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Half equivalence point .txt | Let's look at the Henderson Hasselblack formula or equation. Now, if you don't know what this formula is, check out the link above. So, this equation states that PH is equal to PKA of our acid plus log of this ratio the concentration of the conjugate base over the concentration of the conjugate acid. And this PH is the PH of our buffer system. So notice that since this guy equals this guy, this divided by this is one. So what's inside here is simply one. |
Half equivalence point .txt | And this PH is the PH of our buffer system. So notice that since this guy equals this guy, this divided by this is one. So what's inside here is simply one. So let's rewrite it. PH is equal to PKA plus log of one. But what's log of one? |
Half equivalence point .txt | So let's rewrite it. PH is equal to PKA plus log of one. But what's log of one? Well, log of one is zero. And that means PH equals PKA. Well, that's nice and all, but why is that important? |
Half equivalence point .txt | Well, log of one is zero. And that means PH equals PKA. Well, that's nice and all, but why is that important? Where's the significance? Well, this means that now we can choose the PH of our bumper system by simply choosing an acid with PKA that's closest to our desired PH. So suppose, for example, I want my bubble system to have a PH of 4.7. |
Half equivalence point .txt | Where's the significance? Well, this means that now we can choose the PH of our bumper system by simply choosing an acid with PKA that's closest to our desired PH. So suppose, for example, I want my bubble system to have a PH of 4.7. Now, how I find the asset to use is I simply find the acid with the PKA value closest to 4.7. Now, I go online I find my table, I look up an acid with a PH that's a PKA closest to a PH of 4.7, and I find that it's acetic acid. So now I know, using this equation here, that if I choose my buffer sydney system to consist of acetic acetic acid, my PH of my bumper system will be 4.7. |
Parts per million Example .txt | The formula is mass of compound x divided by total mass of solution multiplied by ten to the six or million. Now, since this is a ratio that units cancel and Ppm is unitless, so now it's still an example using parts per million. In this example, we start with 25 bowls of water in a cup. Here's our cup. The blue dots are the water molecules, nothing else exists. You want to find them out in grams of HCL to add to create a 90,000 parts per million solution. |
Parts per million Example .txt | Here's our cup. The blue dots are the water molecules, nothing else exists. You want to find them out in grams of HCL to add to create a 90,000 parts per million solution. So you want to go from this cup to this cup, where this cup contains HCL molecules in the concentration of 90,000 parts per million. We want to find the amount of grams of the red dots we need to add to create such a solution. The first step is to calculate the molecular weight of water. |
Parts per million Example .txt | So you want to go from this cup to this cup, where this cup contains HCL molecules in the concentration of 90,000 parts per million. We want to find the amount of grams of the red dots we need to add to create such a solution. The first step is to calculate the molecular weight of water. To calculate the molecular weight of water, we simply add the atomic weight of oxygen plus two times the atomic weight of H because we have a substrate of two, so we get 16 grams/mol of oxygen plus two times 1 gram/mol of H gives us 18 grams/mol. So the molecular weight of water is 18 grams/mol. Now, to find the amount in grams of water that we have in our initial solution, we need to multiply the molecular weight by the 25 moles of H 20 that we have. |
Parts per million Example .txt | To calculate the molecular weight of water, we simply add the atomic weight of oxygen plus two times the atomic weight of H because we have a substrate of two, so we get 16 grams/mol of oxygen plus two times 1 gram/mol of H gives us 18 grams/mol. So the molecular weight of water is 18 grams/mol. Now, to find the amount in grams of water that we have in our initial solution, we need to multiply the molecular weight by the 25 moles of H 20 that we have. So 18 grams/mol times 25 moles gives you 450. Now, moles cancel, the grams are left, so we have 450 grams of H 20. Now, we want to find the amount of HCL we need to add in terms of grams to create a 90,000 parts per million solution. |
Parts per million Example .txt | So 18 grams/mol times 25 moles gives you 450. Now, moles cancel, the grams are left, so we have 450 grams of H 20. Now, we want to find the amount of HCL we need to add in terms of grams to create a 90,000 parts per million solution. So we simply use the parts per million formula. We say, well, we want to create a 90,000 grams or parts per million solution equals x is the amount of HCL grams we need to add divided by the total amount of grounds we have the solution. So we already have 450 grams of water plus the amount of HCL and grounds we will add. |
Parts per million Example .txt | So we simply use the parts per million formula. We say, well, we want to create a 90,000 grams or parts per million solution equals x is the amount of HCL grams we need to add divided by the total amount of grounds we have the solution. So we already have 450 grams of water plus the amount of HCL and grounds we will add. So plus x times ten to the 6th or 1 million. We do a little bit of simple algebra to solve for x, we divide through by ten to the six we get 90,000 divided by 1 million equals this guy. Now, we multiply through by 450 plus x and we get 0.9, which is simply this guy times 450 plus x equals the x was left over on that side, so equals x. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Before we talk about KSP, let's talk about the solubility of ionic compounds. Now, all ionic compounds have the ability to dissociate into their ion form when added into water. For example, let's take ionic compound sodium chloride. When we add sodium chloride chloride into water, it dissociates into two ions, sodium and chloride. Now, this reaction is called the forward reaction or dissolution. The reverse reaction is just as likely to occur, and that's called precipitation, the sufformation of ionic compound from its ion form. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | When we add sodium chloride chloride into water, it dissociates into two ions, sodium and chloride. Now, this reaction is called the forward reaction or dissolution. The reverse reaction is just as likely to occur, and that's called precipitation, the sufformation of ionic compound from its ion form. Now, initially, when we add photos chloride into water, the forward rate is much higher than the reverse rate. Eventually, however, though dynamic equilibrium is achieved, at this point, the forward rate is equal to the reverse rate. And at this point, the solution is said to be saturated, which basically means that the concentration of the ions or dissolved ions is that it's maximum. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Now, initially, when we add photos chloride into water, the forward rate is much higher than the reverse rate. Eventually, however, though dynamic equilibrium is achieved, at this point, the forward rate is equal to the reverse rate. And at this point, the solution is said to be saturated, which basically means that the concentration of the ions or dissolved ions is that it's maximum. So these guys are at the maximum. Now, whenever we talk about normal equations or normal reactions, not fluidation reactions, we talk about equilibrium constants. In the same way, when we talk about salvation reactions, we could talk about something called solubility product constant or KST. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | So these guys are at the maximum. Now, whenever we talk about normal equations or normal reactions, not fluidation reactions, we talk about equilibrium constants. In the same way, when we talk about salvation reactions, we could talk about something called solubility product constant or KST. Now, when we determine the normal equilibrium constant, we don't include solids and liquids in our calculation. And in the same way, when we talk about salvation or solubility product constant KFC, we don't include solids and liquids. For example, let's take a reaction of solid Orion compound AB that associates in water into A plus B. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Now, when we determine the normal equilibrium constant, we don't include solids and liquids in our calculation. And in the same way, when we talk about salvation or solubility product constant KFC, we don't include solids and liquids. For example, let's take a reaction of solid Orion compound AB that associates in water into A plus B. Now, since we don't count the solids, we don't count the liquids, but we do count gases and Aqueous compounds. When we determine the KSP or the solubility of bonus constants, we don't count this guy or the other guy. We only count these two guys. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Now, since we don't count the solids, we don't count the liquids, but we do count gases and Aqueous compounds. When we determine the KSP or the solubility of bonus constants, we don't count this guy or the other guy. We only count these two guys. So KSP is equal to the concentration of A times the concentration of B. In this problem, we're given some unknown amount of barium sulfate and some unknown amount of water in a cup. Now, we want to mix the two and wait for dynamic equilibrium to establish. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | So KSP is equal to the concentration of A times the concentration of B. In this problem, we're given some unknown amount of barium sulfate and some unknown amount of water in a cup. Now, we want to mix the two and wait for dynamic equilibrium to establish. Once equilibrium establishes, we're given that the KSP or the Solubility product is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten at 25 degrees Celsius. So we want to find the solubility of barium sulfate. To find the solubility of barium sulfate, we must first write the dissociation reaction for barium sulfate. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Once equilibrium establishes, we're given that the KSP or the Solubility product is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten at 25 degrees Celsius. So we want to find the solubility of barium sulfate. To find the solubility of barium sulfate, we must first write the dissociation reaction for barium sulfate. Therefore, we get 1 mol of barium sulfate in its solid form, dissociates into 1 mol of barium plus 1 mol of sulfate, and both guys are in the Aqueous form. The first step is to write the KSP equation. To write the KSP equation, we simply realize that this guy is a solid and therefore he doesn't count. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Therefore, we get 1 mol of barium sulfate in its solid form, dissociates into 1 mol of barium plus 1 mol of sulfate, and both guys are in the Aqueous form. The first step is to write the KSP equation. To write the KSP equation, we simply realize that this guy is a solid and therefore he doesn't count. In this equation. These guys only count because they're both atreus. Remember, we never count solids and we never count liquids. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | In this equation. These guys only count because they're both atreus. Remember, we never count solids and we never count liquids. Therefore, KSP is equal to the concentration of barium times the concentration of sulfate ion. Finally, since this guy is 1.0 times cents and negative ten, we say KSP is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten equals. Now, since this is X and this is X, you write X is here. |
Solubility Product Constant .txt | Therefore, KSP is equal to the concentration of barium times the concentration of sulfate ion. Finally, since this guy is 1.0 times cents and negative ten, we say KSP is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten equals. Now, since this is X and this is X, you write X is here. Now, since barium there's 1 mol of barrium, we put a one in front of the X for barium. And since there's a 1 mol of sulfate, we put the 1 mol in front of the X. So we get one X times one X equals X squared. |
Catalysts .txt | So earlier in another lecture, we spoke about the relationship between temperature and reaction rate. And we said that as we increase our temperature, our reaction rate also increases because on average, more molecules will have enough kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy. Now, today we're going to look at something called catalysts. Now, catalysts are organic or inorganic molecules that also, like temperature, affect our rate of reaction. Now, let's look at the following hypothetical example in which reactants A plus B react to form a product AB. Now, let's suppose that our reaction is reversible, meaning it goes forward and backward. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, catalysts are organic or inorganic molecules that also, like temperature, affect our rate of reaction. Now, let's look at the following hypothetical example in which reactants A plus B react to form a product AB. Now, let's suppose that our reaction is reversible, meaning it goes forward and backward. And that means an equilibrium. Our rate forward will be the same as the rate backwards. Now let's look at the catalyzed reaction. |
Catalysts .txt | And that means an equilibrium. Our rate forward will be the same as the rate backwards. Now let's look at the catalyzed reaction. Suppose we add a catalyst, catalyst C, to our reactants. Now, before we look at the mechanism by which it increases the rate, let's make sure we understand the fact that catalysts are not used up in reaction. In other words, if you add some catalyst to our reactants, you will get that same catalyst back at the end of your reaction. |
Catalysts .txt | Suppose we add a catalyst, catalyst C, to our reactants. Now, before we look at the mechanism by which it increases the rate, let's make sure we understand the fact that catalysts are not used up in reaction. In other words, if you add some catalyst to our reactants, you will get that same catalyst back at the end of your reaction. Now, that catalyst might react somehow with one of the reactants, maybe covalently or non covalent. In other words, it might buy to it and help them for the products. But at the end it will separate and you will be able to get your feed back. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, that catalyst might react somehow with one of the reactants, maybe covalently or non covalent. In other words, it might buy to it and help them for the products. But at the end it will separate and you will be able to get your feed back. All right? So let's look at the mechanism by which these catalysts affect our reaction rates. So, in order to see this, we have to go back to our Iranians equation. |
Catalysts .txt | All right? So let's look at the mechanism by which these catalysts affect our reaction rates. So, in order to see this, we have to go back to our Iranians equation. This equation we spoke about when we spoke about temperature and reaction rate. So K, our reaction constant is equal to z times p. Now, z and p are the scarcity factor and the frequency of collisions. Now, this guy e is what our catalyst affects. |
Catalysts .txt | This equation we spoke about when we spoke about temperature and reaction rate. So K, our reaction constant is equal to z times p. Now, z and p are the scarcity factor and the frequency of collisions. Now, this guy e is what our catalyst affects. Now, catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to convert the reactants to products. Now, this in turn increases the number of molecules that have enough kinetic energy to climb that activation barrier. In other words, it decreases this activation energy EA, thereby increasing this e component. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to convert the reactants to products. Now, this in turn increases the number of molecules that have enough kinetic energy to climb that activation barrier. In other words, it decreases this activation energy EA, thereby increasing this e component. And this in turn increases our rate constant, which is directly proportional to rate of reaction. And that's how the rates of reactions are increased by catabalists. Now, let's look at this graph. |
Catalysts .txt | And this in turn increases our rate constant, which is directly proportional to rate of reaction. And that's how the rates of reactions are increased by catabalists. Now, let's look at this graph. It's energy in the Y axis versus time or progress or reaction on the x axis. Now, this black curve is the curve that represents before additional catalysts. Notice activation energy goes all the way up to this blue level. |
Catalysts .txt | It's energy in the Y axis versus time or progress or reaction on the x axis. Now, this black curve is the curve that represents before additional catalysts. Notice activation energy goes all the way up to this blue level. Now, when you add that catalyst, what happens is that activation energy is lowered by this much to this red level. And that means more molecules, on average will have enough kinetic energy to climb this new activation barrier and form the product. And that's exactly what happens when you add a catalyst. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, when you add that catalyst, what happens is that activation energy is lowered by this much to this red level. And that means more molecules, on average will have enough kinetic energy to climb this new activation barrier and form the product. And that's exactly what happens when you add a catalyst. Now, it's very important to understand the following point. Catalysts do not, and I repeat, do not affect the equilibrium of reaction. In other words, what catalysts do is they speed up their forward reaction and reverse reaction. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, it's very important to understand the following point. Catalysts do not, and I repeat, do not affect the equilibrium of reaction. In other words, what catalysts do is they speed up their forward reaction and reverse reaction. But the final concentrations of our product and reactions remain the same. In other words, let's look at this uncannyze and catalyze reaction. Again, suppose that the concentration and equilibrium of our uncatalyzed are as following we have concentration of A, we have concentration of B and construction of our product AB. |
Catalysts .txt | But the final concentrations of our product and reactions remain the same. In other words, let's look at this uncannyze and catalyze reaction. Again, suppose that the concentration and equilibrium of our uncatalyzed are as following we have concentration of A, we have concentration of B and construction of our product AB. Now, for the catalyzed reaction, even though equilibrium will be reached much quicker because of a catalyst, the final concentrations are exactly the same. They have not changed. In other words, catalysts do not touch the equilibrium of our reaction. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, for the catalyzed reaction, even though equilibrium will be reached much quicker because of a catalyst, the final concentrations are exactly the same. They have not changed. In other words, catalysts do not touch the equilibrium of our reaction. They affect the kinetics of our reaction, but they do not affect equilibrium. Now, we're going to examine the two types of catalysts. So we have heterogeneous catalysts are molecules that are in a different state compared to the reactants. |
Catalysts .txt | They affect the kinetics of our reaction, but they do not affect equilibrium. Now, we're going to examine the two types of catalysts. So we have heterogeneous catalysts are molecules that are in a different state compared to the reactants. In other words, if our reactants are in a gas state or liquid state then our catalysts are in a solid state. Now, when we're dealing with heterogeneous catalysts, namely Salad catalysts, this is what happens. Our reactants absorb momentarily or bind to the catalyst which weaken the bonds, decreasing activation energy which in turn increases the reaction rate. |
Catalysts .txt | In other words, if our reactants are in a gas state or liquid state then our catalysts are in a solid state. Now, when we're dealing with heterogeneous catalysts, namely Salad catalysts, this is what happens. Our reactants absorb momentarily or bind to the catalyst which weaken the bonds, decreasing activation energy which in turn increases the reaction rate. So let's look at the following uncategorized reaction. BR two reacts with C two h four to produce C two H two BR two. Now, this by itself is a very slow occurring reaction. |
Catalysts .txt | So let's look at the following uncategorized reaction. BR two reacts with C two h four to produce C two H two BR two. Now, this by itself is a very slow occurring reaction. But if you add a catalyst, a metal catalyst, this reaction will speed up. Let's look at the following illustration. So this is our metal catalyst. |
Catalysts .txt | But if you add a catalyst, a metal catalyst, this reaction will speed up. Let's look at the following illustration. So this is our metal catalyst. What happens is this reaction momentarily binds to the surface of our catalyst and this weakens the double bond. And then this other reactant can come from the top, attacking these carbons, thereby creating our product. Now, this is how metal catalysts act. |
Catalysts .txt | What happens is this reaction momentarily binds to the surface of our catalyst and this weakens the double bond. And then this other reactant can come from the top, attacking these carbons, thereby creating our product. Now, this is how metal catalysts act. An example of such a metal catalyst is, for example, fuel cells. In fuel cells, plant and catalyst acts in the same manner to speed up the reactions the oxidation and reduction reactions in an anode in a cathode. Now, if you want to learn more about fuel cells, check out the link above. |
Catalysts .txt | An example of such a metal catalyst is, for example, fuel cells. In fuel cells, plant and catalyst acts in the same manner to speed up the reactions the oxidation and reduction reactions in an anode in a cathode. Now, if you want to learn more about fuel cells, check out the link above. So now let's look at homogeneous catalysts. Now, homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same state as our reactant, usually liquid or gas. A great and common example of a homogeneous catalyst are acids. |
Catalysts .txt | So now let's look at homogeneous catalysts. Now, homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same state as our reactant, usually liquid or gas. A great and common example of a homogeneous catalyst are acids. Now, these guys weaken bonds by adding an H plus ion to one of the reactants, thereby lowering the activation energy and speeding up our reaction. For example, let's look at the following reaction. Now, this actually involves a bit of organic chemistry but bear with me and I'll try to explain it. |
Catalysts .txt | Now, these guys weaken bonds by adding an H plus ion to one of the reactants, thereby lowering the activation energy and speeding up our reaction. For example, let's look at the following reaction. Now, this actually involves a bit of organic chemistry but bear with me and I'll try to explain it. What happens is one of the H molecules, one of the H ions is added to this age group, to this oxygen group and this weakens this bond here. So then the hydroxide form act as a base or a nucleophile attacking this carbon bond, thereby displacing this weaker bond. And it was weakened by the h group, remember? |
Catalysts .txt | What happens is one of the H molecules, one of the H ions is added to this age group, to this oxygen group and this weakens this bond here. So then the hydroxide form act as a base or a nucleophile attacking this carbon bond, thereby displacing this weaker bond. And it was weakened by the h group, remember? So displacing. It forming our product. Now we have the oh group instead of the Och three group. |
Catalysts .txt | So displacing. It forming our product. Now we have the oh group instead of the Och three group. And this is exactly how homogeneous catalysts act. In other words, they momentarily bind with our reactants, help them out, and then at the end, after a reaction is finished, they've move away, and you can isolate the catalyst at the end of your reaction. Now, a great example of biological catalysts are enzymes. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | The first experiment, which we'll talk about in great detail in another lecture was called a photoelectric experiment or simply the Photo Electric effect. And this experiment was conducted by Einstein. And what Einstein showed was that light, an electromagnetic phenomenon, had both particle like properties as well as wavelike properties. In other words, light has the following property called wave particle duality. And what this property shows or tells us is that whenever it's convenient, light can act as a wave. And whenever it's convenient, light will act as a particle. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | In other words, light has the following property called wave particle duality. And what this property shows or tells us is that whenever it's convenient, light can act as a wave. And whenever it's convenient, light will act as a particle. Now, following this experiment, another experiment was conducted known as the BROGLEY Experiment. And what that experiment showed was that not only light has its property but other subatomic particles, like electrons also have this duality property or the wave particle duality property. Now, these two experiments led directly to the following result the Uncertainty Principle, or the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, named after the guy who came up with the principle, Heisenberg. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Now, following this experiment, another experiment was conducted known as the BROGLEY Experiment. And what that experiment showed was that not only light has its property but other subatomic particles, like electrons also have this duality property or the wave particle duality property. Now, these two experiments led directly to the following result the Uncertainty Principle, or the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, named after the guy who came up with the principle, Heisenberg. Now, what this principle showed was that it showed that as you move downward in size from something large to the subatomic level the less your objects act like particles and the more they act as a wave. In other words, if you get down to the subatomic level to the electrons and protons and neutrons the less your objects act as solid spheres and the more your objects act as waves. Now, to demonstrate what this uncertainty principle states, I'll use the following example. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Now, what this principle showed was that it showed that as you move downward in size from something large to the subatomic level the less your objects act like particles and the more they act as a wave. In other words, if you get down to the subatomic level to the electrons and protons and neutrons the less your objects act as solid spheres and the more your objects act as waves. Now, to demonstrate what this uncertainty principle states, I'll use the following example. Suppose I have this relatively large ball which, from where you're sitting you can probably tell where the ball is and you can tell if the ball isn't moving so you could tell its velocity. Now, suppose I go smaller. Suppose I hold up this ball. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Suppose I have this relatively large ball which, from where you're sitting you can probably tell where the ball is and you can tell if the ball isn't moving so you could tell its velocity. Now, suppose I go smaller. Suppose I hold up this ball. Now, once again, this is a relatively large ball. And from where you're sitting, you could probably tell that the ball isn't moving and you could tell where the ball is. Now, suppose I go even smaller. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Now, once again, this is a relatively large ball. And from where you're sitting, you could probably tell that the ball isn't moving and you could tell where the ball is. Now, suppose I go even smaller. Suppose I go down to this really tiny marble which you probably can't see from where you're sitting. But I'll move it closer. There's my particle. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Suppose I go down to this really tiny marble which you probably can't see from where you're sitting. But I'll move it closer. There's my particle. There's my solid sphere. Now, now that you saw the sphere, you could probably see that. You could probably see it from where you're sitting. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | There's my solid sphere. Now, now that you saw the sphere, you could probably see that. You could probably see it from where you're sitting. But suppose now, I walk a mile away or a kilometer away and suppose I hold this ball. Now, now, this ball becomes a spec. You could still see it, but it's much, much smaller. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | But suppose now, I walk a mile away or a kilometer away and suppose I hold this ball. Now, now, this ball becomes a spec. You could still see it, but it's much, much smaller. Now, suppose I walk a mile away and I hold this ball up. Now, this ball you probably won't see really. Well, you might see it if you have really good vision. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Now, suppose I walk a mile away and I hold this ball up. Now, this ball you probably won't see really. Well, you might see it if you have really good vision. But I don't think I'll see it a mile away. Now, suppose I hold this really tiny marble, the solid sphere, from a mile away you definitely won't see this one. So in other words, the smaller you go, the less you see its position and the less you see its velocity. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | But I don't think I'll see it a mile away. Now, suppose I hold this really tiny marble, the solid sphere, from a mile away you definitely won't see this one. So in other words, the smaller you go, the less you see its position and the less you see its velocity. If I walk 5 miles away and I hold either of these balls, you won't see any ball and you won't be able to tell where the ball is and with what speed or with what velocity it's moving. The point is, and what this uncertainty principles show, is that as you shrink down to the atom and then to the sub atom, to the electron, you no longer are dealing with solid spheres. They're no longer solid spheres, and they act more as waves. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | If I walk 5 miles away and I hold either of these balls, you won't see any ball and you won't be able to tell where the ball is and with what speed or with what velocity it's moving. The point is, and what this uncertainty principles show, is that as you shrink down to the atom and then to the sub atom, to the electron, you no longer are dealing with solid spheres. They're no longer solid spheres, and they act more as waves. In other words, they have both wavelike properties and solid properties. And that means, because elementary particles are no longer solid spheres, there is no way to know its position and at the same time, its velocity with complete certainty. So the formula or the equation for this uncertainty principle is the following plaques constant a very, very small number divided by two is always less than our change in x or the uncertainty of our position. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | In other words, they have both wavelike properties and solid properties. And that means, because elementary particles are no longer solid spheres, there is no way to know its position and at the same time, its velocity with complete certainty. So the formula or the equation for this uncertainty principle is the following plaques constant a very, very small number divided by two is always less than our change in x or the uncertainty of our position. Change in position times mass times change in velocity. Now remember, mass times velocity is momentum. So this guy is change in momentum. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | Change in position times mass times change in velocity. Now remember, mass times velocity is momentum. So this guy is change in momentum. In other words, this is the uncertainty of our position and this is the uncertainty of our momentum or velocity. And what this equation basically says is the following the less our change in axis, if this guy is very small, that means we know more information about our position, where our electron is located. And that means if this guy decreases and this is a constant, this guy must increase, the smaller our change in excess, the more we know about our position, the greater our change in b is, the less we know about our velocity. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | In other words, this is the uncertainty of our position and this is the uncertainty of our momentum or velocity. And what this equation basically says is the following the less our change in axis, if this guy is very small, that means we know more information about our position, where our electron is located. And that means if this guy decreases and this is a constant, this guy must increase, the smaller our change in excess, the more we know about our position, the greater our change in b is, the less we know about our velocity. And likewise, the same holds the more we know about our velocity change in velocity. The less our change in velocity is. And the less we know about our change in x, the less we know about our position. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | And likewise, the same holds the more we know about our velocity change in velocity. The less our change in velocity is. And the less we know about our change in x, the less we know about our position. In other words, we can't be very certain about our position and at the same time about our velocity. That's what the uncertainty principle tells us. And this has to do with the duality nature of subatomic particles, electrons and protons, as well as a duality of light. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | In other words, we can't be very certain about our position and at the same time about our velocity. That's what the uncertainty principle tells us. And this has to do with the duality nature of subatomic particles, electrons and protons, as well as a duality of light. In other words, when you go from a large ball from this ball to a subatomic particle, our particle loses its solid sphere like properties. It stops acting like a solid sphere and starts acting more like a wave. And therefore, we can no longer pinpoint exactly where our object is and at the same time, what its velocity is, what its momentum. |
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt | In other words, when you go from a large ball from this ball to a subatomic particle, our particle loses its solid sphere like properties. It stops acting like a solid sphere and starts acting more like a wave. And therefore, we can no longer pinpoint exactly where our object is and at the same time, what its velocity is, what its momentum. The last thing I want to mention is the following this principle has nothing to do with how inaccurate or how accurate our instrument is, or how inaccurate or accurate our methods or experimental methods are. In other words, even if we have the perfect instrument and our methods were the perfect methods, we still would not be able to pinpoint exactly where our object is, our electron is, and exactly with what velocity and in which direction our electron is traveling. This principle has nothing to do with our instruments. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now, fuel cells are very commonly used on spacecraft. They provide electricity to the various supply and system spacecrafts. So let's look at oxidation and reduction oxygen reactions found in a fuel cell. So our oxidation is as follows. A diatomic hydrogen is oxidized and it releases two H plus ions and two electrons. Our reduction reaction is as follows. |
Fuel Cells .txt | So our oxidation is as follows. A diatomic hydrogen is oxidized and it releases two H plus ions and two electrons. Our reduction reaction is as follows. A diatomic oxygen molecule takes up those two electrons and also takes up the two H plus ions forming water in a liquid state. Now, our neck reduction reaction is found by simply adding up these guys. We see that the H two plus ions cancel, the electrons cancel, and we have the following redox reaction. |
Fuel Cells .txt | A diatomic oxygen molecule takes up those two electrons and also takes up the two H plus ions forming water in a liquid state. Now, our neck reduction reaction is found by simply adding up these guys. We see that the H two plus ions cancel, the electrons cancel, and we have the following redox reaction. Now, our e is 0.7. Our cell potential for our fuel cell is zero 7 volts. It's positive. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now, our e is 0.7. Our cell potential for our fuel cell is zero 7 volts. It's positive. Now let's look at the layout of a fuel cell. A fuel cell, like any other electrochemical cell, has an anode and a cathode. It has a conductor that carries electrons from the anode to the cathode. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now let's look at the layout of a fuel cell. A fuel cell, like any other electrochemical cell, has an anode and a cathode. It has a conductor that carries electrons from the anode to the cathode. And this is our outside system that receives electricity in the form of moving electrons. Now, like always, like most cases, our anode is negatively charged and out cathode is positively charged. And that's why electrons travel from the negative charge to the positive charge. |
Fuel Cells .txt | And this is our outside system that receives electricity in the form of moving electrons. Now, like always, like most cases, our anode is negatively charged and out cathode is positively charged. And that's why electrons travel from the negative charge to the positive charge. Now, inside our anode, we need to allow H two molecules in the gas state in. And that's why we have an outside power source that allows those H two irons or H two molecules inside our anode. And to make sure our pressure is not increasing, make sure there's no build up in pressure, this needs to be released back into some outside location. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now, inside our anode, we need to allow H two molecules in the gas state in. And that's why we have an outside power source that allows those H two irons or H two molecules inside our anode. And to make sure our pressure is not increasing, make sure there's no build up in pressure, this needs to be released back into some outside location. That's why we have this guy on the bottom. So when this H two molecule enters our system, it is oxidized. But how is it oxidized? |
Fuel Cells .txt | That's why we have this guy on the bottom. So when this H two molecule enters our system, it is oxidized. But how is it oxidized? Well, this brown layer is a platinum catalyst. And this platinum acts to catalyze or speed up that reaction going from our reacting to products. So when this guy in a our anode, it reacts with the platinum catalyst producing two moles of H plus ions and two moles of electrons. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Well, this brown layer is a platinum catalyst. And this platinum acts to catalyze or speed up that reaction going from our reacting to products. So when this guy in a our anode, it reacts with the platinum catalyst producing two moles of H plus ions and two moles of electrons. Now, these two moles of electrons travel via the conductor this way. Notice we have a membrane. And this membrane does not allow our electrons to pass from this anode to capital via this membrane. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now, these two moles of electrons travel via the conductor this way. Notice we have a membrane. And this membrane does not allow our electrons to pass from this anode to capital via this membrane. This membrane only allows H plus ions to flow or protons to flow. Now, why should we allow protons to flow? Well, we'll talk about that in a bit. |
Fuel Cells .txt | This membrane only allows H plus ions to flow or protons to flow. Now, why should we allow protons to flow? Well, we'll talk about that in a bit. But notice some of the H or diatomic H must leave because we can't have a pressure build up in this system. So now we have the two electrons traveling all the way to this cathode. Now, when it travels through this guy, this guy provides electricity to some outside source. |
Fuel Cells .txt | But notice some of the H or diatomic H must leave because we can't have a pressure build up in this system. So now we have the two electrons traveling all the way to this cathode. Now, when it travels through this guy, this guy provides electricity to some outside source. This is where the electrical work is done. Now, when this electron or two electrons travel all the way down to this cathode. These electrons react with the oxygen molecule, reducing it. |
Fuel Cells .txt | This is where the electrical work is done. Now, when this electron or two electrons travel all the way down to this cathode. These electrons react with the oxygen molecule, reducing it. But notice that in order for this build up of H plus ions not to occur, these H plus ions must pass to this side. So this, in a way, acts as a sole bridge because if this membrane wasn't here, we'd have a build up of positive charge here and a lack of positive charge here. And then that means our electrons will stop flowing. |
Fuel Cells .txt | But notice that in order for this build up of H plus ions not to occur, these H plus ions must pass to this side. So this, in a way, acts as a sole bridge because if this membrane wasn't here, we'd have a build up of positive charge here and a lack of positive charge here. And then that means our electrons will stop flowing. So to close the circuit, we need this membrane. And so these H plus ions travel from the anode to the cathode. And when they reach this position, they react with the oxygen and the electrons forming water. |
Fuel Cells .txt | So to close the circuit, we need this membrane. And so these H plus ions travel from the anode to the cathode. And when they reach this position, they react with the oxygen and the electrons forming water. Now, this water needs to be released somewhere because if the water remains, there's a build up of water and now cell would eventually stop functioning. So this water leaves through some outside pump and is stored somewhere else. Now, notice, the same way we need to allow H two molecules inside our ano, we need to allow o two molecules inside our capital. |
Fuel Cells .txt | Now, this water needs to be released somewhere because if the water remains, there's a build up of water and now cell would eventually stop functioning. So this water leaves through some outside pump and is stored somewhere else. Now, notice, the same way we need to allow H two molecules inside our ano, we need to allow o two molecules inside our capital. And that's why we have this guy here. When this enters, when this oxygen enters the capital, it reacts with the H plus I the electrons coming in, and it forms our water. And this is a continuous process and it powers some outside source in this area here. |
Fuel Cells .txt | And that's why we have this guy here. When this enters, when this oxygen enters the capital, it reacts with the H plus I the electrons coming in, and it forms our water. And this is a continuous process and it powers some outside source in this area here. So we have a few problems with our fuel cells. The first major problem is diatomic. H two molecule does not occur in nature. |
Fuel Cells .txt | So we have a few problems with our fuel cells. The first major problem is diatomic. H two molecule does not occur in nature. And it's very difficult and takes a lot of energy and money to generate. So it's very, very expensive. And that's why places like NASA use it. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | In this lecture, we're going to look at something called salts. Now, salts are formed whenever acids and bases react. So for example, let's look at a hypothetical reaction of a hypothetical acid and a hypothetical base. So we have HX plus MLH. So these guys associate to form the H ion, xion, Emion and hydroxide ion. So this H plus ion and the hydroxide ion will react to form water and this Xion and the Mion will react to form our salt. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So we have HX plus MLH. So these guys associate to form the H ion, xion, Emion and hydroxide ion. So this H plus ion and the hydroxide ion will react to form water and this Xion and the Mion will react to form our salt. Now, different types of salts exist. Let's see what types of salts are formed when strong acids react with strong bases. So to illustrate this, let's see an example. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | Now, different types of salts exist. Let's see what types of salts are formed when strong acids react with strong bases. So to illustrate this, let's see an example. So a strong acid, hydrochloric acid and a strong base, sodium hydroxide dissociate to form an H plus ion, a chloride ion, sodium ion and hydroxide ion. Now, in the same way that these guys react to form water, these two guys will react to form our water, while these two guys will react to former salt. Now, notice I wrote mutual salt. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So a strong acid, hydrochloric acid and a strong base, sodium hydroxide dissociate to form an H plus ion, a chloride ion, sodium ion and hydroxide ion. Now, in the same way that these guys react to form water, these two guys will react to form our water, while these two guys will react to former salt. Now, notice I wrote mutual salt. And in fact, strong acids and strong bases react to form Mutual Salt. And that's because our Final Solution has no presence of acids or bases. And let's see why. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | And in fact, strong acids and strong bases react to form Mutual Salt. And that's because our Final Solution has no presence of acids or bases. And let's see why. Well, this guy has a high Ka value because it's a strong acid. And this guy has a high KB value also because it's a strong base. And that means our equilibrium will lie all the way to the right. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | Well, this guy has a high Ka value because it's a strong acid. And this guy has a high KB value also because it's a strong base. And that means our equilibrium will lie all the way to the right. So in equilibrium, we're not going to have any of these guys present and we're not going to have any of this guy or this guy present due to these two assets and bases. Now, odor minization of water will still occur, but we're going to have the same concentration of this as this. So in our Final Solution, we're only going to have water and the neutral salt present, or just the salt present. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So in equilibrium, we're not going to have any of these guys present and we're not going to have any of this guy or this guy present due to these two assets and bases. Now, odor minization of water will still occur, but we're going to have the same concentration of this as this. So in our Final Solution, we're only going to have water and the neutral salt present, or just the salt present. And because our concentrations of H plus and oh minus are equal, this is a neutral salt. So combining these two guys to form this guy and this guy is the same thing as taking a cup of water and adding some salt inside. The result is the same as if you would take some hydrochloric acid and some sodium hydroxide, mix them and get this, the two results are the same. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | And because our concentrations of H plus and oh minus are equal, this is a neutral salt. So combining these two guys to form this guy and this guy is the same thing as taking a cup of water and adding some salt inside. The result is the same as if you would take some hydrochloric acid and some sodium hydroxide, mix them and get this, the two results are the same. So let's see what types of salts are formed when strong bases and weak acids react. So once again, let's illustrate using an example. So acetic acid, a weak acid and sodium hydroxide, a strong base, react and dissociate into acetate ion, h plus ion, sodium ion, and hydroxide ion. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So let's see what types of salts are formed when strong bases and weak acids react. So once again, let's illustrate using an example. So acetic acid, a weak acid and sodium hydroxide, a strong base, react and dissociate into acetate ion, h plus ion, sodium ion, and hydroxide ion. Now, in the same way that these two guys form water, and these two guys from water, this guy and this guy will also form out of water. But now this acetate ion and this sodium will form a basic salt. So we see that strong bases and weak acids produce basic salts. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | Now, in the same way that these two guys form water, and these two guys from water, this guy and this guy will also form out of water. But now this acetate ion and this sodium will form a basic salt. So we see that strong bases and weak acids produce basic salts. Well, this has to do because of a hydrolysis reaction. And let's see what happens so this is a weak acid and that means its Ka will be low. So equilibrium for this guy will lie all the way to the left, not the right as in this case. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | Well, this has to do because of a hydrolysis reaction. And let's see what happens so this is a weak acid and that means its Ka will be low. So equilibrium for this guy will lie all the way to the left, not the right as in this case. That means at our solution, when our solution is formed, equilibrium, we're going to have some of these guys present, right? We're going to have a bunch of these guys present. And that means at equilibrium, we're not only going to have water and salt, we're also going to have this guy present. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | That means at our solution, when our solution is formed, equilibrium, we're going to have some of these guys present, right? We're going to have a bunch of these guys present. And that means at equilibrium, we're not only going to have water and salt, we're also going to have this guy present. So we're going to have this ion, acetate ion, and our water molecule from here. And these guys will now react because this will act as an acid and this will act as a base, right? Because this is a conjugate base of this acid. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So we're going to have this ion, acetate ion, and our water molecule from here. And these guys will now react because this will act as an acid and this will act as a base, right? Because this is a conjugate base of this acid. And because this conjugate acid is weak, this conjugate base is strong. And that means it will react with water to form back deciding acid and a hydroxide ion. And this hydroxide ion is what creates the basic solution. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | And because this conjugate acid is weak, this conjugate base is strong. And that means it will react with water to form back deciding acid and a hydroxide ion. And this hydroxide ion is what creates the basic solution. And because we have a basic solution, we're going to have the basic salt. So a times strong bases react with weak acids, we produce basic salts. Now, how basic our salt is depends on the KB value of our reaction. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | And because we have a basic solution, we're going to have the basic salt. So a times strong bases react with weak acids, we produce basic salts. Now, how basic our salt is depends on the KB value of our reaction. The higher the KB value, the stronger this base. And that means the more basic our salt. So let's look at what types of salts are formed when strong acids react with weak bases. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | The higher the KB value, the stronger this base. And that means the more basic our salt. So let's look at what types of salts are formed when strong acids react with weak bases. So let's examine the following example. Hydrochloric acid, a strong acid reacts with ammonia, a weak base, and in the presence of water, that they associate into H plus ion, a chloride ion. And our ammonia. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | So let's examine the following example. Hydrochloric acid, a strong acid reacts with ammonia, a weak base, and in the presence of water, that they associate into H plus ion, a chloride ion. And our ammonia. Now ammonia reacts with H to create Ammonium, a positively charged ion. Now this positively charged ion then reacts with the chloride to neutralize the charge, creating an acidic salt. Now, since we begin with water, we also have water at the end result. |
Acidic Basic and Neutral Salts .txt | Now ammonia reacts with H to create Ammonium, a positively charged ion. Now this positively charged ion then reacts with the chloride to neutralize the charge, creating an acidic salt. Now, since we begin with water, we also have water at the end result. Now let's examine why we have an acidic salt. Remember, we begin with a weak acid that has a low KB value. And that means equilibrium will be far to the left. |