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old <unk> rifle .", "As the fighting progressed , the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised , and the <unk> & Koch <unk> and <unk> <unk> rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon , along with the <unk> @-@ 10 for paratroopers .", "The <unk> and , then in 1968 , the <unk> were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns , with 60 , 81 and 120 mm mortars , howitzers and the AML @-@ 60 , <unk> <unk> , Fox and <unk> armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support .", "Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the <unk> III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success .", "Other aircraft were employed : for air support the <unk> and the <unk> <unk> were used ; for reconnaissance , the <unk> Do 27 .", "In the transport role , the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord <unk> and the C @-@ 47 .", "The Portuguese Navy also made extensive use of patrol boats , landing crafts , and <unk> <unk> .", "= = = = <unk> of FRELIMO attacks = = = = \n \n In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania .", "FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the administrative post at Chai Chai in the province of Cabo <unk> .", "FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics : <unk> patrols , <unk> communication and railroad lines , and making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible <unk> areas .", "The insurgents were typically armed with rifles and machine pistols , and the attackers took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit .", "During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , <unk> Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult .", "In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the <unk> ) amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away .", "Furthermore , the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages , and were thus not hampered by long supply lines .", "With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique .", "During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , <unk> and raids on Portuguese installations .", "The FRELIMO soldiers often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen soldiers .", "The scattered nature of FRELIMO 's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces .", "The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of <unk> .", "With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards <unk> and <unk> , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi , which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on July 6 , 1964 .", "Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations , attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts , with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the <unk> River and Lake Malawi .", "It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size .", "The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania .", "Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam , the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to <unk> the Portuguese forces , thus straining the armed forces ' infrastructure and <unk> soldiers .", "FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks .", "On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , <unk> Samuel <unk> was shot dead by Lourenço <unk> , a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese .", "One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat .", "During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups .", "With the increasing cost of supply , more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese , and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population , it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad , specifically the Soviet Union and China ; from these benefactors , he obtained large @-@ calibre machine guns , anti @-@ aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets .", "In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day .", "This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations .", "= = = Portuguese development program = = = \n \n Due to both the technological gap between <unk> and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century .", "In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control , the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads , railways , bridges , dams , irrigation systems , schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace .", "As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the <unk> <unk> Dam began in 1969 .", "This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies .", "The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's \" <unk> mission \" and intended for the dam to <unk> Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government .", "To this end , Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project .", "<unk> the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force .", "No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site .", "FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project , and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique .", "In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam , it was finally completed in December 1974 .", "The dam 's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace , who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project .", "The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods , which formerly re @-@ fertilised the plantations .", "= = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = = \n \n On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his <unk> .", "Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam .", "Inside the parcel was a book containing an explosive device , which detonated upon opening .", "Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters , and that the faction responsible was never identified .", "The original investigations levelled accusations at <unk> <unk> ( who was later executed ) and <unk> <unk> , FRELIMO leader in Cabo <unk> .", "The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the <unk> police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Portugal 's secret police ) to assassinate Mondlane .", "<unk> himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year .", "Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly <unk> Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind <unk> @-@ esque army , known as <unk> Press , that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination .", "Initially , due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible , Mondlane 's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left .", "Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev.", "<unk> Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 .", "In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and <unk> dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO and eventually arrested and executed , post @-@ Independence , in 1975 .", "= = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = = \n \n In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 .", "Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters .", "Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations , such as the Special Groups of <unk> in 1973 , though their role less significant under the new commander .", "His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland .", "By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa <unk> , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units .", "Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE .", "<unk> of local tribesmen , the units specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and anti @-@ terrorist operations .", "Costa <unk> argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time .", "These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict , following the dismissal of Kaúlza de Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974 – the Carnation Revolution .", "The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal , when the country splintered into civil war .", "There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole : \n Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola \n <unk> Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais <unk> @-@ <unk> ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training \n Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de <unk> de <unk> ) : special units trained in tracking \n Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel <unk> specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations .", "They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash <unk> for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture .", "During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism .", "The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties .", "During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines , including the <unk> ( Black Widow ) , <unk> @-@ 46 , and <unk> .", "Even amphibious mines were used , such as the <unk> .", "Mine <unk> , an acute fear of landmines , was rampant in the Portuguese forces .", "This fear , coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces , damaged morale and significantly hampered progress .", "= = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = = \n \n On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army .", "The Gordian <unk> Operation ( Portuguese : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the <unk> border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months .", "The operation involved some 35 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops , particularly elite units like paratroopers , commandos , marines and naval <unk> .", "The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols .", "They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( <unk> ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( <unk> <unk> <unk> or FAP ) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas .", "These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery .", "The Portuguese also used cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult to motor transport , and units of captured or deserted guerrillas to penetrate their former bases .", "Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties .", "Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army .", "Thus , the army lacked close air support from the FAP .", "<unk> Portuguese casualties began to <unk> FRELIMO casualties , leading to further political intervention from Lisbon .", "The Portuguese eventually reported <unk> as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese .", "Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months .", "Although \" Gordian <unk> \" was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict , weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat , the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government .", "By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop <unk> .", "They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the <unk> Programme , which was a forced relocation program .", "But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO – not numbering more than 8 @,@ 000 fighters – launched a large offensive in Tete Province .", "The response from the Portuguese military was fierce , leading to reprisal attacks in an attempt to <unk> the local population 's continuing faith in FRELIMO .", "On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete .", "<unk> to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper <unk> based in testimonies from soldiers ) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas .", "The action , \" Operation <unk> \" , was planned at the instigation of PIDE / <unk> agents and guided by agent <unk> <unk> , who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out .", "The soldiers were told by this agent that \" the orders were to kill them all \" , never mind that only civilians , women and children included , were found .", "All of the victims were civilians .", "The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest , Father Adrian Hastings , and two other Spanish missionary priests .", "Later counter @-@ claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam <unk> <unk> that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants , not Portuguese forces .", "In addition , others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad .", "Portuguese journalist <unk> <unk> reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre .", "<unk> 's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper <unk> and later in a book containing several of the journalist 's articles .", "By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . \"", "<unk> : <unk> para <unk> \" ( <unk> villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and <unk> the indigenous population , in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base .", "Conversely , Mondlane 's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander , Machel . \"", "Panic , <unk> , abandonment , and a sense of <unk> – all were reactions among whites in Mozambique \" stated conflict historian T. H. <unk> in 1983 .", "This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a <unk> sign of the conflict 's unpopularity .", "Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO <unk> through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974 .", "A Portuguese journalist argued : \n \n = = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = = \n \n Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( <unk> ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars .", "They had carried out multiple <unk> and bombings against military targets , such as the attack on the <unk> air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8 , 1971 , and the attack on the NATO headquarters at <unk> in October of the same year .", "The attack on the Portuguese ship Niassa illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest .", "Niassa ( named after a Mozambican province ) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea .", "By the time of the Carnation Revolution , 100 @,@ 000 draft <unk> had been recorded .", "Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget .", "This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself .", "This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation .", "Portugal 's GDP growth during the colonial war period ( 1961 – 1974 ) , was strong and reached a 6 % rate ( a <unk> GDP growth which were not achieved in any other comparable period after 1974 ) .", "The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , Tempo e <unk> , and <unk> , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems .", "The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo <unk> .", "Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de <unk> , called for a ceasefire .", "With the change of government in Lisbon , many soldiers refused to continue fighting , often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol .", "Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the <unk> <unk> signed on September 7 , 1974 , which provided for a complete hand @-@ over of power to FRELIMO , uncontested by elections .", "Formal independence was set for June 25 , 1975 , the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO .", "= = Aftermath = = \n \n Many Portuguese <unk> were not typical settlers in Mozambique .", "While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of <unk> - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations .", "Loss of their privileged status and fears of FRELIMO reprisal resulted in an exodus of up to 200 @,@ 000 white civilians at independence ( in Europe they were popularly known as <unk> ) .", "Cities , towns and villages saw their Portuguese names changed after independence - Lourenço <unk> to Maputo , Vila <unk> to <unk> , Vila Cabral to <unk> , or Vila <unk> to <unk> .", "With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse <unk> .", "<unk> commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influence in the region .", "Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president .", "The Reverend <unk> Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial .", "Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against <unk> insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military support .", "Industrial and social recession , Marxist @-@ style <unk> , corruption , poverty , inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour .", "Peace returned only in 1992 , when the nation achieved relative stability for the first time in several decades .", "= = = <unk> sources = = = \n \n \n = = = Online sources = = =" ]

[ " = The Secret of Monkey Island = \n \n The Secret of Monkey Island is a 1990 point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games .", "It takes place in a fantastic version of the Caribbean during the age of piracy .", "The player assumes the role of Guybrush Threepwood , a young man who dreams of becoming a pirate and explores fictional islands while solving puzzles .", "The game was conceived in 1988 by Lucasfilm employee Ron Gilbert , who designed it with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman .", "Gilbert 's <unk> with contemporary adventure titles led him to make the player character 's death almost impossible , which meant that gameplay focused the game on exploration .", "The atmosphere was based on that of the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride .", "The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth game built with the SCUMM engine , which was heavily modified to include a more user @-@ friendly interface .", "Critics praised The Secret of Monkey Island for its humor , audiovisuals , and gameplay .", "The game spawned a number of sequels , collectively known as the Monkey Island series .", "Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman also led the development of the sequel Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge .", "LucasArts released a remake of the original in 2009 , which was also well received by the gaming press .", "= = Gameplay = = \n \n The Secret of Monkey Island is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective .", "Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , the player guides protagonist Guybrush Threepwood through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from twelve verb commands ( nine in newer versions ) such as \" talk to \" for communicating with characters and \" pick up \" for collecting items between commands and the world 's objects in order to successfully solve puzzles and thus progress in the game .", "While conversing with other characters , the player may choose between topics for discussion that are listed in a dialog tree ; the game is one of the first to incorporate such a system .", "The in @-@ game action is frequently interrupted by cutscenes .", "Like other LucasArts adventure games , The Secret of Monkey Island features a design philosophy that makes the player character 's death nearly impossible ( Guybrush does drown if he stays underwater for more than ten minutes ) .", "= = Plot = = \n \n A youth named Guybrush Threepwood arrives on the fictional Mêlée IslandTM , with the desire to become a pirate .", "He seeks out the island 's pirate leaders , who set him three trials that must be completed to become a pirate : winning a sword duel against Carla , the island 's resident <unk> , finding a buried treasure , and stealing a valuable idol from the governor 's mansion .", "These quests take Guybrush throughout the island , where he hears of stories of the Ghost Pirate LeChuck , who apparently died in an expedition to the mysterious Monkey IslandTM , an act that was meant to win the love of the governor Elaine Marley .", "Guybrush meets several characters of interest , including a local voodoo <unk> , Stan the Used Boat <unk> , Carla the Sword Master , a prisoner named <unk> , and <unk> , whose hands have been replaced by hooks .", "Guybrush also encounters the governor and is instantly <unk> , and she soon <unk> .", "However , as he completes the tasks set for him , the island is raided by LeChuck and his undead crew , who <unk> Elaine and then retreat to their secret hideout on Monkey IslandTM .", "Guybrush takes it upon himself to rescue her , buying a ship and hiring Carla , <unk> , and <unk> as crew before setting sail for the fabled island .", "When Guybrush reaches Monkey Island , he discovers a village of <unk> in a dispute with Herman <unk> , a ragged <unk> <unk> there .", "He settles their quarrel , and then recovers a magical \" voodoo root \" from LeChuck 's ship for the <unk> , who provide him with a <unk> bottle of \" voodoo root elixir \" that can destroy ghosts .", "When Guybrush returns to LeChuck 's ship with the elixir , he learns that LeChuck has returned to Mêlée IslandTM to marry Elaine at the church .", "He promptly returns to Mêlée IslandTM and <unk> the wedding , only to ruin Elaine 's own plan for escape ; in the process he loses the elixir .", "Now confronted with a furious LeChuck , Guybrush is <unk> beaten by the ghost pirate in a fight ranging across the island .", "The fight eventually arrives at the island 's ship <unk> , where Guybrush finds a bottle of root beer .", "<unk> the <unk> for the lost elixir , he <unk> LeChuck , destroying the ghost pirate .", "With LeChuck defeated , Guybrush and Elaine enjoy a romantic moment , watching fireworks caused by LeChuck exploding .", "= = Development = = \n \n \n = = = Origin and writing = = = \n \n Ron Gilbert conceived the idea of a pirate adventure game in 1988 , after completing <unk> <unk> and the Alien <unk> .", "He first wrote story ideas about pirates while spending the weekend at a friend 's house .", "Gilbert experimented with introductory paragraphs to find a satisfactory idea .", "His initial story featured unnamed villains that would eventually become LeChuck and Elaine ; Guybrush was absent at this point .", "He pitched it to Lucasfilm Games 's staff as a series of short stories .", "Gilbert 's idea was warmly received , but production was postponed because Lucasfilm Games assigned its designers , including Gilbert , to Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade : The Graphic Adventure .", "Development of The Last Crusade was finished in 1989 , which allowed Gilbert to begin production of The Secret of Monkey Island , then known internally under the working title <unk> on Monkey Island .", "Gilbert soon realised that it would be difficult to design the game by himself ; he decided to join forces with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman , both of whom he hired for Lucasfilm .", "The game 's insult sword fighting mechanics were influenced by <unk> movies starring Errol Flynn , which Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman often watched for inspiration .", "They noticed that pirates in those films often <unk> their opponents instead of attacking them , which gave the designers the idea to base the game 's duels on insults rather than combat .", "Writer Orson Scott Card helped them write the insults during a visit to Lucasfilm 's headquarters at Skywalker Ranch .", "Many of Gilbert 's original gameplay ideas were abandoned during the production process , although he stated that \" most of that stuff was left out for a reason \" .", "The game 's plot , as described by Dave Grossman : “ It ’ s a story about this young man who comes to an island in search of his life ’ s dream .", "He ’ s pursuing his career goals and he discovers love in the process and winds up thinking that was actually more important than what he was doing to begin with .", "You ’ re laughing , but there ’ s actually something deeper going on as well .", "” When work on the plot began , Gilbert discovered that Schafer 's and Grossman 's writing styles were too different to form a cohesive whole : Grossman 's was \" very kind of a dry , sarcastic humor \" and Schafer 's was \" just a little more in your face \" .", "In reaction , Gilbert assigned them to different characters and story moments depending on what type of comedy was required .", "Grossman believed that this benefited the game 's writing , as he and Schafer \" were all funny in slightly different ways , and it worked well together \" .", "Schafer and Grossman wrote most of the dialogue while they were programming the game ; as a result , much of it was improvised .", "Some of the dialogue was based on the designers ' personal experiences , such as Guybrush 's line \" I had a feeling in hell there would be mushrooms \" , which came from Schafer 's own hatred of fungi .", "The game 's world and characters were designed primarily by Gilbert .", "After having read Tim Powers ' historical fantasy novel On Stranger Tides , he decided to add paranormal themes to the game 's plot .", "He also cited Powers ' book as an influence on the characters , particularly those of Guybrush and LeChuck .", "Inspiration for the game 's <unk> came from Gilbert 's favorite childhood amusement park ride , Pirates of the Caribbean .", "Grossman said that Gilbert always wanted \" to step off the ride \" and \" talk to the people who lived in that world \" .", "Near the final stages of the design work , Gilbert introduced several characters who were not directly related to the game 's story .", "He considered this to be an important decision , as the player would need those seemingly minor characters in later parts of the game and would receive a chance to \" really interact with them \" .", "= = = Creative and technical design = = = \n \n Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman 's primary goal was to create a simpler and more accessible gameplay model than those presented in previous Lucasfilm titles .", "Gilbert had conceived the main designs and puzzles before production began , which resulted in the bulk of the designers ' work to flesh out his ideas .", "He was frustrated by the adventure games that Sierra On @-@ Line was releasing at the time , and later said that \" you died any time you did anything wrong \" .", "Gilbert considered such gameplay as \" a cheap way out for the designer \" .", "He had previously applied his design ideas to the 1987 graphic adventure title Maniac Mansion , but committed a number of mistakes during development , such as dead @-@ end situations that prevented the player from completing the game and poorly implemented <unk> for cutscenes .", "Gilbert aimed to avoid such errors in The Secret of Monkey Island .", "The team decided to make it impossible for the player character to die , which focused gameplay primarily on world exploration .", "The Sierra game @-@ over screen was parodied , when Guybrush falls off a cliff only to be bounced back up by a \" rubber tree \" .", "The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth Lucasfilm Games project powered by the SCUMM engine , originally developed for Maniac Mansion .", "The company had gradually modified the engine since its creation .", "For Maniac Mansion , the developers hard coded verb commands in the SCUMM <unk> language .", "These commands become more abstract in subsequent versions of the engine .", "The developers carried over the practice of referring to individual segments of the <unk> as \" rooms \" , even though the areas in Monkey Island were outdoors .", "The game uses the same version of the engine used in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , with minor changes .", "A dialog tree was added , which facilitated conversation options and the sword @-@ fighting puzzles .", "The developers removed the \" What is \" option ( an input command that describes an on @-@ screen object to the player ) in favor of allowing the player to simply highlight the object with the mouse <unk> .", "The game 's improved interface became the standard for the company 's later titles .", "The game also introduced logical verb <unk> , which could be performed with the mouse ; for example , clicking on a character <unk> to the \" talk \" action , the most obvious action in the situation .", "SCUMM 's visuals were updated for the game — the original <unk> version had a <unk> pixel resolution rendered in 16 colors .", "According to artist Steve Purcell , that became a major limitation for the art team ; due to a low number of \" <unk> \" colors , they often chose bizarre tones for backgrounds .", "They chose black and white for Guybrush 's outfit for the same reason .", "The VGA version of the game later corrected these issues by implementing 256 color support , which allowed for more advanced background and character art .", "The VGA ( and other platform releases ) removed the infamous \" stump joke \" from the game , which was a joke in the <unk> version in which the player would examine a tree stump in the forest .", "Guybrush would exclaim that there is an opening to a system of catacombs and attempt to enter , but this would result in a message stating the player needed to insert disc 22 , then 36 , then 114 in order to continue .", "The joke resulted in numerous calls to the LucasArts <unk> asking about missing discs .", "As a result , the joke was removed from later editions and is a mentioned as a conversation option for the LucasArts <unk> <unk> in the sequel .", "The game 's \" pirate reggae \" music was composed by Lucasfilm Games ' in @-@ house musician Michael Land in <unk> format .", "It was his first project at the company .", "The game was originally released for <unk> disk in 1990 , but a CD @-@ ROM version with a high @-@ quality CD soundtrack followed in 1992 .", "The music has remained popular , and has been remixed by the musicians of OverClocked ReMix and by the game 's fans .", "= = = Special edition = = = \n \n LucasArts released a remake with updated audiovisuals titled The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition in July 2009 for <unk> , Microsoft Windows , and Xbox 360 exclusively via digital distribution .", "PlayStation 3 , Mac OS and <unk> versions followed early in 2010 for download on their respective services .", "LucasArts confirmed the game 's development on June 1 , 2009 ; rumors appeared several days earlier when the Xbox 360 version of the game received an <unk> rating .", "The game was first displayed to the public at the 2009 E3 in June .", "The remake features hand @-@ drawn visuals with more detail , a remastered musical score , voice work for characters , and a hint system .", "The developers included the function to switch between 2009 and original audiovisuals at will .", "The voice actors included Dominic <unk> as Guybrush Threepwood and Earl <unk> as LeChuck ; most had provided voice work in sequels to The Secret of Monkey Island .", "LucasArts 's game producer Craig Derrick and his team conceived the idea of the remake in 2008 .", "After researching the Monkey Island series ' history , they decided to make \" something fresh and new while staying true to the original \" , which resulted in the idea of The Secret of Monkey Island 's remake .", "The developers tried to leave much of the original design unchanged .", "Any changes were intended to achieve the level of immersion desired for the original .", "To that end , they added details like a pirate ship or pirates talking in the background of scenes .", "While the team considered the SCUMM interface revolutionary at the time , LucasArts community manager Brooks Brown noted that it is incompatible with an analog stick , which most consoles use .", "The designers made the <unk> <unk> to the game objects as the primary interface .", "Brown had considered updating the reference to advertise Star Wars : The Force <unk> because <unk> was not on the market at the time , but concluded that the game would not be the same if such changes were implemented .", "Prior to the Special Edition release , however , LucasArts announced that <unk> , along with other games from its back catalog , would be made available on Steam .", "Brown stated that the decision to distribute the game online was because \" digital downloads have finally gotten going \" .", "= = Reception = = \n \n The Secret of Monkey Island sold well and received positive reviews from critics .", "Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser of Dragon praised the designers ' attention to detail , and cited the game 's humor as a high point .", "Although they believed that the game was too expensive , they summarized it as \" a highly enjoyable graphic adventure replete with interesting puzzles , a fantastic Roland soundtrack , superb VGA graphics , smooth @-@ scrolling animation , and some of the funniest lines ever seen on your computer screen . \"", "Duncan MacDonald of Zero praised the graphics and found the game \" quite amusing \" .", "His favorite aspect was the fine @-@ tuned difficulty level , which he believed was \" just right \" .", "He ended his review , \" At last an adventure game that 's enjoyable rather than frustrating . \"", "Paul <unk> of Computer and Video Games consider the game superior to Lucasfilm 's earlier adventure titles , and wrote that , \" Usually the entertainment you get from an adventure is derived solely from solving puzzles , but the hilarious characters and situations , and the movie @-@ like presentation ... make playing this more like taking part in a comedy film , so it 's much more enjoyable . \"", "He considered the puzzles to be \" brilliantly conceived \" and found the game 's controls accessible .", "He summarized it as \" utterly <unk> \" .", "ACE 's Steve Cooke also found the controls convenient , and he praised the game 's atmosphere .", "He wrote that , \" in graphics and sound terms ... Monkey Island , along with King 's Quest V , is currently at the head of the pack . \"", "However , he disliked the designers ' running joke of placing \" <unk> \" after character and place names , which he thought detracted from the atmosphere .", "He singled out the game 's writing , characters and plot structure as its best elements .", "Amiga Power 's Mark <unk> wrote , \" With The Secret of Monkey Island , the mouse @-@ controlled , graphic @-@ adventure comes of age . \"", "He lauded its comedic elements , which he believed were the highlight of the game .", "The reviewer also praised the control scheme , noting that it allows the player to \" more or less forget about the specifics of what [ they are ] physically doing ... and lose [ themselves ] in the adventure instead . \"", "He noted that the game 's plot and visual and <unk> presentation fit together to create a thick atmosphere , and finished , \" Forget all those other milestone adventures ( <unk> , The Hobbit , Lord of the <unk> et al ) — for sheer enjoyment and general all @-@ round perfection , The Secret of Monkey Island <unk> ' em all in style . \"", "The game , along with its sequel , was ranked the 19th best game of all time by Amiga Power .", "Writing for The One , Paul Presley stated that \" Lucasfilm appears to have taken all of the elements that worked in its previous releases and , not only incorporated them into this tale of <unk> <unk> , but even improved on them in the process ! \"", "Like the other reviewers , he praised its controls .", "He also lauded its \" hilarious storyline , strong characters and ... intriguing setting \" , but complained about graphical <unk> .", "Nick Clarkson of Amiga Computing cited the game 's graphics as \" flawless \" , noting that \" the characters are superbly animated and the <unk> simply <unk> atmosphere . \"", "He highly praised its sound effects and music , and believed that its controls \" couldn 't be simpler \" .", "The staff of Amiga Action wrote that the \" attention to detail and the finely tuned gameplay cannot be faulted . \"", "They called the graphics \" stunning throughout \" , and believed that , when they were combined with the \" excellent Caribbean tunes \" , the result is a game filled with \" character and atmosphere . \"", "They ended by stating that \" there is absolutely no excuse for not owning this game . \"", "The Secret of Monkey Island has featured regularly in lists of \" top \" games , such as Computer Gaming World 's Hall of Fame and IGN 's Video Game Hall of Fame .", "In 1996 , Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 19th best game of all time , \" writing \" Who could ever forget the insult @-@ driven duel system or the identity of the mysterious <unk> ? \"", ".", "In 2004 , readers of <unk> Gamer voted it as the 33rd top retro game .", "In 2010 , IGN ranked the Xbox Live Arcade version as the 20th best title of all time for that platform .", "In 2009 , IGN named The Secret of Monkey Island one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games .", "= = = Special edition = = = \n \n Like the original release , The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition received positive reviews from critics .", "Sean Ely of GamePro praised its updated audio , and said that the new graphics \" blow the old <unk> visuals ... out of the water \" .", "He cited its script , humor , plot , puzzles and balanced difficulty level as high points , and finished , \" The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition is impressive , hilarious and downright worth your money . \"", "<unk> Hatfield of IGN wrote , \" Almost 20 years after its release , [ The Secret of Monkey Island ] remains a blast to play . \"", "He called the new graphics \" slick , if a little generic \" , and noted that the \" original graphics have a certain charm to them that the fancy pants new visuals just don 't . \"", "However , he enjoyed the redone music , the new hint function , and the added sound effects and voice acting .", "He summarized it as \" one of the best times you 'll ever have pointing and clicking \" , and noted that \" few games are this funny . \"", "Justin Calvert of GameSpot noted that \" the Special Edition looks much better and is the only way to play if you want to hear ... what characters are saying , whereas the original game 's interface is less <unk> . \"", "However , he wrote that \" the voice work is such a great addition to the game that it 's difficult to go back to the original edition . \"", "He praised its humor , writing , puzzles and characters , and he believed that it had aged well .", "Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead wrote , \" <unk> like me will almost certainly find something to <unk> about over the span of the game , but the overall impact of the redesign is undeniably for the better . \"", "However , he preferred the original game 's Guybrush design , and believed that the new control system was \" rather less intuitive \" than the old one .", "He finished by stating that \" few games can stand the test of time with such confidence \" .", "= = Legacy = = \n \n The Secret of Monkey Island spawned four sequels .", "The first , Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge , was released in 1991 and focuses on LeChuck 's return .", "Six years later , LucasArts released The Curse of Monkey Island , which features a new visual design .", "In 2000 , the company released Escape from Monkey Island , which uses the <unk> engine of <unk> <unk> to produce 3D graphics .", "The next title , Tales of Monkey Island released in 2009 , is a series of five episodic chapters .", "Elements of the game have appeared elsewhere in popular culture .", "The original version was selected as one of five for the exhibition The Art of Video Games in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 2011 .", "A <unk> drink recipe in the game for <unk> was mistakenly reported as real in 2009 by <unk> news channel <unk> , which urged <unk> against consuming the dangerous \" Grog <unk> \" drink .", "In Tales of Monkey Island , Guybrush refers to this news story while pushing the Grog <unk> button on a Grog machine ." ]

[ " = Temple of Eshmun = \n \n The Temple of Eshmun ( Arabic : <unk> <unk> ) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun , the Phoenician god of healing .", "It is located near the Awali river , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.", "@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon .", "The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD , suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon .", "Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era ( c .", "529 – 333 BC ) to celebrate the city 's recovered wealth and stature , the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart , <unk> @-@ milk and later monarchs .", "Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign <unk> , the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences .", "The sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun 's <unk> @-@ Persian style marble temple .", "The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river ( modern Awali ) and from the sacred \" Ydll \" spring ; these installations were used for therapeutic and <unk> purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun .", "The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value , especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts , providing valuable insight into the site 's history and that of ancient Sidon .", "The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early Roman Empire with a <unk> street , but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as Christianity replaced <unk> and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures .", "The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars .", "Maurice Dunand , a French archaeologist , thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 .", "After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of Israel from Southern Lebanon , the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the World Heritage Site tentative list .", "= = Eshmun = = \n \n Eshmun was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life ; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of Sidon .", "Originally a nature divinity , and a god of spring vegetation , Eshmun was equated to Babylonian deity <unk> .", "His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon , and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes .", "The myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century Syrian <unk> philosopher <unk> and ninth century Patriarch of Constantinople , <unk> .", "They <unk> that Eshmun , a young man from Beirut , was hunting in the woods when Astarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty .", "She harassed him with her <unk> pursuit until he <unk> himself with an axe and died .", "The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god of heaven .", "From a historical perspective , the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC , the date of the signing of the treaty between Assyrian king <unk> @-@ <unk> V and <unk> <unk> , king of <unk> ; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty .", "Eshmun was identified with Asclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia ; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins from <unk> and Acre from the third century BC .", "This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of the Awali river which was dubbed Asclepius <unk> , and the Eshmun Temple 's surrounding groves , known as the groves of Asclepius .", "= = History = = \n \n \n = = = Historical background = = = \n \n In the 9th century BC , the Assyrian king <unk> II conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities .", "The new <unk> <unk> tribute from Sidon , along with every other Phoenician city .", "These payments stimulated Sidon 's search for new means of <unk> and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion , which peaked in the 8th century BC .", "When Assyrian king <unk> II died in 705 BC , the Sidonian king <unk> joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule , but was forced to flee to <unk> ( modern <unk> in Cyprus ) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib , <unk> II 's son and successor .", "Sennacherib instated <unk> on the throne of Sidon and <unk> the annual tribute .", "When Abdi @-@ <unk> ascended to Sidon 's throne in 680 BC , he also rebelled against the Assyrians .", "In response , the Assyrian king Esarhaddon laid siege to the city .", "Abdi @-@ <unk> was captured and beheaded in <unk> BC after a three @-@ year siege , while his city was destroyed and renamed <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> ( the harbor of Esarhaddon ) .", "Sidon was stripped of its territory , which was awarded to Baal I , the king of rival Tyre and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon .", "Baal I and Esarhaddon signed a treaty in <unk> in which Eshmun 's name features as one of the deities invoked as <unk> of the covenant .", "= = = Construction = = = \n \n Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years ( <unk> – <unk> BC ) by the <unk> king <unk> II .", "Nevertheless , the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court of Babylon .", "Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia 's chief city in the Achaemenid Empire ( <unk> – 333 BC ) .", "During this period , <unk> I awarded king Eshmunazar II with the Sharon plain for employing Sidon 's fleet in his service during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .", "Eshmunazar II displayed his new @-@ found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities .", "<unk> found on the king 's sarcophagus reveal that he and his mother , <unk> , built temples to the gods of Sidon , including the Temple of Eshmun by the \" Ydll source near the cistern \" .", "As two series of inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium <unk> , construction of the sanctuary 's podium did not begin until the reign of King Bodashtart .", "The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone , while the second contains his name and that of the crown prince <unk> @-@ milk .", "A Phoenician inscription , located 3 kilometres ( 1 @.", "@ 9 mi ) upstream from the temple , that dates to the 14th year of Bodashtart 's reign , alludes to water <unk> works from the Awali river to the \" Ydll \" source that was used for ritual purification at the temple .", "= = = Roman era & Decline = = = \n \n The Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC , which demolished the marble temple atop the podium ; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium .", "The temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in the classical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity , when the cult of Eshmun was banned and a Christian church was built at the temple site across the Roman street from the podium .", "Remnants and mosaic floors of a Byzantine church can still be seen on the site .", "A Roman <unk> was built in the third century , probably by emperor Septimius <unk> , and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period of Phoenicia under Roman rule .", "Furthermore , within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway , the basins for ablutions and a nymphaeum with pictorial mosaics , that are still largely intact .", "<unk> <unk> of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain .", "Another earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD ; <unk> of <unk> , an Italian Christian <unk> , described the city as partly in ruins .", "For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun , the sanctuary site was used as a quarry : <unk> <unk> @-@ al @-@ Din II , for example , used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century .", "The site later fell into oblivion until the <unk> century \n \n = = = Modern discovery = = = \n \n Between 1737 and 1742 , Richard <unk> , an English anthropologist , toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins of defensive walls built with 3 @.", "@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) stone blocks near the Awali river .", "When the French <unk> Ernest <unk> visited the area in 1860 , he noticed that the Awali bridge abutments were built of finely <unk> blocks that originated from an earlier structure .", "He also noted in his report , Mission de <unk> , that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge .", "In 1900 , local clandestine treasure hunters digging at the Eshmun Temple site <unk> discovered inscriptions carved onto the temple 's walls .", "This discovery stirred the interest of Theodore <unk> , curator of the Museum of Constantinople , who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903 .", "Wilhelm Von <unk> also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904 .", "In 1920 , <unk> <unk> headed a team of archaeologists who surveyed the temple complex .", "The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken by Maurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975 .", "Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD .", "= = = After 1975 = = = \n \n During the Lebanese Civil War and the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon ( 1985 – 2000 ) , the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation <unk> ; it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal .", "Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge , it is accessible from an exit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon 's northern entrance .", "The site holds a particular archaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon ; it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage <unk> List 's Cultural category on July 1 , 1996 .", "In literature , the temple of Eshmun figures in <unk> <unk> 's 2009 novel , The Curse of Ezekiel as the setting where <unk> falls in love and rescues princess <unk> from the evil design of one of the temple 's priests .", "= = Location = = \n \n A number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location .", "The Phoenician inscriptions on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II , a Sidonian king , commemorate the construction of a \" house \" for the \" holy prince \" Eshmun by the king and his mother , queen <unk> , at the \" Ydll source by the cistern \" .", "<unk> <unk> , an ancient Greek travel writer , identified the Eshmun temple by the <unk> River , and Antonin de <unk> , a 6th @-@ century AD Italian <unk> recorded the shrine as near the river Asclepius <unk> and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding \" sacred forests \" of Asclepius , the Hellenized name of Eshmun , in written texts .", "Located about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Beirut and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.", "@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon , the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modern Awali river , previously referred to as <unk> or Asclepius <unk> in ancient text .", "<unk> groves , known as <unk> el @-@ Sheikh ( Arabic : <unk> <unk> , the <unk> of the Sheikh ) , occupy the ancient \" sacred forests \" of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals .", "= = Architecture and description = = \n \n Built under Babylonian rule ( 605 – 539 BC ) , the oldest monument at the site is a pyramidal building resembling a <unk> that includes an access ramp to a water cistern .", "<unk> of marble column bases with <unk> <unk> and <unk> columns found east of the podium are also attributed to the Babylonian era .", "The pyramidal structure was superimposed during Persian rule by a massive ashlar podium constructed from heavily <unk> limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres ( 9 @.", "@ 8 ft ) across by 1 metre ( 3 @.", "@ 3 ft ) thick , which were laid down in courses 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.", "@ 3 ft ) high .", "The podium stands 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high , <unk> metres ( 160 ft ) into the hillside , and <unk> a 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) wide façade .", "The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco @-@ Persian style marble temple probably built by <unk> artisans around 500 BC .", "The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft .", "During the Hellenistic period , the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley .", "To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel , 10 @.", "@ 5 by 11 @.", "@ 5 metres ( 34 ft × 38 ft ) , dating to the 4th century BC .", "The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone throne carved of a single block of granite in the Egyptian style ; it is flanked by two sphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures .", "The throne , attributed to the Sidonian goddess Astarte , rests against the chapel wall , which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes .", "The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments .", "The west base contains another 4th century BC chapel — centered on a bull <unk> topped capital — that remains preserved at the National Museum of Beirut .", "Widely known as the \" Tribune of Eshmun \" because of its shape , the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC .", "It is 2 @.", "@ 15 metres ( 7 @.", "@ 1 ft ) long by 2 @.", "@ 26 metres ( 7 @.", "@ 4 ft ) wide and 2 @.", "@ 17 metres ( 7 @.", "@ 1 ft ) tall .", "<unk> in 1963 by Maurice Dunand , it stands on a limestone <unk> with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall .", "The altar is adorned with Hellenistic style relief sculptures and is framed by decorative <unk> , one of which divides the altar into two distinct registers of symmetrical composition .", "The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities , including two <unk> surrounding the Greek god Apollo , who is depicted playing a <unk> ( a type of <unk> ) .", "The lower register honors <unk> , who leads his <unk> ( his <unk> revenue ) in a dance to the music of pipe and <unk> players .", "The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut .", "Northeast of the site , another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel .", "Its 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two @-@ register relief decoration illustrating a drunken <unk> in honor of <unk> , the Greek god of wine .", "Among the temple reliefs , one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun @-@ Asclepius .", "The Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaborate hydraulic installation channeling water from \" Ydll \" spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals , a series of retaining basins , sacred ablution basins and paved pools .", "This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults .", "Later <unk> date from the Roman <unk> and include a <unk> road lined with shops .", "Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain .", "The Romans also built a monumental staircase adorned with mosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium .", "To the right of the Roman road , near the entrance of the site stands a nymphaeum with niches where statues of the nymphs once stood .", "The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting the <unk> .", "Across the <unk> road , facing the nymphaeum , are the ruins of a Roman villa ; only the villa 's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting the four seasons .", "To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubic altar , also of Roman construction .", "Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other <unk> installations .", "= = Function = = \n \n Eshmun 's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC .", "Aside from the <unk> sanctuary at <unk> el @-@ Sheikh , Eshmun also had a temple within the city .", "The <unk> Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing ; ritual <unk> ablutions were performed in the sanctuary 's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the \" Ydll \" spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality .", "The healing <unk> of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte 's <unk> powers ; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary .", "<unk> from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leaving votive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure .", "There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to <unk> the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius , but the sanctuary retained its <unk> function .", "= = <unk> and finds = = \n \n Apart from the large decorative elements , carved <unk> and mosaics which were left in situ , many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to the national museum , the Louvre or are in possession of the Lebanese <unk> general of antiquities .", "Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribed <unk> unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of <unk> Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland .", "One of the recovered <unk> bears the <unk> Phoenician name \" <unk> \" which suggests that veneration of the lunar @-@ goddess <unk> occurred in Sidon .", "A number of fragmented votive life @-@ size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site ; among the best known of these is a sculpture of a royal child holding a <unk> with his right hand ; the boy 's head is shaved , his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth .", "The <unk> of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication from <unk> , the son of a Sidonian king to Eshmun , which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy .", "These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then <unk> cast into the sacred canal , probably <unk> the sacrifice of the sick child .", "All of these sculptures represent boys .", "<unk> cm × 27 cm ( 12 @.", "@ 4 in × 10 @.", "@ 6 in ) limestone bust of a <unk> dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site , but unlike the archaic Greek <unk> this figure is not bare .", "Among the notable finds is a golden plaque showing a snake curling on a staff , a Hellenic symbol of <unk> and a granite altar bearing the name of Egyptian Pharaoh <unk> uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary .", "This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon .", "The repute of the sanctuary was far reaching .", "<unk> pilgrims from <unk> left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marble stele inscribed both in Greek and <unk> <unk> at Astarte 's shrine ; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese <unk> general of antiquities .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n Treasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity ; around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way to <unk> antiquities markets where they stirred the interest of the Ottoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological <unk> .", "During the civil war , upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquities Maurice <unk> , Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at the Byblos crusader castle , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Beirut .", "In 1981 , the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon .", "Rolf <unk> , ex @-@ director of the Institute of Classical <unk> of Basel affirmed during a conference in Beirut in December 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum ." ]

[ " = Wilhelm Busch = \n \n Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch ( 15 April 1832 – 9 January 1908 ) was a German humorist , poet , illustrator and painter .", "He published comic illustrated <unk> tales from 1859 , achieving his most notable works in the 1870s .", "Busch 's illustrations used wood engraving , and later , zincography .", "Busch drew on contemporary parochial and city life , <unk> Catholicism , <unk> , strict religious morality and <unk> .", "His comic text was colourful and entertaining , using onomatopoeia , <unk> and other figures of speech , and led to some work being banned by the authorities .", "Busch was influential in both poetry and illustration , and became a source for future generations of comic artists .", "The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by Busch 's Max and Moritz , one of a number of imitations produced in Germany and the United States .", "The Wilhelm Busch Prize and the Wilhelm Busch Museum help maintain his legacy .", "His <unk> anniversary in 2007 was celebrated throughout Germany .", "Busch remains one of the most influential poets and artists in Western Europe .", "= = Family background = = \n \n In the late 18th century Johann Georg Kleine , Wilhelm Busch 's maternal grandfather , settled in the small village of Wiedensahl .", "There , in 1817 , he bought a <unk> half @-@ <unk> house , where Wilhelm Busch was to be born about 15 years later .", "<unk> Kleine , Johann 's wife and Wilhelm Busch 's grandmother , kept a shop in which Busch 's mother Henriette assisted while her two brothers attended high school .", "When Johann Georg Kleine died in 1820 , his widow continued to run the shop with Henriette .", "At the age of 19 Henriette Kleine married surgeon Friedrich Wilhelm <unk> .", "Henriette became widowed at the age of 26 , with her three children to <unk> dying as infants .", "About 1830 Friedrich Wilhelm Busch , the illegitimate son of a farmer , settled in Wiedensahl after completing a business apprenticeship in the nearby village of <unk> .", "He took over the Kleine shop in Wiedensahl , which he completely modernised .", "= = Life = = \n \n \n = = = Childhood = = = \n \n Wilhelm Busch was born on 15 April 1832 , the first of seven children to the marriage of Henriette Kleine and Friedrich Wilhelm Busch .", "His six siblings followed shortly after : Fanny ( 1834 ) , Gustav ( 1836 ) , Adolf ( 1838 ) , Otto ( 1841 ) , Anna ( 1843 ) and Hermann ( 1845 ) ; all survived childhood .", "His parents were ambitious , hard @-@ working and devout Protestants who later , despite becoming relatively prosperous , could not afford to educate all three sons .", "Busch 's biographer <unk> W. <unk> suggested that Friedrich Wilhelm Busch invested heavily in his sons ' education partly because his own <unk> held significant stigma in rural areas .", "The young Wilhelm Busch was a tall child , but with a rather delicate and graceful physique .", "The coarse <unk> of his later protagonists \" Max and Moritz \" was rare in his childhood .", "He described himself in autobiographical sketches and letters as sensitive and timid , as someone who \" carefully studied apprehension \" , and who reacted with fascination , compassion and distress when animals were killed in the autumn .", "He described the \" transformation to sausage \" as \" <unk> compelling \" , leaving a lasting impression ; pork <unk> him throughout his life .", "In the autumn of 1841 , after the birth of his brother Otto , Busch 's education was entrusted to the 35 @-@ year @-@ old clergyman Georg Kleine , his maternal uncle at Ebergötzen , this probably through lack of space in the Busch family home , and his father 's desire for a better education than the small local school could provide , where 100 children were taught within a space of 66 m2 ( 710 sq ft ) .", "The nearest convenient school was located in <unk> , 20 km ( 12 mi ) from Wiedensahl .", "Kleine , with his wife Fanny Petri , lived in a rectory at Ebergötzen , while Busch was lodged with an unrelated family .", "Kleine and his wife were responsible and caring , exercised a substitute parental role , and provided refuge for him in future unsuccessful times .", "Kleine 's private lessons for Busch were also attended by Erich Bachmann , the son of a wealthy Ebergötzen <unk> .", "Both became friends , according to Busch the strongest friendship of his childhood .", "This friendship was echoed in the 1865 story Max and Moritz .", "A small pencil portrait by the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Busch depicted Bachmann as a <unk> , confident boy , and showed similarities with Max .", "Busch portrayed himself with a \" <unk> \" , in the later \" Moritzian \" <unk> style .", "Kleine was a <unk> , his lessons not held in contemporary language , and it is not known for certain all subjects Busch and his friend were taught .", "Busch did learn elementary arithmetic from his uncle , although science lessons might have been more comprehensive , as Kleine , like many other clergymen , was a <unk> , and published essays and textbooks on the subject — Busch demonstrated his knowledge of bee @-@ keeping in his future stories .", "Drawing , and German and English poetry , were also taught by Kleine .", "Busch had little contact with his natural parents during this period .", "At the time , the 165 km ( 103 mi ) journey between Wiedensahl and Ebergötzen took three days by horse .", "His father visited Ebergötzen two to three times a year , while his mother stayed in Wiedensahl to look after the children .", "The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Busch visited his family once ; his mother at first did not recognize him .", "Some Busch biographers think that this early separation from his parents , especially from his mother , resulted in his eccentric <unk> .", "In the autumn of 1846 , Busch moved with the Kleine 's to Lüthorst , where , on 11 April 1847 , he was confirmed .", "= = = Study = = = \n \n In September 1847 Busch began studying mechanical engineering at Hanover Polytechnic .", "Busch 's biographers are not in agreement as to why his Hanover education ended ; most believe that his father had little appreciation of his son 's artistic inclination .", "Biographer Eva Weissweiler suspects that Kleine played a major role , and that other possible causes were Busch 's friendship with an <unk> , <unk> , political debates in <unk> 's tavern , and Busch 's reluctance to believe every word of the Bible and catechism .", "Busch studied for nearly four years at Hanover , despite initial difficulties in understanding the subject matter .", "A few months before graduation he confronted his parents with his aspiration to study at the Düsseldorf Art Academy .", "According to Bush 's nephew Hermann Nöldeke , his mother supported this inclination .", "His father eventually <unk> and Busch moved to Düsseldorf in June 1851 , where , to his disappointment at not being admitted to the advanced class , he entered preparatory classes .", "Busch 's parents had his tuition fees paid for one year , so in May 1852 he traveled to Antwerp to continue study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts under <unk> <unk> <unk> .", "He led his parents to believe that the Academy was less <unk> than Düsseldorf , and had the opportunity to study old masters .", "At Antwerp he saw for the first time paintings by Peter Paul Rubens , <unk> <unk> , David <unk> and <unk> <unk> .", "The pictures aroused his interest , but made him doubt his own skills .", "Eventually , in 1853 , after suffering heavily from <unk> , he abandoned his Antwerp studies and returned <unk> to Wiedensahl .", "= = = Munich = = = \n \n Busch was ravaged by disease , and for five months spent time painting and collecting folk tales , legends , songs , ballads , rhymes and fragments of regional <unk> .", "Busch 's biographer Joseph Kraus saw these collections as useful additions to folklore , as Busch noted the narrative background to tales and the idiosyncrasies of <unk> .", "Busch tried to release the collections , but as a publisher could not be found at the time they were issued after his death .", "During the Nazi era Busch was known as an \" ethnic seer \" .", "After Busch had spent six months with his uncle Kleine at Lüthorst , he expressed an aim to continue study in Munich .", "This request caused a rift with his father who , however , eventually funded this move ; - see for comparison Busch 's illustrated story of Painter Klecksel .", "Busch 's expectations of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts were not met .", "His life became <unk> ; there were occasional return visits to Lüthorst , but contact with his parents had been broken off .", "In 1857 and 1858 , as his position seemed to be without prospects , he contemplated emigration to Brazil to keep bees .", "Busch made contact with the artist association Jung <unk> ( Young Munich ) , met several notable Munich artists , and wrote and provided cartoons for the Jung <unk> newspaper .", "Kaspar Braun , who published the satirical newspapers Münchener Bilderbogen ( Picture Sheets from Munich ) and <unk> Blätter ( Flying <unk> ) , proposed a collaboration with Busch .", "This association provided Busch with sufficient funds to live .", "An existing self @-@ caricature suggests that at this time he had an intense relationship with a woman from <unk> .", "His courtship with a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old merchant 's daughter , Anna Richter , whom Busch met through his brother Gustav , ended in 1862 .", "Busch 's biographer , <unk> , suggests that her father probably refused to <unk> his daughter to an almost unknown artist without regular income .", "In his early Munich years Busch 's attempt to write libretti , which are almost forgotten today , were unsuccessful .", "Up to 1863 he worked on two or three major works ; the third was composed by Georg Kremplsetzer .", "Busch 's <unk> und <unk> , a romantic opera in three acts , <unk> und <unk> and Der <unk> <unk> <unk> , an opera <unk> of sorts , were not particularly successful .", "There was a dispute between Busch and Kremplsetzer during the staging of Der <unk> <unk> <unk> , leading to the removal of Busch 's name from the production ; the piece was renamed <unk> von Georg Kremplsetzer .", "In 1873 Busch returned several times to Munich , and took part in the intense life of the Munich Art Society as an escape from provincial life .", "In 1877 , in a last attempt to be a serious artist , he took a studio in Munich .", "He left Munich abruptly in 1881 , after he disrupted a variety show and subsequently made a scene through the effects of alcohol The 1878 nine episode illustrated tale Eight Sheets in the Wind describes how humans behave like animals when drunk .", "Busch 's biographer Weissweiler felt the story was only superficially funny and harmless , but was a study on addiction and its induced state of delusion .", "= = = Publication of Max and Moritz = = = \n \n Between 1860 and 1863 Busch wrote over one hundred articles for the Münchener Bilderbogen and <unk> Blätter , but he felt his dependence on publisher Kaspar Braun had become <unk> .", "Busch appointed Dresden publisher Heinrich Richter , the son of Saxon painter Ludwig Richter , as his new publisher — Richter 's press up to that time was producing children 's books and religious Christian devotional literature .", "Busch could choose themes , although Richter raised some concerns regarding four suggested illustrated tales that were proposed .", "However , some were published in the 1864 as <unk> , proving a failure .", "Busch then offered Richter the manuscripts of Max and Moritz , <unk> any fees .", "Richter rejected the manuscript as sales prospects seemed poor .", "Busch 's former publisher , Braun , purchased the right to Max and Moritz for 1 @,@ 000 <unk> , corresponding to approximately double the annual wage of a craftsman .", "For Braun the manuscript was <unk> .", "Initially the sales of Max and Moritz were slow , but sales figures improved after the 1868 second edition .", "Overall there were 56 editions and more than 430 @,@ 000 copies sold up to Busch 's death in 1908 .", "Despite at first being ignored by critics , teachers in the 1870s described Max and Moritz as frivolous and an undesirable influence on the moral development of young people .", "= = = Frankfurt = = = \n \n Increasing economic success allowed Busch to visit Wiedensahl more frequently .", "Busch had decided to leave Munich , as only few relatives lived there , and the artists ' association was temporarily disbanded .", "In June 1867 Busch met his brother Otto for the first time , in Frankfurt .", "Otto was working as a tutor to the family of a wealthy banker and industrialist , Kessler .", "Busch became friends with Kessler 's wife , Johanna , a mother of seven and an influential art and music patron of Frankfurt .", "She regularly opened salons at her villa , frequented by artists , musicians and philosophers .", "She believed Busch to be a great painter , a view supported by Anton Burger , a leading painter of the <unk> <unk> , the <unk> @-@ based group of painters .", "While his humorous drawings did not appeal to her , she supported his painting career .", "At first she established an apartment and studio for Busch in her villa , later providing him with an apartment nearby .", "<unk> by Kessler 's support and admiration , and introduction to the cultural life of Frankfurt , the ' Frankfurter Years ' were the most artistically productive for Busch .", "At this time he and Otto discovered the philosophical works of Arthur Schopenhauer .", "Busch did not remain in Frankfurt .", "Towards the end of the 1860s he alternated between Wiedensahl and Lüthorst , and <unk> where his brother Gustav lived .", "The association with Johanna Kessler lasted five years , and after his return to Wiedensahl in 1872 they communicated by letter .", "This contact was interrupted between 1877 and 1891 , after which it was revived with the help of Kessler 's daughters .", "= = = Later life = = = \n \n Biographer Weissweiler does not dismiss the possibility that Busch 's increasing alcohol dependence hindered self @-@ criticism .", "He refused invitations to parties , and publisher Otto <unk> sent him to Wiedensahl to keep his alcohol problem undetected from those around him .", "Busch was also a heavy smoker , resulting in symptoms of severe <unk> poisoning in 1874 .", "He began to illustrate drunkards more often .", "Dutch writer Marie Anderson corresponded with Busch .", "More than fifty letters were exchanged between January and October 1875 in which they discussed philosophy , religion and ethics .", "Although only one Anderson letter survives , Busch 's letters are in manuscripts .", "They met in <unk> in October 1875 , after which he returned to <unk> at <unk> in a \" horrible mood \" .", "According to several people at the time , Busch 's failure to find a wife was responsible for his conspicuous behaviour .", "There is no evidence that Busch had a close relationship with any woman after that with Anderson .", "Busch lived with his sister Fanny 's family after her husband Pastor Hermann Nöldeke 's death in 1879 .", "His nephew Adolf Nöldeke remembers that Busch wanted to move back to Wiedensahl with the family .", "Busch renovated the house , which Fanny looked after even though he was a rich man , and became \" father \" to his three young nephews .", "She would , however , have preferred to live in a more urban area for the education of her sons .", "For Fanny and her three sons , Busch could not replace their former idyllic life .", "The years around 1880 were <unk> and emotionally exhausting for Busch , who was still reliant on alcohol .", "He would not invite visitors to Wiedensahl ; because of this Fanny lost contact with her friends in the village , and whenever she questioned his wishes , Busch became furious ; Even his friends Otto Friedrich Bassermann , Franz von <unk> , Hermann Levi and Wilhelm von <unk> were not invited ; he would meet them in <unk> or Hanover .", "Busch stopped painting in 1896 and signed @-@ over all publication rights to Bassermann <unk> for 50 @,@ 000 gold marks .", "Busch , now aged 64 , felt old .", "He needed <unk> for writing and painting , and his hands <unk> slightly .", "In 1898 , together with his aging sister Fanny Nöldeke , he accepted Bassermann 's suggestion to move into a large <unk> in Mechtshausen .", "Busch read biographies , novels and stories in German , English and French .", "He organized his works and wrote letters and poems .", "Most of the poems from the collections <unk> und <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> were written in 1899 .", "The following years were <unk> for Busch .", "He developed a sore throat in early January 1908 , and his doctor detected a weak heart .", "During the night of 8 – 9 January 1908 Busch slept <unk> , taking camphor , and a few drops of morphine as a tranquilizer .", "Busch died the following morning before his physician , called by Otto Nöldeke , came to assist .", "= = Work = = \n \n During the Frankfort period Busch published three self @-@ contained illustrated satires .", "Their anti @-@ clerical themes proved popular during the <unk> .", "Busch 's satires typically did not address political questions , but exaggerated <unk> , superstition and <unk> double @-@ standards .", "This exaggeration made at least two of the works historically erroneous .", "The third illustrated satire , Father Filucius ( <unk> Filucius ) , described by Busch as an \" allegorical <unk> \" , has greater historical context .", "= = = Max and Moritz = = = \n \n In German <unk> <unk> in <unk> <unk> , Max and Moritz is a series of seven illustrated stories concerning the mischievous antics of two boys , who are eventually ground @-@ down and fed to ducks .", "= = = Saint Antonius of Padua and Helen Who Couldn 't Help It = = = \n \n In Saint Antonius of Padua ( Der <unk> Antonius von Padua ) Busch challenges Catholic belief .", "It was released by the publisher Moritz Schauenburg at the time Pope Pius IX proclaimed the <unk> of papal <unk> that was harshly criticized by Protestants .", "The publisher 's works were heavily <unk> or censored , and the state 's attorney in <unk> charged <unk> with \" <unk> of religion and offending public decency through indecent writings \" — a decision which affected Busch .", "Scenes of Antonius accompanied by a pig being admitted to heaven , and the devil being shown as a half @-@ naked ballet dancer <unk> Antonius , were deemed controversial .", "The district court of Düsseldorf subsequently banned Saint Antonius .", "Schauenburg was acquitted on 27 March 1871 in <unk> , but in Austria the satire 's distribution was prohibited until 1902 .", "Schauenburg refused to publish further Busch satires to avoid future accusations .", "Busch 's following work , Helen Who Couldn 't Help It ( Die <unk> <unk> ) , was published by Otto Friedrich Bassermann , a friend whom Busch met in Munich .", "Helen Who Couldn 't Help It , which was soon translated into other European languages , <unk> religious hypocrisy and dubious morality : \n Many details from Helen Who Couldn 't Help It criticizes the way of life of the <unk> .", "Johanna Kessler was married to a much older man and entrusted her children to governesses and tutors , while she played an active role in the social life of Frankfurt .", "The character of Mr. <unk> — the name based on the Yiddish insult \" <unk> \" — shows similarities with Johanna Kessler 's husband , who was <unk> in art and culture .", "In the second part of Helen Who Couldn 't Help It Busch attacks Catholic <unk> .", "The <unk> Helen goes on a pilgrimage , accompanied by her cousin and Catholic priest Franz .", "The pilgrimage is successful as later Helen gives birth to twins , who resemble Helen and Franz .", "Franz is later killed by a jealous <unk> , Jean , for his interest in female kitchen staff .", "The now widowed Helen is left with only a rosary , prayer book and alcohol .", "Drunk , she falls into a burning oil lamp .", "Finally , <unk> coins a moral phrase , echoing the philosophy of Schopenhauer : \n <unk> Filucius ( Father Filucius ) is the only illustrated satire of this period suggested by the publisher .", "Also aimed at anti @-@ Catholic taste and <unk> , it criticizes the Jesuit Order .", "Kraus felt it was the weakest of all three anti @-@ clerical works .", "Some satires refer to contemporary events , such as Monsieur Jacques à Paris during the Siege of 1870 ( Monsieur Jacques à Paris <unk> der <unk> von 1870 ) .", "Busch biographer Manuela <unk> declares the story \" <unk> work , drawing on anti @-@ French emotions and mocking the misery of French people in Paris , which is occupied by Prussian troops \" .", "It depicts an increasingly desperate French citizen who at first eats a mouse during the German siege , then <unk> his dog 's tail to cook it , and finally <unk> an explosion pill which kills his dog and two fellow citizens .", "Weissweiler believes that Busch wrote with irony .", "In <unk> and Emma ( 1864 ) , a fictional family story that takes place in the <unk> era , he criticizes the Holy Roman Empire and calls for a German empire in its place ; in The <unk> or the <unk> ( Der <unk> oder die <unk> ) he <unk> the anti @-@ Prussian sentiments of his Hanover countrymen .", "= = = Critique of the Heart = = = \n \n Busch did not write further illustrated tales for a while , and focused on the literary <unk> des <unk> ( Critique of the Heart ) , wanting to appear more serious to his readers .", "Contemporary reception for the collection of 81 poems was mainly poor ; it was criticized for its focus on marriage and sexuality .", "His long @-@ time friend Paul <unk> called it \" very serious , heartfelt , charming poems \" .", "Dutch writer Marie Anderson was one of few people who enjoyed his <unk> des <unk> , and even planned to publish it in a Dutch newspaper .", "= = = Adventures of a Bachelor = = = \n \n Notwithstanding the hiatus after moving from Frankfurt , the 1870s were one of Busch 's most productive decades .", "In 1874 he produced the short illustrated tale <unk> @-@ Boom !", "( <unk> ! )", ".", "Following , in 1875 , was the Knopp Trilogy , about the life of Tobias Knopp : Adventures of a Bachelor ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , Mr. and Mrs. Knopp ( Herr und <unk> Knopp ) ( 1876 ) , and \" Julie \" ( <unk> ) ( 1877 ) .", "The antagonists of the trilogy are not pairs of <unk> as with Max and Moritz or Jack <unk> , Bird of Evil ( Hans <unk> , der <unk> ) .", "Without pathos , Busch makes Knopp become aware of his mortality : \n In the first part of the trilogy , Knopp is depressed and will look for a wife .", "He visits his old friends and their wives who he finds in unenviable relationships .", "Still not convinced that the life of a bachelor is one for him , he returns home , and without further <unk> proposes to his housekeeper .", "The following marriage proposal is , according to Busch biographer Joseph Kraus , one of the shortest in the history of German literature : \n According to <unk> , Busch became skeptical of marriage after writing the story .", "To Marie Anderson he wrote : \" I will never marry ( ... ) I am already in good hands with my sister \" .", "= = = Last works = = = \n \n Among Busch 's last works were the stories Clement Dove , the Poet <unk> ( <unk> <unk> , der <unk> <unk> ) ( 1883 ) and Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ( 1884 ) , both of which focus on artistic failure , and indirectly his own failure .", "Both stories begin with a preface , which , for biographer Joseph Kraus , were <unk> pieces of \" <unk> <unk> \" — German comic poetry .", "Clement Dove ridicules the <unk> amateur poet circle of Munich , \" The <unk> \" ( Die <unk> ) , and their prominent members Emanuel <unk> , Paul von <unk> and Adolf <unk> .", "Painter Squirtle criticizes the <unk> art <unk> , who believes the worth of art is <unk> by its price .", "The prose play Edwards Dream ( <unk> <unk> ) was released in 1891 , composed of several small grouped episodes , rather than one linear storyline .", "The work received mixed reception .", "Joseph Kraus felt it was the peak of Busch 's life 's work , his nephews called it a <unk> of world literature , and the publisher of a critical collective edition spoke of a narrative style that is not found in contemporary literature .", "Eva Weissweiler saw in the play Busch 's attempt to prove himself in the novella genre , believing that everything that angered or insulted him , and his accompanying emotional depths , are apparent in the story .", "The 1895 story The Butterfly ( Der <unk> ) parodies themes and motifs and ridicules the religious optimism of a German <unk> which contradicted Busch 's realistic anthropology influenced by Schopenhauer and Charles Darwin .", "Its prose is more stringent in narrative style compared to Edwards Dream .", "Both were not popular amongst readers , because of their unfamiliar style .", "= = = Painting = = = \n \n Busch felt his painting skills could not compete with those of the Dutch masters .", "He regarded few of his paintings as finished , often <unk> them one on top of the other in <unk> corners of his studio , where they stuck together .", "If the pile of paintings became too high , he burnt some in his garden .", "Since only a few remaining pictures are dated , <unk> them is difficult .", "His doubts regarding his skills are expressed in his choice of materials .", "His ground was usually chosen carelessly .", "Sometimes he used uneven cardboard or poorly @-@ prepared spruce @-@ wood boards .", "One exception is a portrait of Johanna Kessler , on a canvas support measuring 63 centimetres ( 25 in ) by 53 centimetres ( 21 in ) , one of his largest paintings .", "Most of his works , even landscapes , are small .", "As Busch used poor grounds and colours , most are heavily <unk> and have an almost monochrome effect .", "Many pictures depict the countryside at Wiedensahl and Lüthorst .", "They include <unk> willows , cottages in <unk> , <unk> , autumn landscapes and meadows with streams .", "A particular feature is the use of red jackets , found in about 280 of 1000 Busch paintings and drawings .", "The muted or bright red coats are worn usually by a small figure , depicted from behind .", "The paintings generally represent typical villages .", "<unk> of the <unk> , and a series of other portraits depicting <unk> <unk> in the mid @-@ 1870s , are exceptions .", "A painting of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl from a Jewish family at Lüthorst portrays her as serious , and having dark , oriental features .", "The influence of Dutch painters is clearly visible in Busch 's work . \"", "<unk> diluted and shortened ( ... ) but still <unk> \" , wrote Paul <unk> after visiting a Busch memorial exhibition in 1908 .", "A strong influence on Busch was <unk> <unk> , whose themes were farming and inn life , <unk> dances , card players , smokers , drunkards and <unk> .", "He dismissed the techniques of <unk> with its strong preoccupation with the effect of light , and used new colours , such as <unk> Yellow , and photographs , as an aid .", "The landscapes from the mid @-@ 1880s show the same broad <unk> as seen in the paintings of the young Franz von <unk> .", "Busch refused to exhibit work even though he was befriended by many artists of the Munich School , which would have allowed him to do so ; it was not until near the end of his life that he presented his paintings to the public .", "= = Themes , technique and style = = \n \n Busch biographer Joseph Kraus divided his work into three periods .", "He points out , however , that this classification is a <unk> , as some works by their nature can be of a later or earlier period .", "All three periods show Busch 's obsession with German middle class life .", "His peasants are devoid of sensitivity and village life is marked by a vivid lack of sentiment .", "From 1858 to 1865 Busch chiefly worked for the <unk> Blätter and the Münchener Bilderbogen .", "The period from 1866 to 1884 is characterized by his major illustrated stories , such as Helen Who Couldn 't Help It .", "These stories are different in theme from works of his earlier period .", "The life of his characters start well , but <unk> , as in Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ; someone sensitive who becomes a <unk> .", "Others concern <unk> children or animals , or make the great or significant foolish and ridiculous .", "The early stories follow the pattern of children 's books of orthodox education , such as those by Heinrich Hoffmann 's <unk> , that aim to teach the devastating consequences of bad behaviour .", "Busch did not assign value to his work , as he once explained to Heinrich Richter : \" I look at my things for what they are , as <unk> <unk> [ toys ] , as <unk> <unk> [ worthless and useless things ] whose value is to be found not in its artistic content , but in public demand ( ... ) \" .", "From 1885 until his death in 1908 his work was dominated by prose and poems .", "The 1895 prose text Der <unk> contains autobiographical accounts .", "Peter 's <unk> by the witch <unk> , of whom he regards himself a slave , is possibly in reference to Johanna Kessler .", "Peter , like Busch , returns to his birthplace .", "It is similar in style to the romantic travel story that Ludwig <unk> established with his 1798 Franz <unk> 's <unk> .", "Busch plays with its traditional forms , motifs , pictures , literary topics and form of narration .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Publisher Kaspar Braun , who commissioned Busch 's first illustrations , had established the first workshop in Germany to use wood engraving .", "This <unk> printing technique was developed by English graphic artist Thomas <unk> near the end of the 18th century and became the most widely used reproduction system for illustrations over the years .", "Busch insisted on first making the drawings , afterwards writing the verse .", "Surviving preparatory drawings show line notes , ideas , and movement and <unk> studies .", "The draft was then transferred by pencil on white @-@ <unk> panels of hardwood end grain .", "Not only was it hard work , but the quality of the printing block was crucial .", "Everything left white on the block , around Busch 's drawn lines , was cut from the plate by skilled <unk> .", "Wood engraving allows a finer differentiation than woodcut and the potential tonal values are of almost the quality of intaglio printing , such as copper engraving .", "Sometimes the result was not satisfactory , leading Busch to rework or reproduce plates .", "The wood engraving technique did not allow for fine lines , which is why Busch 's drawing , especially in his illustrated tales up to the mid @-@ 1870s , are boldly drawn , giving his work its particular characteristic .", "From the mid @-@ 1870s Busch 's illustrations were printed using zincography .", "With this technique there was no longer any danger that a wood engraver could change the character of his drawings .", "The originals were photographed and transferred onto a <unk> zinc plate .", "This process allowed for the application of a clear , free pen @-@ drawn ink line , and was a much faster printing method .", "Busch 's use of zincography began with Mr. and Mrs. Knopp .", "= = = Language = = = \n \n The effect of Busch 's illustrations are enhanced by his <unk> verse , with taunts , <unk> , ironic twists , exaggeration , ambiguity and startling rhymes .", "His language had an influence on the humorous poetry of Erich <unk> , Kurt <unk> , Joachim <unk> and Christian <unk> .", "The contrast in his later work between comic illustration and its seemingly serious accompanying text — already demonstrated in his earlier Max and Moritz — is shown in Widow <unk> 's <unk> dignity which is <unk> to the loss of her chickens : \n Many of <unk> 's couplets , part of contemporary common usage , give the impression of <unk> wisdom , but in his hands become only apparent truths , hypocrisy or <unk> .", "His use of onomatopoeia is a characteristic of his work : \" <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ da \" — Max and Moritz steal fried chickens with a fishing rod down a chimney — \" <unk> @-@ <unk> \" ; \" at the plank from bank to bank \" ; \" <unk> @-@ <unk> \" , \" hear the <unk> grind and <unk> \" ; and \" <unk> @-@ <unk> \" as Eric the cat <unk> a <unk> from a ceiling in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It .", "Busch uses names he gives characters to describe their personality . \"", "<unk> <unk> \" ( Young <unk> ) has little mental ability ; \" <unk> \" ( <unk> ) would not be of a cheerful disposition ; and \" Förster <unk> \" ( Forester <unk> ) could hardly be a <unk> .", "Many of his picture stories use verses with <unk> structure : \n The <unk> of the stressed syllables strengthens the humour of the lines .", "Busch also uses <unk> , where one accented syllable is followed by two <unk> syllables , as in his <unk> und Plum , where they underline the <unk> and solemn words with which teacher <unk> <unk> his pupils .", "They create tension in the <unk> chapter from Adventures of a Bachelor , through the <unk> of <unk> and <unk> .", "Busch often <unk> format and content in his poems , as in <unk> the Monkey , where he uses the epic <unk> in a speech about wisdom .", "In both his illustrations and poems Busch uses familiar fables , occasionally appropriating their morality and stories , spinning them to illustrate a very different and comic \" truth \" , and bringing to bear his pessimistic view of the world and human condition .", "While traditional fables follow the typical philosophy of <unk> between good and evil behaviour , Busch combines both .", "= = = <unk> and other <unk> = = = \n \n It is not unusual to see <unk> , <unk> and <unk> in Busch 's works .", "Sharp pencils pierced through models , housewives fall onto kitchen knives , thieves are spiked by <unk> , <unk> cut their <unk> with <unk> , <unk> are ground in corn mills , drunkards burn , and cats , dogs and monkeys <unk> while being tormented .", "Busch has been frequently called a <unk> by educators and <unk> .", "<unk> that are burnt , pulled off , trapped , stretched or eaten is seen by Weissweiler as not aggression against animals , but a phallic allusion to Busch 's undeveloped sexual life .", "Such graphic text and imagery in cartoon form was not unusual at the time , and publishers , the public or censors found it not particularly noteworthy .", "<unk> and motifs for his early work were derived from <unk> and 19th @-@ century popular literature , the gruesome endings of which he often softened .", "<unk> , a common aspect of 19th @-@ century teaching , is prevalent in many of his works , for example <unk> <unk> in Adventures of a Bachelor and <unk> <unk> in <unk> and Plum , where is shown an almost sexual pleasure in applying punishment .", "<unk> and humiliation are found in his later work too ; biographer <unk> <unk> described this as Busch 's life @-@ motif .", "In the estate of Busch there is the note \" <unk> die <unk> <unk> \" ( <unk> through the childhood years ) , however there is no evidence that Busch was referring to himself .", "He couldn 't recall any beating from his father .", "His uncle Kleine beat him once , not with the conventional <unk> stick , but symbolically with dried <unk> stalks , this for <unk> cow hairs into a village <unk> 's pipe .", "Weissweiler observes that Busch probably saw <unk> at his village school , where he went for three years , and quite possibly also received this punishment .", "In <unk> <unk> <unk> Busch illustrates a form of nonviolent progressive education that fails in one scene , and <unk> in the following scene ; the <unk> that ensued indicate Busch 's pessimistic picture of life , which has its roots in the Protestant ethic of the 19th century , in which he believed that man is inherently evil and will never master his vices .", "Civilisation is the aim of education , but it can only mask man 's instincts superficially .", "<unk> only leads to a continuation of man 's <unk> , therefore punishment is required , even if he retains his unrepentant character , becomes a trained puppet , or in extreme cases , dies .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The Panic of 1873 led to growing criticism of high finance and the spread of radical <unk> , which in the 1880s became a broad <unk> .", "These criticisms saw a separation of capital into what was construed as \" <unk> \" ( speculative capital ) , and what constituted \" constructive \" creative production capital .", "The \" good \" , \" native \" and \" German \" manufacturer was praised by <unk> <unk> , such as Theodor Fritsch , who opposed what he saw as \" ' <unk> ' ' greedy ' , ' blood @-@ sucking ' , ' Jewish ' financial capitalism in the form of ' <unk> ' and ' <unk> ' \" .", "Busch was thought to have embraced those stereotypes .", "Two passages are often <unk> , one in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It : \n Robert <unk> defended Busch by stating that Jews are <unk> only in three passages , of which the oldest is an illustration of a text by another author , published in 1860 .", "He stated that Busch 's Jewish figures are merely stereotypical , one of a number of stereotypes , such as the \" limited Bavarian farmer \" and the \" Prussian tourist \" .", "Joseph Kraus shares the same view , and uses a couplet from Eight Sheets in the Wind ( Die <unk> ) , in which profit @-@ seeking people are : \n Although <unk> felt that Jews for Busch were alien , the Jewish conductor Hermann Levi befriended him , suggesting that Busch had a slight bias towards Jews .", "= = Biographies = = \n \n The first biography on Busch , <unk> Wilhelm Busch und <unk> <unk> ( About Wilhelm Busch and His Importance ) , was released in 1886 .", "The publisher Eduard <unk> , also an artist and writer , echoed Busch 's anti @-@ Catholic bias , putting him on equal footing with Leonardo da Vinci , Peter Paul Rubens and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , and <unk> quoting <unk> .", "Even Busch and his friends were embarrassed .", "Literary scholar Friedrich Theodor <unk> attacked <unk> 's biography and called him the \" envious <unk> of the <unk> <unk> \" .", "After reading this biography Johannes <unk> posted an essay in the Frankfurter Zeitung , which contained many biographical <unk> — as a response to this , Busch wrote two articles in the same newspaper .", "Published in October and December 1886 , the autobiographical essay Regarding Myself ( Was <unk> <unk> ) includes basic facts , and some description of his troubles ; analysts see within the essay a deep identity crisis .", "Busch revised his autobiography over the following years .", "The last such essay was published under the title From Me About Me ( Von <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , which includes fewer biographical details and less reflection on bitterness and amusement than Regarding Myself .", "= = Legacy = = \n \n Busch celebrated his 70th anniversary at his nephew 's house in <unk> am <unk> .", "Over 1 @,@ 000 <unk> messages were sent to Mechtshausen from around the world .", "Wilhelm II praised the poet and artist , whose \" exquisite works are full of genuine humour and are <unk> for the German people \" .", "The Austrian <unk> <unk> ( Pan @-@ German Association ) repealed the ban on Der <unk> Antonius von Padua .", "<unk> Braun & Schneider , who owned the rights of Max and Moritz , gave Busch 20 @,@ 000 <unk> ( around € 200 @,@ 000 or $ 270 @,@ 000 ) , which was donated to two hospitals in Hanover .", "Since then , on the dates of his birth and death , he has been celebrated frequently .", "During the <unk> anniversary in 2007 , there were numerous re @-@ publications of Busch works .", "Deutsche Post issued stamps depicting the Busch character Hans <unk> — itself the inspiration for the nickname of the never @-@ built <unk> @-@ <unk> Ta 183 German jet fighter design of 1945 — and the German Republic minted a 10 Euro silver coin faced with his portrait .", "Hanover declared 2007 the \" Wilhelm Busch Year \" , with images featuring Busch works erected within the city centre .", "The Wilhelm Busch Prize is awarded annually for satirical and humorous poetry .", "The Wilhelm Busch Society , active since 1930 , aims to \" ( ... ) collect , scientifically revise and promote Wilhelm Busch 's works with the public \" .", "It supports the development of caricature and satirical artwork as a recognized branch of the visual arts .", "It is an advocate of the Wilhelm Busch Museum .", "<unk> are located in places he lived , including Wiedensahl , Ebergötzen , Lüthorst , Mechtshausen and <unk> am <unk> .", "= = = Influence on comics = = = \n \n Andreas C. <unk> described Busch as the \" first virtuoso \" of illustrated stories .", "From the second half of the 20th century he was considered the \" <unk> of Comics \" .", "His early illustrations differ from those of the colleagues of Kaspar Braun .", "They show an increasing focus on protagonists , are less detailed in drawing and atmosphere , and develop from a dramatic understanding of the whole story .", "All Busch 's illustrated tales have a plot that firstly describes the circumstance , then a resulting conflict , then solution .", "<unk> are developed through consecutive scenes , similar to film <unk> .", "Busch conveys an impression of movement and action , at times strengthened through a change of perspective .", "According to <unk> <unk> , his depiction of movement is unique .", "One of Busch 's notable stories is Der <unk> ( 1865 ) , which describes the life of a pianist who plays privately for an excited listener .", "<unk> the self @-@ <unk> artist 's attitude and his overblown adoration , it varies from Busch 's other stories as each scene does not contain prose , but is defined with music terminology , such as \" <unk> \" , \" <unk> \" and \" <unk> <unk> \" .", "As the scenes increase in tempo , each part of his body and <unk> run around .", "The penultimate scene again depicts the pianist 's movements , with score sheets floating above the grand piano on which musical notes are dancing .", "Over the years graphic artists have been fascinated by Der <unk> .", "August <unk> , in a letter to gallery owner <unk> <unk> , described Busch as the first <unk> , stating how well he captured time and movement .", "Similar pioneering scenes are in <unk> zur <unk> ( 1872 ) .", "Job fails to answer rather easy questions set by twelve clergy , who shake their heads in <unk> .", "Each scene is a movement study that <unk> <unk> Muybridge 's photography .", "Muybridge began his work in 1872 , not released until 1893 .", "= = = \" Moritzian \" influence = = = \n \n Busch 's greatest success , both within Germany and internationally , was with Max and Moritz : Up to the time of his death it was translated into English , Danish , Hebrew , Japanese , Latin , Polish , Portuguese , Russian , Hungarian , Swedish and <unk> .", "Several countries banned the story – about 1929 the <unk> school board prohibited sales of Max and Moritz to teens under eighteen .", "By 1997 more than 281 dialect and language translations had been produced .", "Some early \" Moritzian \" comic strips were heavily influenced by Busch in plot and narrative style .", "<unk> and <unk> ( 1896 ) , borrowed so much content from Max and Moritz that it was described as a pirate edition .", "The true \" Moritzian \" recreation is The Katzenjammer Kids by German artist Rudolph <unk> , published in the New York Journal from 1897 .", "It was published though William Randolph <unk> 's suggestion that a pair of siblings following the pattern of \" Max and Moritz \" should be created .", "The Katzenjammer Kids is regarded as one of the oldest , continuous comic strips .", "German \" Moritzian \" <unk> stories include Lies und <unk> ; die <unk> von Max und Moritz ( <unk> <unk> , F. <unk> , 1896 ) , <unk> und <unk> ( 1922 ) , <unk> und Waldemar , des Max und Moritz <unk> ( <unk> Günther , 1932 ) and Mac und <unk> ( Thomas <unk> , <unk> <unk> , 1987 ) .", "These are shaped by observations of the First and Second World Wars , while the original is a moral story .", "In 1958 the Christian Democratic Union used the Max and Moritz characters for a campaign in North Rhine @-@ <unk> , the same year that the East German satirical magazine <unk> used them to caricature black labour .", "In 1969 Max and Moritz \" participated \" in late 1960s student activism .", "= = Partial list of works = =" ]

[ " = Crown Fountain = \n \n Crown Fountain is an interactive work of public art and video sculpture featured in Chicago 's Millennium Park , which is located in the Loop community area .", "Designed by Catalan artist <unk> Plensa and executed by Krueck and Sexton Architects , it opened in July 2004 .", "The fountain is composed of a black granite reflecting pool placed between a pair of glass brick towers .", "The towers are 50 feet ( 15 @.", "@ 2 m ) tall , and they use light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) to display digital videos on their inward faces .", "Construction and design of the Crown Fountain cost $ 17 million .", "The water operates from May to October , intermittently cascading down the two towers and spouting through a nozzle on each tower 's front face .", "Residents and critics have praised the fountain for its artistic and entertainment features .", "It highlights Plensa 's themes of dualism , light , and water , extending the use of video technology from his prior works .", "Its use of water is unique among Chicago 's many fountains , in that it promotes physical interaction between the public and the water .", "Both the fountain and Millennium Park are highly accessible because of their universal design .", "Crown Fountain has been one of the most controversial of all the Millennium Park features .", "Before it was even built , some were concerned that the sculpture 's height violated the aesthetic tradition of the park .", "After construction , surveillance cameras were installed atop the fountain , which led to a public <unk> ( and their quick removal ) .", "However , the fountain has survived its contentious beginnings to find its way into Chicago pop culture .", "It is a popular subject for photographers and a common gathering place .", "While some of the videos displayed are of scenery , most attention has focused on its video clips of local residents ; hundreds of <unk> visit the fountain hoping to see themselves appearing on one of the fountain 's two screens .", "The fountain is a public play area and offers people an escape from summer heat , allowing children to <unk> in the fountain 's water .", "= = Concept and design = = \n \n Grant Park , which is between Lake Michigan and the central business district , is commonly called \" Chicago 's Front Yard \" .", "Its northwest corner had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park .", "Millennium Park was conceived in 1998 as the <unk> of Grant Park , to celebrate the new millennium and to feature world @-@ renowned architects , artists , designers , landscape architects , and urban planners .", "As of 2007 , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .", "The fountain is <unk> located in Chicago : it is east of Michigan Avenue and its Historic Michigan Boulevard District , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute of Chicago ; and south of Madison Street .", "Looking north from the fountain , viewers see some of the tallest buildings in the United States ( <unk> Center , Two Prudential Plaza , and One Prudential Plaza ) .", "= = = Selection of artist = = = \n \n In December 1999 , Lester Crown and his family agreed to sponsor a water feature in Millennium Park .", "Unlike other park feature sponsors , the Crowns acted independently of Millennium Park officials ; they conducted independent surveys of water technologies , held their own informal design contest , and stayed active in the design and engineering of the project .", "The Crowns were open @-@ minded about the choice of artist ; wanting a modern work , they solicited proposals from a list of prospective artists and architects .", "<unk> Plensa researched the traditions and history of fountains and studied <unk> in fountain imagery .", "Some of his early ideas for the project referenced Buckingham Fountain , but these were soon abandoned .", "His presentation to the Crown family started with a slide show of fountains from the Middle Ages through the 20th century .", "Plensa focused on the philosophical meanings associated with fountains , their history , use and art .", "His presentation included computer animation of facial expressions .", "The other finalists were Maya Lin , who presented a low @-@ height horizontal form , and Robert <unk> , who presented a fountain that would have been 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall .", "In January 2000 , Plensa won the commission to design the fountain over Lin and <unk> .", "The installation is a video sculpture , commissioned to operate thirty years .", "= = = Artistic design = = = \n \n Prior to Crown Fountain , Plensa 's dominant theme had been dualism , which he had expanded to artworks in which the viewers are outside , and the visible subjects of the art are inside containers and hollow spaces .", "In the 1990s , he completed several outdoor sculptures in which he explored the use of light ( The Star of David ( 1998 ) at Stockholm 's Raoul <unk> Square , Bridge of Light ( 1998 ) in Jerusalem ) , and LED technology , video , and computer design ( <unk> <unk> & Mr. Net in <unk> ( 1999 – 2000 ) ) .", "In his public art , Plensa challenged himself to involve the viewer with his art , which led to his conception of the Crown Fountain .", "His objective was to create a socially relevant , interactive fountain for the 21st century .", "Since water is the focus of a fountain , and since Chicago , and especially Millennium Park , is so greatly affected by the nearby waterfront , Plensa sought to create an eternal water work to complement the local natural inspirations .", "Because of the colder winters common to the climate of Chicago , Plensa created a fountain that would remain vibrant when the water was inactive in the <unk> , so the fountain is an experience of light themes and the use of video technology .", "Plensa explores dualism with Crown Fountain , where he has two randomly selected faces \" conversing \" with each other .", "Plensa feels that by using faces , he can represent the diversity of the city both in ethnicity and in age .", "The artist intends to portray the <unk> evolution of the city by updating the collection of images .", "His representation has become a part of the city 's pop culture ; the first few episodes of the first season of Prison Break featured shots of the fountain .", "Plensa feels that the challenge in the creation of successful work of public art is to integrate the viewer into an interactive relationship with the art .", "The fountain is known for encouraging its visitors to splash and slide in the reflecting pool , <unk> for position under the water spout and place themselves under the cascade .", "This interactivity was to some degree accidental .", "Although the city planned for some interactivity , the transformation of the fountain into a water park for kids within hours of opening surprised Plensa .", "Now , when the National Weather Service issues summer heat advisories and the Governor of Illinois declares state office buildings as official daytime cooling centers , the national press points to Crown Fountain as a respite for inhabitants of the Chicago metropolitan area .", "= = = Video production = = = \n \n Approximately 75 ethnic , social , and religious Chicago organizations were asked to provide candidates whose faces would be photographed for integration into the fountain .", "The subjects were chosen from local schools , churches and community groups , and filming began in 2001 at the downtown campus of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago ( SAIC ) .", "The SAIC students filmed their subjects with a $ 100 @,@ 000 high @-@ definition <unk> @-@ <unk> video camera , the same model used in the production of the three Star Wars <unk> .", "About 20 SAIC students took part in what became an informal master 's course in public art for the project .", "Faculty from Columbia College Chicago was also involved in the production of the video .", "The high @-@ definition equipment was used because of the scale of the project .", "Because the image proportions were like a movie screen with a width far exceeding its height , the camera was turned on its side during filming .", "Each face appears on the sculpture for a total of 5 minutes using various parts of individual 80 @-@ second videos .", "A 40 @-@ second section is played at one @-@ third speed forward and backward , running for a total of 4 minutes .", "Then , there is a subsequent segment , where the mouth is puckering , that is stretched to 15 seconds .", "This is followed by a section , in which the water appears to spout from the open mouth , that is stretched to last for 30 seconds .", "Finally , there is a smile after the completion of the water spouting from the mouth , that is slowed to extend for 15 seconds .", "Of the original 1 @,@ <unk> subjects filmed , 960 videos were determined to be usable for the project .", "Originally , the set of images was presumed to be the beginning of a work in progress , but as of 2009 no additional videos are planned .", "To achieve the effect in which water appears to be flowing from subjects ' mouths , each video has a segment where the subject 's lips are <unk> , which is then timed to correspond to the spouting water , reminiscent of <unk> fountains .", "Each face is cropped so that no hair and usually no ears are visible .", "Since there is no tripod designed for cameras turned on their sides , an <unk> barber / dentist 's chair was used to minimize the need for the movement of the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art camera during filming .", "Nonetheless , in some case , digital manipulation was necessary to properly simulate puckering in the exact proper location on the video .", "Many of the faces had to be stretched in order to get the mouths properly positioned .", "Additionally , each video was color @-@ corrected for brightness , contrast and color <unk> .", "Both the playback equipment and the final videos had to be further adjusted to account for sunlight during viewing .", "= = Construction and engineering = = \n \n The Crown family , for whom the fountain is named , donated $ 10 million of the $ 17 million construction and design cost .", "The Goodman family , known for funding the Goodman Theatre , was also a large contributor ; the entire $ 17 million cost was provided by private donations .", "The initial proposed cost for the fountain had been $ 15 million .", "After two architectural firms refused the contract to make Plensa 's design a reality , the firm Krueck and Sexton Architects accepted .", "Public art was a departure from Krueck & Sexton 's residential and corporate office @-@ dominated portfolio , which includes buildings like the <unk> Institute .", "Collaboration between the artist , architectural team , and consultants proved to be crucial to the success of the project .", "The fountain 's black granite reflecting pool measures 48 by 232 feet ( 15 by 71 m ) and has an approximate water depth of 0 @.", "@ 25 inches ( 6 @.", "@ 4 mm ) .", "It displays videos on two LED screens , each <unk> in a glass brick tower measuring 50 by 23 by 16 feet ( 15 @.", "@ 2 by 7 @.", "@ 0 by 4 @.", "@ 9 m ) .", "The firm designed a special stainless steel T @-@ frame both to bear the load of the walls , which are 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , and to withstand lateral wind forces .", "The frame holds all the glass blocks and transfers the load to the base in a <unk> pattern .", "<unk> measuring 0 @.", "@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) in diameter anchor to the structure and project into the frame for lateral stability , while triangular corner brackets add support .", "After several dozen glass manufacturing firms were interviewed , L. E. Smith Glass Company emerged as the company to produce 22 @,@ 500 glass blocks near the upper limit of the size of press glass formed from hand @-@ poured molten glass and cast iron molds .", "The process used sand and <unk> ash heated to a temperature of 2 @,@ 600 ° F ( 1 @,@ 430 ° C ) and \" gathered \" with a large clay ball resembling a honey <unk> .", "Rather than use a standard <unk> to ensure the glass that <unk> off the rod spread to the corners of the mold , they relied on gravity .", "The full mold was <unk> ( <unk> in an oven to 1 @,@ 100 ° F ( 593 ° C ) ) and cooled .", "Over the course of four months of production , about 350 blocks were produced per day .", "The glass was custom @-@ made at a factory in Mount Pleasant , Pennsylvania , and shipped to the structural glass panel manufacturer in Melbourne , Florida .", "The panels were then shipped by truck to Chicago .", "The glass is white glass , rather than the usual green glass that results from iron impurities .", "This has the <unk> of increased image clarity , but greater dirt visibility .", "Each block is 5 by 10 by 2 inches ( 127 by 254 by 51 mm ) with glass thin enough to avoid image distortion .", "On each block , one of the six faces is polished , and the other five surfaces are textured .", "The structure for the blocks was a challenge .", "At first , the design team had considered switching to plastic blocks , until the team found Circle <unk> Inc .", ", a prefabricated glass panel company in Melbourne , Florida which specializes in structural glass panel systems .", "Circle <unk> came up with the plan of turning <unk> on their sides to be used as building elements .", "The individual <unk> are 5 feet ( 1 @.", "@ 5 m ) tall and either 16 feet ( 4 @.", "@ 9 m ) or 23 feet ( 7 @.", "@ 0 m ) wide with cell capacity of an average of 250 blocks .", "Each tower is composed of 44 <unk> stacked and <unk> .", "The combination of the refraction of the glass and the <unk> of the metal make the grid virtually invisible .", "The fountain uses 11 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 50 @,@ 000 L ) per hour , 97 % of which is recycled back into the system .", "<unk> the water to the spout took ingenuity .", "Although consideration was given to <unk> a LED tile , it was determined that the images would then look as though they were each missing a tooth .", "Instead , one tile in each tower is <unk> about 6 inches ( 150 mm ) to allow the installation of 1 inch ( 25 mm ) clear <unk> for the water nozzle .", "The water regularly spills over the fountain and down the sides of the towers and intermittently <unk> from the nozzle .", "Two essential custom fittings contribute to the artistic vision of the fountain : a custom glass block at the upper edge for guiding the water 's descent while remaining <unk> , and a plastic nozzle fitted to the stainless steel frame to control the rate of water flow and reduce liability to the city for any injuries sustained by the fountain 's interactive participants .", "The interactive participants are usually children playing in the stream from the water spout or under the cascade .", "The risk that the spouting water would knock people down made the design both a legal and a physical challenge .", "The fountains use over one million LEDs .", "The inner surface of each tower uses 147 smaller screens with a total of 264 @,@ 480 LED points ( each with two red , one blue and two green LEDs ) .", "The physical demands of LED screens , in particular the red , green , and blue long @-@ life light bulbs and the <unk> <unk> , created three major challenges : supporting the physical structure , combating heat buildup , and <unk> <unk> of the display .", "Plensa had used LED fixtures on previous projects , and thus had some experience with these issues .", "The LED structure is not supported as a single wall ( which would be 50 feet ( 15 m ) high ) , but rather as several segments that are noticeable as visible horizontal bands every few feet : these show where the LED equipment is supported .", "The heat generated is handled by fans that cool the air at the bottom , that then works its way through the chimney @-@ like tower .", "<unk> was determined to be optimal with LED lights 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the glass .", "LEDs were chosen because they were viewed as the lowest maintenance option of the possible color changing fixtures .", "LEDs fit into an electrical circuit , causing illumination by the movement of electrons in the <unk> material and making a filament unnecessary , so the bulbs never burn out and do not get too hot .", "<unk> were added to the screens to keep direct sunlight from hitting the LEDs .", "Color Kinetics ( now part of Philips Solid @-@ State <unk> <unk> , which is now called Philips Color Kinetics ) <unk> 12 LEDs fixtures are used to illuminate the tower structures and glass in an attempt to meet Plensa 's objective that the towers have a light and translucent appearance , with their internal structures reflecting light from behind the glass surface .", "The electronics were designed to be adaptable to the time of day , weather and season and to meet the desired century @-@ long longevity and <unk> objectives set by the design team in response to the thirty @-@ year directive .", "The 9 @,@ <unk> @-@ square @-@ foot ( <unk> @.", "@ 4 m2 ) pool used 3 by 3 feet ( 0 @.", "@ 91 by 0 @.", "@ 91 m ) pavers that weigh 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) .", "The pavers were rested on screw jack <unk> in order to be leveled and <unk> .", "The pavers had to be perfectly leveled for the water to work correctly because the fountain incorporates numerous sensors to regulate the flow and level of the water .", "During construction the underground parking garage remained open .", "An additional challenge was designing the structure to facilitate interior access for ongoing maintenance and repairs , while <unk> two levels of underground parking underneath .", "The challenge was solved by combining a T @-@ bar grid to absorb weight with about 150 \" <unk> \" , or \" <unk> \" , inserted through the video wall to support the glass blocks and absorb wind loads .", "This design allows for the removal of individual glass blocks for cleaning or repair without disruption to the display .", "The filtered air inside the towers helps minimize the need for cleaning .", "Crown Fountain 's design not only included interior access for technical repairs , but also incorporated exemplary , non @-@ <unk> , barrier @-@ free accessibility , because its interactivity is not limited to the able @-@ bodied .", "The force of the water accounts for the entire range of possible interactive visitors .", "= = Dedication and operation = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n Construction of the video sculpture was completed for testing without the fountain 's water features on May 18 , 2004 .", "Originally , Plensa had planned to have each face appear for 13 minutes , and this continued to be the targeted duration when the testing of the sculpture occurred .", "Eventually , professors at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago convinced him to use only five @-@ minute videos .", "Plensa 's design of Crown Fountain was unveiled to the public on July 16 – 18 , during the 2004 grand opening celebrations for Millennium Park , which was sponsored by J.P. Morgan Chase & Co .", "At the time of the unveiling , Crown Fountain , like the nearby Cloud Gate , was incomplete because only 300 of the videos had been refined for public display .", "It was officially dedicated on July 24 , 2004 as part of a special private fundraising party that raised $ 3 million for the Millennium Park Conservancy fund .", "= = = Operation = = = \n \n The control center for the <unk> of images , water flow , and lighting color and intensity is beneath one of the towers , in a room that covers 550 square feet ( 51 m2 ) .", "The room houses high @-@ definition video servers and equipment temperature sensors .", "Hard drives contain all the individual electronic computer files of the face videos .", "Generally , the computer programs automatically perform tasks such as determining when the face will <unk> and , if weather conditions permit , when to turn the water on and off .", "Using <unk> rather than high @-@ resolution images was both less expensive and created a better display for the average viewer .", "A Barco show controller selects the sequence of faces one at a time and determines a random tower lighting selection of one of eight LED colors programmed into an Electronic Theatre <unk> ( <unk> ) <unk> control system .", "At night , the <unk> system controls <unk> that illuminate the cascading water and that are <unk> by special wet @-@ use location ground fault circuit <unk> .", "The control room covers an area equal to 26 parking spaces in the underground parking garage , which costs the city $ 100 @,@ 000 annually in terms of the opportunity cost of lost revenue ( in 2004 dollars ) .", "Maintenance issues for the fountain range from kids removing the <unk> between the bricks to pipes in need of maintenance .", "As of 2014 , annual upkeep costs were approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 .", "= = = = Video sculpture = = = = \n \n The front face of each tower is animated with a continuous , dynamic exhibit of lights and electronic images .", "Although the screens on the towers periodically display clips of landscapes such as waterfalls , most intriguing are the display of faces of Chicago residents .", "About 1 @,@ 000 faces of <unk> are shown in a random rotation , the order determined using a Barco show controller .", "Each face is displayed for five minutes , with a brief period between each of these videos during which the sculpture is <unk> .", "As a result , no more than 12 faces appear per hour during the summer .", "However , during the winter a version without the final one minute of puckering is shown , so the video segments then are only four minutes each .", "The video pattern also includes a three @-@ minute water scene every half @-@ hour and a 30 @-@ second fade @-@ to @-@ black every 15 minutes .", "If all the faces were shown consecutively , instead of randomly , they would each appear about once every eight days .", "A June 2007 article in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that many of the subjects who had their images <unk> for the project had yet to either see their own images or hear of anyone who had seen them .", "The spouting water from the faces of the towers appears to be flowing from the displayed subject 's mouth from a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) nozzle located in the center of each interior face 12 feet ( 3 @.", "@ 7 m ) above the reflecting pool .", "<unk> are shown daily year @-@ round , while the water feature only operates from May 1 to approximately October 31 , weather permitting .", "The park is open to the public daily from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. \n Each tower is illuminated from within on three sides by approximately 70 color @-@ changing Color Kinetics LED lighting fixtures per tower , while the fourth side features opposing Barco LED display screens .", "At night , some of the videos are replaced by images of nature or solid colors .", "Also at night , the other three sides of the fountain display changing colors .", "The outer Color Kinetics surfaces randomly display the translucent glow of one of eight colors along with each of the inner opposing faces .", "As a video sculpture with a variety of cascade and water spout fountain modes , the sculpture is a fluid , dynamic evolving artwork .", "= = = = Fountain = = = = \n \n Crown Fountain has both slits and a <unk> for drainage ( pictured above right ) to drain the 11 @,@ 520 US gal ( 43 @,@ 608 l ; 9 @,@ 592 imp gal ) of water per minute .", "When the videos are not on the front of the tower , water <unk> down each of the facades .", "The water is filtered , pumped and <unk> through the fountain .", "Dual pump rooms below each tower draw water from a reservoir beneath the reflecting pool .", "There are 12 mechanical pumps that are regulated from a control room in the underground parking garage beneath the south tower of the fountain .", "The water in the reflecting pool has a depth of about 0 @.", "@ 33 millimetres ( 0 @.", "@ <unk> in ) .", "= = Controversies = = \n \n Before the fountain was completed in 2004 , Art Institute of Chicago president James Wood felt the columns would be too tall and other community leaders felt that the height and scale of the project stemmed from a \" <unk> contest \" with other park feature artists .", "Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by \" forever open , clear and free \" legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court <unk> .", "Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago in the 1890s to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park , and to keep it from building new ones .", "As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park .", "However , Crown Fountain and Jay <unk> Pavilion , which stands 139 feet ( 42 m ) tall , were exempt from the height restriction because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures .", "In November 2006 , Crown Fountain became the focus of a public controversy when the city added surveillance cameras atop each tower .", "<unk> through a $ 52 million Department of Homeland Security grant to the Chicago area , the cameras were part of a surveillance system <unk> eight other cameras covering all of Millennium Park .", "The city said the cameras , similar to those used throughout the city at high @-@ crime areas and traffic intersections , were intended to remain on the towers for several months until permanent , less <unk> replacements were secured .", "City officials had consulted the architects who collaborated with Plensa on the tower designs , but Plensa himself had not been notified .", "Public reaction was negative , as bloggers and the artistic community decried the cameras on the towers as inappropriate and a <unk> .", "The city said that the cameras were largely for security reasons , but also partly to help park officials monitor burnt @-@ out lights .", "The Chicago Tribune quickly published an article concerning the cameras as well as the public reaction , and the cameras were removed the next day .", "Plensa supported their removal .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n In 2014 , the hardware and software behind the fountain 's operation were replaced .", "At the time there were plans to replace LED lighting with <unk> bulbs on each of the non @-@ video display surfaces and to replace the video surface LEDs .", "Plensa , who maintained control of the video faces for the first two years of the fountain 's operation , <unk> that future generations may wish to update the faces used in the rotation of videos to reflect changes in humanity going forward .", "In 2014 , an additional 1000 faces were anticipated for 2016 .", "= = Critical reception = = \n \n Crown Fountain , <unk> Fountain , and Buckingham Fountain , as well as natural water features such as Old <unk> , are examples of the ability of water to attract people and hold their attention .", "Crown Fountain has more interactivity than other Chicago fountains , such as Buckingham Fountain and <unk> Taft 's Fountain of the Great Lakes and Fountain of Time ( all but the last are in Grant Park ) .", "These other Chicago fountains are traditional in that they discourage viewer touching ; Buckingham Fountain is surrounded by a fence , and Taft 's fountains are surrounded by <unk> .", "In contrast , Crown Fountain provides an open invitation to play in the fountain 's water .", "U.S. News & World Report describes the fountain as an exemplary feature of the city 's numerous urban parks .", "Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair <unk> , who is pleased with the sculptures ' <unk> , says the fountain helps appropriately depict the modern 21st @-@ century urban park .", "The Chicago Sun @-@ Times describes the fountain as \" eye @-@ catching , crowd @-@ friendly ... high @-@ tech [ and ] ... contemporary \" .", "The New York Times calls the fountain an \" extraordinary art object \" .", "<unk> 's describes the fountain as public art at its best .", "The beauty of the fountain is , as the San Francisco Chronicle explains , that it is high @-@ concept art for all to enjoy .", "The Financial Times refers to the fountain as a \" <unk> @-@ fountain \" .", "The fountain is praised for its technical features by industry magazines and has won various awards .", "The project won the 2006 Bombay <unk> prize for its design work with glass .", "Critical reviews were not unanimous in their praise .", "One Chicago Tribune critic was not impressed with <unk> @-@ like art , although he conceded the <unk> element reminded him in a positive way of the jungle gym element of the Chicago Picasso .", "The fountain is featured on the cover of Philip Jodidio 's 2005 book , Architecture : Art .", "Although Plensa is considered to be a conceptual artist , according to Jodidio , Plensa created a work whose architectural aspects are paramount .", "Its location juxtaposed with the Historic Michigan Boulevard District 's <unk> highlights these aspects .", "Jodidio considers the work to be a modernization of the <unk> theme , and feels that the scale of the enlarged faces <unk> the work and challenges the architecture .", "The towers are an integral part of the skyline that have achieved rare permanence for contemporary art ." ]

[ " = Canning Dam = \n \n The Canning Dam and reservoir provide a major fresh water resource for the city of Perth , Western Australia .", "The dam is situated on the Darling <unk> and is an <unk> of the Canning River .", "It is noted for its innovative structural and hydraulic design that was considered to be at the forefront of concrete gravity dam design at the time of construction .", "The Canning Dam was Perth 's primary water supply up until the 1960s when other sources of fresh water were <unk> .", "Currently the dam supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's fresh water .", "<unk> into the Canning Reservoir is estimated to be 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) and has a storage capacity of 90 @,@ 352 <unk> ( 3 @,@ 190 @.", "@ 8 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) .", "Since its completion in 1940 , the Canning Dam has contributed to a wide range of environmental and ecological problems in surrounding regions , problems include more common algal blooms , habitat loss and sedimentation .", "Despite these issues , Canning Dam and the adjacent parks and forests provide a variety of recreational activities for the public such as <unk> , historic walks and picnic facilities .", "= = History = = \n \n Development of the Canning River as a source of water for Perth was first proposed in a report of the first Metropolitan Water Works Board of Perth in 1896 .", "Investigation of the site began in 1897 when engineer Thomas Hodgson surveyed and proposed the dam 's current location as a possible site .", "However , despite the recommendations of further inquiries , and an extreme shortage of water in some years , government funds were not allocated for the construction of a dam until the Great Depression in the 1930s .", "In 1924 a small <unk> dam was built 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) downstream from the present Canning Dam .", "It was only intended as a quick fix to the water supply problem and it soon became apparent that a major reservoir was needed , although it would be nine years before work on the current Canning Dam would begin .", "The new dam was completed in 1940 at a cost of AU £ 1 @.", "@ 1 million .", "Engineer Russell Dumas designed the dam and directed most of its construction .", "A further improvement was made in 1951 when a concrete @-@ lined channel was constructed to divert stream flow from the nearby <unk> Gully catchment .", "The Canning Dam and reservoir was Perth 's primary source of water until the boom growth of the city in the 1960s and the completion of <unk> Dam in 1961 .", "In 1975 the reservoir was connected to Perth 's Integrated Water Supply Scheme by the Canning Tunnel .", "Prior to its opening water had flowed through the Canning <unk> Channel to <unk> .", "The Canning Dam and reservoir still supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's drinking water requirements and plays an important role in the context of the development of Perth .", "The Canning reservoir is also used to store water from the newly completed <unk> <unk> Plant .", "<unk> water can be pumped from the plant to the reservoir through the new <unk> <unk> Station .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n The Canning Dam <unk> lies within the Darling <unk> which forms part of an <unk> Shield composed largely of granite with some invaded linear belts of <unk> <unk> and volcanic rocks .", "The dam wall is situated in a narrow <unk> running east and west , with rock sides sloping upward from the river bed .", "Behind the dam wall , the south branch of the Canning River joins the main stream , with the <unk> water forming a lake which stretches back in three major arms to the east south @-@ east and south .", "The catchment has an area of <unk> square kilometres ( 310 sq mi ) .", "The reservoir is at 200 metres ( 660 ft ) <unk> and the highest point of the catchment , Mount Cooke is at <unk> metres ( 1 @,@ 909 ft ) <unk> .", "<unk> , the area receives about 900 millimetres ( 35 in ) of rainfall per annum with most of this falling between May and September .", "There is widespread <unk> of rainfall across the catchment however , from between 700 and 1 @,@ 300 millimetres ( 28 and 51 in ) .", "Since 1975 long @-@ term average <unk> at the dam wall have decreased by 20 percent and <unk> into the catchment by approximately 60 percent — the average annual inflow between 1948 and 1974 was 52 gigalitres ( 1 @.", "@ 8 × 109 cu ft ) which had reduced to 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) between 1975 and 2004 .", "= = Construction = = \n \n The construction of Canning Dam ended a long period during which Perth 's water supply was generally unsatisfactory in quality ( either due to salinity or bacterial pollution or both ) and in quantity .", "The project , the biggest public works program of the decade , stimulated significant growth in the local economy and provided desperately needed work for around five hundred men .", "Several innovative design concepts and construction methods which were new to Australia were introduced on the project , while others which were used on the nearby Wellington Dam , were improved upon at the Canning dam site .", "At the Canning Dam and indeed all dams , care had to be taken to prevent water seepage between the foundation rock and the structure of the dam .", "At the Canning in addition to cutting back the foundation to solid <unk> rock , a cut @-@ off trench was sited near the upstream face of the dam , down stream which a rock filled drain containing open <unk> pipes was provided to intercept any seepage between the rock face and the concrete of the dam .", "The inclusion of an internal drainage system was considered innovative at the period .", "Near vertical tubular 8 in ( 200 mm ) cut @-@ off drains were provided at five @-@ foot ( 1 @.", "@ 52 m ) intervals along the dam to relieve internal seepage through the concrete .", "While state of the art materials @-@ handling methods were used , in some instances labour @-@ saving machinery worked beside operations intended to <unk> the labour content .", "<unk> workers were employed chiefly for on @-@ site preparation , road construction , foundation excavation , clearing timber from the reservoir basin , and on some <unk> operations .", "<unk> workers were required on the dam for fixing the <unk> where the concrete was poured .", "These workers were probably employed at normal day labour rates , the main employment method used on the project .", "<unk> handling of cement was also used for the first time in Australia , this saw a significant saving as opposed to <unk> cement which was the standard practice of the day .", "Generally construction work proceeded smoothly and from an engineering point of view there were few setbacks .", "However , one did occur in the early stages of construction .", "In March 1934 there was a violent storm bringing 130 mm ( 5 @.", "@ 12 in ) of rain in less than two days .", "As a result , the river rose rapidly which flooded the dam foundation workings .", "<unk> had to be installed and work resumed three days later .", "The dam was completed in September 1940 .", "When built it was the longest concrete gravity dam in Australia , and also the second highest after the <unk> Dam in New South Wales .", "As of 1997 of the 90 large concrete and masonry gravity dams in Australia the Canning Dam is still the fifth highest and the sixth longest .", "It is the largest concrete dam in Western Australia in terms of length of crest and volume of concrete .", "The final cost of the dam was significantly less than had been originally budgeted for , and the work was completed on schedule to a date that was calculated seven years previously .", "= = = Remedial works = = = \n \n Recently the Canning Dam has been subjected to considerable <unk> of the upper parts of the dam and upper gallery .", "Investigations have shown that <unk> was due to strong AAR ( alkali aggregate reactivity ) in the concrete .", "AAR results in swelling of the concrete , which may cause secondary <unk> stresses , localised map cracks , and , ultimately structural cracks .", "In addition , the concrete tensile strength and elasticity significantly decreases .", "Many old concrete dams are known to suffer from AAR , including <unk> Dam in Tennessee and <unk> <unk> dam in Italy among others .", "Extensive remedial works were undertaken between 1999 & 2001 to strengthen the dam wall .", "This work involved removing the top 3 @.", "@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) of the existing dam wall and drilling / blasting through the dam wall plus up to a further 70 m ( 230 ft ) into the bedrock below .", "The top section of the wall was then rebuilt using reinforced concrete .", "Finally , permanent , re @-@ <unk> ground anchors were then installed through the formed and drilled holes from the crest to be stressed and <unk> into the foundation rock .", "At time of completion , these were the largest capacity and longest permanent ground anchors ever installed in the world .", "An innovative drilling and blasting technique called <unk> Cone <unk> ( <unk> ) was used in the remedial works process .", "<unk> was chosen over conventional drilling and / or blasting techniques due to the reduced risk of damage to the existing structure from vibration , as well as lower <unk> <unk> and dust levels .", "= = Environmental issues = = \n \n Since the construction of the Canning Dam , among other drinking water supply dams , water flow into the Canning River has been reduced by up to 96 % .", "A number of freshwater fish species which are endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia are found in the Canning River system , however studies of fish and fish habitats in the area have shown that fish numbers are low due to a loss of habitat and a loss of <unk> between breeding areas due to low flows , preventing fish migrating upstream and reaching important breeding and nursery grounds .", "<unk> water caused by a lack of water flow has provided a suitable habitat for successful breeding of an introduced pest , the <unk> .", "<unk> of the Canning caused dramatic flow reductions that significantly altered downstream aquatic <unk> communities .", "The lack of water flow has also resulted in a poor <unk> effect below the dam wall .", "An excessive amount of nutrients from fertilizers and animal waste has caused algal blooms and <unk> .", "Many river pools which are an important summer refuge and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna have been lost due to sedimentation and modification of the flow regime caused by <unk> in the Canning River .", "Periodic flooding of the Canning River from the dam is required to disperse seed , stimulate <unk> and ensure seedlings survive , recharge shallow groundwater tables that are important during periods of drought and to discourage and prevent weed growth .", "However , during times of low rainfall periodic flooding is reduced .", "= = Recreation = = \n \n A number of recreation activities occur in and around the dam and catchment area .", "Canning Dam features a number of picnic areas ( with gas <unk> ) , look outs and historic walks – many with disabled access .", "<unk> occurs throughout the catchment , particularly along the <unk> Track , which passes through the catchment about 10 km upstream of Canning Dam .", "Several mountain bike trails run either through the Canning National Park or adjacent State Forest areas .", "The Canning Reservoir , Canning River and tributaries are illegally fished for <unk> , especially during summer .", "<unk> , fishing and swimming are prohibited in the reservoir for health and hygiene reasons .", "<unk> camping ( including overnight stays and / or outside of designated areas ) and <unk> trail establishment occur more and more frequently in the Canning catchment .", "= = Gallery = =" ]

[ " = Midge ( Barbie ) = \n \n Midge <unk> is a fictional doll character in the Barbie line of toys by Mattel that was first released in 1963 .", "Midge was created , along with <unk> , to counteract criticism that claimed Barbie was a sex symbol .", "She was marketed as Barbie 's best friend .", "No Midge dolls were sold for the rest of the vintage years after the 1960s .", "Midge was re @-@ introduced in 1988 as part of the play line , though two vintage reproduction dolls were made specifically for collectors in 1993 and 1998 .", "The dolls sold in this time period usually had red hair , often with freckles , and her eye color was usually blue .", "Also in the period , Wedding Day Midge was sold , with the groom being Alan Sherwood , who had been marketed as Midge 's boyfriend in the vintage years .", "Midge and Alan had three children introduced named Ryan , Nikki , and Cassandra .", "They also had twins who were never introduced .", "This was known as the Happy Family line , and in the set , Midge was sold \" pregnant \" with Nikki as a newborn baby .", "The Happy Family product became the subject of controversy when some parents disliked the \" pregnant \" Midge toy because they believed that Midge was too young to have children .", "In 2013 Mattel decided to revamp Midge 's history , <unk> her as a best friend of Barbie 's , but unmarried , without children , and with no connection to Alan .", "= = Vintage years = = \n \n When Barbie first came out , she was the subject of a lot of criticism , some of which that claimed Barbie was too mature @-@ looking for children .", "Midge was the first same @-@ size friend of Barbie ever sold , and was created to oppose these controversies aimed at Barbie .", "She had a fuller , gentler face mold that was less sexually intimidating , although her body proportions were the same as Barbie and they both stood at 11 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 290 mm ) tall .", "This allowed the two dolls to be able to share clothes and accessories .", "Her head mold was stamped \" 1958 \" , the same as Barbie .", "When Midge arrived , the markings on the straight leg body mold they shared changed to include both her and Barbie .", "Midge had shoulder @-@ length hair that flipped at the ends .", "<unk> had an option of buying a doll with one of three different hair colors : red , blond , or brunette .", "Her face was usually brushed with freckles .", "The dolls that were sold without freckles had a longer hair style and are now hard to find .", "Depending on the doll 's hair color , the color of her two @-@ piece swimming suit varied .", "If Midge had red hair her <unk> was yellow and orange , for blond hair it was in two shades of blue , and if she was brunette it was pink and red .", "The first vintage Midge dolls had a value of $ 175 <unk> ( Mint In Box ) in 2007 .", "For the first two years that Midge was sold , she had \" straight legs \" that could not bend at the knee .", "A rare Midge with teeth was sold the first year and is now sought after by collectors .", "One year later , in 1964 the dolls that were sold had slightly longer hair .", "Midge 's boyfriend Allan arrived as well .", "Early in 1965 , <unk> <unk> Midge was sold , and consisted of a Midge head with short <unk> hair and three <unk> .", "This was the Midge counterpart of the Fashion Queen Barbie .", "Since she came with only a head , another doll had to provide for the body .", "In 1965 Midge with <unk> legs was introduced .", "She had shorter \" <unk> \" hair , like the American Girl Barbie , with a blue <unk> .", "Her swimming suit was different as well , and was now one @-@ piece and striped .", "= = Return = = \n \n From her introduction to until 1967 , Midge was marketed as Barbie 's original best friend , but no dolls were sold for about 20 years until 1988 , when California Dream Midge was sold as part of a beach line , which used the \" Steffie \" mold .", "The same \" Steffie \" mold was used for Cool Times Midge in 1989 .", "In 1990 , she began to use the \" <unk> \" mold for All Stars Midge and The Beat Midge .", "In 1991 she was married to Allan ( now spelled \" Alan \" ) .", "Before and after the Wedding Day Midge doll was sold , many Midge play line dolls were produced .", "Before Wedding Day Midge , Midge dolls still had freckles , but up until Hawaii Midge was sold in 1999 , the dolls lacked freckles .", "Most of the dolls were red @-@ haired with blue or green eyes , but some dolls were brunette .", "The most commonly used head mold for Midge in this period was the \" <unk> \" mold , stamped 1985 .", "A 35th anniversary Midge reproduction doll was sold in 1998 for collectors , made to look like the vintage Midge dolls .", "She had red hair , was dressed in her original orange and lime two @-@ piece swimming suit , and came with a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit from 1964 – 1965 as well as a reproduction of the box the Midge dolls originally came in .", "Earlier in 1993 , for Midge 's 30th anniversary , a Midge reproduction doll was also produced , but she did not possess a reproduction of her original <unk> or the original box .", "Like the later version , she came in a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit .", "In 2013 , Midge appeared on the <unk> Barbie : Life in the <unk> where it is revealed that she has moved to Malibu .", "With this , her canon has been changed extensively , and she is a teenager who is retro at heart and still uses old @-@ <unk> terms .", "The whole ' Happy Family ' canon has been dropped altogether due to controversy .", "Two Midge dolls will be released in 2013 - one is as part of a collectors set with Barbie , and the other on her own in the Life in the <unk> doll line .", "= = \" Happy Family \" line = = \n \n The year after Midge and Alan were married , a picture of the couple with twin babies was shown in a pamphlet , but the dolls were never produced .", "However , in 2003 , she and Alan were re @-@ introduced with a family consisting of them and three different kids , three @-@ year @-@ old Ryan , and newborn baby Nikki .", "This was known as the \" Happy Family \" line , and was similar to the discontinued Heart Family line of the 1980s .", "The dolls came in both European American and African American versions .", "This was the first time an African American Midge was ever produced .", "Midge was sold \" pregnant \" with Nikki , who was a tiny baby inside Midge 's magnetic <unk> <unk> .", "This led to some controversy with some consumers saying that the doll was inappropriate for children , or that it promoted teen pregnancy .", "Another cause for this controversy was that Midge did not initially have a wedding ring , but this was later fixed .", "She also was packaged without Alan .", "<unk> complaining about the doll led to Wal @-@ Mart pulling the Happy Family line off their shelves .", "A new version of this Midge was produced for Wal @-@ Mart , this time not pregnant and with a cardboard cut @-@ out display of Alan and Ryan standing next to her inside the box .", "The Happy Family Line included everything from a talking house , a backyard swimming pool , neighborhood market , and playground .", "Later , around Nikki 's first birthday , Midge was \" pregnant \" again with another child , who wasn 't named or given a specific gender , as the gender was a surprise when the owner opened the doll 's box .", "Midge 's new baby was later named Cassandra .", "Midge has two known parents who are simply called \" <unk> \" and \" <unk> \" .", "At first , the <unk> dolls were sold together as part of a big set consisting of the dolls and a kitchen play set , but for Nikki 's first birthday they were sold separately .", "Midge , Alan , and Ryan gave Nikki a dog for her birthday .", "They too came in both Caucasian and African American versions .", "They use different body molds , to reflect their age .", "= = Head <unk> = = \n \n Midge 's first appearance was made with her own headmold , Vintage Midge \n Later , we have Midge using <unk> ( by Barbie and the <unk> ) headmold \n Before Teresa made her debut , Midge used Steffie headmold \n Midge comes and goes so many times , but with her 50th birthday , she returns with the Steffie headmold \n Florida Midge uses <unk> headmold ." ]

[ " = The Tempest ( album ) = \n \n The Tempest is the tenth studio album by American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse .", "Released in 2007 , the album marks the return of producer Mike E. Clark , who had a falling @-@ out with the duo in 2000 .", "However , he did not collaborate directly with ICP , and would not do so until their 2009 album Bang !", "<unk> !", "Boom !", "The album 's concept compares a violent storm to a roller coaster ; its lyrical themes vary from <unk> @-@ based character <unk> and songs about the supernatural to humorous and lighter subject matter .", "Clark 's production was praised by critics , and the album peaked at # 20 on the Billboard 200 .", "It is the group 's 23rd overall release .", "= = History = = \n \n Mike E. Clark produced much of Insane Clown Posse 's discography , as well as working with other groups on Psychopathic Records , until having a falling @-@ out with ICP in 2000 , after completing ICP 's album 's <unk> and <unk> , and beginning production on the Dark Lotus debut album Tales from the Lotus Pod .", "After becoming a full @-@ time producer for Kid Rock , Clark contracted pneumonia , but ignored the illness , and began <unk> severely as he <unk> , leading to a three @-@ month stay in Mount <unk> General Hospital , during which one of his lungs collapsed three times .", "As the result of his near @-@ death experience , Clark decided to reconcile with Bruce and Utsler .", "<unk> conversations between Clark and Insane Clown Posse led to Clark producing Shaggy 2 Dope 's 2006 solo album <unk> ..", "The following year , Clark produced The Tempest ; however , in both instances , he did not work with Psychopathic Records directly .", "Because of this , ICP felt that The Tempest was missing the collaborative element that they felt made their earlier albums enjoyable .", "Clark would not work directly work with Psychopathic Records until 2009 's Bang !", "<unk> !", "Boom !", "= = Music and lyrics = = \n \n Unlike previous Insane Clown Posse albums , The Tempest is not connected to the Dark Carnival mythology , which formed the basis for ICP 's \" Joker 's Cards \" series , which began in 1992 with Carnival of <unk> and concluded with the albums The <unk> : <unk> @-@ La and Hell 's Pit ; however , it references themes , concepts and songs from previous albums .", "Joseph Bruce ( <unk> J ) said that The Tempest is a concept album in its own right .", "Bruce describes the album 's concept as relating to both a violent storm which turns into a tornado and pulls people into a hurricane as well as a roller coaster .", "According to Bruce , \" That 's a lot like riding on a violent roller coaster , I 'd assume .", "You get <unk> to the left , <unk> to the right , sucked way up into the sky , and then you go shooting down to the floor , and then you <unk> up to the left and then you whip around to the right .", "Well , The Tempest is a storm in the form of a roller coaster . \"", "As a result of this concept , the album focuses on a variety of different moods .", "The Tempest maintains much of the <unk> lyrical content ICP is known for , as well as their humorous perspective .", "Unlike previous albums , this album does not contain any <unk> aimed at other <unk> or music industry figures .", "Bruce and Joseph Utsler ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ' s rapping on this album is described by Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries as being delivered in \" a carnival <unk> fashion that fits with their circus motif \" , and contrasted Bruce and Utsler themselves as being like \" Alice Cooper with a <unk> attitude \" .", "The lyrics of \" Growing Again \" , which describes <unk> J growing into a giant , were inspired by Bruce 's weight gain ; Bruce also says that the song reflects the feeling of being able to \" rap about anything we want [ ... ] I feel we have the right for some songs to be softer and not about killing or Dark Carnival . \"", "\" The Tower \" describes a war veteran and expert marksman climbing a college tower and shooting people with an arsenal of weapons , a reference to Charles Whitman 's 1966 murder <unk> .", "Mike E. Clark 's production incorporates elements of rock and heavy metal , as well as live instrumentation .", "Reviewer Lana Cooper of PopMatters compares \" Ride the Tempest \" to <unk> of <unk> , and describes the instrumentation as incorporating elements of synthesizers and <unk> .", "Cooper says that \" Growing Again \" incorporates power ballad chords .", "Jeffries describes \" I Do This ! \"", "as being influenced by <unk> , and called \" Mexico City \" \" Low <unk> music \" .", "= = Release and reception = = \n \n The album was released with a bonus poster .", "The Tempest debuted at # 20 on the U.S.", "Billboard 200 , selling about 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week .", "Reviews from Allmusic and PopMatters generally <unk> Mike E. Clark 's production as the album 's most appealing element .", "Allmusic 's David Jeffries wrote , \" there 's no denying that Clark 's vision does wonders for the duo . \"", "PopMatters ' Lana Cooper said that \" [ Insane Clown Posse 's ] <unk> have to be given their due . \"", "= = Track listing = = \n \n \n = = Chart positions = = \n \n \n = = Personnel = = \n \n Joseph Bruce – vocals , composer \n Shaggy 2 Dope — vocals , scratching \n Mike E. Clark – composer , engineer , mixing , producer , programming \n Jeffrey <unk> – mastering \n Brian <unk> – artwork , cover design \n DJ Clay — scratching , vocals \n Insane Clown Posse — composer , vocals \n James Mitchell — vocals \n The <unk> — vocals , background vocals \n Razor Ray — guitar , soloist , vocals , background vocals \n Michael <unk> — artwork , cover design \n <unk> <unk> — artwork , cover design" ]

[ " = Star = \n \n A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity .", "The nearest star to Earth is the Sun .", "Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth .", "Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and <unk> , the brightest of which gained proper names .", "Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations .", "However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth .", "Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .", "For at least a portion of its life , a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core , releasing energy that traverses the star 's interior and then radiates into outer space .", "Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star 's lifetime , and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes .", "Near the end of its life , a star can also contain degenerate matter .", "Astronomers can determine the mass , age , metallicity ( chemical composition ) , and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space , its luminosity , and spectrum respectively .", "The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate .", "Other characteristics of a star , including diameter and temperature , change over its life , while the star 's environment affects its rotation and movement .", "A plot of the temperature of many stars against their <unk> produces a plot known as a <unk> – Russell diagram ( H – R diagram ) .", "<unk> a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined .", "A star 's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a <unk> nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements .", "When the stellar core is sufficiently dense , hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion , releasing energy in the process .", "The remainder of the star 's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes .", "The star 's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity .", "When the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted , a star of mass 0 @.", "@ 4 times greater than the Sun 's will expand to become a red giant .", "In some cases , it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core .", "As the star expands it throws a part of its mass , enriched with those heavier elements , into the interstellar environment , to be recycled later as new stars .", "Meanwhile , the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole .", "<unk> and multi @-@ star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits .", "When two such stars have a relatively close orbit , their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution .", "Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure , such as a star cluster or a galaxy .", "= = Observation history = = \n \n Historically , stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world .", "They have been part of religious practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation .", "Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable .", "By convention , astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun .", "The motion of the Sun against the background stars ( and the horizon ) was used to create <unk> , which could be used to regulate agricultural practices .", "The Gregorian calendar , currently used nearly everywhere in the world , is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to its local star , the Sun .", "The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC .", "The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC , during the <unk> Period ( ca .", "<unk> – 1155 BC ) .", "The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by <unk> in approximately 300 BC , with the help of <unk> .", "The star catalog of Hipparchus ( 2nd century BC ) included <unk> stars , and was used to assemble Ptolemy 's star catalogue .", "Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova ( new star ) .", "Many of the constellations and star names in use today <unk> from Greek astronomy .", "In spite of the apparent <unk> of the heavens , Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear .", "In 185 AD , they were the first to observe and write about a supernova , now known as the SN 185 .", "The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN <unk> supernova , which was observed in <unk> and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn <unk> and several Chinese astronomers .", "The SN 1054 supernova , which gave birth to the Crab Nebula , was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers .", "Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could <unk> the positions of the stars .", "They built the first large observatory research institutes , mainly for the purpose of producing <unk> star catalogues .", "Among these , the Book of Fixed Stars ( <unk> ) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al @-@ <unk> al @-@ Sufi , who observed a number of stars , star clusters ( including the <unk> <unk> and <unk> 's <unk> ) and galaxies ( including the <unk> Galaxy ) .", "According to A.", "<unk> , in the 11th century , the Persian <unk> scholar Abu <unk> <unk> described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars , and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in <unk> .", "According to <unk> <unk> , the <unk> astronomer Ibn <unk> proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from <unk> material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH ( <unk> / 1107 AD ) as evidence .", "Early European astronomers such as <unk> <unk> identified new stars in the night sky ( later termed novae ) , suggesting that the heavens were not immutable .", "In <unk> <unk> Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun , and may have other planets , possibly even Earth @-@ like , in orbit around them , an idea that had been suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers , <unk> and <unk> , and by medieval Islamic <unk> such as <unk> al @-@ Din al @-@ <unk> .", "By the following century , the idea of the stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers .", "To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System , Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction , an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley .", "The Italian astronomer <unk> <unk> recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star <unk> in 1667 .", "Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby \" fixed \" stars , demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus .", "William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky .", "During the <unk> he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight .", "From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky , in the direction of the Milky Way core .", "His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction .", "In addition to his other accomplishments , William Herschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight , but are also physical companions that form binary star systems .", "The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von <unk> and Angelo <unk> .", "By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun , they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines — the dark lines in a stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere 's absorption of specific frequencies .", "In 1865 <unk> began classifying stars into spectral types .", "However , the modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s .", "The first direct measurement of the distance to a star ( 61 <unk> at 11 @.", "@ 4 light @-@ years ) was made in 1838 by Friedrich <unk> using the parallax technique .", "<unk> measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens .", "Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century .", "In 1834 , Friedrich <unk> observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion .", "Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star <unk> in a 104 @-@ day period .", "Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as William <unk> and S. W. <unk> , allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of orbital elements .", "The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix <unk> in 1827 .", "The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars .", "The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool .", "Karl <unk> discovered that the color of a star and , hence , its temperature , could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude .", "The development of the <unk> <unk> allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals .", "In 1921 Albert A.", "<unk> made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an <unk> on the <unk> telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory .", "Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century .", "In 1913 , the <unk> @-@ Russell diagram was developed , <unk> the <unk> study of stars .", "Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution .", "Cecilia Payne @-@ <unk> first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 PhD thesis .", "The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics .", "This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined .", "With the exception of supernovae , individual stars have primarily been observed in the Local Group , and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way ( as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our galaxy ) .", "But some stars have been observed in the <unk> galaxy of the <unk> <unk> , about 100 million light years from the Earth .", "In the Local <unk> it is possible to see star clusters , and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group ( see <unk> ) .", "However , outside the Local <unk> of galaxies , neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed .", "The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years — ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed .", "= = <unk> = = \n \n The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period .", "Ancient sky <unk> imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns , and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths .", "Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology .", "Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names , particularly with Arabic or Latin designations .", "As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself , individual stars have their own myths .", "To the Ancient Greeks , some \" stars \" , known as planets ( Greek <unk> ( <unk> ) , meaning \" <unk> \" ) , represented various important deities , from which the names of the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were taken .", "( <unk> and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods , but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness .", "Their names were assigned by later astronomers . )", "<unk> 1600 , the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky .", "The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation .", "Later a numbering system based on the star 's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed 's star catalogue in his book \" Historia <unk> Britannica \" ( the <unk> edition ) , whereby this numbering system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering .", "The only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) .", "A number of private companies sell names of stars , which the British Library calls an unregulated commercial enterprise .", "The IAU has <unk> itself from this commercial practice , and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them .", "One such star @-@ naming company is the International Star <unk> , which , during the 1980s , was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the assigned name was official .", "This now @-@ discontinued <unk> practice was informally labeled a <unk> and a fraud , and the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against <unk> for engaging in a deceptive trade practice .", "= = Units of measurement = = \n \n Although stellar parameters can be expressed in <unk> units or <unk> units , it is often most convenient to express mass , luminosity , and radii in solar units , based on the characteristics of the Sun : \n Large lengths , such as the radius of a giant star or the semi @-@ major axis of a binary star system , are often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit — approximately equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun ( 150 million km or 93 million miles ) .", "= = Formation and evolution = = \n \n Stars <unk> from regions of space of higher density , yet those regions are less dense than within a vacuum chamber .", "These regions - known as molecular clouds - consist mostly of hydrogen , with about 23 to 28 percent helium and a few percent heavier elements .", "One example of such a star @-@ forming region is the Orion Nebula .", "Most stars form in groups of dozens to hundreds of thousands of stars .", "Massive stars in these groups may powerfully illuminate those clouds , ionizing the hydrogen , and creating H II regions .", "Such feedback effects , from star formation , may ultimately disrupt the cloud and prevent further star formation .", "All stars spend the majority of their existence as main sequence stars , fueled primarily by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within their cores .", "However , stars of different masses have markedly different properties at various stages of their development .", "The ultimate fate of more massive stars differs from that of less massive stars , as do their <unk> and the impact they have on their environment .", "Accordingly , astronomers often group stars by their mass : \n Very low mass stars , with masses below 0 @.", "@ 5 M ☉ , are fully convective and distribute helium evenly throughout the whole star while on the main sequence .", "Therefore , they never undergo shell burning , never become red giants , which cease fusing and become helium white dwarfs and slowly cool after exhausting their hydrogen .", "However , as the lifetime of 0 @.", "@ 5 M ☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe , no such star has yet reached the white dwarf stage .", "Low mass stars ( including the Sun ) , with a mass between 0 @.", "@ 5 M ☉ and 1 @.", "@ 8 – 2 @.", "@ 5 M ☉ depending on composition , do become red giants as their core hydrogen is depleted and they begin to burn helium in core in a helium flash ; they develop a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core later on the asymptotic giant branch ; they finally blow off their outer shell as a planetary nebula and leave behind their core in the form of a white dwarf .", "Intermediate @-@ mass stars , between 1 @.", "@ 8 – 2 @.", "@ 5 M ☉ and 5 – 10 M ☉ , pass through evolutionary stages similar to low mass stars , but after a relatively short period on the <unk> they ignite helium without a flash and spend an extended period in the red clump before forming a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core .", "Massive stars generally have a minimum mass of 7 – 10 M ☉ ( possibly as low as 5 – 6 M ☉ ) .", "After exhausting the hydrogen at the core these stars become supergiants and go on to fuse elements heavier than helium .", "They end their lives when their cores collapse and they explode as supernovae .", "= = = Star formation = = = \n \n The formation of a star begins with gravitational instability within a molecular cloud , caused by regions of higher density - often triggered by compression of clouds by radiation from massive stars , expanding bubbles in the interstellar medium , the collision of different molecular clouds , or the collision of galaxies ( as in a <unk> galaxy ) .", "When a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for <unk> instability , it begins to collapse under its own gravitational force .", "As the cloud collapses , individual <unk> of dense dust and gas form \" Bok <unk> \" .", "As a <unk> collapses and the density increases , the gravitational energy converts into heat and the temperature rises .", "When the <unk> cloud has approximately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic equilibrium , a <unk> forms at the core .", "These pre – main sequence stars are often surrounded by a <unk> disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy .", "The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 to 15 million years .", "Early stars of less than 2 M ☉ are called T Tauri stars , while those with greater mass are <unk> <unk> / Be stars .", "These newly formed stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation , which may reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing star and result in small patches of <unk> known as <unk> – <unk> objects .", "These jets , in combination with radiation from nearby massive stars , may help to drive away the surrounding cloud from which the star was formed .", "Early in their development , T Tauri stars follow the <unk> track — they contract and decrease in luminosity while remaining at roughly the same temperature .", "Less massive T Tauri stars follow this track to the main sequence , while more massive stars turn onto the <unk> track .", "Most stars are observed to be members of binary star systems , and the properties of those binaries are the result of the conditions in which they formed .", "A gas cloud must lose its angular momentum in order to collapse and form a star .", "The fragmentation of the cloud into multiple stars distributes some of that angular momentum .", "The primordial binaries transfer some angular momentum by gravitational interactions during close encounters with other stars in young stellar clusters .", "These interactions tend to split apart more widely separated ( soft ) binaries while causing hard binaries to become more tightly bound .", "This produces the separation of binaries into their two observed populations <unk> .", "= = = Main sequence = = = \n \n Stars spend about 90 % of their existence fusing hydrogen into helium in high @-@ temperature and high @-@ pressure reactions near the core .", "Such stars are said to be on the main sequence , and are called dwarf stars .", "Starting at zero @-@ age main sequence , the proportion of helium in a star 's core will steadily increase , the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase , as will the star 's temperature and luminosity .", "The Sun , for example , is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 40 % since it reached the main sequence 4 @.", "@ 6 billion ( 4 @.", "@ 6 × 109 ) years ago .", "Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space .", "For most stars , the mass lost is negligible .", "The Sun loses 10 − 14 M ☉ every year , or about 0 @.", "@ 01 % of its total mass over its entire lifespan .", "However , very massive stars can lose 10 − 7 to 10 − 5 M ☉ each year , significantly affecting their evolution .", "Stars that begin with more than 50 M ☉ can lose over half their total mass while on the main sequence .", "The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and the rate at which it fuses it .", "The Sun 's is expected to live 10 billion ( <unk> ) years .", "Massive stars consume their fuel very rapidly and are short @-@ lived .", "Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly .", "Stars less massive than 0 @.", "@ 25 M ☉ , called red dwarfs , are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while stars of about 1 M ☉ can only fuse about 10 % of their mass .", "The combination of their slow fuel @-@ consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion ( 1012 ) years ; the most extreme of 0 @.", "@ 08 M ☉ ) will last for about 12 trillion years .", "Red dwarfs become <unk> and more luminous as they accumulate helium .", "When they eventually run out of hydrogen , they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature .", "However , since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe ( 13 @.", "@ 8 billion years ) , no stars under about 0 @.", "@ 85 M ☉ are expected to have moved off the main sequence .", "Besides mass , the elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars .", "Astronomers label all elements heavier than helium \" metals \" , and call the chemical concentration of these elements in a star , its metallicity .", "A star 's metallicity can influence the time the star takes to burn its fuel , and controls the formation of its magnetic fields , which affects the strength of its stellar wind .", "Older , population II stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger , population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed .", "Over time , such clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed portions of their atmospheres .", "= = = Post – main sequence = = = \n \n As stars of at least 0 @.", "@ 4 M ☉ exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core , they start to fuse hydrogen in a shell outside the helium core .", "Their outer layers expand and cool greatly as they form a red giant .", "In about 5 billion years , when the Sun enters the helium burning phase , it will expand to a maximum radius of roughly 1 astronomical unit ( 150 million kilometres ) , 250 times its present size , and lose 30 % of its current mass .", "As the hydrogen shell burning produces more helium , the core increases in mass and temperature .", "In a red giant of up to 2 @.", "@ 25 M ☉ , the mass of the helium core becomes degenerate prior to helium fusion .", "Finally , when the temperature increases sufficiently , helium fusion begins explosively in what is called a helium flash , and the star rapidly shrinks in radius , increases its surface temperature , and moves to the horizontal branch of the <unk> diagram .", "For more massive stars , helium core fusion starts before the core becomes degenerate , and the star spends some time in the red clump , slowly burning helium , before the outer convective envelope collapses and the star then moves to the horizontal branch .", "After the star has fused the helium of its core , the carbon product fuses producing a hot core with an outer shell of fusing helium .", "The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch ( <unk> ) that parallels the other described red giant phase , but with a higher luminosity .", "The more massive <unk> stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes degenerate .", "= = = = Massive stars = = = = \n \n During their helium @-@ burning phase , stars of more than nine solar masses expand to form red supergiants .", "When this fuel is exhausted at the core , they continue to fuse elements heavier than helium .", "The core contracts and the temperature and pressure rises enough to fuse carbon ( see <unk> burning process ) .", "This process continues , with the successive stages being fueled by neon ( see neon burning process ) , oxygen ( see oxygen burning process ) , and silicon ( see silicon burning process ) .", "Near the end of the star 's life , fusion continues along a series of onion @-@ layer shells within a massive star .", "Each shell fuses a different element , with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen ; the next shell fusing helium , and so forth .", "The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron .", "Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei , any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy .", "To a very limited degree such a process proceeds , but it consumes energy .", "Likewise , since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei , such energy cannot be released by fission .", "In relatively old , very massive stars , a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star .", "The heavier elements in these stars can work their way to the surface , forming evolved objects known as Wolf @-@ <unk> stars that have a dense stellar wind which sheds the outer atmosphere .", "= = = = <unk> = = = = \n \n As a star 's core shrinks , the intensity of radiation from that surface increases , creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away , forming a planetary nebula .", "If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1 @.", "@ 4 M ☉ , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth , known as a white dwarf .", "White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place .", "The electron @-@ degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma , even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma .", "Eventually , white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time .", "In larger stars , fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large ( more than 1 @.", "@ 4 M ☉ ) that it can no longer support its own mass .", "This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons , forming neutrons , neutrinos , and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and <unk> beta decay .", "The <unk> formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova .", "<unk> become so bright that they may briefly <unk> the star 's entire home galaxy .", "When they occur within the Milky Way , supernovae have historically been observed by naked @-@ eye observers as \" new stars \" where none seemingly existed before .", "A supernova explosion blows away the star 's outer layers , leaving a remnant such as the Crab Nebula .", "The core is compressed into a neutron star , which sometimes <unk> itself as a pulsar or X @-@ ray <unk> .", "In the case of the largest stars , the remnant is a black hole greater than 4 M ☉ ) s .", "In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron @-@ degenerate matter , with a more exotic form of degenerate matter , <unk> matter , possibly present in the core .", "Within a black hole , the matter is in a state that is not currently understood .", "The blown @-@ off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements , which may be recycled during the formation of new stars .", "These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets .", "The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium .", "= = = = <unk> stars = = = = \n \n The post – main @-@ sequence evolution of binary stars may be significantly different from the evolution of single stars of the same mass .", "If stars in a binary system are sufficiently close , when one of the stars expands to become a red giant it may overflow its Roche lobe , the region around a star where material is gravitationally bound to that star , leading to transfer of material to the other .", "When the Roche lobe is violated , a variety of phenomena can result , including contact binaries , common @-@ envelope binaries , <unk> variables , and type <unk> supernovae .", "= = Distribution = = \n \n In addition to isolated stars , a multi @-@ star system can consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit each other .", "The simplest and most common multi @-@ star system is a binary star , but systems of three or more stars are also found .", "For reasons of orbital stability , such multi @-@ star systems are often organized into hierarchical sets of binary stars .", "Larger groups called star clusters also exist .", "These range from loose stellar associations with only a few stars , up to enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands of stars .", "Such systems orbit our Milky Way galaxy .", "It has been a long @-@ held assumption that the majority of stars occur in gravitationally bound , multiple @-@ star systems .", "This is particularly true for very massive O and B class stars , where 80 % of the stars are believed to be part of multiple @-@ star systems .", "The proportion of single star systems increases with decreasing star mass , so that only 25 % of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions .", "As 85 % of all stars are red dwarfs , most stars in the Milky Way are likely single from birth .", "Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe , but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust .", "A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars , and there are more than 100 billion ( <unk> ) galaxies in the observable universe .", "In 2010 , one estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe was 300 <unk> ( 3 × 1023 ) .", "While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies , <unk> stars have been discovered .", "The nearest star to the Earth , apart from the Sun , is <unk> <unk> , which is 39 @.", "@ 9 trillion kilometres , or 4 @.", "@ 2 light @-@ years .", "Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle ( 8 kilometres per second — almost 30 @,@ 000 kilometres per hour ) , it would take about 150 @,@ 000 years to arrive .", "This it typical of stellar <unk> in galactic discs .", "Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters , or much farther apart in galactic <unk> .", "Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus , collisions between stars are thought to be rare .", "In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center , collisions can be more common .", "Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers .", "These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity of the cluster to which it belongs .", "= = Characteristics = = \n \n Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass , including such characteristics as luminosity , size , evolution , lifespan , and its eventual fate .", "= = = Age = = = \n \n Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old .", "Some stars may even be close to 13 @.", "@ 8 billion years old — the observed age of the universe .", "The oldest star yet discovered , HD <unk> , nicknamed <unk> star , is an estimated 14 @.", "@ 46 ± 0 @.", "@ 8 billion years old .", "( Due to the uncertainty in the value , this age for the star does not conflict with the age of the Universe , determined by the Planck satellite as 13 @.", "@ 799 ± 0 @.", "@ <unk> ) .", "The more massive the star , the shorter its lifespan , primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores , causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly .", "The most massive stars last an average of a few million years , while stars of minimum mass ( red dwarfs ) burn their fuel very slowly and can last tens to hundreds of billions of years .", "= = = Chemical composition = = = \n \n When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71 % hydrogen and 27 % helium , as measured by mass , with a small fraction of heavier elements .", "Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere , as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure .", "The portion of heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system .", "The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf <unk> @-@ <unk> , with only 1 / <unk> the iron content of the Sun .", "By contrast , the super @-@ metal @-@ rich star <unk> <unk> has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun , while the planet @-@ bearing star 14 <unk> has nearly triple the iron .", "There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual <unk> of certain elements in their spectrum ; especially <unk> and rare earth elements .", "Stars with cooler outer atmospheres , including the Sun , can form various <unk> and <unk> molecules .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n Due to their great distance from the Earth , all stars except the Sun appear to the unaided eye as shining points in the night sky that <unk> because of the effect of the Earth 's atmosphere .", "The Sun is also a star , but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead , and to provide daylight .", "Other than the Sun , the star with the largest apparent size is R <unk> , with an angular diameter of only 0 @.", "@ <unk> <unk> .", "The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be observed with current ground @-@ based optical telescopes , and so <unk> telescopes are required to produce images of these objects .", "Another technique for measuring the angular size of stars is through <unk> .", "By precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is <unk> by the Moon ( or the rise in brightness when it reappears ) , the star 's angular diameter can be computed .", "Stars range in size from neutron stars , which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km ( 25 mi ) in diameter , to supergiants like <unk> in the Orion constellation , which has a diameter approximately 1 @,@ 070 times that of the Sun — about 1 @,@ 490 @,@ 171 @,@ 880 km ( <unk> @,@ <unk> @,@ 878 mi ) .", "<unk> , however , has a much lower density than the Sun .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star , as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy .", "The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun , and the traverse angular movement , which is called its proper motion .", "<unk> velocity is measured by the <unk> shift of the star 's spectral lines , and is given in units of km / s .", "The proper motion of a star , its parallax , is determined by precise <unk> measurements in units of <unk> @-@ arc seconds ( <unk> ) per year .", "With knowledge of the star 's parallax and its distance , the proper motion velocity can be calculated .", "Together with the radial velocity , the total velocity can be calculated .", "Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun , making them good candidates for parallax measurements .", "When both rates of movement are known , the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed .", "Among nearby stars , it has been found that younger population I stars have generally lower <unk> than older , population II stars .", "The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy .", "A comparison of the <unk> of nearby stars has allowed astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds , and are referred to as stellar associations .", "= = = Magnetic field = = = \n \n The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation occurs .", "This movement of <unk> plasma functions like a <unk> , wherein the movement of <unk> charges induce magnetic fields , as does a mechanical <unk> .", "Those magnetic fields have a great range that extend throughout and beyond the star .", "The strength of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star , and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star 's rate of rotation .", "This surface activity produces starspots , which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures .", "<unk> loops are <unk> magnetic field flux lines that rise from a star 's surface into the star 's outer atmosphere , its corona .", "The <unk> loops can be seen due to the plasma they conduct along their length .", "<unk> flares are bursts of high @-@ energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity .", "Young , rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field .", "The magnetic field can act upon a star 's stellar wind , functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation with time .", "Thus , older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface activity .", "The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods of time .", "During the <unk> minimum , for example , the Sun underwent a 70 @-@ year period with almost no sunspot activity .", "= = = Mass = = = \n \n One of the most massive stars known is <unk> <unk> , which , with 100 – 150 times as much mass as the Sun , will have a lifespan of only several million years .", "Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests 150 M ☉ as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe .", "This represents an <unk> value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the <unk> gas cloud .", "Several stars in the <unk> cluster in the Large <unk> Cloud have been measured with larger masses , but it has been determined that they could have been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , <unk> the 150 M ☉ limit on massive star formation .", "The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger , up to 300 M ☉ , due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition .", "This generation of <unk> population III stars is likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e.", ", they are observed to have a high <unk> ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life .", "In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos <unk> 7 galaxy at <unk> = 6 @.", "@ 60 .", "With a mass only 80 times that of Jupiter ( MJ ) , <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core .", "For stars with metallicity similar to the Sun , the theoretical minimum mass the star can have and still undergo fusion at the core , is estimated to be about 75 MJ .", "When the metallicity is very low , however , the minimum star size seems to be about 8 @.", "@ 3 % of the solar mass , or about 87 MJ .", "Smaller bodies called brown dwarfs , occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants .", "The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines its surface gravity .", "Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than do main sequence stars , while the opposite is the case for degenerate , compact stars such as white dwarfs .", "The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star 's spectrum , with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The rotation rate of stars can be determined through spectroscopic measurement , or more exactly determined by tracking their starspots .", "Young stars can have a rotation greater than 100 km / s at the equator .", "The B @-@ class star <unk> , for example , has an equatorial velocity of about 225 km / s or greater , causing its equator to be <unk> outward and giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50 % greater than between the poles .", "This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km / s at which speed the star would break apart .", "By contrast , the Sun <unk> once every 25 – 35 days , with an equatorial velocity of 1 @.", "@ <unk> km / s .", "A main sequence star 's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow its rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main sequence .", "<unk> stars have contracted into a compact mass , resulting in a rapid rate of rotation .", "However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum — the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin .", "A large portion of the star 's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind .", "In spite of this , the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid .", "The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula , for example , <unk> 30 times per second .", "The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius , and is often estimated from the star 's color index .", "The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature , which is the temperature of an <unk> black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star .", "Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface , as the temperature increases toward the core .", "The temperature in the core region of a star is several million <unk> .", "The stellar temperature will determine the rate of ionization of various elements , resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum .", "The surface temperature of a star , along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features , is used to classify a star ( see classification below ) .", "Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50 @,@ 000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3 @,@ 600 K ; but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area .", "= = Radiation = = \n \n The energy produced by stars , a product of nuclear fusion , radiates to space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation .", "The particle radiation emitted by a star is <unk> as the stellar wind , which streams from the outer layers as electrically charged protons and alpha and beta particles .", "Although almost <unk> , there also exists a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star 's core .", "The production of energy at the core is the reason stars shine so brightly : every time two or more atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single atomic nucleus of a new heavier element , gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear fusion product .", "This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy of lower frequency , such as visible light , by the time it reaches the star 's outer layers .", "The color of a star , as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light , depends on the temperature of the star 's outer layers , including its photosphere .", "Besides visible light , stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye .", "In fact , stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum , from the longest <unk> of radio waves through infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , to the shortest of X @-@ rays , and gamma rays .", "From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star , not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant , but all frequencies provide insight into the star 's physics .", "Using the stellar spectrum , astronomers can also determine the surface temperature , surface gravity , metallicity and rotational velocity of a star .", "If the distance of the star is found , such as by measuring the parallax , then the luminosity of the star can be derived .", "The mass , radius , surface gravity , and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models .", "( Mass can be calculated for stars in binary systems by measuring their orbital <unk> and distances .", "<unk> <unk> has been used to measure the mass of a single star . )", "With these parameters , astronomers can also estimate the age of the star .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The luminosity of a star is the amount of light and other forms of <unk> energy it radiates per unit of time .", "It has units of power .", "The luminosity of a star is determined by its radius and surface temperature .", "Many stars do not radiate uniformly across their entire surface .", "The rapidly rotating star Vega , for example , has a higher energy flux ( power per unit area ) at its poles than along its equator .", "<unk> of the star 's surface with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as starspots .", "Small , dwarf stars such as our Sun generally have essentially <unk> disks with only small starspots .", "Giant stars have much larger , more obvious starspots , and they also exhibit strong stellar limb darkening .", "That is , the brightness decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk .", "Red dwarf flare stars such as <unk> <unk> may also possess prominent <unk> features .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n The apparent brightness of a star is expressed in terms of its apparent magnitude .", "It is a function of the star 's luminosity , its distance from Earth , and the altering of the star 's light as it passes through Earth 's atmosphere .", "<unk> or absolute magnitude is directly related to a star 's luminosity , and is what the apparent magnitude a star would be if the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 <unk> ( 32 @.", "@ 6 light @-@ years ) .", "Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are <unk> units : one whole number difference in magnitude is equal to a brightness variation of about 2 @.", "@ 5 times ( the 5th root of 100 or approximately 2 @.", "@ 512 ) .", "This means that a first magnitude star ( + 1 @.", "@ 00 ) is about 2 @.", "@ 5 times brighter than a second magnitude ( + 2 @.", "@ 00 ) star , and about 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star ( + 6 @.", "@ 00 ) .", "The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude + 6 .", "On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales , the smaller the magnitude number , the brighter the star ; the larger the magnitude number , the <unk> the star .", "The brightest stars , on either scale , have negative magnitude numbers .", "The variation in brightness ( <unk> ) between two stars is calculated by <unk> the magnitude number of the brighter star ( mb ) from the magnitude number of the <unk> star ( <unk> ) , then using the difference as an exponent for the base number 2 @.", "@ 512 ; that is to say : \n <formula> \n <formula> \n Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth , a star 's absolute magnitude ( M ) and apparent magnitude ( m ) are not equivalent ; for example , the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.", "@ 44 , but it has an absolute magnitude of + 1 @.", "@ 41 .", "The Sun has an apparent magnitude of − 26 @.", "@ 7 , but its absolute magnitude is only + 4 @.", "@ 83 .", "Sirius , the brightest star in the night sky as seen from Earth , is approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun , while Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.", "@ 53 , is approximately 14 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun .", "Despite Canopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius , however , Sirius appears brighter than Canopus .", "This is because Sirius is merely 8 @.", "@ 6 light @-@ years from the Earth , while Canopus is much farther away at a distance of 310 light @-@ years .", "As of 2006 , the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is <unk> 1806 @-@ 20 , with a magnitude of − 14 @.", "@ 2 .", "This star is at least 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun .", "The least luminous stars that are currently known are located in the <unk> <unk> cluster .", "The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 26 , while a 28th magnitude white dwarf was also discovered .", "These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday <unk> on the Moon when viewed from the Earth .", "= = Classification = = \n \n The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century , when stars were classified from A to Q based on the strength of the hydrogen line .", "It thought that the hydrogen line strength was a simple linear function of temperature .", "Rather , it was more complicated ; it strengthened with increasing temperature , it peaked near 9000 K , and then declined at greater temperatures .", "When the classifications were <unk> by temperature , it more closely resembled the modern scheme .", "Stars are given a single @-@ letter classification according to their spectra , ranging from type O , which are very hot , to M , which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres .", "The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are : O , B , A , F , G , K , and M. A variety of rare spectral types are given special classifications .", "The most common of these are types L and T , which classify the coldest low @-@ mass stars and brown dwarfs .", "Each letter has 10 sub @-@ divisions , numbered from 0 to 9 , in order of decreasing temperature .", "However , this system breaks down at extreme high temperatures as classes <unk> and <unk> may not exist .", "In addition , stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines , which correspond to their spatial size and is determined by their surface gravity .", "These range from 0 ( <unk> ) through III ( giants ) to V ( main sequence dwarfs ) ; some authors add VII ( white dwarfs ) .", "Most stars belong to the main sequence , which consists of ordinary hydrogen @-@ burning stars .", "These fall along a narrow , diagonal band when <unk> according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type .", "The Sun is a main sequence <unk> yellow dwarf of intermediate temperature and ordinary size .", "Additional nomenclature , in the form of lower @-@ case letters added to the end of the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum .", "For example , an \" e \" can indicate the presence of emission lines ; \" m \" represents unusually strong levels of metals , and \" <unk> \" can mean variations in the spectral type .", "White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub @-@ divided into the classes <unk> , <unk> , DC , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum .", "This is followed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature .", "= = <unk> stars = = \n \n <unk> stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or <unk> properties .", "Of the intrinsically variable stars , the primary types can be subdivided into three principal groups .", "During their stellar evolution , some stars pass through phases where they can become <unk> variables .", "<unk> variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time , expanding and contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years , depending on the size of the star .", "This category includes <unk> and <unk> @-@ like stars , and long @-@ period variables such as Mira .", "<unk> variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or mass <unk> events .", "This group includes <unk> , Wolf @-@ <unk> stars , and flare stars , as well as giant and <unk> stars .", "<unk> or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their properties .", "This group includes novae and supernovae .", "A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions , including the nova and a Type <unk> supernova .", "The explosion is created when the white dwarf <unk> hydrogen from the companion star , building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion .", "Some novae are also recurrent , having periodic outbursts of moderate <unk> .", "Stars can also vary in luminosity because of <unk> factors , such as eclipsing binaries , as well as rotating stars that produce extreme starspots .", "A notable example of an eclipsing binary is <unk> , which regularly varies in magnitude from 2 @.", "@ 3 to 3 @.", "@ 5 over a period of 2 @.", "@ 87 days .", "= = Structure = = \n \n The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium : the forces on any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other .", "The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star .", "The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma ; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core .", "The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen @-@ burning core of a main sequence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star .", "As atomic nuclei are fused in the core , they emit energy in the form of gamma rays .", "These photons interact with the surrounding plasma , adding to the thermal energy at the core .", "Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into helium , creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core .", "Eventually the helium content becomes predominant , and energy production ceases at the core .", "Instead , for stars of more than 0 @.", "@ 4 M ☉ , fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core .", "In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium , the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal equilibrium .", "There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior .", "The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming flux from below .", "The radiation zone is the region of the stellar interior where the flux of energy outward is dependent on radiative heat transfer , since convective heat transfer is inefficient in that zone .", "In this region the plasma will not be <unk> , and any mass motions will die out .", "If this is not the case , however , then the plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur , forming a convection zone .", "This can occur , for example , in regions where very high energy <unk> occur , such as near the core or in areas with high <unk> ( making <unk> heat transfer inefficient ) as in the outer envelope .", "The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the star 's mass .", "Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior and a radiative zone in the outer layers .", "Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite , with the convective zone located in the outer layers .", "Red dwarf stars with less than 0 @.", "@ 4 M ☉ are convective throughout , which prevents the <unk> of a helium core .", "For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified .", "The photosphere is that portion of a star that is visible to an observer .", "This is the layer at which the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light .", "From here , the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate into space .", "It is within the photosphere that sun spots , regions of lower than average temperature , appear .", "Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere .", "In a main sequence star such as the Sun , the lowest level of the atmosphere , just above the photosphere , is the thin <unk> region , where <unk> appear and stellar flares begin .", "Above this is the transition region , where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km ( 62 mi ) .", "Beyond this is the corona , a volume of super @-@ heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres .", "The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star .", "Despite its high temperature , and the corona emits very little light , due to its low gas density .", "The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse .", "From the corona , a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star , until it interacts with the interstellar medium .", "For the Sun , the influence of its solar wind extends throughout a bubble @-@ shaped region called the <unk> .", "= = Nuclear fusion reaction pathways = = \n \n A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars , that depend upon their mass and composition .", "When nuclei fuse , the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts .", "This lost mass is converted to electromagnetic energy , according to the mass @-@ energy equivalence relationship E = <unk> .", "The hydrogen fusion process is temperature @-@ sensitive , so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate .", "As a result , the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M @-@ class star to 40 million kelvin for a massive O @-@ class star .", "In the Sun , with a 10 @-@ million @-@ kelvin core , hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton @-@ proton chain reaction : \n <unk> → <unk> + 2e + + <unk> ( 2 x 0 @.", "@ 4 MeV ) \n 2e + + <unk> → 2γ ( 2 x 1 @.", "@ 0 MeV ) \n <unk> + <unk> → <unk> + 2γ ( 2 x 5 @.", "@ 5 MeV ) \n <unk> → 4He + <unk> ( 12 @.", "@ 9 MeV ) \n These reactions result in the overall reaction : \n <unk> → 4He + 2e + + 2γ + <unk> ( 26 @.", "@ 7 MeV ) \n where e + is a positron , γ is a gamma ray <unk> , <unk> is a neutrino , and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium , respectively .", "The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts , which is actually only a tiny amount of energy .", "However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly , producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star 's radiation output .", "In comparison , the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule releases only 5 @.", "@ 7 <unk> .", "In more massive stars , helium is produced in a cycle of reactions <unk> by carbon called the carbon @-@ nitrogen @-@ oxygen cycle .", "In evolved stars with cores at 100 million kelvin and masses between 0 @.", "@ 5 and 10 M ☉ , helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple @-@ alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium : \n 4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8 * Be \n 4He + 8 * Be + 67 keV → 12 * C \n 12 * C → <unk> + γ + 7 @.", "@ 4 MeV \n For an overall reaction of : \n <unk> → <unk> + γ + 7 @.", "@ 2 MeV \n In massive stars , heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and oxygen burning process .", "The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron @-@ 56 , an <unk> process that consumes energy , and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse .", "The example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 M ☉ to consume all of its nuclear fuel .", "As an O @-@ class main sequence star , it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity ." ]

[ " = Perry the <unk> = \n \n Perry the <unk> , also known as Agent P or simply Perry , is an anthropomorphic platypus from the animated series Phineas and Ferb .", "Perry was created by the series ' co @-@ founders , Dan Povenmire and Jeff \" <unk> \" Marsh .", "He first appeared along with the majority of the main cast in the pilot episode \" <unk> . \"", "Perry is featured as the star of the B @-@ plot for every episode of the series , alongside his nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz .", "A mostly silent character , his lone vocal characteristic ( a <unk> of Perry 's beak ) was provided by Dee Bradley Baker .", "Perry is the pet platypus of the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , and is perceived as mindless and domesticated .", "In secret , however , he lives a double life as a member of an all @-@ animal espionage organization referred to as O.W.C.A.", "( The Organization Without a Cool <unk> ) .", "Many secret entrances to his underground lair exist all around the house ; such as the side of the house , most notably the tree that his owners sit under in the backyard , and several other everyday objects that seem to <unk> the family 's attention .", "He engages in daily battles with Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , an evil scientist who desires to take over the Tri @-@ state area with obscure contraptions that work perfectly according to his intended function but fail in his application of them every time .", "Perry was made a platypus because of the animal 's striking appearance and the lack of public knowledge of the animal , which allowed the writers to make things up about the species .", "Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans have been considerably positive .", "Merchandising of the character include plush toys , t @-@ shirts , wooden toys , glasses , and coloring books , along with appearances in literature and a 2009 video game for the Nintendo DS .", "= = Role in Phineas and Ferb = = \n \n Perry is the docile pet platypus of the blended Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , who adopted him because his <unk> gaze made it seem as if he were looking at both Phineas and Ferb at the same time , as shown in the 2011 movie , Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension .", "Unbeknownst to them , Perry lives a double life as a crime @-@ fighting spy working for the \" Organization Without a Cool <unk> \" / The <unk> , going by the <unk> \" Agent P. \" He reports to his superior , Major Monogram , via telecast in his large , high @-@ tech , underground hideout .", "Every day , he engages in battles with the evil scientist Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , who tries using inventions to take over the tri @-@ state area .", "Perry is always able to foil Doofenshmirtz 's plans and in doing so accidentally leads to the destruction of whatever form of <unk> his owners , Phineas Flynn and Ferb Fletcher , are building in order to make summer better .", "Phineas and Ferb are aware that something happens to get rid of their scheme for the day , but do not know that Perry is the cause behind it and are largely dismissive of it .", "Their sister , Candace , also does not know that Perry is behind the destruction and is driven to near <unk> trying to figure it out .", "Throughout the series , Perry is aware of Phineas and Ferb 's inventions , but is largely <unk> in them , save whenever he notices that their latest invention may help him thwart Doofenshmirtz .", "Perry and Doofenshmirtz at first seem to <unk> each other in the beginning of the series , and have been arch @-@ <unk> since the day they met .", "However , they are often <unk> and friendly towards one another and it is said by Doofenshmirtz that Perry is his best friend , and Perry will often act to save Doofenshmirtz 's life when his plot inevitably blows up in his face .", "<unk> , their daily <unk> involve Doofenshmirtz <unk> a scheme , which Perry goes to stop after being briefed by Major Monogram .", "He is trapped by Doofenshmirtz while trying to do so and is told of the doctor 's scheme , usually pertaining to some backstory or pet <unk> .", "He then escapes and the two fight , Perry coming out victorious .", "The two rely on this daily structure , Doofenshmirtz even specifically mentioning it in \" Journey to the Center of Candace \" and in episodes such as \" It 's About Time ! \"", "in which Doofenshmirtz temporarily replaces Perry with secret agent Peter The <unk> and they become depressed about not having each other to fight .", "Perry realizes he misses <unk> too .", "When Perry does not arrive on the scene of Doofenshmirtz 's evil plan , the doctor hesitates to execute his plans and fears for where Perry has gone , though he notes that he \" hopes something terrible has happened to him . \"", ".", "Sometimes , they decided not to fight and have fun , as shown in \" Happy New Year ! \"", "and \" Candace <unk> \" .", "On other occasions , depending on whatever situation Doofenshmirtz is facing , Perry would often help Doofenshmirtz with his non @-@ evil plans , such as helping him overcome evil scientist 's block , helping him put on a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa , impressing a square dancing girl with programmable square dancing boots that <unk> created , working together to stop a <unk> platypus hunter from hunting them down , or helping him convince his rich ex @-@ wife to help pay off his <unk> debt .", "Also , Perry tends to use Doofenshmirtz 's inventions to erase evidence of whatever contraptions Phineas and Ferb had made , leaving Candace unable to bust them .", "Examples include when Perry asked to borrow Doofenshmirtz 's robot <unk> to pick up footage from the city surveillance cameras in order to preserve his job as an agent , as well as using Doofenshmirtz 's Pick @-@ Him @-@ Up @-@ <unk> to rescue a lost Candace and bring her home .", "In Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension , an alternate reality ( yet more evil and ruthless ) version of Perry ( known as <unk> ) appears as the secondary antagonist , with the regular Perry serving as a supporting protagonist .", "<unk> would later return in the episode sequel , Tales from the Resistance : Back to the 2nd Dimension , this time , as a supporting protagonist .", "= = Character = = \n \n \n = = = Creation and conception = = = \n \n While working on the animated television series <unk> 's Modern Life , Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff \" <unk> \" Marsh utilized several recurring elements in the episodes that they wrote .", "Among these were actions sequences and chase scenes .", "Povenmire and Marsh wanted to reuse these elements in their series and chose Perry to execute it .", "The pair gave him a consistent and continuous nemesis in the form of Doofenshmirtz as a means of allowing viewers to get to know him .", "While choosing a species for Perry , Povenmire and Marsh wanted to keep in mind selecting one that was uncommon , an animal that kids could not \" pick out at a pet store and beg [ their parents ] for . \"", "They chose a platypus because of the animal 's obscure and striking appearance .", "The animal was scarcely used in American animated programs , so the pair opined that Perry \" would not have to compete with <unk> notions that viewers might bring to a more conventional <unk> . \"", "The blank storyboard they were given allowed them to \" make stuff up \" since \" no one knows very much about [ them ] . \"", "Perry has a theme song tentatively entitled \" Perry , \" performed by Randy <unk> and Laura Dickinson , and written by Povenmire and Marsh , who write the majority of songs in the series .", "The song , along with the number \" <unk> <unk> Goo \" from the episode \" <unk> <unk> , \" was the first musical composition Povenmire and Marsh pitched to The Walt Disney Company .", "They were nervous doing so , because , as Povenmire explained , \" Disney has a big history of music -- what if they hate it ? \"", "Their reaction , however , was considerably positive and the pair was asked to write a song for each episode , which they vehemently agreed to .", "The opening lyrics for the song describe Perry as a standard textbook definition of a platypus : \" He 's a semi @-@ aquatic egg @-@ laying mammal of action . \"", "= = = Design = = = \n \n Like the other characters of the series , Perry was structured in a simple style to allow young viewers to easily draw him .", "In keeping with the show 's general design scheme , Perry is constructed of <unk> shapes in a style reminiscent of deceased <unk> <unk> animator <unk> Avery .", "Povenmire uses different design styles for drawing Perry depending on how he is portrayed .", "When Perry is portrayed as a domesticated and mindless pet , Povenmire begins with a square shaped like a loaf of bread .", "He then draws his front legs and feet before drawing his bill , which is set at a certain angle .", "Povenmire then draws his <unk> , which are never focused and look in opposing directions in a <unk> .", "He concludes the figure by adding his hind legs , tail , hair , and finally color .", "When portrayed as a secret agent , Povenmire starts with a similar bread loaf square design , but draws it standing up vertically and places a <unk> on the top of his head , which is combined with the square torso .", "In contrast to his mindless and wild @-@ eyed expression as a pet , the secret agent version of Perry is detailed with eyes \" full of <unk> blue resolve . \"", "Povenmire proceeds by drawing his arms , which bear hands that are open and prepared for fighting or any danger .", "His legs are bent , as well prepared for an act of danger or action needed .", "Povenmire finishes the design by adding his beaver tail and color .", "= = = Personality = = = \n \n Perry 's undercover identity as a pet leads to characters throughout the series to deem him as a \" mindless domestic pet \" that \" doesn 't do much \" .", "This definition of the character led to Phineas and Ferb <unk> production of a new toyline based on Perry called \" Perry the <unk> Figure , \" whose tagline revolved around it not doing anything but allowing the customer to make it whatever they desire it to be .", "In all actuality , Perry is a skilled fighter who is able to perform several <unk> judo fighting moves and escapes .", "He has access to several different types of technology and inventions provided to him by The O.W.C.A.", ", including a <unk> craft dubbed the \" <unk> , \" a jet <unk> , and a whistle set that allows him to summon different types of animals .", "Although his appearance as a domestic pet is mostly a cover , Perry has nonetheless expressed care and devotion for the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family .", "In the episode \" The Ballad of Bad <unk> \" , Perry managed to drag Candace out of the Dark Cave before it <unk> in because of Dr. <unk> 's \" self destruction button \" that which Candace had accidentally pressed while under the orange moss <unk> , thinking it was a <unk> machine .", "He did this even though he knew that Candace saw that Perry was a secret agent talking to Agent E ( Eagle ) and to Major Monogram in a cracked egg .", "Candace thought she was just <unk> because of the orange moss she accidentally touched earlier in the episode .", "Also , when an invention of Doofenshmirtz 's in the episode \" Journey to the Center of Candace \" might cause severe harm to Phineas and Ferb , Perry thoroughly beats up Doofenshmirtz and quickly handcuffs him .", "He then ties him to a pipe and , instead of just leaving him like he usually does in the series , calls for special forces from the O.W.C.A.", "to come and arrest the doctor , though they never show up .", "In \" Oh , There You Are , Perry , \" Doofenshmirtz is downgraded to a low threat level and Perry is reassigned to a new nemesis .", "This causes him to have to leave his home with the Flynn @-@ <unk> , which makes him sad and he does not enjoy his new villain .", "Phineas and Ferb are fearful about where Perry could have gone to and put up several <unk> around town for people to find him .", "They decide to throw a concert on the roof of a building , singing a song about how much they love Perry and want him to come home .", "<unk> , Perry is reassigned to Doofenshmirtz again and returns to the brothers once more .", "Though Perry is anthropomorphic , he does not speak , only communicating through an \" aggravated <unk> \" type of noise made by flapping his bill .", "This noise is provided by actor Dee Bradley Baker ; to this day , Povenmire and Marsh do not understand how Baker produces the noise .", "Thomas <unk> , who plays Ferb , is notoriously good at making the noise and is considered second only to Baker himself .", "When in his \" Agent P \" persona , Perry is almost completely silent .", "= = Reception = = \n \n As a character , Perry has been well received by both fans and critics .", "As Cynthia <unk> of Variety magazine wrote , \" Perry the platypus is a breakout star from the Disney Channel <unk> ' Phineas and Ferb . '", "\" The New York Times writer Susan Stewart called him \" intrepid . \"", "Jean <unk> , a press member for Disney Channel , said that Perry is \" <unk> \" and \" makes James Bond look like a rank amateur . \"", "Aaron H. <unk> of <unk> <unk> opined that he is \" <unk> confident . \"", "<unk> H. of Scholastic , Inc. declared Perry \" pretty <unk> awesome . \"", "Josh Jackson , editor of Paste , described Perry and Doofenshmirtz 's relationship as \" pitch @-@ perfect . \"", "Certain reviewers have also commented negatively about Perry and his subplot , which <unk> Robinson of the St. Petersburg Times considers \" pretty <unk> . \"", "Kevin McDonough of Sun Coast Today described it as \" complicated \" and \" loosely connected \" to the rest of the series , writing that he is \" not sure what this <unk> except to add the noise of explosions to the already constant <unk> of singing and screaming . \"", "Ed Liu of <unk> Zone feels it is \" truly <unk> what Perry the secret agent is doing in this show in the first place . \"", "Liu considers his subplot to be a type of \" throw everything against the wall and see what sticks \" element and writes that \" many of the earlier episodes of the show don 't manage to do a very good job of balancing the subplot and the main one . \"", "Perry was nominated for a <unk> Kids ' Choice Award in 2014 under the category of Favorite <unk> Animal <unk> .", "= = In other media = = \n \n In addition to the main television series , Perry has appeared in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise .", "To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb <unk> , published by Disney Press .", "The character has been adapted into a 20 inch plush toy , released by The Walt Disney Company .", "The plush has a button on its hand that allows it to emit Perry 's signature chattering noise .", "Certain t @-@ shirts based on the series released by both Disney and the online retail website <unk> also display Perry and the phrase \" Hey , where 's Perry ? \"", "which most characters like Phineas , Isabella , Stacy , Irving , Ferb , and Lawrence utter when Perry goes to Major Monogram in his secret lair in almost every episode .", "There also is a T @-@ <unk> with Perry 's face .", "Perry appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb , where a mini @-@ game involves Perry stopping Doofenshmirtz 's latest evil scheme .", "As of 1 April 2014 , Perry is also a playable character in the video game Disney Infinity ." ]

[ " = Amylostereum = \n \n Amylostereum is the single genus in the fungal family Amylostereaceae .", "The genus currently comprises four saprotrophic and parasitic species , which live off living or dead wood .", "The Amylostereaceae cause white rot in the wood by disintegrating the tissue component lignin .", "They produce crust @-@ like , partially wavy fruit bodies on the surface of infested trees , which are similar to those produced by Stereum species .", "There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae : A. chailletii ( the type ) , A. areolatum , A. ferreum and A. laevigatum .", "The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them .", "Forty years after his extensive <unk> from 1958 , Boidin reclassified Amylostereum into its own family .", "Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex , Urocerus , and <unk> , which infest conifers .", "The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores and <unk> in trees , and the fungus is eaten by the wasp 's larva as food .", "The fungus <unk> <unk> through the formation of <unk> spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi .", "The A. areolatum – Sirex <unk> ( S. noctilio ) symbiont complex has been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry , particularly in non @-@ native regions .", "= = Taxonomy and history of research = = \n \n Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum , based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity .", "Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated <unk> from Stereum in 1958 , <unk> this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus .", "Although the type species of the genus ( today called A. chailletii ) was initially named <unk> <unk> , the name <unk> had already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family <unk> .", "Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum , referring to the amyloid spores .", "Based on DNA analysis , Boidin in 1998 moved Amylostereum into a new , monotypic family , the Amylostereaceae , which he attributed to the <unk> order .", "Later studies , however , supported the initial classification in the <unk> .", "= = = Classification = = = \n \n The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved .", "The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium <unk> and most other species of the genus Echinodontium , or <unk> <unk> .", "Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium , but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion .", "Only the classification to the <unk> is regarded as correct .", "Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family <unk> .", "The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus .", "As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance , researcher German <unk> <unk> assumed that both are the same species in different age stages .", "Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi , however , showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii , A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other , but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species .", "Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host .", "This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the <unk> and <unk> <unk> ( 66 million to 2 @.", "@ 6 million years ago ) , but became extinct there , so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species .", "Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America .", "<unk> tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi .", "The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other .", "A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59 % of all cases a common mycelium , A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44 % .", "There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum ; according to DNA analysis , it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum .", "This is remarkable , as these fungi originated from <unk> ( storing organs of <unk> ) of a North American wood wasp , while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps , neither in North American nor in Europe .", "The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a <unk> of A. laevigatum .", "As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce <unk> through the symbiosis of wood wasps , the genetic <unk> within these species is relatively low .", "= = Description = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> = = = \n \n The Amylostereaceae produce crust @-@ like , dry and <unk> @-@ <unk> fruit bodies on the bark of infested trees .", "The fruit bodies are 0 @.", "@ 5 – 1 @.", "@ 5 mm ( 0 @.", "@ 02 – 0 @.", "@ 06 in ) thick , irregularly shaped and are able to cover a large surface on the bark or otherwise can appear as small spots .", "They lie directly on the bark .", "The <unk> , grey or brownish fruit body ( hymenium ) has a smooth to <unk> surface texture and is turned outwards .", "It is bordered by a highly bent and wavy ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) edge on all species except A. laevigatum , which has a <unk> surface ( a tomentum ) and is usually dirty @-@ brown coloured .", "In some species , the tomentum stands clearly above and forms a kind of roof above the fruit body ; if it completely surrounds this roof , there might appear <unk> shapes .", "= = = Microscopic = = = \n \n The Amylostereaceae possess a <unk> <unk> , meaning that there are in its mycelia two kinds of hyphae .", "The first type is brownish skeletal hyphae , which provide stability to the fruit body .", "These hyphae run parallel to the bark and often have hairpin @-@ like turns , so that the loops form thick @-@ walled , <unk> @-@ like structures , the so @-@ called <unk> .", "The second type is <unk> hyphae .", "They are translucent ( hyaline ) and serve to promote the growth of the fungus .", "Genuine cystidia arise in the hymenium and the layer directly below , the <unk> .", "Both <unk> and cystidia are encrusted , meaning that they feature crystal @-@ like structures on the top .", "With the exception of A. laevigatum , all species have a thin separating layer , the cortex , between the hymenium and the tomentum .", "A cortex is also present on many Stereum fungi ( on a broader front ) and serves to bend up the fruit body .", "As this cortex is missing on A. laevigatum , its fruit body lies flat on the bark .", "The basidia are 15 – 25 × 3 @.", "@ 5 – 5 @.", "@ 5 µm and have a slim , club @-@ like shape .", "Each <unk> features four sterigmata , each of which bear one spore .", "The spores ' shape is <unk> <unk> or cylindrical .", "Their surface is smooth and their walls are thin .", "Although they are <unk> and hyaline , the spores are amyloid , meaning they will turn bluish or purple when stained with Melzer 's reagent .", "This characteristic differs from other very similar species , and this gave the genus its name .", "= = Distribution = = \n \n The range of the Amylostereaceae originally comprised only <unk> regions , including North America and Eurasia , and the <unk> , with Central and South America .", "The introduction of A. areolatum and its symbionts , the Sirex <unk> , saw the spread of the genus to all continents except Antarctica .", "Amylostereum <unk> is common in the temperate regions of North America and Eurasia .", "A. laevigatum can be also found in temperate Eurasia , but it is unclear how broadly this species is distributed in North America .", "A. areolatum is originally native in North Africa and Eurasia ; it was however distributed through the 20th century in Australia , New Zealand , Southern Africa as well as in South and North America .", "Only A. ferreum is originally native in the <unk> and is common in Brazil and the Caribbean .", "= = Ecology = = \n \n Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood .", "Three species – A. areolatum , A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps ( <unk> ) , which beside <unk> logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi .", "<unk> have been recorded with several species : Sirex noctilio , S. <unk> , S. <unk> , S. <unk> , S. <unk> , S. <unk> , and , in Japan , Urocerus <unk> and <unk> <unk> .", "<unk> of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store <unk> ( the <unk> of fungi split up to spores ) in special abdominal organs .", "The wood wasps infect trees by <unk> a <unk> secretion below the bark and at the same time <unk> fungal spores into the hole .", "The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily <unk> its immune system , whereby the fungus can spread along the <unk> .", "The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps : it provides the larvae food , because the white rot <unk> the wood ; at the same time , the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae .", "After the larvae <unk> , it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to <unk> together with its eggs .", "The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies .", "A. ferreum is the only <unk> species that has not been associated with any <unk> .", "= = = Host spectrum = = = \n \n The host spectrum of the Amylostereaceae comprises several , partially very different genera of <unk> .", "A. chailletii usually <unk> <unk> such as firs ( <unk> ) and spruces ( <unk> ) , but also cedars ( <unk> ) and Douglas firs ( <unk> ) .", "A. areolatum has a similar host spectrum , which uses mainly firs , Japanese cedars ( <unk> ) , <unk> ( <unk> ) , spruces , pines ( Pinus ) and Douglas firs as hosts .", "While spruces dominate as hosts in the native habitat , this species is more common in pines on other locations .", "The host spectrum of A. laevigatum comprises <unk> such as <unk> ( <unk> ) or <unk> ( <unk> ) and the English yew ( <unk> <unk> ) .", "A. ferreum is , however , only common on <unk> yellowwoods ( <unk> ) .", "= = = Symptoms of infestation = = = \n \n The Amylostereaceae are white rot pathogens .", "They <unk> the lignin of the host wood , whereby the infested wood parts become less stable and take a fibrous structure .", "The wood <unk> as fungal enzymes break down and remove the brown @-@ <unk> lignin .", "The distribution in wood takes place mainly along the transport channels in the <unk> .", "If the wood is <unk> , the red rot is vertically positioned , on which <unk> , infested areas contrast with intact wood .", "Symptoms of <unk> by the symbiotic partner — wood wasps — include circular exit holes in the crust and acute stress through <unk> , common in hanging , falling or tanning needles .", "= = Ecological and economical importance = = \n \n In their native habitat , all Amylostereum species have a minor importance as forest pests .", "The infestation through wood wasps does not assume greater dimensions and is , compared with other pests , almost insignificant .", "The infection rates are even lower during sexual reproduction via fruit bodies , as the wasps do not play a part in the process .", "Furthermore , the Amylostereum fungi are alone often incapable of <unk> healthy trees .", "They thus mostly act as <unk> .", "Pine <unk> in Australia , New Zealand , Africa and South America were shown to be susceptible to the Sirex <unk> ( Sirex noctilio ) , which was introduced there and which is associated with A. areolatum .", "The wasp 's <unk> secretion , its larvae and the fungus combine very effectively with each other and contribute to forest decline rates of up to 80 % .", "This is mainly owing to the poor water and nutrient supply of the trees , which can poorly reconcile the drought stress caused by infestation .", "S. noctilio was detected in North America in the 2000s ( decade ) ; in Canada alone , the total economic loss to the forestry industry caused by the Sirex – Amylostereum symbiosis could be as high as $ 254 million per year for the next 20 years .", "As a <unk> , cultures of the nematode <unk> <unk> have been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s .", "This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae .", "Where S. noctilio larvae are present , the parasite <unk> and <unk> the eggs of female wasps , causing them to be infertile .", "These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode .", "This control method has proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex – Amylostereum complex .", "In the Southern Hemisphere , where the technique has been widely employed , reductions of <unk> levels of 70 % – 100 % have been achieved ." ]

[ " = Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan = \n \n Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ( French : [ <unk> <unk> ̃ <unk> ̃ <unk> ̃ ] ; 30 November 1813 – 29 March 1888 ) was a French @-@ Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist .", "At the height of his fame in the 1830s and 1840s he was , alongside his friends and colleagues Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt , among the leading pianists in Paris , a city in which he spent virtually his entire life .", "Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris , which he entered before he was six .", "His career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long <unk> from public performance , for personal reasons .", "Although he had a wide circle of friends and acquaintances in the Parisian artistic world , including Eugène <unk> and George Sand , from 1848 he began to adopt a reclusive life style , while continuing with his compositions – virtually all of which are for the keyboard .", "During this period he published , among other works , his collections of large @-@ scale studies in all the major keys ( Op.", "35 ) and all the minor keys ( Op.", "39 ) .", "The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op.", "39 , nos .", "4 – 7 ) and Concerto for Solo Piano ( Op.", "39 , nos .", "8 – 10 ) , which are often considered among his masterpieces and are of great musical and technical complexity .", "Alkan emerged from self @-@ imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians .", "Alkan 's attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work .", "He was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music .", "<unk> in Hebrew and Greek , he devoted much time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French .", "This work , like many of his musical compositions , is now lost .", "Alkan never married , but his presumed son <unk> @-@ Miriam Delaborde was , like Alkan , a virtuoso performer on both the piano and the pedal piano , and edited a number of the elder composer 's works .", "Following his death ( which according to persistent but unfounded legend was caused by a falling bookcase ) Alkan 's music became neglected , supported by only a few musicians including <unk> Busoni , Egon Petri and <unk> Sorabji .", "From the late 1960s onwards , led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith , many pianists have recorded his music and brought it back into the repertoire .", "= = Life = = \n \n \n = = = Family = = = \n \n Alkan was born Charles @-@ Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1 , Rue de <unk> in Paris to Alkan Morhange ( <unk> – 1855 ) and Julie Morhange , née Abraham .", "Alkan Morhange was descended from a long @-@ established Jewish <unk> community in the region of Metz ; the village of Morhange is located about 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the city of Metz .", "Charles @-@ Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers ; his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth .", "Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a private music school in le <unk> , the Jewish quarter of Paris .", "At an early age , Charles @-@ Valentin and his siblings adopted their father 's first name as their last ( and were known by this during their studies at the Conservatoire de Paris and subsequent careers ) .", "His brother Napoléon ( 1826 – 1906 ) became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire , his brother Maxim ( 1818 – 1897 ) had a career writing light music for Parisian theatres , and his sister , <unk> ( 1812 – 1897 ) , was also a pianist .", "His brother Ernest ( 1816 – 1876 ) was a professional <unk> , while the youngest brother <unk> ( 1827 – 1882 ) was to publish various dances for the piano .", "= = = <unk> ( 1819 – 1831 ) = = = \n \n Alkan was a child <unk> .", "He entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age , and studied both piano and organ .", "The records of his auditions survive in the Archives <unk> in Paris .", "At his solfège audition on 3 July 1819 , when he was just over 5 years 7 months , the examiners noted Alkan ( who is referred to even at this early date as \" Alkan ( Valentin ) \" , and whose age is given incorrectly as six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ) as \" having a pretty little voice \" .", "The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as \" music @-@ paper ruler \" .", "At Charles @-@ Valentin 's piano audition on 6 October 1820 , when he was nearly seven ( and where he is named as \" Alkan ( Morhange ) Valentin \" ) , the examiners comment \" This child has amazing abilities . \"", "Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire , Joseph Zimmermann , who also taught Georges <unk> , César Franck , Charles Gounod , and Ambroise Thomas .", "At the age of seven , Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano ( 1824 ) , harmony ( 1827 ) , and organ ( 1834 ) .", "At the age of seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half he gave his first public performance , appearing as a violinist and playing an air and variations by Pierre <unk> .", "Alkan 's Opus 1 , a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel <unk> , dates from 1828 , when he was 14 years old .", "At about this time he also undertook teaching duties at his father 's school .", "Antoine Marmontel , one of Charles @-@ Valentin 's pupils there , who was later to become his <unk> <unk> , wrote of the school : \n Young children , mostly Jewish , were given elementary musical instruction and also learnt the first <unk> of French grammar ... [ There ] I received a few lessons from the young Alkan , four years my senior ...", "I see once more ... that really parochial environment where the talent of Valentin Alkan was formed and where his hard @-@ working youth <unk> ...", "It was like a preparatory school , a juvenile <unk> of the Conservatoire .", "From about 1826 Alkan began to appear as a piano soloist in leading Parisian salons , including those of the <unk> de la <unk> ( widow of Marshal <unk> ) , and the <unk> de <unk> .", "He was probably introduced to these venues by his teacher Zimmermann .", "At the same time , Alkan Morhange arranged concerts featuring Charles @-@ Valentin at public venues in Paris , in association with leading musicians including the <unk> <unk> <unk> and Henriette <unk> , the cellist Auguste Franchomme and the violinist Lambert <unk> , with whom Alkan gave concerts in a rare visit out of France to Brussels in 1827 .", "In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Alkan was appointed joint professor of solfège – among his pupils in this class a few years later was his brother Napoléon .", "In this manner Alkan 's musical career was launched well before the July Revolution of 1830 , which initiated a period in which \" keyboard virtuosity ... completely dominated professional music making \" in the capital , attracting from all over Europe pianists who , as Heinrich Heine wrote , invaded \" like a plague of locusts swarming to pick Paris clean \" .", "Alkan nonetheless continued his studies and in 1831 enrolled in the organ classes of François <unk> , from whom he may have learnt to appreciate the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , of whom <unk> was then one of the few French advocates .", "= = = Early fame ( 1831 – 1837 ) = = = \n \n Throughout the early years of the July Monarchy , Alkan continued to teach and play at public concerts and in eminent social circles .", "He became a friend of many who were active in the world of the arts in Paris , including Franz Liszt ( who had been based there since 1827 ) , George Sand , and Victor Hugo .", "It is not clear exactly when he first met Frédéric Chopin , who arrived in Paris in September 1831 .", "In 1832 Alkan took the solo role in his first Concerto da camera for piano and strings at the Conservatoire .", "In the same year , aged 19 , he was elected to the influential <unk> <unk> des <unk> d <unk> ( Society of the Children of Apollo ) , whose members included Luigi <unk> , Fromental Halévy , the conductor François <unk> , and Liszt , who had been elected in 1824 at the age of twelve .", "Between 1833 and 1836 Alkan participated at many of the Society 's concerts .", "Alkan twice competed unsuccessfully for the Prix de Rome , in 1832 and again in 1834 ; the <unk> which he wrote for the competition , Hermann et <unk> and L <unk> en <unk> , have remained unpublished and <unk> .", "In 1834 Alkan began his friendship with the Spanish musician Santiago Masarnau , which was to result in an extended and often intimate correspondence which only came to light in 2009 .", "Like virtually all of Alkan 's correspondence , this exchange is now one @-@ sided ; all of his papers ( including his manuscripts and his extensive library ) were either destroyed by Alkan himself , as is clear from his will , or became lost after his death .", "Later in 1834 Alkan made a visit to England , where he gave recitals and where the second Concerto da camera was performed in Bath by its <unk> Henry <unk> Field ; it was published in London together with some solo piano pieces .", "A letter to Masarnau and a notice in a French journal that Alkan played in London with Moscheles and Cramer , indicate that he returned to England in 1835 .", "Later that year , Alkan , having found a place of retreat at <unk> outside Paris , completed his first truly original works for solo piano , the Twelve Caprices , published in 1837 as <unk> .", "12 , 13 , 15 and 16 .", "Op.", "16 , the Trois <unk> de <unk> , is dedicated to Masarnau .", "In January 1836 , Liszt recommended Alkan for the post of Professor at the Geneva Conservatoire , which Alkan declined , and in 1837 he wrote an enthusiastic review of Alkan 's Op.", "15 Caprices in the Revue et <unk> <unk> .", "= = = At the Square d <unk> ( 1837 – 1848 ) = = = \n \n From 1837 , Alkan lived in the Square d <unk> in Paris , which was inhabited by numerous celebrities of the time including Marie <unk> , Alexandre Dumas , George Sand , and Chopin .", "Chopin and Alkan were personal friends and often discussed musical topics , including a work on musical theory that Chopin proposed to write .", "By 1838 , at 25 years old , Alkan had reached a peak of his career .", "He frequently gave recitals , his more mature works had begun to be published , and he often appeared in concerts with Liszt and Chopin .", "On 23 April 1837 Alkan took part in Liszt 's farewell concert in Paris , together with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old César Franck and the virtuoso Johann Peter <unk> .", "On 3 March 1838 , at a concert at the piano @-@ maker <unk> , Alkan played with Chopin , Zimmerman , and Chopin 's pupil Adolphe <unk> in a performance of Alkan 's transcription , now lost , of two movements of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony for two pianos , eight hands .", "At this point , for a period which coincided with the birth and childhood of his natural son , <unk> @-@ Miriam Delaborde ( 1839 – 1913 ) , Alkan withdrew into private study and composition for six years , returning to the concert platform only in 1844 .", "Alkan neither asserted or denied his paternity of Delaborde , which , however , his contemporaries seemed to assume .", "Marmontel wrote <unk> in a biography of Delaborde that \" [ his ] birth is a page from a novel in the life of a great artist \" .", "Alkan gave early piano lessons to Delaborde , who was to follow his natural father as a keyboard virtuoso .", "Alkan 's return to the concert platform in 1844 was greeted with enthusiasm by critics , who noted the \" admirable perfection \" of his technique , and lauded him as \" a model of science and inspiration \" , a \" sensation \" and an \" explosion \" .", "They also commented on the attending celebrities including Liszt , Chopin , Sand and Dumas .", "In the same year he published his piano étude Le chemin de <unk> , which critics , following Ronald Smith , believe to be the first representation in music of a steam engine .", "Between 1844 and 1848 Alkan produced a series of virtuoso pieces , the 25 Préludes Op.", "31 for piano or organ , and the sonata Op.", "33 Les <unk> <unk> .", "Following an Alkan <unk> in 1848 , the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer was so impressed that he invited the pianist , whom he considered \" a most remarkable artist \" , to prepare the piano arrangement of the overture to his forthcoming opera , Le prophète .", "Meyerbeer heard and approved Alkan 's arrangement of the overture for four hands ( which Alkan played with his brother Napoléon ) in 1849 ; published in 1850 , it is the only record of the overture , which was scrapped during rehearsals at the Opéra .", "= = = <unk> ( 1848 – 1872 ) = = = \n \n In 1848 Alkan was <unk> disappointed when the head of the Conservatoire , Daniel Auber , replaced the retiring Zimmermann with the mediocre Marmontel as head of the Conservatoire piano department , a position which Alkan had eagerly anticipated , and for which he had strongly lobbied with the support of Sand , Dumas , and many other leading figures .", "A disgusted Alkan described the appointment in a letter to Sand as \" the most incredible , the most <unk> nomination \" ; and <unk> noted in his journal \" By his confrontation with Auber , [ Alkan ] has been very put out and will <unk> continue to be so . \"", "The upset arising from this incident may account for Alkan 's reluctance to perform in public in the ensuing period .", "His withdrawal was also influenced by the death of Chopin ; in 1850 he wrote to Masarnau \" I have lost the strength to be of any economic or political use \" , and lamented \" the death of poor Chopin , another blow which I felt deeply . \"", "Chopin , on his deathbed in 1849 , had indicated his respect for Alkan by <unk> him his unfinished work on a piano method , intending him to complete it , and after Chopin 's death a number of his students transferred to Alkan .", "After giving two concerts in 1853 , Alkan withdrew , in spite of his fame and technical accomplishment , into virtual seclusion for some twenty years .", "Little is known of this period of Alkan 's life , other than that apart from composing he was immersed in the study of the Bible and the Talmud .", "Throughout this period Alkan continued his correspondence with Ferdinand Hiller , whom he had probably met in Paris in the 1830s , and with Masarnau , from which some insights can be gained .", "It appears that Alkan completed a full translation into French , now lost , of both the Old Testament and the New Testament , from their original languages .", "In 1865 , he wrote to Hiller : \" Having translated a good deal of the <unk> , I 'm now onto the second Gospel which I am translating from the Syriac ...", "In starting to translate the New Testament , I was suddenly struck by a singular idea – that you have to be Jewish to be able to do it . \"", "Despite his seclusion from society , this period saw the composition and publication of many of Alkan 's major piano works , including the <unk> études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op.", "39 ( 1857 ) , the Sonatine , Op.", "61 ( 1861 ) , the 49 Esquisses , Op.", "63 ( 1861 ) , and the five collections of Chants ( 1857 – 1872 ) , as well as the Sonate de concert for cello and piano , Op.", "47 ( 1856 ) .", "These did not pass <unk> ; Hans von Bülow , for example , gave a laudatory review of the Op.", "35 Études in the <unk> Berliner <unk> in 1857 , the year in which they were published in Berlin , commenting that \" Alkan is <unk> the most eminent representative of the modern piano school at Paris .", "The virtuoso 's <unk> to travel , and his firm reputation as a teacher , explain why , at present , so little attention has been given to his work in Germany . \"", "From the early 1850s Alkan began to turn his attention seriously to the pedal piano ( pédalier ) .", "Alkan gave his first public performances on the pédalier to great critical acclaim in 1852 .", "From 1859 onwards he began to publish pieces designated as \" for organ or piano à pédalier \" .", "= = = <unk> ( 1873 – 1888 ) = = = \n \n It is not clear why , in 1873 , Alkan decided to emerge from his self @-@ imposed obscurity to give a series of six Petits Concerts at the Érard piano <unk> .", "It may have been associated with the developing career of Delaborde , who , returning to Paris in 1867 , soon became a concert fixture , including in his recitals many works by his father , and who was at the end of 1872 given the appointment that had escaped Alkan himself , Professor at the Conservatoire .", "The success of the Petits Concerts led to them becoming an annual event ( with occasional interruptions caused by Alkan 's health ) until 1880 or possibly beyond .", "The Petits Concerts featured music not only by Alkan but of his favourite composers from Bach onwards , played on both the piano and the pédalier , and occasionally with the participation of another instrumentalist or singer .", "He was assisted in these concerts by his siblings , and by other musicians including Delaborde , Camille Saint @-@ <unk> , and Auguste Franchomme .", "Those encountering Alkan at this phase included the young Vincent d <unk> , who recalled Alkan 's \" <unk> , hooked fingers \" playing Bach on an Érard pedal piano : \" I listened , riveted to the spot by the expressive , crystal @-@ clear playing . \"", "Alkan later played Beethoven 's Op.", "110 sonata , of which d <unk> said : \" What happened to the great <unk> poem ...", "I couldn 't begin to describe – above all in the <unk> and the <unk> , where the melody , penetrating the mystery of Death itself , climbs up to a <unk> of light , affected me with an excess of enthusiasm such as I have never experienced since .", "This was not Liszt — perhaps less perfect , technically — but it had greater intimacy and was more <unk> moving ... \" \n The biographer of Chopin , Frederick <unk> , sought Alkan for his <unk> in 1880 but was <unk> denied access by Alkan 's concierge – \" To my ... enquiry when he could be found at home , the reply was a ... decisive ' Never ' . \"", "However , a few days later he found Alkan at Érard 's , and <unk> writes of their meeting that \" his reception of me was not merely polite but most friendly . \"", "= = = Death = = = \n \n According to his death certificate , Alkan died in Paris on 29 March 1888 at the age of 74 .", "Alkan was buried on 1 April ( Easter Sunday ) in the Jewish section of <unk> Cemetery , Paris , not far from the tomb of his contemporary Fromental Halévy ; his sister <unk> was later buried in the same tomb .", "For many years it was believed that Alkan met his death when a bookcase toppled over and fell on him as he reached for a volume of the Talmud from a high shelf .", "This tale , which was circulated by the pianist <unk> Philipp , is dismissed by Hugh Macdonald , who reports the discovery of a contemporary letter by one of his pupils explaining that Alkan had been found prostrate in his kitchen , under a <unk> @-@ <unk> ( a heavy coat / umbrella rack ) , after his concierge heard his moaning .", "He had possibly fainted , bringing it down on himself while grabbing out for support .", "He was reportedly carried to his bedroom and died later that evening .", "The story of the bookcase may have its roots in a legend told of <unk> <unk> ben Asher , rabbi of Metz , the town from which Alkan 's family originated .", "= = Personality = = \n \n Alkan was described by Marmontel ( who refers to \" a <unk> misunderstanding at a moment of our careers in 1848 \" ) , as follows : \n \" We will not give the portrait of Valentin Alkan from the rear , as in some photographs we have seen .", "His intelligent and original <unk> deserves to be taken in profile or head @-@ on .", "The head is strong ; the deep forehead is that of a thinker ; the mouth large and smiling , the nose regular ; the years have <unk> the beard and hair ... the gaze fine , a little mocking .", "His <unk> walk , his puritan <unk> , give him the look of an Anglican minister or a rabbi – for which he has the abilities . \"", "Alkan was not always remote or aloof .", "Chopin describes , in a letter to friend , visiting the theatre with Alkan in 1847 to see the comedian <unk> : \" [ <unk> ] tells the audience how he was desperate to <unk> in a train , but couldn 't get to a toilet before they stopped at <unk> .", "There wasn 't a single vulgar word in what he said , but everyone understood and split their sides laughing . \"", "Hugh Macdonald notes that Alkan \" particularly enjoyed the patronage of Russian aristocratic ladies , ' des <unk> <unk> <unk> et <unk> [ highly <unk> and frilled ladies ] ' , as Isidore Philipp described them . \"", "Alkan 's aversion to <unk> and publicity , especially following 1850 , appeared to be self @-@ willed .", "Liszt is reported to have commented to the Danish pianist <unk> <unk> that \" Alkan possessed the finest technique he had ever known , but preferred the life of a <unk> . \"", "Stephanie <unk> has suggested that Alkan may have suffered from <unk> syndrome , <unk> or obsessive – <unk> disorder .", "Alkan 's later correspondence contains many <unk> comments .", "In a letter of about 1861 he wrote to Hiller : \" I 'm becoming daily more and more <unk> and <unk> ... nothing worthwhile , good or useful to do ... no one to devote myself to .", "My situation makes me <unk> sad and <unk> .", "Even musical production has lost its attraction for me for I can 't see the point or goal . \"", "This spirit of <unk> may have led him to reject requests in the 1860s to play in public , or to allow performances of his orchestral compositions .", "However , it should not be ignored that he was writing similarly <unk> self @-@ analyses in his letters of the early 1830s to Masarnau .", "Jack Gibbons writes of Alkan 's personality : \" Alkan was an intelligent , lively , humorous and warm person ( all characteristics which feature strongly in his music ) whose only crime seems to have been having a vivid imagination , and whose occasional <unk> ( mild when compared with the behaviour of other ' highly @-@ strung ' <unk> ! )", "stemmed mainly from his <unk> nature . \"", "Macdonald , however , suggests that \" Alkan was a man of profoundly conservative ideas , whose lifestyle , manner of dress , and belief in the traditions of historic music , set him apart from other musicians and the world at large . \"", "= = Judaism = = \n \n Alkan grew up in a religiously <unk> Jewish household .", "His grandfather <unk> Morhange had been a <unk> of the Talmud in Metz , and was probably a <unk> ( Hebrew teacher ) in the Jewish congregation at Paris .", "Alkan 's widespread reputation as a student of the Old Testament and religion , and the high quality of his Hebrew handwriting testify to his knowledge of the religion , and many of his habits indicate that he practised at least some of its obligations , such as maintaining the laws of <unk> .", "Alkan was regarded by the Paris Consistory , the central Jewish organisation of the city , as an authority on Jewish music .", "In 1845 he assisted the Consistory in evaluating the musical ability of Samuel <unk> , who was subsequently appointed as <unk> ( cantor ) of the main Paris synagogue ; and he later contributed choral pieces in each of <unk> 's collections of synagogue music ( 1847 and 1856 ) .", "Alkan was appointed <unk> at the Synagogue de Nazareth in 1851 , although he resigned the post almost immediately for \" artistic reasons \" .", "Alkan 's Op.", "31 set of Préludes includes a number of pieces based on Jewish subjects , including some titled <unk> ( Prayer ) , one preceded by a quote from the Song of Songs , and another titled <unk> <unk> de la synagogue ( Old synagogue melody ) .", "The collection is believed to be \" the first publication of art music specifically to deploy Jewish themes and ideas . \"", "Alkan 's three settings of synagogue melodies , prepared for his former pupil <unk> de <unk> , are further examples of his interest in Jewish music ; <unk> <unk> provides a detailed analysis of these works and their origins .", "Other works <unk> this interest include no .", "7 of his Op.", "66 .", "11 <unk> <unk> et 1 <unk> ( 1866 ) , entitled \" Alla <unk> \" and marked \" con <unk> \" , a parody of excessive <unk> practice ; and the slow movement of the cello sonata Op.", "47 ( 1857 ) , which is prefaced by a quotation from the Old Testament prophet <unk> and uses melodic tropes derived from the <unk> of the <unk> in the synagogue .", "The inventory of Alkan 's apartment made after his death indicates over 75 volumes in Hebrew or related to Judaism , left to his brother Napoléon ( as well as 36 volumes of music manuscript ) .", "These are all lost .", "<unk> in his will to the Conservatoire to found prizes for composition of <unk> on Old Testament themes and for performance on the pedal @-@ piano , and to a Jewish charity for the training of <unk> , were refused by the beneficiaries .", "= = Music = = \n \n \n = = = Influences = = = \n \n <unk> François @-@ <unk> points out the frequency with which Alkan has been compared to Berlioz , both by his contemporaries and later .", "She mentions that Hans von Bülow called him \" the Berlioz of the piano \" , while Schumann , in criticising the Op.", "15 <unk> , claimed that Alkan merely \" imitated Berlioz on the piano . \"", "She further notes that <unk> Busoni repeated the comparison with Berlioz in a draft ( but unpublished ) <unk> , while <unk> Sorabji commented that Alkan 's Op.", "61 Sonatine was like \" a Beethoven sonata written by Berlioz \" .", "Berlioz was ten years older than Alkan , but did not attend the Conservatoire until 1826 .", "The two were acquainted , and were perhaps both influenced by the unusual ideas and style of Anton <unk> who taught at the Conservatoire from 1818 to 1836 , and by the <unk> of the composers of the period of the French Revolution .", "They both created individual , indeed , idiosyncratic sound @-@ worlds in their music ; there are , however , major differences between them .", "Alkan , unlike Berlioz , remained closely dedicated to the German musical tradition ; his style and composition were heavily determined by his <unk> , whereas Berlioz could hardly play at the keyboard and wrote nothing for piano solo .", "Alkan 's works therefore also include miniatures and ( among his early works ) <unk> music , genres which Berlioz avoided .", "Alkan 's attachment to the music of his predecessors is demonstrated throughout his career , from his arrangements for keyboard of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony ( 1838 ) , and of the <unk> of Mozart 's 40th Symphony ( 1844 ) , through the sets Souvenirs des concerts du Conservatoire ( 1847 and 1861 ) and the set Souvenirs de <unk> de <unk> ( 1862 ) , which include <unk> of music by Mozart , Beethoven , J. S. Bach , Haydn , <unk> , and others .", "In this context should be mentioned Alkan 's extensive <unk> for Beethoven 's 3rd Piano Concerto ( 1860 ) , which includes quotes from the finale of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony .", "Alkan 's <unk> , together with original music of Bach , Beethoven , Handel , Mendelssohn , <unk> and <unk> , were frequently played during the series of Petits Concerts given by Alkan at Erard .", "As regards the music of his own time , Alkan was <unk> , or at any rate detached .", "He commented to Hiller that \" Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . \"", "While he admired Berlioz 's talent , he did not enjoy his music .", "At the Petits Concerts , little more recent than Mendelssohn and Chopin ( both of whom had died around 25 years before the series of concerts was initiated ) was played , except for Alkan 's own works and occasionally some by his favourites such as Saint @-@ <unk> .", "= = = Style = = = \n \n \" Like ... Chopin \" , writes pianist and academic Kenneth Hamilton , \" Alkan 's musical output was centred almost exclusively on the piano \" .", "Some of his music requires extreme technical virtuosity , clearly reflecting his own abilities , often calling for great velocity , enormous <unk> at speed , long stretches of fast repeated notes , and the maintenance of widely spaced <unk> lines .", "The illustration ( right ) from the Grande sonate is analysed by Smith as \" six parts in <unk> counterpoint , plus two extra voices and three <unk> – eleven parts in all . \"", "Some typical musical devices , such as a sudden explosive final chord following a quiet passage , were established at an early stage in Alkan 's compositions .", "Macdonald suggests that \n unlike Wagner , Alkan did not seek to <unk> the world through opera ; nor , like Berlioz , to <unk> the crowds by putting orchestral music at the service of literary expression ; nor even , as with Chopin or Liszt , to extend the field of harmonic <unk> .", "Armed with his key instrument , the piano , he sought incessantly to transcend its inherent technical limits , remaining apparently <unk> to the restrictions which had withheld more restrained composers .", "However , not all of Alkan 's music is either lengthy or technically difficult ; for example , many of the Op.", "31 Préludes and of the set of Esquisses , Op.", "63 .", "Moreover , in terms of structure , Alkan in his compositions sticks to traditional musical forms , although he often took them to extremes , as he did with piano technique .", "The study Op.", "39 , no .", "8 ( the first movement of the Concerto for solo piano ) takes almost half an hour in performance .", "Describing this \" gigantic \" piece , Ronald Smith comments that it convinces for the same reasons as does the music of the classical masters ; \" the underlying unity of its principal themes , and a key structure that is basically simple and sound . \"", "Some of Alkan 's music gives hints of the <unk> which some have detected in his personality .", "The Chant Op.", "38 , no .", "2 , entitled <unk> , repeats the note of its title incessantly ( in total 414 times ) against shifting harmonies which make it \" cut ... into the texture with the ruthless precision of a laser beam . \"", "In modelling his five sets of Chants on the first book of Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words , Alkan ensured that the pieces in each of his sets followed precisely the same key signatures , and even the moods , of the original .", "Alkan was <unk> in his <unk> spelling , occasionally <unk> to keys containing double @-@ <unk> or double @-@ flats , so pianists are occasionally required to come to terms with unusual keys such as E @-@ sharp major , <unk> equivalent to F major , and the occasional triple @-@ sharp .", "= = = Works = = = \n \n \n = = = = Early works = = = = \n \n Alkan 's earliest works indicate , according to Smith , that in his early teens he \" was a formidable musician but as yet ... <unk> rather than ... creative \" .", "Only with his 12 Caprices ( <unk> – 13 and 15 – 16 , 1837 ) did his compositions begin to attract serious critical attention .", "The op .", "15 set , Souvenirs : Trois <unk> dans le genre <unk> , dedicated to Liszt , contains Le vent ( The Wind ) , which was at one time the only piece by the composer to figure regularly in recitals .", "These works , however , did not meet with the approval of Robert Schumann , who wrote : \" One is <unk> by such false , such unnatural art ... the last [ piece , titled <unk> ( Death ) , is ] a <unk> waste , overgrown with brush and weeds ... nothing is to be found but black on black \" .", "Ronald Smith , however , finds in this latter work , which cites the Dies <unk> theme also used by Berlioz , Liszt and others , <unk> of Maurice Ravel , Modest <unk> and Charles <unk> .", "Schumann did , however , respond positively to the pieces of Les <unk> ( originally part published as Op.", "8 in 1838 , later published as a complete set in 1840 as Op.", "74 ) : \" [ Here ] we find such an excellent <unk> on operatic music in no .", "6 [ L <unk> ] that a better one could scarcely be imagined ...", "The composer ... well <unk> the rarer effects of his instrument . \"", "Alkan 's technical mastery of the keyboard was asserted by the publication in 1838 of the Trois <unk> études ( originally without opus number , later republished as Op.", "76 ) , the first for the left hand alone , the second for the right hand alone , the third for both hands ; and all of great difficulty , described by Smith as \" a peak of <unk> <unk> \" .", "This is perhaps the earliest example of writing for a single hand as \" an entity in its own right , capable of covering all registers of the piano , of rendering itself as accompanied soloist or <unk> . \"", "= = = = Early maturity = = = = \n \n Alkan 's large scale Duo ( in effect a sonata ) Op.", "21 for violin and piano ( dedicated to <unk> <unk> ) and his Piano Trio Op.", "30 appeared in 1841 .", "Apart from these , Alkan published only a few minor works between 1840 and 1844 , after which a series of virtuoso works was issued , many of which he had played at his successful recitals at Érard and elsewhere ; these included the Marche <unk> ( Op.", "26 ) , the Marche <unk> ( Op.", "27 ) and Le chemin de <unk> ( also published , separately , as Op.", "27 ) .", "In 1847 appeared the Op.", "31 Préludes and his first large @-@ scale unified piano work , the Grande sonate Les <unk> <unk> ( Op.", "33 ) .", "The sonata is structurally innovative in two ways ; each movement is slower than its predecessor , and the work <unk> the practice of progressive tonality , beginning in D major and ending in G @-@ sharp minor .", "Dedicated to Alkan Morhange , the sonata depicts in its successive movements its ' hero ' at the ages of 20 ( optimistic ) , 30 ( \" Quasi @-@ Faust \" , impassioned and <unk> ) , 40 ( domesticated ) and 50 ( suffering : the movement is prefaced by a quotation from <unk> 's <unk> <unk> ) .", "In 1848 followed Alkan 's set of 12 études dans tous les tons <unk> Op.", "35 , whose substantial pieces range in mood from the <unk> Allegro <unk> ( no .", "5 ) and the intense Chant d <unk> @-@ Chant de <unk> ( Song of Love – Song of Death ) ( no .", "10 ) to the descriptive and picturesque L <unk> au village <unk> ( The Fire in the Next Village ) ( no .", "7 ) .", "A number of Alkan 's compositions from this period were never performed and have been lost .", "Among the missing works are some string <unk> and a full @-@ scale orchestral <unk> in B minor , which was described in an article in 1846 by the critic Léon Kreutzer , to whom Alkan had shown the score .", "Kreutzer noted that the introductory <unk> of the <unk> was headed \" by Hebrew characters in red ink ...", "This is no less than the verse from Genesis : And God said , Let there be light : and there was light . \"", "Kreutzer opined that , set beside Alkan 's conception , Joseph Haydn 's Creation was a \" mere <unk> ( <unk> ) . \"", "= = = = Internal exile = = = = \n \n During his twenty @-@ year absence from the public between 1853 and 1873 Alkan produced many of his most notable compositions , although there is a ten @-@ year gap between publication of the Op.", "35 studies and that of his next group of piano works in 1856 and 1857 .", "Of these , undoubtedly the most significant was the enormous Opus 39 collection of twelve studies in all the minor keys , which contains the Symphony for Solo Piano ( numbers four , five , six and seven ) , and the Concerto for Solo Piano ( numbers eight , nine and ten ) .", "The Concerto takes nearly an hour in performance .", "Number twelve of Op.", "39 is a set of variations , Le <unk> d <unk> ( Aesop 's Feast ) .", "The other components of Op.", "39 are of a similar stature .", "Smith describes Op.", "39 as a whole as \" a towering achievement , gathering ... the most complete manifestation of Alkan 's many @-@ sided genius : its dark passion , its vital rhythmic drive , its pungent harmony , its occasionally <unk> humour , and , above all , its uncompromising piano writing . \"", "In the same year appeared the Sonate de Concert , Op.", "47 , for cello and piano , \" among the most difficult and ambitious in the romantic repertoire ... anticipating Mahler in its juxtaposition of the sublime and the trivial \" , and with its four movements showing again an anticipation of progressive tonality , each ascending by a major third .", "Other <unk> of Mahler ( who was born in 1860 ) can be found in the two \" military \" Op.", "50 piano studies of 1859 <unk> <unk> <unk> and Le <unk> bat aux <unk> ( The drum beats the retreat ) , as well as in certain of the miniatures of the 1861 Esquisses , Op.", "63 .", "The bizarre and <unk> Marcia <unk> , <unk> <unk> d <unk> <unk> ( <unk> march on the death of a parrot , 1859 ) , for three <unk> , <unk> and voices , described by Kenneth Hamilton as \" Monty @-@ <unk> \" , is also of this period .", "The Esquisses of 1861 are a set of highly varied miniatures , ranging from the tiny 18 @-@ bar no .", "4 , Les <unk> ( The Bells ) , to the strident tone clusters of no .", "45 , Les <unk> ( The <unk> ) , and closing with a further evocation of church bells in no .", "49 , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> God ) .", "They were preceded in publication by Alkan 's deceptively titled Sonatine , Op.", "61 , in ' classical ' format , but a work of \" ruthless economy [ which ] although it plays for less than twenty minutes ... is in every way a major work . \"", "Two of Alkan 's substantial works from this period are musical <unk> of literary works .", "<unk> , <unk> du <unk> , Op.", "45 ( 1856 ) , follows a section of the poem La <unk> by Gabriel @-@ Marie <unk> ; while Super <unk> <unk> , Op.", "52 ( 1859 ) , is a blow @-@ by @-@ blow recreation in music of the emotions and <unk> of <unk> 137 ( \" By the waters of Babylon ... \" ) .", "This piece is prefaced by a French version of the <unk> which is believed to be the sole remnant of Alkan 's Bible translation .", "Alkan 's lyrical side was displayed in this period by the five sets of Chants inspired by Mendelssohn , which appeared between 1857 and 1872 , as well as by a number of minor pieces .", "Alkan 's publications for organ or pédalier commenced with his <unk> , Op.", "54 ( 1859 ) .", "In the same year he published a set of very spare and simple <unk> in the eight Gregorian modes ( 1859 , without opus number ) , which , in Smith 's opinion , \" seem to stand outside the barriers of time and space \" , and which he believes reveal \" Alkan 's essential spiritual <unk> . \"", "These were followed by pieces such as the 13 <unk> ( <unk> ) , Op.", "64 ( 1865 ) , and the <unk> sur le Choral de Luther \" Un fort <unk> est <unk> Dieu \" , op .", "69 ( 1866 ) .", "Alkan also issued a book of 12 studies for the <unk> alone ( no opus number , 1866 ) and the <unk> @-@ <unk> for <unk> duet ( four feet ) of 1872 .", "Alkan 's return to the concert platform at his Petits Concerts , however , marked the end of his publications ; his final work to be issued was the <unk> , Op.", "75 , in 1872 .", "= = Reception and legacy = = \n \n Alkan had few followers ; however , he had important admirers , including Liszt , Anton Rubinstein , Franck , and , in the early twentieth century , Busoni , Petri and Sorabji .", "Rubinstein dedicated his fifth piano concerto to him , and Franck dedicated to Alkan his Grand <unk> <unk> op .", "17 for organ .", "Busoni ranked Alkan with Liszt , Chopin , Schumann and <unk> as one of the five greatest composers for the piano since Beethoven .", "<unk> Philipp and Delaborde edited new <unk> of his works in the early 1900s .", "In the first half of the twentieth century , when Alkan 's name was still obscure , Busoni and Petri included his works in their performances .", "Sorabji published an article on Alkan in his 1932 book Around Music ; he promoted Alkan 's music in his reviews and criticism , and his Sixth Symphony for Piano ( <unk> <unk> ) ( 1975 – 76 ) , includes a section entitled Quasi Alkan .", "The English composer and writer Bernard van <unk> praised Alkan in an essay in his 1935 book , Down Among the Dead Men , and the composer Humphrey Searle also called for a revival of his music in a 1937 essay .", "For much of the 20th century , Alkan 's work remained in obscurity , but from the 1960s onwards it was steadily revived .", "Raymond Lewenthal gave a pioneering extended broadcast on Alkan on <unk> radio in New York in 1963 , and later included Alkan 's music in recitals and recordings .", "The English pianist Ronald Smith championed Alkan 's music through performances , recordings , a biography and the Alkan Society of which he was president for many years .", "Works by Alkan have also been recorded by Jack Gibbons , Marc @-@ André Hamelin , Mark <unk> , John Ogdon , and <unk> <unk> , among many others .", "Ronald Stevenson has composed a piano piece <unk> d <unk> ( referring to Alkan 's Op.", "39 , no .", "12 ) and the composer Michael <unk> has also written piano pieces referring to Alkan , e.g.", "Alkan @-@ <unk> , no .", "5 of The History of <unk> in Sound .", "Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's <unk> No .", "IV is a <unk> <unk> study combining themes from Alkan 's Symphony , Op.", "39 , no .", "7 , and Alkan 's own perpetual motion étude , Op.", "76 , no .", "3 .", "It is dedicated to <unk> Kovacs and François <unk> , respectively activists in the English and French Alkan Societies .", "As Hamelin writes in his preface to this étude , the idea to combine these came from the composer <unk> <unk> , the finale of whose Piano <unk> No.", "5 ( 1994 – 95 ) includes a substantial section entitled \" <unk> \" .", "Alkan 's compositions for organ have been among the last of his works to be brought back to the repertoire .", "As to Alkan 's pedal @-@ piano works , due to a recent revival of the instrument , they are once again being performed as originally intended ( rather than on an organ ) , such as by Italian pedal @-@ pianist Roberto <unk> , and recordings of Alkan on the pedal piano have been made by Jean <unk> and Olivier <unk> .", "= = Selected recordings = = \n \n This list comprises a selection of some premiere and other recordings by musicians who have become closely associated with Alkan 's works .", "A comprehensive discography is available at the Alkan Society website .", "Piano Trio , Op.", "30 – played by Trio Alkan .", "Recorded 1992 .", "<unk> , <unk> ( 2001 ) \n Grande sonate , Op.", "33 – played by Marc @-@ André Hamelin ( piano ) .", "Recorded 1994 .", "Hyperion , <unk> ( 1995 ) .", "Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op.", "39 – played by Ronald Smith ( piano ) .", "Recorded 1977 .", "EMI , <unk> <unk> [ 3 <unk> ] ( 1978 ) , partly reissued EMI Gemini , <unk> <unk> ( 2003 ) \n Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op.", "39 and other works – played by Jack Gibbons ( piano ) .", "Recorded 1995 .", "<unk> , CD <unk> 227 [ 2 CDs ] ( 1995 ) \n Concerto , Op.", "39 , nos .", "8 – 10 – played by John Ogdon ( piano ) .", "Recorded 1969 .", "RCA , <unk> @-@ <unk> [ LP ] ( 1972 ) .", "Great British <unk> , <unk> ( 1999 ) \n Le <unk> d <unk> ( Op.", "39 , no .", "12 ) and other works – played by Raymond Lewenthal .", "Recorded 1966 .", "RCA <unk> <unk> [ LP <unk> ] , <unk> @-@ <unk> [ LP <unk> ] ; BMG High Performance Series <unk> ( 1999 ) \n Sonate de concert , Op.", "47 , for cello and piano – played by Steven Osborne ( piano ) and <unk> <unk> ( cello ) .", "Recorded 2008 .", "Hyperion <unk> ( 2008 ) .", "11 <unk> dans le style <unk> , et <unk> transcription du <unk> de <unk> , Op.", "72 – played by Kevin Bowyer ( organ ) .", "Recorded 2005 .", "<unk> <unk> <unk> ( 2007 ) \n Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op.", "39 , no .", "4 @-@ 7 ) – played by Egon Petri ( piano ) .", "c .", "1952 – 53 .", "Symposium Records , CD 1145 ( 1993 ) \n \n = = = About Alkan = = = \n \n Alkan Society , including complete and regularly updated discography \n Alkan web site of Sylvain <unk> , contains detailed listing of Alkan 's works , with some downloadable scores \n \" The Myths of Alkan \" by Jack Gibbons \n <unk> Alkan by David Conway \n Alkan @-@ Zimmerman International Music Association \n Pictures of Alkan \n \n = = = Scores and sheet @-@ music = = = \n \n Free Alkan scores and manuscripts – site of Sylvain <unk> \n <unk> der <unk> : many of Alkan 's piano works in <unk> performances \n Alkan Piano Trio @-@ <unk> of work and <unk> \n <unk> @-@ sheet @-@ <unk> – Free Scores by Alkan \n Free scores by Alkan at the International Music Score Library Project \n \n = = = Performances on the Web = = = \n \n Trois <unk> <unk> , Op.", "13 , No 2 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck \n <unk> <unk> , Op.", "34 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck \n \" Allegro <unk> \" , Op.", "35 , No.", "5 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons \n <unk> , <unk> , Op.", "39 , No.", "6 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell \n Last movement , <unk> , Op.", "39 , No.", "7 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell \n First movement , Concerto , Op.", "39 , No.", "8 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons \n Le <unk> d <unk> , Op.", "39 , no .", "12 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen \n Four Esquisses from Op.", "63 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen \n \" Trois <unk> <unk> de la synagogue \" and \" <unk> <unk> \" on YouTube - <unk> <unk> ( soprano ) and Daniel <unk> ( piano )" ]

[ " = Business School ( The Office ) = \n \n \" Business School \" is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's forty @-@ fifth episode overall .", "Written by Brent Forrester , and directed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly creator Joss Whedon , the episode aired on NBC on February 15 , 2007 .", "In the episode , Michael is invited by Ryan to speak to his business school class .", "When many of the students question the usefulness of paper in a computerized world , Michael attempts to inform the class of how essential paper is .", "Meanwhile , a bat becomes trapped in the office , leading Dwight and Creed on a mission to protect the employees .", "= = Plot = = \n \n Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to speak at his business school class .", "Michael is excited , but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he has only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class .", "During his introduction of Michael to his classmates , Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years .", "However , Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics ( including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you \" can 't learn from textbooks \" ) .", "Michael is then taken aback when one of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction .", "<unk> and hurt , Michael <unk> Ryan by relocating his desk to the \" annex , \" where Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy <unk> ) works , who <unk> <unk> in excitement .", "Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) discovers a bat in the ceiling , and accidentally lets it loose into the office , sending the employees <unk> for cover .", "Stanley immediately goes home .", "As many of the employees hide , Dwight enlists the help of Creed ( Creed <unk> ) to expel the bat .", "Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) exploits Dwight 's paranoia , and pretends that he is turning into a vampire .", "Dwight eventually catches the bat with a garbage bag after it lands on Meredith 's head .", "Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , in the meantime , invites her co @-@ workers to her art show after work , but few show any enthusiasm , leaving her feeling alienated and sad .", "The art show doesn 't go as planned , and she begins to doubt her abilities .", "When Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) shows up with his partner Gil , they critique her art , and note that Pam 's art has been let down by her lack of courage , not realizing that she is standing right behind them .", "As she begins to take her work down , Michael appears and , in a moment of sincere kindness , <unk> her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building .", "Pam <unk> him as her eyes tear up .", "Michael soon places Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office .", "= = Production = = \n \n \" Business School \" was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester .", "Forrester had previously written \" The <unk> \" .", "The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon .", "Whedon , who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer , and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode , stated that he chose to direct the episode \" because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast , and I <unk> the show . \"", "When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire , Whedon thought that it was a joke , stating \" <unk> 't I just leave this party ? \"", "in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer .", "In an interview featured on the third season DVD , Whedon joked that the \" Business School \" episode and his former TV show were very similar because \" Buffy [ ... ] was sad and depressing but ... it was funny .", "Especially when people died .", "And a lot of people do die in [ ' Business School ' ] . \"", "But upon completing the episode , Whedon stated \" That was just coincidence .", "But that 's how that happened .", "God , it was fun . \"", "Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script . \"", "I wouldn 't say freedom to do things with it ...", "But way more input was asked for than I would have ever anticipated . \"", "At Pam 's art show , the pieces which she was supposed to have painted didn 't suit Whedon . \"", "I got to the set and saw Pam 's art , and I was like , ' This is not right . '", "\" Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art .", "For the scenes which involved filming with a bat , the production team used an actual bat , an animated bat , and a mechanical bat .", "When around the actual bat , Kate <unk> , who portrays Meredith Palmer , stated that \" we had to be extremely quiet around [ it ] , basically pretending to scream . \"", "California State University , <unk> served as the backdrop for Ryan 's business school and the art show .", "= = Reception = = \n \n The episode received generally good reviews from critics .", "Brian Zoromski , of IGN , stated that \" ' Business School ' was an exercise in what works best in an Office episode . \"", "Zoromski also praised Joss Whedon 's directorial debut for the show , stating that \" Whedon 's direction and sense of humor was both <unk> put to use and alluded to in the scenes in which Jim <unk> pretended to become a vampire . \"", "Zoromski went on to say that the acting of John Krasinski and Rashida Jones , who portrays Karen <unk> , helped to make the vampire scenes the funniest parts of the episode .", "He gave the episode a 9 @.", "@ 1 out of 10 .", "Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , stated that \" This show has always been able to turn on a <unk> and take the comedy to a soul @-@ stirring dramatic climax with just the lightest of touches , and last night was no different . \"", "West went on to praise Michael and Pam 's scene at the art show as one of these moments ." ]

[ " = M @-@ 81 ( Michigan highway ) = \n \n M @-@ 81 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan .", "The trunkline travels from the city of Saginaw at the junction with M @-@ 13 to the junction with M @-@ 53 east of Cass City over the county line in <unk> Township in northwestern <unk> County in The <unk> area of the state .", "Outside of the cities and villages along its route , M @-@ 81 passes through mostly rural farm country .", "Near Saginaw it intersects the freeway that carries both Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) in an industrial area .", "A road bearing the M @-@ 81 designation has existed since at least July 1 , 1919 , when the state initially numbered its trunkline highways .", "Since that time , it has been extended , rerouted or shortened several times .", "These changes resulted in essentially the modern highway routing by 1926 ; the highway was fully paved in the 1940s .", "A change made in 1929 was reversed in 1933 , and an extension through downtown Saginaw in the 1960s was overturned in the 1970s .", "The last change was the construction of a pair of roundabouts at the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange in 2006 .", "= = Route description = = \n \n M @-@ 81 starts at a junction with M @-@ 13 , with the two directions of each highway separated by a median .", "This central feature ends for M @-@ 81 immediately east of the intersection as the highway runs east out of Saginaw .", "The trunkline follows Washington Road easterly through residential subdivisions to an interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 in an industrial area of Buena Vista Township .", "This interchange , exit 151 along the freeway , is built with roundabouts on either side of the bridge that carries Washington Road over the freeway in a variant of the diamond interchange design called a <unk> interchange .", "After leaving the industrial properties on the east side of I @-@ 75 / US 23 , M @-@ 81 follows Washington Road through a mixture of farm fields and residential subdivisions .", "North of the community of Arthur , the highway intersects M @-@ 15 ( <unk> Road ) .", "Further east , M @-@ 81 crosses out of Saginaw County ; across the border in Tuscola County , the highway follows Saginaw Road .", "In the village of Reese , M @-@ 81 crosses the Huron and Eastern Railway twice .", "East of town , the highway follows Caro Road through more farm fields through the community of <unk> .", "Near the south side of the Tuscola Area Airport , M @-@ 81 turns to the northeast running along the Cass River to Caro .", "In the city , the trunkline follows State Street past the <unk> .", "At the intersection with Ellington Street , M @-@ 81 crosses M @-@ 24 .", "The highway continues northeasterly out of town and through the community of Ellington .", "Northeast of <unk> , M @-@ 81 turns due east along Cass City Road .", "The trunkline runs to the village of Cass City where it follows Main Street through residential neighborhoods and the central business district .", "East of Cass City , the highway crosses the Cass River before crossing the county line into <unk> County .", "Approximately one mile ( 1 @.", "@ 6 km ) into the county , M @-@ 81 ends at the intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van <unk> Road ) .", "M @-@ 81 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan .", "As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction .", "These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway .", "MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 81 were the 17 @,@ <unk> vehicles daily between Van <unk> Road and Frank Street in Caro ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 527 vehicles per day east of Cass City to the M @-@ 53 intersection .", "No sections of M @-@ 81 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .", "= = History = = \n \n When originally signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 81 ran from Bay City southeast and east to the <unk> area ; from there it ran south concurrently with M @-@ 31 to the Reese area before running northeasterly to the east of Cass City to M @-@ 53 .", "By 1921 , the eastern end was extended <unk> from Caro to <unk> along a highway that is now part of M @-@ 24 .", "In late 1926 , the western end was changed so that M @-@ 81 followed the former M @-@ 31 from Reese into Saginaw and the eastern end was rerouted from Caro northeasterly to the Cass City area .", "With the exception of the routing through downtown Saginaw , the highway followed the approximate routing of the current highway .", "In the latter half of 1929 , the highway was rerouted between Saginaw and Reese , using a set of parallel roadways to the south of the previous routing ; this change was reversed in 1933 .", "M @-@ 81 was fully paved when the last section between Ellington and <unk> in Tuscola County was finished in late 1946 or early 1947 .", "Starting in 1953 , the westernmost approximately one mile ( 1 @.", "@ 6 km ) of M @-@ 81 was also used for a US 23 concurrency .", "When the bypass of Saginaw was completed in late 1961 , M @-@ 81 was extended along M @-@ 13 southwesterly into downtown Saginaw where it turned west across the Saginaw River to Midland Road west of the city .", "This routing across the city was removed in 1971 when I @-@ <unk> was completed ; west of that freeway the highway became M @-@ 58 , the rest was either removed from the highway system and turned back to local control , or it had the M @-@ 81 designation removed .", "Since this truncation , M @-@ 81 has ended at its junction with M @-@ 13 north of downtown Saginaw .", "In 2006 , MDOT completed the reconstruction of the interchange between M @-@ 81 and I @-@ 75 / US to incorporate a pair of roundabouts along Washington Road .", "= = Major intersections = =" ]

[ " = Common starling = \n \n The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized <unk> bird in the starling family , Sturnidae .", "It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic <unk> , which is speckled with white at some times of year .", "The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have <unk> plumage than the adults .", "It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an <unk> but varied song .", "Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the <unk> and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare .", "The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it has been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji .", "This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa .", "The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid .", "These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks .", "There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year .", "This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit .", "It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .", "Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops .", "Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts .", "Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia .", "The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks .", "Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .", "= = Taxonomy and <unk> = = \n \n The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema <unk> in 1758 under its current binomial name .", "Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for \" starling \" and \" common \" respectively .", "The Old English <unk> , later stare , and the Latin <unk> are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . \"", "<unk> \" was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely <unk> \" stare \" to refer to birds of all ages .", "The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem \" The <unk> 's Nest by My Window \" .", "The International <unk> Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling .", "The starling family , Sturnidae , is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa .", "The genus Sturnus is <unk> and relationships between its members are not fully resolved .", "The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling .", "The non @-@ migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian <unk> during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling .", "There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling .", "Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the <unk> of the fossil record for the family as a whole .", "= = = Subspecies = = = \n \n There are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary <unk> in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage .", "The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive <unk> means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities .", "Subspecies \n Birds from Fair Isle , St <unk> and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form , and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority .", "The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere , indicating some gene flow from <unk> or zetlandicus , subspecies formerly considered to be isolated .", "Several other subspecies have been named , but are generally no longer considered valid .", "Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet .", "These include : S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1891 and S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and <unk> from western Russia ; S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1905 and S. v. <unk> <unk> and <unk> , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and <unk> from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the <unk> ; and S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1928 , an <unk> between <unk> and <unk> in northern Iran .", "S. v. <unk> <unk> , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( <unk> Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe .", "= = Description = = \n \n The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.", "@ 5 – 9 @.", "@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.", "@ 0 – 3 @.", "@ 6 oz ) .", "Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.", "@ 8 to 13 @.", "@ 8 cm ( 4 @.", "@ 6 to 5 @.", "@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.", "@ 8 to 6 @.", "@ 8 cm ( 2 @.", "@ 3 to 2 @.", "@ 7 in ) , the <unk> is 2 @.", "@ 5 to 3 @.", "@ 2 cm ( 0 @.", "@ 98 to 1 @.", "@ 26 in ) and the <unk> is 2 @.", "@ 7 to 3 @.", "@ 2 cm ( 1 @.", "@ 1 to 1 @.", "@ 3 in ) .", "The plumage is <unk> black , <unk> purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter .", "The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year .", "The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed .", "The legs are stout and <unk> or greyish @-@ red .", "The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases .", "<unk> occurs once a <unk> in late summer after the breeding season has finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance .", "The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off .", "Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile <unk> , especially on the head .", "They can usually be <unk> by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females .", "<unk> the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered .", "The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and <unk> standards .", "It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized <unk> , such as <unk> , <unk> or small <unk> , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs .", "In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat <unk> gait is also characteristic .", "The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of <unk> spots in adult breeding plumage .", "Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping .", "Their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular @-@ shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds <unk> for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight .", "When in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in <unk> , form a compact mass or trail off into a <unk> stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion .", "Common starling on migration can fly at 60 – 80 km / h ( 37 – 50 mph ) and cover up to 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 km ( 620 – 930 mi ) .", "Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing .", "This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ <unk> starlings ) , where the <unk> muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill .", "This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items .", "Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide .", "In Iberia , the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour .", "At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings .", "= = = Voice = = = \n \n The common starling is a noisy bird .", "Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical @-@ sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds .", "The male is the main <unk> and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more .", "Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type , which follow each other in a regular order without pause .", "The bout starts with a series of pure @-@ tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song , a number of variable sequences that often incorporate <unk> of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man @-@ made noises .", "The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs .", "Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next .", "After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated <unk> followed by a final burst of high @-@ frequency song , again formed of several types .", "Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of <unk> .", "Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded .", "In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in .", "Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones .", "Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider <unk> attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others .", "Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity .", "Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and <unk> less experienced males from encroaching .", "Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the <unk> period .", "The <unk> are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion .", "The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood .", "Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , <unk> call and copulation call .", "The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings <unk> incessantly .", "They <unk> while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby .", "When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the <unk> movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive <unk> sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away .", "= = Behaviour and ecology = = \n \n The common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter .", "Although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - <unk> - may form near roosts .", "These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian <unk> .", "Flocks form a tight sphere @-@ like formation in flight , frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape , seemingly without any sort of leader .", "Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours .", "Very large roosts , exceptionally up to 1 @.", "@ 5 million birds , can form in city centres , woodlands or <unk> , causing problems with their droppings .", "These may accumulate up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , killing trees by their concentration of chemicals .", "In smaller amounts , the droppings act as a fertiliser , and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits .", "Huge flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland , Denmark over the seaward <unk> of <unk> and <unk> municipalities between <unk> and <unk> .", "They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid @-@ April .", "Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes <unk> against the sky , a phenomenon known locally as sort <unk> ( \" black sun \" ) .", "Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before <unk> during mid @-@ winter .", "These flocks are commonly called <unk> .", "= = = Feeding = = = \n \n The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other <unk> .", "The food range includes spiders , crane flies , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , damsel flies , grasshoppers , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , flies , beetles , <unk> , bees , wasps and ants .", "Both adults and larvae are consumed and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards .", "While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises .", "The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily <unk> foods containing high levels of <unk> , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries .", "The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered <unk> <unk> .", "Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the <unk> return to their breeding colonies in spring .", "There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food but for the most part , they forage close to the ground , taking insects from the surface or just underneath .", "Generally , common starlings prefer foraging amongst short @-@ cropped grasses and are often found among grazing animals or perched on their backs , where they will also feed on the mammal 's external parasites .", "Large flocks may engage in a practice known as \" roller @-@ feeding \" , where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best .", "The larger the flock , the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging .", "Flocks often feed in one place for some time , and return to previous successfully <unk> sites .", "There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . \"", "<unk> \" involves the bird <unk> its beak into the ground randomly and <unk> until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill <unk> where the bird opens its beak in the soil to <unk> a hole .", "This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term <unk> , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags .", "It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . \"", "<unk> \" is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and \" <unk> \" is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground .", "<unk> are caught by pulling from soil .", "Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .", "= = = <unk> = = = \n \n <unk> males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females , often <unk> the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material , which the female later <unk> upon accepting him as a mate .", "The amount of green material is not important , as long as some is present , but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate .", "The scent of plants such as <unk> acts as an olfactory <unk> to females .", "The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest .", "Following copulation , the male and female continue to build the nest .", "Nests may be in any type of hole , common locations include inside <unk> trees , buildings , tree stumps and man @-@ made nest @-@ boxes .", "S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs , a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form .", "Nests are typically made out of straw , dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers , wool and soft leaves .", "Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation .", "Common starlings are both monogamous and <unk> ; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female , occasionally the pair may have an extra <unk> .", "<unk> may be part of a colony , in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees .", "Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest .", "The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous .", "= = = Breeding = = = \n \n Breeding takes place during the spring and summer .", "Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days .", "If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it .", "There are normally four or five eggs that are <unk> in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance .", "The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels .", "The egg size is 26 @.", "@ 5 – 34 @.", "@ 5 mm ( 1 @.", "@ 04 – 1 @.", "@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.", "@ 0 – 22 @.", "@ 5 mm ( 0 @.", "@ 79 – 0 @.", "@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter .", "Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch .", "Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time <unk> them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost .", "The young are born blind and naked .", "They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days .", "Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest .", "Prior to that , the <unk> would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as <unk> and increasing the risk of chilling the <unk> .", "<unk> remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents .", "Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks .", "A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and <unk> the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of <unk> .", "Within two months , most juveniles will have <unk> and gained their first basic plumage .", "They acquire their adult plumage the following year .", "As with other <unk> , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' <unk> sacs are removed by the adults .", "<unk> brood parasites are common in common starling nests .", "Female \" <unk> \" ( <unk> females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest .", "Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood .", "Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % .", "The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 <unk> 11 m .", "= = Predators and parasites = = \n \n A majority of starling predators are avian .", "The typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns .", "Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey .", "Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) and Eurasian <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) , and falcons including the peregrine falcon ( Falco <unk> ) , Eurasian <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) and common <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) .", "<unk> raptors like black and red <unk> ( <unk> <unk> & <unk> ) , eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila <unk> ) , common <unk> ( Buteo <unk> ) and <unk> harrier ( Circus <unk> ) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles .", "While perched in groups by night , they can be vulnerable to owls , including the little owl ( Athene <unk> ) , long @-@ eared owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , short @-@ eared owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , barn owl ( <unk> <unk> ) , tawny owl ( <unk> <unk> ) and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( <unk> <unk> ) .", "More than twenty species of hawk , owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America , though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban @-@ living peregrine falcons or <unk> ( Falco <unk> ) .", "Common <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) sometimes evict eggs , nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests , and the lesser <unk> ( <unk> minor ) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host .", "<unk> are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest <unk> however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers .", "Nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as stoats ( <unk> <unk> ) , raccoons ( Procyon <unk> ) and squirrels ( <unk> spp . )", ", and cats may catch the <unk> .", "Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites .", "A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite ; 99 % had external fleas , mites or ticks , and 95 % carried internal parasites , mostly various types of worm .", "Blood @-@ sucking species leave their host when it dies , but other external parasites stay on the corpse .", "A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with <unk> lice , presumably due to its inability to remove <unk> .", "The hen flea ( <unk> gallinae ) is the most common flea in their nests .", "The small , pale house @-@ sparrow flea C. <unk> , is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species .", "This flea does not occur in the US , even on house <unk> .", "<unk> include <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> .", "Other <unk> parasites include <unk> ticks and mites such as <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> gallinae , <unk> <unk> , O.", "<unk> , <unk> species , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> .", "The hen <unk> D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory <unk> <unk> <unk> .", "The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests .", "Flying insects that <unk> common starlings include the <unk> @-@ fly <unk> <unk> and the <unk> fly <unk> <unk> .", "The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the <unk> produced by growing plumage .", "<unk> of the moth <unk> <unk> are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as <unk> or dead nestlings .", "<unk> blood parasites of the genus <unk> have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode <unk> <unk> .", "This worm moves from the lungs to the <unk> and may cause its host to <unk> .", "In Britain , the <unk> and the common starling are the most infested wild birds .", "Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm <unk> <unk> .", "Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and <unk> @-@ induced <unk> .", "Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea @-@ leaves to the food .", "= = Distribution and habitat = = \n \n The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004 , occupying a total area of 8 @,@ <unk> @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .", "Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere , the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe , northern Africa ( from Morocco to Egypt ) , India ( mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives ) Nepal , the Middle East including Syria , Iran , and Iraq and north @-@ western China .", "Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude <unk> are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce .", "Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south <unk> or south eastwards .", "In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa .", "Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross .", "Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries .", "Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated .", "In North America , northern populations have developed a migration pattern , <unk> much of Canada in winter .", "Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US .", "Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites .", "<unk> are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy .", "They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian <unk> .", "Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e.", "rainforests or wet <unk> forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed .", "Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level .", "= = = Introduced populations = = = \n \n The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands .", "As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea .", "= = = = South America = = = = \n \n Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England <unk> near <unk> de <unk> in Venezuela in November 1949 , but subsequently vanished .", "In 1987 , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires .", "Since then , despite some initial attempts at eradication , the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7 @.", "@ 5 km ( 4 @.", "@ 7 mi ) per year , keeping within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of the Atlantic coast .", "In Argentina , the species makes use of a variety of natural and man @-@ made nesting sites , particularly <unk> holes .", "= = = = Australia = = = = \n \n The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops .", "Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the <unk> of flax , a major agricultural product .", "Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops .", "The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later .", "By the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of <unk> committees .", "By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests .", "Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state .", "The wide and arid <unk> Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades .", "The common starling has also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island .", "= = = = New Zealand = = = = \n \n The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of <unk> and other insects deprived of their previous food sources .", "Native birds were not <unk> to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe to control the pests .", "It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson <unk> Society and other introductions followed .", "The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical <unk> Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south .", "= = = = North America = = = = \n \n After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene <unk> .", "He was president of the American <unk> Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America .", "About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon .", "These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 .", "Common starlings <unk> in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction .", "The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America .", "= = = = Polynesia = = = = \n \n The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ <unk> and <unk> islands .", "It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the <unk> Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly <unk> between New Zealand and Fiji .", "Its spread in Fiji has been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability .", "Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group .", "= = = = South Africa = = = = \n \n In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes .", "It spread slowly and by 1954 had reached <unk> and Port Elizabeth .", "It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area .", "It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland <unk> , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , <unk> and around the town of <unk> in <unk> .", "In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his <unk> and pastures .", "It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects .", "It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition .", "It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may <unk> in large flocks , often roosting in <unk> .", "It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas .", "= = = = West Indies = = = = \n \n The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903 , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US .", "This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica , Grand <unk> and <unk> , and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas , eastern Cuba , the Cayman Islands , Puerto Rico and St. Croix .", "= = Status = = \n \n The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern .", "It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s .", "In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides .", "The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 .", "The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland .", "It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s .", "The low rate of advance , about 4 @.", "@ 7 km ( 2 @.", "@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the <unk> mountain and woodland terrain .", "<unk> has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain .", "Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( <unk> ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe .", "The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % .", "Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply .", "The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices .", "The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is <unk> reduced .", "= = Relationship with humans = = \n \n \n = = = <unk> and problems = = = \n \n Since common starlings eat insect pests such as <unk> , they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia , and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere .", "Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union , and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass <unk> <unk> <unk> in New Zealand .", "The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully , and even in the US , where this is a pest species , the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings .", "Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes .", "In North America , <unk> , <unk> , woodpeckers , purple <unk> and other swallows may be affected .", "In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the <unk> and eastern rosellas .", "For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .", "Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , <unk> , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly <unk> grain and sprouting crops .", "They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings .", "In eastern Australia , weeds like <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> are thought to have been spread by common starlings .", "Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually .", "This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States .", "The large size of flocks can also cause problems .", "Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines , one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960 , when sixty @-@ two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and <unk> into the sea at Winthrop Harbor .", "<unk> ' droppings can contain the fungus <unk> <unk> , the cause of <unk> in humans .", "At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings .", "There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated .", "= = = Control = = = \n \n Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings .", "Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation .", "For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year .", "In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year .", "This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected .", "In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long @-@ term results .", "Non @-@ lethal techniques such as <unk> with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case .", "Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings .", "In 1949 , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London 's Big Ben that it stopped , leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting , repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls .", "An entire episode of The <unk> Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London .", "Where it is introduced , the common starling is unprotected by legislation , and extensive control plans may be initiated .", "Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1 @.", "@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) diameter they need , and the removal of <unk> <unk> them from visiting bird <unk> .", "Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895 .", "New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot , while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted .", "New methods are being developed , such as <unk> one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost .", "Another technique is to <unk> the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better <unk> strategies can be used .", "By 2009 , only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia , and the state committed a further A $ 400 @,@ 000 in that year to continue the eradication programme .", "In the United States , common starlings are exempt from the <unk> Bird Treaty Act , which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds .", "No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults .", "Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable <unk> that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them .", "It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds .", "The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC @-@ <unk> , now marketed as <unk> .", "In 2008 , the United States government poisoned , shot or trapped 1 @.", "@ 7 million birds , the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed .", "In 2005 , the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds , around 45 % of the global total of 310 million .", "= = = In science and culture = = = \n \n Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals .", "Austrian <unk> Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon 's Ring as \" the poor man 's dog \" and \" something to love \" , because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after .", "They adapt well to captivity , and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and <unk> .", "Several birds may be kept in the same cage , and their <unk> makes them easy to train or study .", "The only disadvantages are their <unk> and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans .", "As a laboratory bird , the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic <unk> .", "The common starling 's gift for mimicry has long been recognised .", "In the medieval Welsh <unk> , <unk> <unk> a common starling , \" taught it words \" , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , <unk> and <unk> , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her .", "Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare \" The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer .", "But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll <unk> ' Mortimer ! '", "<unk> I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . \"", "Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( <unk> .", "453 ) .", "He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which had not yet been performed in public .", "He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later .", "It has been suggested that his A Musical <unk> ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , <unk> style of a starling 's <unk> .", "Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions .", "The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs .", "Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak .", "Common starlings are trapped for food in some Mediterranean countries .", "The meat is tough and of low quality , so it is <unk> or made into <unk> .", "One recipe said it should be <unk> \" until tender , however long that may be \" .", "Even when correctly prepared , it may still be seen as an acquired taste ." ]